41

Quantum Mechanics
In chapters 39, 40, and 41 we use u to represent the speed of a particle with mass, reserving v for the
speeds associated with reference frames, wave functions, and photons.

Note:

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS

CHAPTER OUTLINE
41.1
41.2
41.3
41.4
41.5
41.6
41.7

An Interpretation of Quantum
Mechanics
The Quantum Particle under
Boundary Conditions
The Schrdinger Equation
A Particle in a Well of Finite
Height
Tunneling Through a Potential
Energy Barrier
Applications of Tunneling
The Simple Harmonic Oscillator

Q41.1

A particles wave function represents its state, containing all the information there is about its location and
motion. The squared absolute value of its wave function
tells where we would classically think of the particle as
2
spending most its time. is the probability distribution
function for the position of the particle.

*Q41.2 For the squared wave function to be the probability per

length of nding the particle, we require
0.48
0.16
2
=
and = 0.4/ nm
=
7 nm 4 nm nm
(i) Answer (e). (ii) Answer (e).

*Q41.3 (i) For a photon a and b are true, c false, d, e, f, and g true, h false, i and j true.
(ii) For an electron a is true, b false, c, d, e, f true, g false, h, i and j true.
Note that statements a, d, e, f, i, and j are true for both.
*Q41.4 We consider the quantity h2n2/8mL2.
In (a) it is h21/8m1(3 nm)2 = h2/72 m1 nm2.
In (b) it is h24/8m1(3 nm)2 = h2/18 m1 nm2.
In (c) it is h21/16m1(3 nm)2 = h2/144 m1 nm2.
In (d) it is h21/8m1(6 nm)2 = h2/288 m1 nm2.
In (e) it is 021/8m1(3 nm)2 = 0.
The ranking is then b > a > c > d > e.
Q41.5

The motion of the quantum particle does not consist of moving through successive
points. The particle has no denite position. It can sometimes be found on one side of a node and
sometimes on the other side, but never at the node itself. There is no contradiction here, for the
quantum particle is moving as a wave. It is not a classical particle. In particular, the particle does
not speed up to innite speed to cross the node.

463

464

Chapter 41

Q41.6

Consider a particle bound to a restricted region of space. If its minimum energy were zero,
then the particle could have zero momentum and zero uncertainty in its momentum. At the same
time, the uncertainty in its position would not be innite, but equal to the width of the region. In
such a case, the uncertainty product x px would be zero, violating the uncertainty principle.
This contradiction proves that the minimum energy of the particle is not zero.

*Q41.7 Compare Figures 41.4 and 41.7 in the text. In the square well with innitely high walls,
the particles simplest wave function has strict nodes separated by the length L of the well. The
h
p2
h2
particles wavelength is 2L, its momentum
, and its energy
. Now in the well with
=
2L
2 m 8 mL2
walls of only nite height, the wave function has nonzero amplitude at the walls. In this nite-depth
well
(i) The particles wavelength is longer, answer (a).
(ii) The particles momentum in its ground state is smaller, answer (b).
(iii) The particle has less energy, answer (b).
Q41.8

As Newtons laws are the rules which a particle of large mass follows in its motion, so the
Schrdinger equation describes the motion of a quantum particle, a particle of small or large
mass. In particular, the states of atomic electrons are conned-wave states with wave functions
that are solutions to the Schrdinger equation.

*Q41.9 Answer (b). The reected amplitude decreases as U decreases. The amplitude of the reected
wave is proportional to the reection coefcient, R, which is 1 T , where T is the transmission
coefcient as given in equation 41.22. As U decreases, C decreases as predicted by equation
41.23, T increases, and R decreases.
*Q41.10 Answer (a). Because of the exponential tailing of the wave function within the barrier, the tunneling current is more sensitive to the width of the barrier than to its height.
Q41.11

Consider the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. It implies that electrons initially moving at the
same speed and accelerated by an electric eld through the same distance need not all have
the same measured speed after being accelerated. Perhaps the philosopher could have said it
is necessary for the very existence of science that the same conditions always produce the same
results within the uncertainty of the measurements.

Q41.12 In quantum mechanics, particles are treated as wave functions, not classical particles. In classical
mechanics, the kinetic energy is never negative. That implies that E U . Treating the particle as
a wave, the Schrdinger equation predicts that there is a nonzero probability that a particle can
tunnel through a barriera region in which E < U .
*Q41.13 Answer (c). Other points see a wider potential-energy barrier and carry much less tunneling
current.

Quantum Mechanics

465

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
Section 41.1
P41.1

(a)

An Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics

( x ) = Ae (

i 5.00 1010 x

) = A cos 5 1010 x + Ai sin 5 1010 x = A cos ( kx ) + Ai sin ( kx ) goes

(
)
(
)

through a full cycle when x changes by l and when kx changes by 2 . Then k = 2

2
2 m
where k = 5.00 1010 m 1 =
. Then =
= 1.26 10 10 m .
10

5
00
10

.
(
)
h 6.626 10 34 J s
=
= 5.27 10 24 kg m s

1.26 10 10 m

(b)

p=

(c)

me = 9.11 10 31 kg
24
kg m s )
1.52 10 17 J
m 2u 2
p 2 ( 5.27 10
17
1
52
10
K= e =
=
=
.

J
=
= 95.5 eV
2 me
2m
1.60 10 19 J eV
( 2 9.11 10 31 kg)
2

P41.2

Probability

P=

( x) =

P=

Section 41.2
P41.3

a
a 1
1 x
a ( x 2 + a 2 ) dx = a tan a a

1
1
1
tan 1 1 tan 1 ( 1) = =

4 4
2

The Quantum Particle under Boundary Conditions

E1 = 2.00 eV = 3.20 10 19 J
For the ground state,

P41.4

E1 =

h2
8 me L2

h
= 4.34 10 10 m = 0.434 nm
8 me E1

(a)

L=

(b)

h2 h2
= 6.00 eV

E = E2 E1 = 4
8 me L2 8 me L2

For an electron wave to t into an innitely deep potential well, an integral number
of half-wavelengths must equal the width of the well.
n
= 1.00 10 9 m
2
(a)

(b)

so

2.00 10 9 h
=
n
p

Since

(h2 2 ) = h2
p2
n2
2
K=
=
2 = ( 0.377n ) eV
2 me
2 me
2 me ( 2 10 9 )

For

K 6 eV

n=4

With

n = 4,

K = 6.03 eV

FIG. P41.4

466

P41.5

Chapter 41

(a)

We can draw a diagram that parallels our treatment of

standing mechanical waves. In each state, we measure the
distance d from one node to another (N to N), and base our
solution upon that:
dN to N =

Since

h
h
=
2d

p=

2
34
1 ( 6.626 10 J s )
p2
h2

K=
=
=
2 me 8 me d 2 d 2 8 ( 9.11 10 31 kg )

Next,

Evaluating, K =

(b)

h
and =
2
p

6.02 10 38 J m 2
d2

K=

3.77 10 19 eV m 2
d2

In state 1,

d = 1.00 10 10 m

K1 = 37.7 eV

In state 2,

d = 5.00 10 11 m

K 2 = 151 eV

In state 3,

d = 3.33 10 11 m

K 3 = 339 eV

In state 4,

d = 2.50 10 11 m

K 4 = 603 eV

FIG. P41.5

When the electron falls from state 2 to state 1, it puts out energy
E = 151 eV 37.7 eV = 113 eV = hf =

hc

into emitting a photon of wavelength

34
8
hc ( 6.626 10 J s ) ( 3.00 10 m s )
=
= 11.0 nm
E
(113 eV ) (1.60 10 19 J eV )

The wavelengths of the other spectral lines we nd similarly:

43

42

4 1

32

31

21

E ( eV )

264

452

565

188

302

113

( nm )

4.71

2.75

2.20

6.60

4.12

11.0

Transition

*P41.6

For the beads energy we have both (1/2)mu2 and h2n2/8mL2. Then
n=

2L
L
1
8 mL2 2 muL
mu 2 2 =
note that this expression can be thought of as
=

d NN
2
h
h

Evaluating, n =
P41.7

2(0.005 kg)(10 10 m) 0.2 m

= 9.56 1012
3.156 10 7 s (6.626 10 34 J s)

E =

hc h 2 2 2
3h 2
=
2
1

8 m L2
8 me L2
e

L=

3h
= 7.93 10 10 m = 0.793 nm
8 me c

Quantum Mechanics

P41.8

P41.9

E =

hc h 2 2 2
3h 2
=
2 1 =
2
8 me L
8 me L2

so

L=

467

3h
8 me c

The conned proton can be described in the same way as a

standing wave on a string. At level 1, the node-to-node distance
of the standing wave is 1.00 10 14 m, so the wavelength is
twice this distance:
h
= 2.00 10 14 m
p
The protons kinetic energy is

(6.626 10 34 J s )
p2
h2
1
mu 2 =
=
=
2
2
2 m 2 m 2 2 (1.67 10 27 kg ) ( 2.00 10 14 m )
2

K=

FIG. P41.9

3.29 10 13 J
= 2.05 MeV
=
1.60 10 19 J eV
In the rst excited state, level 2, the node-to-node distance is half as long as in state 1. The
momentum is two times larger and the energy is four times larger: K = 8.22 MeV .
The proton has mass, has charge, moves slowly compared to light in a standing wave state, and
stays inside the nucleus. When it falls from level 2 to level 1, its energy change is
2.05 MeV 8.22 MeV = 6.16 MeV
Therefore, we know that a photon (a traveling wave with no mass and no charge) is emitted at the
speed of light, and that it has an energy of +6.16 MeV .
Its frequency is

f =

6
19
J eV )
E ( 6.16 10 eV ) (1.60 10
=
= 1.49 10 21 Hz
34
h
6.626 10 J s

And its wavelength is

c 3.00 108 m s
=
= 2.02 10 13 m
f
1.49 10 21 s 1

This is a gamma ray , according to the electromagnetic spectrum chart in Chapter 34.

P41.10

The ground state energy of a particle (mass m) in a 1-dimensional box of width L is E1 =

(a)

For a proton ( m = 1.67 10 27 kg ) in a 0.200-nm wide box:

(b)

(6.626 10 J s )
E =
= 8.22 10 J =
8 (1.67 10 kg ) ( 2.00 10 m )
For an electron ( m = 9.11 10 kg ) in the same size box:
(6.626 10 J s )
E =
= 1.51 10 J =
8 ( 9.11 10 kg ) ( 2.00 10 m )
34

22

27

10

10

31

34

18

(c)

5.13 10 3 eV

31

9.41 eV

The electron has a much higher energy because it is much less massive.

h2
.
8 mL2

468

Chapter 41

h2 2
*P41.11 En =
n
8 mL2

(6.626 10 J s )
8 (1.67 10 kg ) ( 2.00 10
34

E1 =

27

E1 = 0.513 MeV

14

m)

= 8.22 10 14 J

E2 = 4 E1 = 2.05 MeV

E3 = 9 E1 = 4.62 MeV

Yes; the energy differences are ~1 MeV, which is a typical energy for a g -ray photon as radiated
by an atomic nucleus in an excited state.
P41.12

(a)

The energies of the conned electron are En =

jump from state 1 to state 4 is

h2
n 2 . Its energy gain in the quantum
8 me L2

h2
( 4 2 12 ) and this is the photon
8 me L2

15h
h 2 15
hc
= hf =
energy:
. Then 8 me cL2 = 15h and L =
2
8 me L

8 me c
(b)

Let represent the wavelength of the photon emitted:

Then

*P41.13 (a)
(b)

(a)

hc
h2
h2
12h 2
42
22 =
=
.
2
2
8 me L
8 me L
8 me L2

From xp h/2 with x = L, the uncertainty in momentum must be at least p h/2L .

Its energy is all kinetic, E = p2/2m = (p)2/2m h2/8mL2 = h2/(4p)28mL2.
Compared to the actual h2/8mL2, this estimate is too low by 4p2 40 times. The actual wave
function does not have the particular (Gaussian) shape of a minimum-uncertainty
wave function. The result correctly displays the pattern of dependence of the energy
on the mass and on the length of the well.
x = x
0

2 2 2 x
2
1 1
4 x
dx
sin
dx = x cos

L
L
L
L0 2 2

1 x2
x =
L 2

1 L2
L 16 2

0.510 L

(b)

2
2
hc h 15 (8 me L ) 5
=
= and = 1.25 .
2
2
hc
8 me L 12h
4

P41.14

12

Probability =

0.490 L

4 x sin 4 x + cos 4 x = L
L
2
L
L 0
L

2 2 2 x
1
1 L
4 x
dx = x
sin
sin
L
L
L 4
L 0.490 L
L

Probability = 0.020

0.510 L

1
( sin 2.04 sin 1.96 ) = 5.26 10 5
4

x
1
4 x
sin
= 3.99 10 2
Probability
L 0.240 L
L 4
0.260 L

(c)
(d)

In the n = 2 graph in the texts Figure 41.4(b), it is more probable to nd the particle
L
3L
either near x =
or x =
than at the center, where the probability density is zero.
4
4
L
Nevertheless, the symmetry of the distribution means that the average position is .
2

Quantum Mechanics

P41.15

Normalization requires
L

dx = 1

or

n x
L
sin 2
dx = A 2 = 1
L
2

The probability is

1 dx =

2
L

n x
sin 2
dx = 1
L

A=

or

L /3

*P41.16 (a)

all space

L /3

sin

2
L

x dx = 1
L
L

L /3

2 x dx
L

1 cos
0

L /3

=
(b)

1
2 x
1 1
2 1 0.866
L
=
sin
sin
x
=
= 0.196
L 0
3 3
2
3 2
L
2

Classically, the particle moves back and forth steadily, spending equal time intervals in
each third of the line. Then the classical probability is 0.333, signicantly larger .
L /3

(c)

The probability is

99 dx =

2
L

L /3

sin 2

99 x
1
dx =
L
L

L /3

198 x dx
L

1 cos
0

L /3

1
198 x
1
1
1
L
sin
=
sin ( 66 ) = 0 = 0.333
x
L 0
L
198
3 198
3

in agreement with the classical model .

*P41.17 In 0 x L, the argument

2 x
of the sine function ranges from 0 to 2 . The probability
L

2
2 x
density sin 2
reaches maxima at sin = 1 and sin = 1 . These points are at
L
L
2 x
2 x 3
=
=
and
.
L
2
L
2
Therefore the most probable positions of the particle are at x =

L
3L
and x =
.
4
4

469

470

Chapter 41

*P41.18 (a)

Probability =

2
1

dx =

x
2
1
2 x
sin 2
dx
dx = 1 cos
L
L
L 0
L 0

1
2 x
1
2



L
=

sin
sin
x

2
L
L 0
L 2
L

(b)

Probability Curve for an Infinite

Potential Well
1.2

Probability

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.5

1.5

L
FIG. P41.18(b)

(c)

The wave function is zero for x < 0 and for x > L. The probability at l = 0 must be zero
because the particle is never found at x < 0 or exactly at x = 0. The probability at l = L must
be 1 for normalization: the particle is always found somewhere at x < L.

(d)

The probability of nding the particle between x = 0 and x =
is

and x = L is

Thus,

2
1

1
.
3
dx =

2
3

1
2
2

sin
= ,
L 3
L 2

This equation for

result being

2
, and between x =

3

or

2
1
sin 2 u =
3
2

can be solved by homing in on the solution with a calculator, the
L

= 0.585, or
= 0.585 L
L

to three digits.

Quantum Mechanics

L3

P41.19

(a)

P=

The probability is

L3
2

dx =

2 2 x
2
dx =
sin

L
L
L

L3

2 2 cos
0

471

2 x
dx
L

1
3
x
1
2 x
1 1
2
P=
sin
=
sin =
= 0.196
L 2
3 2
L 0
3 3 4
L3

(b)

(c)

Section 41.3
P41.20

L
.
2
Thus, the probability of nding the particle between
2L
x=
and x = L is the same 0.196. Therefore,
3
the probability of nding it in the range
L
2L
is P = 1.00 2 ( 0.196 ) = 0.609 .
x
3
3
The probability density is symmetric about x =

FIG. P41.19(b)

Classically, the electron moves back and forth with constant speed between the walls, and the
probability of nding the electron is the same for all points between the walls. Thus, the classical probability of nding the electron in any range equal to one-third of the available
1
space is Pclassical = . The result of part (a) is signicantly smaller ,
3
because of the curvature of the graph of the probability density.

The Schrdinger Equation

( x ) = A cos kx + B sin kx

= kA sin kx + kB cos kx
x

2
= k 2 A cos kx k 2 B sin kx
x 2

2m
2 mE
( E U ) = 2 ( A cos kx + B sin kx )



Therefore the Schrdinger equation is satised if

2 2 m
=
( E U ) or
x 2  2

2 mE
k 2 ( A cos kx + B sin kx ) = 2 ( A cos kx + B sin kx )


This is true as an identity (functional equality) for all x if E =

P41.21

We have

= Aei( kx t )

so

= ik
x

and

We test by substituting into Schrdingers equation:

Since

k2 =

( 2 )2
2

( 2 p )2
h2

p2
2

and

2 k 2
.
2m

2
= k 2 .
x 2
2
2m
= k 2 = 2 ( E U ) .
2
x

E U =

p2
2m

Thus this equation balances.

472

P41.22

Chapter 41

(a)

Setting the total energy E equal to zero and

rearranging the Schrdinger equation to isolate
the potential energy function gives
 2 1 d 2
U ( x) =
2 m dx 2

( x ) = Axe x

If

L2

or

U ( x) =

and
(b)

P41.23

d 2
e x L
= ( 4 Ax 3 6 AxL2 ) 4
2
dx
L
2
2
2
d (4 x 6L )
=
( x)
dx 2
L4

Then

FIG. P41.22(b)

2 4 x 2

2 mL2 L2

See the figure to the right.

Problem 41 in Chapter 16 helps students to understand how to draw conclusions from an identity.
(a)

x2
( x ) = A 1 2

d
2 Ax
= 2
dx
L

Schrdingers equation

d 2
2m
= 2 ( E U )
2
dx


becomes

2
2 2
2

2A
2m
x 2 2 m (  x ) A (1 x L )
+
=

EA
1

L2
2
L2  2
mL2 ( L2 x 2 )

1
mE mEx 2 x 2
=

+ 2 2 4
L2
2
 L
L

This will be true for all x if both

1 mE
= 2
L2


and

mE
1
4 =0
2 2
 L
L

d 2
2A
= 2
dx 2
L

E=

both these conditions are satised for a particle of energy

1=

For normalization,

x2
2x2 x4
2
2
L A 1 L2 dx = A L 1 L2 + L4 dx
L

(b)

2
L2 m

2x3
x5
2
2
L
16 L
L

1 = A 2 x 2 + 4 = A 2 L L + + L L + = A 2

3L 5L L
3
5
3
5
15

L3

(c)

P=

L 3

=
P=

L3

2 dx =

L3

15
2x2 x4
15
2x3 x5
1
x

+
dx
=

+
16 L L 3
16 L
3 L2 5 L5 L 3
L2
L4

30 L 2 L
L

+
16 L 3 81 1 215
47
= 0.580
81

A=

15
16 L

Quantum Mechanics

P41.24

(a)

1 ( x) =

x
2
cos
;

L
L

P1 ( x ) = 1 ( x ) =

x
2
cos 2

L
L

2 ( x) =

2
2 x
sin
;

L
L

P2 ( x ) = 2 ( x ) =

2 2 2 x
sin
L
L

3 ( x) =

2
3 x
cos
;

L
L

P3 ( x ) = 3 ( x ) =

2
3 x
cos 2

L
L

(b)

473

n=3

n=2

n=1

L
2

L
2

L
2

L
2

x
FIG. P41.24(b)

P41.25

(a)

With ( x ) = A sin ( kx )
d2
= Ak 2 sin kx
dx 2
h 2 ( 4 2 )
 2 d 2
2 k 2
p2
m 2u 2
1
A
kx
Then
=+
sin =
=
=
= mu 2 = K
2
2
2
2 m dx
2m
2m
2m
2
4 ( ) ( 2 m )
d
A sin kx = Ak cos kx
dx

(b)

Section 41.4

and

2 x
= A sin kx , the proof given in part (a) applies again.
With ( x ) = A sin

A Particle in a Well of Finite Height

P41.26

FIG. P41.26

474

P41.27

Chapter 41

(a)
(b)

See figure to the right.

The wavelength of the transmitted wave
traveling to the left is the same as the original
wavelength, which equals 2L .
FIG. P41.27(a)

Section 41.5

P41.28

C=

Tunneling Through a Potential Energy Barrier

2 ( 9.11 10 31 ) ( 5.00 4.50 ) (1.60 10 19 ) kg m s
1.055 10 34 J s

= 3.62 10 m
9

T = e2CL = exp 2 ( 3.62 10 9 m 1 ) ( 950 10 12 m ) = exp ( 6.88 )

T = 1.03 10

P41.29

FIG. P41.28

From problem 28, C = 3.62 10 9 m 1

We require 10 6 = exp 2 ( 3.62 10 9 m 1 ) L .
Taking logarithms,

13.816 = 2 ( 3.62 10 9 m 1 ) L

New L = 1.91 nm
L = 1.91 nm 0.950 nm = 0.959 nm
*P41.30 T = e2CL where C =

(a)

2CL =

(b)

2CL =

(c)

2CL =

(d)

2CL =

2 m (U E )


2 2 ( 9.11 10 31 ) ( 0.01 1.6 10 19 )

1.055 10 34

2 2 ( 9.11 10 31 ) (1.6 10 19 )
1.055 10 34

(10 ) = 0.102
10

(10 ) = 1.02

1.055 10 34

2 2 (8 ) (1)
( 0.02 ) = 1.52 10 33
1.055 10 34

T = e1.02 = 0.359

10

2 2 ( 6.65 10 27 ) (10 6 1.6 10 19 )

T = e0.102 = 0.903

(10 ) = 0.875
15

33

T = e0.875 = 0.417

T = e1.5210 = e(ln10 )( 1.5210

33

/ln 10 )

= 10 6.5910

32

Quantum Mechanics

P41.31

2CL =

P41.32

2 m (U E )


T = e2CL where C =

2 2 ( 9.11 10 31 ) (8.00 10 19 )
1.055 10 34

( 2.000 10 ) = 4.58
10

(a)

T = e4.58 = 0.010 3 , a 1% chance of transmission.

(b)

R = 1 T = 0.990 , a 99% chance of reection.

FIG. P41.31

The original tunneling probability is T = e2CL where

C=

( 2m (U E ))1 2


2 ( 2 9.11 10 31 kg ( 20 12 ) 1.6 10 19 J )

12

6.626 10 34 J s

The photon energy is hf =

= 1.448 1 1010 m 1

hc 1 240 eV nm
=
= 2.27 eV, to make the electrons new kinetic

546 nm

energy 12 + 2.27 = 14.27 eV and its decay coefcient inside the barrier
2 ( 2 9.11 10 31 kg ( 20 14.27 ) 1.6 10 19 J )

12

C =

6.626 10 34 J s

= 1.225 5 1010 m 1

Now the factor of increase in transmission probability is

9
10
1
e2C L
= e2 L(C C ) = e210 m 0.22310 m = e4.45 = 85.9
2 CL
e

Section 41.6
P41.33

Applications of Tunneling

CL
With the wave function proportional to e , the transmission coefcient and the tunneling

current are proportional to , to e2CL .

2

Then,

P41.34

I ( 0.500 nm ) e2(10.0 nm )( 0.500 nm )

=
= e20.0( 0.015) = 1.35
I ( 0.515 nm ) e2(10.0 nm )( 0.515 nm )

With transmission coefcient e2CL , the fractional change in transmission is

e2(10.0 nm )L e2(10.0 nm )( L + 0.002 00 nm )
= 1 e20.0( 0.002 00 ) = 0.0392 = 3.92%
e2(10.0 nm )L

475

476

Chapter 41

The Simple Harmonic Oscillator

Section 41.7
P41.35

= Be( m 2  )x so
2

d
m
d 2 m 2
m
=
=
x and
x +




dx
dx
2

Substituting into the Schrdinger equation gives

m x 2 + m = 2 mE + m x 2


2

2

which is satised provided that E =

P41.36


.
2

Problem 41 in Chapter 16 helps students to understand how to draw conclusions from an identity.

= Axe bx so

2
2
d
= Ae bx 2bx 2 Ae bx
dx

and

2
2
2
d 2
= 2bxAe bx 4bxAe bx + 4b 2 x 3 e bx = 6b + 4b 2 x 2
2
dx

2 mE
m 2
6b + 4b 2 x 2 =
+
x


2

Substituting into the Schrdinger equation,

For this to be true as an identity, it must be true for all values of x.

So we must have both

P41.37

(a)

Therefore

(b)

and

(c)

The wave function is that of the

6b =
b=
E=

2
2 mE
m
2
and
4
b
=

2

m
2
3b 2
3

=
m
2

first excited state .

The longest wavelength corresponds to minimum photon energy, which must be equal to the
spacing between energy levels of the oscillator:
9.11 10 31 kg
m
hc
k
=  = 
so = 2 c
= 2 ( 3.00 108 m s )
8.99 N m
k

12

= 600 nm

Quantum Mechanics

P41.38

(a)

With = Be( m 2  )x , the normalization condition

2

dx = 1

all x

becomes 1 =

2 2( m 2  ) x 2

B e

dx = 2 B 2 e( m  )x dx = 2 B 2
2

2 m 

where Table B.6 in Appendix B was used to evaluate the integral.

Thus, 1 = B

(b)

m

and B =

m

14

For small d, the probability of nding the particle in the range

2

m
dx = ( 0 ) = B e =


2
2

P41.39

(a)

< x < is
2
2

12

2 0

For the center of mass to be xed, m1u1 + m2 u2 = 0. Then

u = u1 + u2 = u1 +
Similarly, u =
and u2 =

m1
m + m1
u1 = 2
u1
m2
m2

and

u1 =

m2 u
m1 + m2

m2
u2 + u2
m1

m1u
. Then
m1 + m2

1
1
1
1 m1 m22 u 2
1 m2 m12 u 2
1 2
kx
m1u12 + m2 u22 + kx 2 =
2 +
2 +
2
2
2
2 ( m1 + m2 )
2 ( m1 + m2 )
2
=

(b)

1 m1 m2 ( m1 + m2 ) 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
u + kx = u + kx
2
2 ( m1 + m2 )
2
2
2

d 1
1
u 2 + kx 2 = 0 because energy is constant

dx 2
2
0=

1
du 1
dx du
du
2u
+ k 2x =
+ kx =
+ kx
2
dx 2
dt dx
dt

kx
. This is the condition for simple harmonic motion, that the

acceleration of the equivalent particle be a negative constant times the excursion from
Then a = kx , a =

equilibrium. By identication with a = 2 x , =

k
= 2 f and

f =

1
2

k
.

477

478

P41.40

Chapter 41

(a)

With x = 0 and px = 0, the average value of x 2 is ( x ) and the average value of px2
2

is ( px ) . Then x
2

(b)


requires
2 px

px2 k  2
px2 k  2
+
=
+
2 m 2 4 px2
2 m 8 px2
1
1
dE
k2
=0=
+
( 1) 4
2
2m
8
dpx
px

To minimize this as a function of px2 , we require

Then

k2
1
=
8 px4 2 m

and

Emin =


2

2 mk  2
px2 =
8

so

 mk
k2 2

+
=
2 ( 2 m ) 8 mk 4

k 
+
m 4

12

 mk
2

k
m

k

=
m
2

Additional Problems
P41.41

Suppose the marble has mass 20 g. Suppose the wall of the box is 12 cm high and 2 mm thick.
While it is inside the wall,
U = mgy = ( 0.02 kg ) ( 9.8 m s 2 ) ( 0.12 m ) = 0.023 5 J
and

E=K=

1
1
2
mu 2 = ( 0.02 kg ) ( 0.8 m s ) = 0.006 4 J
2
2

2 m (U E )
=


Then C =

2 ( 0.02 kg ) ( 0.017 1 J )
1.055 10 34 J s

= 2.5 10 32 m 1

and the transmission coefcient is

e2CL = e

P41.42

)(

2 2.51032 2 10 3

) = e10 1029 = e2.30( 4.31029 ) = 10 4.31029 = ~ 10 1030

(a)

= 2 L = 2.00 10 10 m

(b)

p=

h 6.626 10 34 J s
=
= 3.31 10 24 kg m s

2.00 10 10 m

(c)

E=

p2
= 0.172 eV
2m

Quantum Mechanics

P41.43

(a)

See the figure.

(b)

See the figure.

FIG. P41.43(a)

FIG. P41.43(b)

(c)

y is continuous and 0 as x . The function can be normalized. It describes a

particle bound near x = 0.

(d)

Since y is symmetric,

479

dx = 2 dx = 1
2

or

2 A2 0
2 A 2 e2 x dx =
(e e ) = 1
2
0

This gives A = .
(e)

P( 1 2 )(1 2 ) = 2

1 2

2 2 2
e2 x dx =
1) = (1 e1 ) = 0.632
(e

2
x=0

( a)
2

*P41.44 If we had n = 0 for a quantum particle in a box, its momentum would be zero. The uncertainty in
its momentum would be zero. The uncertainty in its position would not be innite, but just equal
to the width of the box. Then the uncertainty product would be zero, to violate the uncertainty
principle. The contradiction shows that the quantum number cannot be zero. In its ground state
the particle has some nonzero zero-point energy.
*P41.45 (a)

With ground state energy 0.3 eV, the energy in the n = 2 state is 22 0.3 eV = 1.2 eV. The
energy in state 3 is 9 0.3 eV = 2.7 eV. The energy in state 4 is 16 0.3 eV = 4.8 eV.
For the transition from the n = 3 level to the n = 1 level, the electron loses energy
(2.7 0.3) eV = 2.4 eV. The photon carries off this energy and has wavelength
hc/E = 1240 eVnm/2.4 eV = 517 nm .

(b)

For the transition from level 2 to level 1, the photon energy is 0.9 eV and the photon
wavelength is l = hc/E = 1240 eV nm/0.9 eV = 1.38 mm . This photon, with wavelength
greater than 700 nm, is infrared .
For level 4 to 1, E = 4.5 eV and l = 276 nm ultraviolet .
For 3 to 2, E = 1.5 eV and l = 827 nm infrared .
For 4 to 2, E = 3.6 eV and l = 344 nm near ultraviolet .
For 4 to 3, E = 2.1 eV and l = 590 nm yellow-orange visible .

480

P41.46

Chapter 41

(a)

Use Schrdingers equation

2
2m
= 2 ( E U )
2
x

with solutions

1 = Aeik1x + Be ik1x

[region I ]

2 = Ceik2 x

[region II ]

FIG. P41.46(a)

Where

k1 =

2 mE


and

k2 =

2m ( E U )


Then, matching functions and derivatives at x = 0

( 1 )0 = ( 2 )0

gives

A+B=C

d
d
and 1 = 2
dx 0 dx 0

gives

k1 ( A B ) = k2 C

Then

B=

1 k2 k1
A
1 + k2 k1

and

C=

2
A
1 + k2 k1

Incident wave Aeikx reects Be ikx , with probability

B 2 (1 k2 k1 )
R= 2 =
A
(1 + k2 k1 )2
2

=
(b)

( k1 k2 )2
( k1 + k2 )2

With

E = 7.00 eV

and

U = 5.00 eV
k2
=
k1

E U
=
E

2.00
= 0.535
7.00

(1 0.535)2
= 0.092 0
(1 + 0.535)2

The reection probability is

R=

The probability of transmission is

T = 1 R = 0.908

Quantum Mechanics

P41.47

R=

481

( k1 k2 )2 = (1 k2 k1 )2
( k1 + k2 )2 (1 + k2 k1 )2

2 k 2
= E U for constant U
2m
 2 k12
= E since U = 0
2m

(1)

 k
= E U
2m

(2)

P41.48

FIG. P41.47

2
2

Dividing (2) by (1),

k22
U
k
1
1 1
= 1 = 1 = so 2 =
2
k1
E
k1
2 2
2

and therefore,

(1 1
R=
(1 + 1

) =(
2)
(
2

2
2

)
2 + 1)
2 1

2
2

= 0.029 4

(a)

The wave functions and probability densities are the same as those shown in the two lower
curves in Figure 41.4 of the textbook.

(b)

P1 =

2
x
2
dx
1 dx =
sin 2

1.00 nm
1.00 nm 0.150
0.150 nm
0.350 nm

0.350

0.350 nm

2 x
x 1.00 nm
= ( 2.00 nm )
sin

4
1.00 nm 0.150 nm
2
x
1
In the above result we used sin 2 axdx = sin ( 2ax ).
2 4a
0.350 nm

1.00 nm
2 x

sin
Therefore, P1 = (1.00 nm ) x
1.00 nm 0.150 nm
2

P1 = (1.00 nm ) 0.350 nm 0.150 nm

0.350

2
x 1.00 4 x
2 2 x
sin 1.00 dx = 2.00 2 8 sin 1.00 0.150
1.00 0.150
0.350

(c)

P2 =

1.00 nm
[sin ( 0.700 ) sin ( 0.300 )] = 0.200
2

0.350

1.00 4 x

P2 = 1.00 x
sin
1.00 0.150
4

= 1.00 ( 0.350 0.150 )

1.00
[sin (1.40 ) sin ( 0.600 )]
4

= 0.351
(d)

Using En =

n2h2
, we nd that E1 = 0.377 eV and E2 = 1.51 eV .
8 mL2

482

P41.49

P41.50

Chapter 41

(a)

f =

1.60 10 19 J
E
(1.80 eV )
= 4.34 1014 Hz
=
34
h ( 6.626 10 J s ) 1.00 eV

(b)

c 3.00 108 m s
=
= 6.91 10 7 m = 691 nm
f
4.34 1014 Hz

(c)

E t

(a)

Taking Lx = Ly = L , we see that the expression for E becomes


6.626 10 34 J s

h
=
=
= 2.64 10 29 J = 1.65 10 10 eV
so E
2 t 4 ( t ) 4 ( 2.00 10 6 s )
2

E=

h2
nx2 + ny2
8 me L2

For a normalizable wave function describing a particle, neither nx nor ny can be zero. The
ground state, corresponding to nx = ny = 1, has an energy of
E1,1 =

h2
h2
12 + 12 ) =
2 (
8 me L
4 me L2

The rst excited state, corresponding to either nx = 2, ny = 1 or nx = 1, ny = 2, has an

energy
E2,1 = E1,2 =

5h 2
h2
22 + 12 ) =
2 (
8 me L
8 me L2

The second excited state, corresponding to nx = 2, ny = 2, has an energy of

E 2 ,2 =

h2
h2
22 + 22 ) =
2 (
8 me L
me L2

Finally, the third excited state, corresponding to either nx = 1, ny = 3 or nx = 3, nx = 1, has

an energy
E1, 3 = E3,1 =
(b)

5h 2
h2
2
2
1
3
+
=
(
)
4 me L2
8 me L2

The energy difference between the

second excited state and the ground
state is given by
E = E2, 2 E1,1 =
3h 2
=
4 me L2

h2
h2

2
me L 4 me L2

energy
E1, 3 , E3, 1
E2, 2

h2
me L2

E1, 2 , E2, 1

E1, 1
Energy level diagram
FIG. P41.50(b)

Quantum Mechanics

P41.51

x2 =

dx

For a one-dimensional box of width L, n =

2
n x
.
sin

L
L

L2
L2
2 2 2 n x
x
sin
dx
=

L
L 0
3 2 n 2 2
L

Thus, x 2 =

P41.52

(a)

(from integral tables).

dx = 1 becomes

L 4

2 x
L
L x 1 4 x
= A 2 = 1
cos 2
+ sin
dx = A 2

4
L
2
2
L
L
L 4

L 4
L 4

A2

or A 2 =
(b)

4
2
and A =
.
L
L

The probability of nding the particle between 0 and

L8

L8
2

dx = A 2

P41.53

cos

L
is
8

2 x dx = 1 + 1 = 0.409
L
4 2

For a particle with wave function

( x) =

2 x a
e
a

for x > 0
for x < 0

and 0
(a)

( x ) = 0, x < 0

(b)

Prob ( x < 0 ) =

Normalization

2 2 x a
e , x > 0 as shown
a

( x ) dx = ( 0 ) dx = 0
2

(c)

2 ( x) =

and

( x ) dx =
2

dx + dx = 1
2

2 2 x a
2 x a

0dx + 0 a e dx = 0 e 0 = ( e 1) = 1
Prob ( 0 < x < a ) =

2
2 2 x a
0 dx = 0 a e dx
a

= e2 x a 0 = 1 e2 = 0.865

FIG. P41.53

483

484

P41.54

Chapter 41

(a)

The requirement that

E=

( pc )2 + ( mc 2 )

h nh
n
= L so p = =
is still valid.
2
2L
2

2
nhc
En =
+ ( mc 2 )
2L
2

K n = En mc 2 =
(b)

nhc + mc 2 2 mc 2
)
2L (

Taking L = 1.00 10 12 m, m = 9.11 10 31 kg, and n = 1, we nd K1 = 4.69 10 14 J .

(6.626 10 34 J s )
h2
14
Nonrelativistic, E1 =
J.
=
2 = 6.02 10
8 mL2 8 ( 9.11 10 31 kg ) (1.00 10 12 m )
2

Comparing this to K1 , we see that this value is too large by 28.6% .

P41.55

2
7 ke e 2
e2
1 1
1
( 7 3) e

)
=
1
=

+
+

1
1
(
4 d
4 0 d
3d
2 3
2
0

(a)

U=

(b)

From Equation 41.14, K = 2 E1 =

(c)

E = U + K and

2h 2
h2
=
.
2
36 me d 2
8 me ( 9 d )
7 ke e 2
h2

=0
3d 2 18 me d 3

dE
= 0 for a minimum:
dd

6.626 10 34 )
(
3h 2
h2
d=
=
=
( 7 ) (18 ke e2 me ) 42 me ke e2 ( 42 ) ( 9.11 10 31 ) (8.99 10 9 ) (1.60 10 19 C )2
2

= 0.049 9 nm
(d)

Nm
Since the lithium spacing is a, where Na 3 = V , and the density is
, where m is the
V
mass of one atom, we get:
Vm
a=
Nm

13

m
=
density

13

1.66 10 27 kg 7
=

530 kg

13

m = 2.80 10 10 m = 0.280 nm

The lithium interatomic spacing of 280 pm is 5.62 times larger than the answer to (c). Thus
it is of the same order of magnitude as the interatomic spacing 2d here.

Quantum Mechanics

P41.56

(a)

= Bxe( m 2  )x

485

2
2
2
m 2 ( m 2  )x 2
d
m
= Be( m 2  )x + Bx
x e
2 xe( m 2  )x = Be( m 2  )x B
2

dx
2
m
m 2 m ( m 2  )x 2
d 2
m ( m 2  )x 2
= Bx
B
xe
2 xe( m 2  )x B
x
xe
2

dx


 

m 3 ( m 2  )x 2
d 2
m ( m 2  )x 2
= 3 B
xe
+ B
xe


dx 2
2

Substituting into the Schrdinger equation, we have

2
2
2 mE
m 2
m ( m 2  )x 2
m 3 ( m 2  )x 2
x Bxe( m 2  )x
3 B
xe
+ B
xe
= 2 Bxe( m 2  )x +





2E
3
; it is true if E =
.

2

This is true if 3 =
(b)

We never nd the particle at x = 0 because = 0 there.

(c)

y is maximized if

(d)

We require

d
m

= 0 = 1 x2
, which is true at x =
.

dx
m
dx = 1:

1=

2 2 ( m  ) x
dx = 2 B 2 x 2 e( m  )x dx = 2 B 2
B x e
2

Then B =

(e)

(f)

21 2 m
1 4 

34

4 m 3 3
=
 3

1
4

B2 1 2 3 2
3 =
32
2 ( m )
( m  )

14

1
1
4

, the potential energy is m 2 x 2 = m 2
= 2 . This is larger than

m
m
2
2
3
the total energy
, so there is zero classical probability of nding the particle here.
2
At x = 2

( m 2  ) x
Probability = dx = Bxe
2

Probability =

2 m
1 2 

32

) = B x e
2

2 ( m  ) x 2

4  e( m  )4(  m ) = 8 m
m


12

e4

486

Chapter 41

x
x 2 x
2 x

+ 16 sin 2
+ 8 sin
dx = 1
A 2 sin 2
sin

L
L
L
L
0

P41.57

(a)

dx = 1 :

L
L
x 2 x
L
sin
A 2 + 16 + 8 sin
dx = 1

L
2

2
L
0

L
17 L 16 L 3 x
17 L
x
x
+ 16 sin 2
A2
cos
dx = A 2
+
sin
L
L
L
3
0
2

A2 =

=1
x=0

2
2
, so the normalization constant is A =
.
17 L
17 L

(b)

x= L

dx = 1:

x
x
x x
2
cos 2
dx = 1
sin
+ B sin 2
+ 2 A B cos
2a
a
a
2a

The rst two terms are A a and B a . The third term is:
x

cos 2a 2 sin 2a cos 2a dx = 4 A

2A B

cos

x sin x dx
2a
2a
a

so that a A + B
2

P41.58

(b)

x1=

(c)

a
x

(a)

A + B =
2

1
.
a

e ax dx = 0 , since the integrand is an odd function of x.

4a3
x

) = 1, giving

12

01

8a A B
x
cos3
=0

3
2a a

x 2 (

12
2

x 2 e ax dx = 0 , since the integrand is an odd function of x.

+ 1 ) dx =
2

1
x
2

1
x + x 0 ( x ) 1 ( x ) dx
2 1

The rst two terms are zero, from (a) and (b). Thus:

01

a
= x

14

2a 2
= 2

12

1
2a

ax 2 2

4a3

14

xe

ax 2 2

2a 2
dx = 2

1
, from Table B.6
4 a3
12

12

x e
0

2 ax 2

dx

Quantum Mechanics

P41.59

With one slit open

P1 = 1 or P2 = 2

With both slits open,

P = 1 + 2

At a maximum, the wave functions are in phase

Pmax = ( 1 + 2

At a minimum, the wave functions are out of phase

Pmin = ( 1 2

Now

P1 1
=
2 = 25.0 , so
P2 2

( 1 + 2
P
and max =
Pmin ( 1 2

)
)

2
2

(5.00
=
(5.00

487

1
= 5.00
2
2

+ 2

)
)

2
2

( 6.00 )2 36.0
=
= 2.25
( 4.00 )2 16.0

ANSWERS TO EVEN PROBLEMS

P41.2

1
2

P41.4

(a) 4

P41.6

9.56 1012

P41.8

3h
8 m c
e

P41.10

(b) 6.03 eV

12

(a) 5.13 meV (b) 9.41 eV (c) The much smaller mass of the electron requires it to have much
more energy to have the same momentum.
12

P41.12
P41.14
P41.16

P41.18

15h
(a)
(b) 1.25
8 me c
L
(a)
(b) 5.26 10 5 (c) 3.99 10 2
2

(d) See the solution.

(a) 0.196 (b) The classical probability is 0.333, signicantly larger.

and quantum models.

(c) 0.333 for both classical

1
2

(b) See the solution. (c) The wave function is zero for x < 0 and for x > L.

sin

L 2
L
The probability at l = 0 must be zero because the particle is never found at x < 0 or exactly at x = 0.
The probability at l = L must be 1 for normalization. This statement means that the particle is always
found somewhere at x < L. (d) l = 0.585L
(a)

P41.20

See the solution;

P41.22

(a)

2 k 2
2m

2 4 x 2

2 mL2 L2

(b) See the solution.

488

P41.24

Chapter 41

(a) 1 ( x ) =

x
2
cos
L
L

P1 ( x ) =

P2 ( x ) =

2 2 2 x
sin
L
L

3 ( x) =

2
x
cos 2
L
L
2
3 x
cos

L
L

2 ( x) =
P3 ( x ) =

2
2 x
sin
L
L
2
3 x
cos 2

L
L

(b) See the solution.

P41.26

See the solution.

P41.28

1.03 10 3

P41.30

(a) 0.903

P41.32

85.9

P41.34

3.92%

P41.36

(a) See the solution.

P41.38

m
(a) B =


P41.40

See the solution.

P41.42

(a) 2.00 10 10 m

P41.44

See the solution.

P41.46

(a) See the solution.

(b) 0.092 0 , 0.908

P41.48

(a) See the solution.

(b) 0.200

(b) 0.359

P41.52

b=

m
2

m
(b)


(b) E =

3

2

(c) first excited state

(c) 0.351

(c) 0.172 eV

(d) 0.377 eV, 1.51 eV

h
5h
h
5h
,
,
,
2
2
2
4 me L 8 me L me L 4 me L2
2
(a)
(b) 0.409
L
(a)

32

12

(b) 3.31 10 24 kg m s

P41.50

14

(d) 10 6.5910

(c) 0.417

(b) See the solution,

3h 2
4 me L2

P41.54
P41.56
P41.58

nhc
(a)
+ m 2 c 4 mc 2 (b) 46.9 fJ; 28.6%
2L
14
4 m 3 3
3

(a)
(b) x = 0 (c)
(d)
 3
2
m
(a) 0

(b) 0

(c) ( 2a )

1 2

m
(e) 0 (f ) 8


12

e4

42
Atomic Physics
Note:

In chapters 39, 40, and 41 we used u to represent the speed of a particle with mass. In this chapter 42
and the remaining chapters we go back to using v for the symbol for speed.

CHAPTER OUTLINE
42.1
42.2
42.3

Atomic Spectra of Gases

Early Models of the Atom
Bohrs Model of the
Hydrogen Atom
42.4 The Quantum Model of the
Hydrogen Atom
42.5 The Wave Functions of
Hydrogen
42.6 Physical Interpretation of the
Quantum Numbers
42.7 The Exclusion Principle and
the Periodic Table
42.8 More on Atomic Spectra:
Visible and X-ray
42.9 Spontaneous and Stimulated
Transitions
42.10 Lasers

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS
Q42.1

If an electron moved like a hockey puck, it could have

any arbitrary frequency of revolution around an atomic
nucleus. If it behaved like a charge in a radio antenna,
it would radiate light with frequency equal to its own
frequency of oscillation. Thus, the electron in hydrogen
atoms would emit a continuous spectrum, electromagnetic
waves of all frequencies smeared together.

*Q42.2 (a)

(b)

Yes, provided that the energy of the photon is

precisely enough to put the electron into one of the
allowed energy states. Strangelymore precisely
non-classicallyenough, if the energy of the
photon is not sufcient to put the electron into a
particular excited energy level, the photon will not
interact with the atom at all!
Yes, a photon of any energy greater than 13.6 eV
will ionize the atom. Any extra energy will go
into kinetic energy of the newly liberated electron.

*Q42.3 Answer (a). The 10.5-eV bombarding energy does not match the 10.2-eV excitation energy
required to lift the atom from state 1 to state 2. But the atom can be excited into state 2 and the
bombarding particle can carry off the excess energy.
*Q42.4

(i) b (ii) g From Equations 42.7, 42.8 and 42.9, we have E =

Then K = E and U e = 2 E .

489

ke e 2
k e2 k e2
= + e e = K + Ue .
2r
2r
r