TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION

1. Water spring
Geyser activity, like all hot spring activity, is caused by surface water gradually
seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by magma. The
geothermally heated water then rises back toward the surface by convection through
porous and fractured rock. Geysers differ from noneruptive hot springs in their
subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or
more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water.

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As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the
narrowness of the channel, convective cooling of the water in the reservoir is
impossible. The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath, not
unlike the lid of a pressure cooker, allowing the water in the reservoir to become
superheated, i.e. to remain liquid at temperatures well above the boiling point.

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Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where
boiling begins; steam bubbles rise to the top of the column. As they burst through the
geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the
column and thus the pressure on the water underneath. With this release of pressure,
the superheated water flashes into steam, boiling violently throughout the column.
The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser
hole.

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Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point
and the eruption ends; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and
the whole cycle begins again. The duration of eruptions and time between successive
eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; Strokkur in Iceland erupts for a few
seconds every few minutes, while Grand Geyser in the U.S. erupts for up to
10 minutes every 812 hours. Old Faithful, perhaps the best-known geyser at
Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser. The intense transient
forces inside erupting geysers are the main reason for their rarity. There are many
volcanic areas in the world that have hot springs, mud pots and fumaroles, but very
few with geysers. This is because in most places, even where other necessary
conditions for geyser activity exist, the rock structure is loose, and eruptions will
erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers. Geysers are fragile
phenomena and if conditions change, they can die. Many geysers have been
destroyed by people throwing litter and debris into them; others have ceased to erupt
due to dewatering by geothermal power plants. The Great Geyser of Iceland has had
periods of activity and dormancy. During its long dormant periods, eruptions were
sometimes humanly-induced often on special occasions by the addition of
surfactants to the water. Inducing eruptions at Geyser is no longer done, as the forced
eruptions were damaging the geyser's special plumbing system. Following an
earthquake in Iceland in 2000 the geyser became somewhat more active again.

Initially the geyser erupted about eight times a day. As of July 2003, Geyser erupts
several times a week.
2. Television
The elements of a simple broadcast television system are:

An image source. This is the electrical signal representing the visual

image, and may be from a camera in the case of live images, a video
tape recorder for playback of recorded images, or a film chain-telecineflying spot scanner for transmission of motion pictures (films).
A sound source. This is an electrical signal from a microphone or from
the audio output of a video tape recorder or motion picture film
scanner.
A transmitter, which generates radio signals (radio waves) and encodes
them with picture and sound information.
An antenna coupled to the output of the transmitter for broadcasting
the encoded signals.
An antenna to receive the broadcast signals.
A receiver (also called a tuner), which decodes the picture and sound
information from the broadcast signals, and whose input is coupled to
the antenna.
A display device, which turns the electrical signals into visual images.
An audio amplifier and loudspeaker, which turns electrical signals into
sound waves (speech, music, and other sounds) to accompany the
images.

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3. Pressure Cooker

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Pressure cooking is a method of cooking in a sealed vessel that does not permit air or
liquids to escape below a preset pressure. Because water's boiling point increases as
the pressure increases, the pressure built up inside the cooker allows the liquid in the
pot to rise to a temperature higher than 100 C (212F) before boiling.
The materials used for making cookers are generally aluminum and stainless steel.
The former may be stamped and buffed or anodized, but this metal is unsuitable for
the dishwasher. Expensive stainless steel pressure cookers are made with heavy,
three-ply, or copper-clad bottoms for uniform heating. Most modern units are
dishwasher safe, although some manufacturers may recommend washing by hand. A
gasket forms an airtight seal which does not allow air or steam to escape between the
pan and the lid, the only way the steam can escape is through a regulator on the lid
when the pressure has built up (or if the regulator is blocked, through a safety valve).
Sometimes the gasket is referred to as a sealing ring.
4. Electric Fan

Table fan - Basic elements of a typical table fan include the fan blade, base,
armature and lead wires, motor, blade guard, motor housing, oscillator
gearbox, and oscillator shaft. The oscillator is a mechanism that motions the
fan from side to side. The axle comes out on both ends of the motor, one end

of the axle is attached to the blade and the other is attached to the oscillator
gearbox. The motor case joins to the gearbox to contain the rotor and stator.
The oscillator shaft combines to the weighted base and the gearbox. A motor
housing covers the oscillator mechanism. The blade guard joins to the motor
case for safety.
Electro-mechanical fans, among collectors, are rated according to their
condition, size, age, and number of blades. Four-blade designs are the most
common. Five-blade or six-blade designs are rare. The materials from which
the components are made, such as brass, are important factors in fan
desirability.

A fan suspended from the ceiling of a room is a ceiling fan.

In automobiles, a mechanical fan, driven with a belt and pulley off the
engine's crankshaft, or an electric fan switched on/off by a thermo
switch is used to blow or suck air through a coolant filled radiator, to
prevent the engine from overheating.
Computer fan

5. Volcano

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A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planet's surface or crust, which allows hot,

molten rock, ash and gases to escape from below the surface. Volcanic activity
involving the extrusion of rock tends to form mountains or features like mountains
over a period of time.

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Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates pull apart or come together. A
mid-oceanic ridge, for example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has examples of volcanoes
caused by "divergent tectonic plates" pulling apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has
examples of volcanoes caused by "convergent tectonic plates" coming together. By
contrast, volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one
another. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the Earth's
crust (called "non-hotspot intraplate volcanism"), such as in the African Rift Valley,
the Wells Gray-Clearwater Volcanic

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The most common perception of a volcano is of a conical mountain, spewing lava and
poisonous gases from a crater at its summit. This describes just one of many types of
volcano, and the features of volcanoes are much more complicated. The structure and
behavior of volcanoes depends on a number of factors. Some volcanoes have rugged
peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater, whereas others present
landscape features such as massive plateaus. Vents that issue volcanic material (lava,
which is what magma is called once it has escaped to the surface, and ash) and gases
(mainly steam and magmatic gases) can be located anywhere on the landform. Many
of these vents give rise to smaller cones such as Puu on a flank of Hawaii's
Klauea.

Indonesia - Lombok: Mount Rinjani - outbreak in 1995

Other types of volcano include cryovolcanoes (or ice volcanoes), particularly on some
moons of Jupiter, Saturn and Neptune; and mud volcanoes, which are formations
often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to
involve temperatures much lower than those of igneous volcanoes, except when a
mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano
6. AIR CONDITIONER

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An air conditioner is an appliance, system, or mechanism designed to extract heat

from an area using a refrigeration cycle. In construction, a complete system of
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as HVAC. Its purpose, in the
home or in the car, is to provide comfort during hot days and nights.

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Refrigeration cycle

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A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1) condensing coil, 2) expansion

valve, 3) evaporator coil, 4) compressor.

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In the refrigeration cycle, a heat pump transfers heat from a lower temperature heat
source into a higher temperature heat sink. Heat would naturally flow in the opposite
direction. This is the most common type of air conditioning. A refrigerator works in
much the same way, as it pumps the heat out of the interior into the room in which it
stands.
This cycle takes advantage of the universal gas law PV = nRT, where P is pressure, V
is volume, R is the universal gas constant, T is temperature, and n is the number of
moles of gas (1 mole = 6.0221023 molecules).
The most common refrigeration cycle uses an electric motor to drive a compressor. In
an automobile the compressor is driven by a pulley on the engine's crankshaft, with
both using electric motors for air circulation. Since evaporation occurs when heat is
absorbed, and condensation occurs when heat is released, air conditioners are
designed to use a compressor to cause pressure changes between two compartments,
and actively pump a refrigerant around. A refrigerant is pumped into the cooled
compartment (the evaporator coil), where the low pressure and low temperature cause
the refrigerant to evaporate into a vapor, taking heat with it. In the other compartment
(the condenser), the refrigerant vapour is compressed and forced through another heat
exchange coil, condensing into a liquid, rejecting the heat previously absorbed from
the cooled space.

7. IRONING
Ironing or smoothing is the work of using a heated tool to remove wrinkles from
washed clothes. The common tools for this purpose are called "irons", though modern
designs are no longer made of iron.
Ironing works by loosening the bonds between the long-chain polymer molecules in
the fibres of the material. While the molecules are hot, the fibres are straightened by
the weight of the iron, and they hold their new shape as they cool. Some fabrics, such
as cotton, require the addition of water to loosen the intermolecular bonds. Many
modern fabrics (developed in or after the mid-twentieth century) are advertised as
needing little or no ironing.
Ironing may also be used as a germ/parasite killing hygienic operation.
Modern ironing equipment

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Home irons are normally classified into automatic and non-automatic irons. An
entirely different device, a steam press, is used by commercial laundry and drycleaning services.

Manual home irons

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Modern irons available for sale to consumers have some or all of the following
features (more expensive models have more features, as one would expect):

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Ejection of steam through the clothing during the ironing process;

A water reservoir inside the iron (used for the steam generation);
An indicator showing the amount of water left in the reservoir;
A thermostat ensuring maintenance of a constant temperature;
Convenient method for setting the iron down, usually on its end / vertically, so
as to not allow contact between the hot part and either table or clothes;
A temperature control dial showing a range of possible temperatures (typically
marked with types of cloth instead of absolute degree measurements, for
example, "wool", "cotton", "linen", etc.);
Constant steam feature - constantly sends steam through the hot part of the
iron into the clothes;
Cord control - the point at which the cord attaches to the iron has a spring to
hold the cord out of the way while ironing and likewise when setting down the
iron (prevents fires, is more convenient, etc.).
Steam burst feature - sends a burst of steam through the clothes when the user
presses a button;
(advanced feature) Dial controlling the amount of steam to emit as a constant
stream;
(advanced feature) Anti-burn control - if the iron is left flat (hot part touching
clothes) for too long, the iron shuts off to prevent fires;
(advanced feature) Energy saving control - if the iron is left undisturbed for
several (10 or 15) minutes, the iron shuts off to save energy and prevent fires.
Cordless irons - the iron is placed on a stand for a short period to warm up,
using thermal mass to stay hot for a short period. These are useful for light

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loads only. (Unlike other cordless appliances, cordless irons are not powered
from rechargeable batteries, because it would be difficult for batteries to
provide enough power to heat the iron.)
(advanced feature) 3 way auto shut off
(advanced feature) self-cleaning
(advanced feature) Anti-drip system
Electrical cord with Teflon (PTFE) insulation.

Automatic ironing robots and major home appliances

Automatic ironing robots, like the Siemens AG Dressman (see link below),
have recently appeared on the market.
Automatic ironing (major) home appliances: Driron.

USES

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Irons are commonly available as consumer goods. Some commercial-grade irons have
a boiler unit separate from the handheld iron. Most ironing is done on an ironing
board, a small, portable, foldable table with a heat resistant top.Some commercialgrade ironing boards incorporate a heating element and a pedal-operated vacuum to
pull air through the board and dry the garment.

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Permanent press clothing was developed to reduce the ironing necessary by

combining wrinkle-resistant polyester with cotton.

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Commercial laundries typically use steam presses to iron clothes instead of irons;
Clothes such as shirts, trousers, and skirts are typically ironed, while underwear,
socks, sheets, sweaters, and materials where wrinkling is not a factor are not, although
this depends on the culture and circumstances.

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Irons cause many fires and injuries each year due to their being very heavy, very hot,
and often used on ironing boards that can fall over onto small children.
Irons used to be much more dangerous due to the electrical cords fraying; modern
insulation is much safer and better able to cope with being heated
8. Dry Cell

dry cell is a galvanic electrochemical cell with a pasty low-moisture electrolyte For
the cheapest carbon-zinc variety, a zinc outer casing (anode) contains a layer of
NH4Cl with ZnCl2 aqueous paste separated by a paper layer from a mixture of
powdered carbon & [[manganese(IV) oxide]=] (MnO2) which is packed around a
carbon rod (cathode). As the cell runs, manganese is reduced from an oxidation state
of +4 to +3, collecting electrons from the carbon rod, while the zinc metal anode is
oxidized to Zn2+ ions, producing the electrons. So the electrons travel outside the
cell, from the zinc casing (the negative end or anode) through contacts and wires to
the carbon rod (which is in contact with the manganese dioxide powder, the actual
cathode material, and so is positive).

In so-called alkaline cells (see alkaline battery), some of the electrolyte in the paste is
replaced with an alkaline paste of potassium hydroxide. However, the essential
transfer of electrons from zinc to manganese still powers the cell.
The standard carbon-zinc dry cell is relatively cheap, and until recently, has been the
most common type of cell (only recently being replaced in most uses by the alkaline
type). It was the first commercial portable battery (technically, a battery is made of
two or more cells) and therefore the dry cell had a large impact on society, as it
contributed to the development of flashlights (torches) and portable radios.
9. VACCUM CLEANER
A vacuum cleaner (in colloquial British English also hoover[1]) is a device that uses
an air pump to create a partial vacuum to suck up dust and dirt, usually from floors.
Most homes with carpeted floors in developed countries possess a vacuum cleaner for
cleaning. The dirt is collected by a filtering system or a cyclone for later disposal

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A vacuum's suction is caused by a difference in air pressure. A pump reduces the

pressure inside the tube. Atmospheric pressure then pushes the air through the carpet
and into the tube, and so the dust is literally pushed into the bag.

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The first manually-powered cleaner using vacuum principles was the "Whirlwind",
invented in Chicago in 1868 by Ives W. McGaffey. The machine was lightweight and
compact, but was difficult to operate because of the need to turn a hand crank at the
same time as pushing it across the floor. McGaffey obtained a patent for his device on
June 5, 1869, and enlisted the help of The American Carpet Cleaning Co. of Boston to
market it to the public. It was sold for $25, a high price in those days. It is hard to
determine how successful the Whirlwind was, as most of them were sold in Chicago
and Boston, and it is likely that many were lost in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.
Only two are known to have survived, one of which can be found in the Hoover
Historical Center.

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McGaffey was but one of many 19th-century inventors in the United States and
Europe who devised manual vacuum cleaners. The first patent for an electrically
driven "carpet sweeper and dust gatherer" was granted to Corinne Dufour of
Savannah, Georgia in December 1900.
10.MICROWAVE OVEN
microwave oven, or microwave, is a kitchen appliance employing microwave
radiation primarily to cook or heat food. Microwave ovens have revolutionized food
preparation since their use became widespread in the 1970s.
A microwave oven consists of:

a high voltage transformer, which passes energy to the magnetron

a cavity magnetron,
a magnetron control circuit (usually with a microcontroller),
a waveguide, and
a cooking chamber

A microwave oven works by passing nonionizing microwave radiation, usually at a

frequency of 2.45 GHz (a wavelength of 12.24 cm), through the food. Microwave
radiation is between common radio and infrared frequencies. Water, fat, and other
substances in the food absorb energy from the microwaves in a process called
dielectric heating. Many molecules (such as those of water) are electric dipoles,
meaning that they have a positive charge at one end and a negative charge at the
other, and therefore rotate as they try to align themselves with the alternating electric
field induced by the microwaves. This molecular movement creates heat as the
rotating molecules hit other molecules and put them into motion. Microwave heating
is most efficient on liquid water, and much less so on fats and sugars (which have less
molecular dipole moment), and frozen water (where the molecules are not free to
rotate). Microwave heating is sometimes explained as a rotational resonance of water
molecules, but this is incorrect: such resonance only occurs in water vapour at much
higher frequencies, at about 20 gigahertz.

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A common misconception is that microwave ovens cook food from the "inside out".
In reality, microwaves are absorbed in the outer layers of food in a manner somewhat
similar to heat from other methods. The misconception arises because microwaves
penetrate dry nonconductive substances at the surfaces of many common foods, and
thus often deposit initial heat more deeply than other methods. Depending on water
content, the depth of initial heat deposition may be several centimeters or more with
microwave ovens, in contrast to broiling (infrared) or convection heating, which
deposit heat thinly at the food surface. Depth of penetration of microwaves is
dependent on food composition and the frequency, with lower microwave frequencies
penetrating better.

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Most microwave ovens allow the user to choose between several power levels,
including one or more defrosting levels. In most ovens, however, there is no change in
the intensity of the microwave radiation; instead, the magnetron is turned on and off
in cycles of several seconds at a time. This can actually be observed when
microwaving airy foods which may inflate during heating phases, and deflate when
the magnetron is turned off. Newer models have inverter power supplies which
provide truly continuous low-power microwave heating.

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The cooking chamber itself is a Faraday cage enclosure which prevents the
microwaves from escaping into the environment. The oven door is usually a glass
panel for easy viewing, but has a layer of conductive mesh to maintain the shielding.
Because the size of the perforations in the mesh is much less than the wavelength of
12 cm, most of the microwave radiation cannot pass through the door, while visible
light (with a much shorter wavelength) can. With wireless computer networks gaining
in popularity, microwave interference has become a concern near wireless networks.
Microwave ovens are capable of disrupting wireless network transmissions because
the ovens generate radio waves of about 2.45 GHz in the 802.11b/g frequency band,
some of them escaping the enclosure despite the presence of the mesh
11.FLOPPY DISK
A floppy disk is a data storage device that is composed of a disk of thin, flexible
("floppy") magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic shell.
Floppy disks are read and written by a floppy disk drive or FDD, the initials of

which should not be confused with "fixed disk drive", which is another term for a
hard disk drive. Invented by IBM, floppy disks in 8", 5.25", and 3.5" formats enjoyed
many years as a popular and ubiquitous form of data storage and exchange, from the
middle 1970s to the late 1990s. However, they have now been largely superseded by
Flash and optical storage devices while email has become the preferred method of
exchanging small to medium digital files.
The 3-inch disk is made of two pieces of rigid plastic, with the fabric-mediumfabric sandwich in the middle to remove dust and dirt. The front has only a label and a
small aperture for reading and writing data, protected by a spring-loaded metal cover,
which is pushed back on entry into the drive.

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The 3-inch floppy disk drive automatically engages when the user inserts a disk, and
disengages and ejects with the press of the eject button. On Macintoshes with built-in
floppy drives, the disk is ejected by a motor (similar to a VCR) instead of manually;
there is no eject button. The disk's desktop icon is dragged onto the Trash icon to eject
a disk.

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The reverse has a similar covered aperture, as well as a hole to allow the spindle to
connect into a metal plate glued to the medium. Two holes, bottom left and right,
indicate the write-protect status and high-density disk correspondingly, a hole
meaning protected or high density, and a covered gap meaning write-enabled or low
density. (Incidentally, the write-protect and high-density holes on a 3-inch disk are
spaced exactly as far apart as the holes in punched A4 paper (8 cm), allowing writeprotected floppies to be clipped into European ring binders.) A notch top right ensures
that the disk is inserted correctly, and an arrow top left indicates the direction of
insertion. The drive usually has a button that, when pressed, will spring the disk out at
varying degrees of force. Some would barely make it out of the disk drive; others
would shoot out at a fairly high speed. In a majority of drives, the ejection force is
provided by the spring that holds the cover shut, and therefore the ejection speed is
dependent on this spring. In PC-type machines, a floppy disk can be inserted or
ejected manually at any time (evoking an error message or even lost data in some
cases), as the drive is not continuously monitored for status and so programs can
make assumptions that do not match actual status (i.e., disk 123 is still in the drive
and has not been altered by any other agency). With Apple Macintosh computers, disk

drives are continuously monitored by the OS; a disk inserted is automatically searched
for content and one is ejected only when the software agrees the disk should be
ejected. This kind of disk drive (starting with the slim "Twiggy" drives of the late
Apple "Lisa") does not have an eject button, but uses a motorized mechanism to eject
disks; this action is triggered by the OS software (e.g. the user dragged the "drive"
icon to the "trash can" icon). Should this not work (as in the case of a power failure or
drive malfunction), one can insert a straight-bent paper clip into a small hole at the
drive's front, thereby forcing the disk to eject (similar to that found on CD/DVD
drives). Some other computer designs (such as the Commodore Amiga) monitor for a
new disk continuously, but still have push-button eject mechanisms.
The 3-inch disk bears much similarity to the 3-inch type, with some unique and
somehow curious features. One example is the rectangular-shaped plastic casing,
almost taller than a 3-inch disk, but narrower, and more than twice as thick, almost
the size of a standard compact audio cassette. This made the disk look more like a
greatly oversized present day memory card or a standard PC card notebook expansion
card rather than a floppy disk. Despite the size, the actual 3-inch magnetic-coated disk
occupied less than 50% of the space inside the casing, the rest being used by the
complex protection and sealing mechanisms implemented on the disks. Such
mechanisms were largely responsible for the thickness, length and high costs of the 3inch disks. On the Amstrad machines the disks were typically flipped over to use both
sides, as opposed to being truly double-sided. Double-sided mechanisms were
available but rare.

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12.Telephone

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The telephone is a telecommunications device which is used to transmit and receive

sound (most commonly speech), usually two people conversing but occasionally three
or more. It is one of the most common household appliances in the world today. Most
telephones operate through transmission of electric signals over a complex telephone
network which allows almost any phone user to communicate with almost anyone.

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The telephone handles two types of information: signals and voice, at different times
on the same twisted pair of wires. The signaling equipment consists of a bell to alert
the user of incoming calls, and a dial to enter the phone number for outgoing calls. A
calling party wishing to speak to another telephone will pick up the handset, thus
operating the switch hook, which puts the telephone into active state or off hook with
a resistance short across the wires, causing current to flow. The telephone exchange
detects the DC current, attaches a digit receiver, and sends dial tone to indicate
readiness. The user pushes the number buttons, which are connected to a tone
generator inside the dial, which generates DTMF tones. The exchange connects the
line to the desired line and alerts that line.
When a phone is inactive (on hook), its bell, beeper, flasher or other alerting device is
connected across the line through a capacitor. The inactive phone does not short the
line, thus the exchange knows it is on hook and only the bell is electrically connected.
When someone calls this phone, the telephone exchange applies a high voltage
pulsating signal, which causes the sound mechanism to ring, beep or otherwise alert
the called party. When that user picks up the handset, the switchhook disconnects the
bell, connects the voice parts of the telephone, and puts a resistance short on the line,

confirming that the phone has been answered and is active. Both lines being off hook,
the signaling job is complete. The parties are connected together and may converse
using the voice parts of their telephones.
The voice parts of the telephone are in the handset, and consist of a transmitter (often
called microphone) and a receiver. The transmitter, powered from the line, puts out an
electric current which varies in response to the acoustic pressure waves produced by
the voice. The resulting variations in electric current are transmitted along the
telephone line to the other phone, where they are fed into the coil of the receiver,
which is a miniature loudspeaker. The varying electric current in the coil causes it to
move back and forth, reproducing the acoustic pressure waves of the transmitter.
When a party "hangs up" (puts the handset on the cradle), DC current ceases to flow
in that line, thus signaling to the exchange switch to disconnect the telephone call

13.Electric bell

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An electric bell is a mechanical bell that functions by means of an electromagnet.

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In DC electric bells, when power is applied, current flows through the coil. The coil
becomes an electromagnet, attracting the metal strip. This moves the clanger to hit the
bell, but also breaks the circuit. The coil is no longer a magnet, so the clanger moves
back. The circuit is thus restored. The process repeats continuously until the power is
removed.

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AC electric bells do not have interrupting contacts and their coils are powered directly
by the source. Their hammers vibrate at same frequency as the frequency of voltage
they are powered by. Lack of contacts makes them more reliable than DC bells.

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Some electric bells have two cups which generate different tones. When the hammer
goes in one direction, it hits one cup, when it moves back, it hits another cup. The
sound of such two-tone electric bells is more pleasant.
14.EARTHQUAKE

An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that
creates seismic waves. Earthquakes are recorded with a seismometer, also known as a
seismograph. The moment magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally reported, or
the related and mostly obsolete Richter magnitude, with magnitude 3 or lower
earthquakes being mostly imperceptible and magnitude 7 causing serious damage
over large areas. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale.
Most naturally occurring earthquakes are related to the tectonic nature of the Earth.
Such earthquakes are called tectonic earthquakes. The Earth's lithosphere is a
patchwork of plates in slow but constant motion caused by the release to space of the
heat in the Earth's mantle and core. The heat causes the rock in the Earth to flow on
geological timescales, so that the plates move slowly but surely. Plate boundaries lock
as the plates move past each other, creating frictional stress. When the frictional stress
exceeds a critical value, called local strength, a sudden failure occurs. The boundary
of tectonic plates along which failure occurs is called the fault plane. When the failure

at the fault plane results in a violent displacement of the Earth's crust, energy is
released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of
the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of
gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake
failure is referred to as the Elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent
or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the
earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted
into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's available
elastic potential energy and raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible
compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the Earth's deep
interior.[1]
15.CFL Lamp

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A fluorescent lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses electricity to excite mercury

vapor in argon or neon gas, resulting in a plasma that produces short-wave ultraviolet
light. This light then causes a phosphor to fluoresce, producing visible light.

The main principle of fluorescent tube operation is based around inelastic scattering
of electrons. An incident electron (emitted from the coating on the coils of wire
forming the cathode electrode) collides with an atom in the gas (such as mercury,
argon or krypton) used as the ultraviolet emitter. This causes an electron in the atom
to temporarily jump up to a higher energy level to absorb some, or all, of the kinetic
energy delivered by the colliding electron. This is why the collision is called 'inelastic'
as some of the energy is absorbed. This higher energy state is unstable, and the atom
will emit an ultraviolet photon as the atom's electron reverts to a lower, more stable,
energy level. The photons that are released from the chosen gas mixtures tend to have
a wavelength in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. This is not visible to the human
eye, so must be converted into visible light. This is done by making use of
fluorescence. This fluorescent conversion occurs in the phosphor coating on the inner
surface of the fluorescent tube, where the ultraviolet photons are absorbed by
electrons in the phosphor's atoms, causing a similar energy jump, then drop, with
emission of a further photon. The photon that is emitted from this second interaction
has a lower energy than the one that caused it. The chemicals that make up the
phosphor are specially chosen so that these emitted photons are at wavelengths visible
to the human eye. The difference in energy between the absorbed ultra-violet photon
and the emitted visible light photon goes to heat up the phosphor coating

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16. Internet
The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible series of interconnected computer
networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol
(IP). It is a "network of networks" that consists of millions of smaller domestic,
academic, business, and government networks, which together carry various
information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the
interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web.
Today internet

Aside from the complex physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the
Internet is facilitated by bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts (e.g., peering
agreements), and by technical specifications or protocols that describe how to
exchange data over the network. Indeed, the Internet is essentially defined by its
interconnections and routing policies
As of June 10, 2007, 1.133 billion people use the Internet according to Internet World
Stats. Writing in the Harvard International Review, philosopher N.J.Slabbert, a writer
on policy issues for the Washington DC-based Urban Land Institute, has asserted that
the Internet is fast becoming a basic feature of global civilization, so that what has
traditionally been called "civil society" is now becoming identical with information
technology society as defined by Internet use. [4]

Internet protocols
In this context, there are three layers of protocols:

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TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

exist at the next layer up (OSI layer 4); these are the protocols by which data is
transmitted. TCP makes a virtual 'connection', which gives some level of
guarantee of reliability. UDP is a best-effort, connectionless transport, in
which data packets that are lost in transit will not be re-sent.

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At the lower level (OSI layer 3) is IP (Internet Protocol), which defines the
datagrams or packets that carry blocks of data from one node to another. The
vast majority of today's Internet uses version four of the IP protocol (i.e. IPv4),
and although IPv6 is standardized, it exists only as "islands" of connectivity,
and there are many ISPs without any IPv6 connectivity. [1]. ICMP (Internet
Control Message Protocol) also exists at this level. ICMP is connectionless; it
is used for control, signaling, and error reporting purposes.

The application protocols sit on top of TCP and UDP and occupy layers 5, 6,
and 7 of the OSI model. These define the specific messages and data formats
sent and understood by the applications running at each end of the
communication. Examples of these protocols are HTTP, FTP, and SMTP.

Common uses of the Internet

E-mail
The concept of sending electronic text messages between parties in a way analogous
to mailing letters or memos predates the creation of the Internet. Even today it can be
important to distinguish between Internet and internal e-mail systems. Internet e-mail
may travel and be stored unencrypted on many other networks and machines out of
both the sender's and the recipient's control. During this time it is quite possible for
the content to be read and even tampered with by third parties, if anyone considers it
important enough. Purely internal or intranet mail systems, where the information

never leaves the corporate or organization's network, are much more secure, although
in any organization there will be IT and other personnel whose job may involve
monitoring, and occasionally accessing, the email of other employees not addressed to
them.

Remote access
The Internet allows computer users to connect to other computers and information
stores easily, wherever they may be across the world. They may do this with or
without the use of security, authentication and encryption technologies, depending on
the requirements.
File sharing

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A computer file can be e-mailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an

attachment. It can be uploaded to a Web site or FTP server for easy download by
others. It can be put into a "shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by
colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of
"mirror" servers or peer-to-peer networks. In any of these cases, access to the file may
be controlled by user authentication; the transit of the file over the Internet may be
obscured by encryption and money may change hands before or after access to the file
is given. The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example a
credit card whose details are also passedhopefully fully encryptedacross the
Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be checked by digital
signatures or by MD5 or other message digests.

Streaming media

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Many existing radio and television broadcasters provide Internet 'feeds' of their live
audio and video streams (for example, the BBC and Rush Limbaugh). They may also
allow time-shift viewing or listening such as Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again
features. These providers have been joined by a range of pure Internet 'broadcasters'
who never had on-air licenses. This means that an Internet-connected device, such as
a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in much
the same way as was previously possible only with a television or radio receiver. The
range of material is much wider, from pornography to highly specialized technical
Web-casts. Podcasting is a variation on this theme, whereusually audiomaterial is
first downloaded in full and then may be played back on a computer or shifted to a
digital audio player to be listened to on the move. These techniques using simple
equipment allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control, to broadcast
audio-visual material on a worldwide basis.
Webcams can be seen as an even lower-budget extension of this phenomenon. While
some webcams can give full frame rate video, the picture is usually either small or
updates slowly. Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships
in the Panama Canal, the traffic at a local roundabout or their own premises, live and
in real time. Video chat rooms, video conferencing, and remote controllable webcams
are also popular. Many uses can be found for personal webcams in and around the
home, with and without two-way sound.

Marketing
The Internet has also become a large market for companies; some of the biggest
companies today have grown by taking advantage of the efficient nature of low-cost
advertising and commerce through the Internet; also known as e-commerce. It is the
fastest way to spread information to a vast amount of people simultaneously. The
Internet has also subsequently revolutionized shoppingfor example; a person can
order a CD online and receive it in the mail within a couple of days, or download it
directly in some cases. The Internet has also greatly facilitated personalized marketing
which allows a company to market a product to a specific person or a specific group
of people more so than any other advertising medium.

17. Solar cooker

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Solar cookers are devices that heat food using only solar energy.Since they use no
fuel and they cost nothing to run, humanitarian organizations are promoting their use
worldwide to help slow deforestation and desertification caused by the need for
firewood used to cook. Solar cookers are also sometimes used in outdoors cooking,
especially in situations where minimal fuel consumption or fire risk are considered
highly important.

Types of Solar Cookers

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There are many different types of Solar cookers. All solar cookers are based on a
small pool of ideas to heat food with the sun's heat and light. The basic principles of
solar cookers are:

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Concentrating Sunlight: Some device, usually a mirror, is used to

concentrate light and heat from the sun into a small cooking area, making the
energy more concentrated and therefore more potent.
Converting Light to Heat: Any black on the inside of a solar cooker, as well
as certain materials for pots, will improve the effectiveness of turning light
into heat. A black pan will absorb almost all of the sun's light and turn it into
heat, substantially improving the effectiveness of the cooker. Also, the better a
pan conducts heat, the faster the oven will work.
Trapping Heat: Isolating the air inside the cooker from the air outside the
cooker makes an important difference. Using a clear solid, like a plastic bag or
a glass cover, will allow light to enter, but once the light is absorbed and
converted to heat, a plastic bag or glass cover will trap the light inside using
the Greenhouse Effect. This makes it possible to reach similar temperatures on
cold and windy days as on hot days.

Alone, each of these strategies for heating something with the sun is fairly ineffective,
but most solar cookers use two or all three of these strategies in combination to get
temperatures sufficient for cooking.
Apart from the obvious need for sunlight and the need to aim the solar oven before
use, using a solar oven is not substantially different from a conventional oven.
However, one disadvantage of solar cooking is that it provides the hottest food during

the hottest part of the day, when people are less inclined to eat a hot meal. However, a
thick pan that conducts heat slowly (such as Cast Iron) will lose heat at a slower rate,
and that combined with the insulation of the oven can be used to keep food warm well
into the evening.

Solar Box Cookers

A solar box cooker is an insulated box with a transparent top and a reflective lid. The
top can usually be removed to allow dark pots containing food to be placed inside.
The box usually has one or more reflectors with aluminum foil or other reflective
material to bounce extra light into the interior of the box. Cooking containers and the
inside bottom of the cooker should be dark-colored or black. The inside walls should
be reflective to reduce radiative heat loss and bounce the light towards the pots and
the dark bottom, which is in contact with the pots.

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The inside insulator for the solar box cooker has to be able to withstand temperatures
up to 150 C (302 F) without melting or off-gassing. Crumpled newspapers, wool,
rags, dry grass, sheets of cardboard, etc. can be used to insulate the walls of the
cooker, but since most of the heat escapes through the top glass or plastic, very little
insulation in the walls is necessary. The transparent top is either glass, which is
durable but hard to work with, or an oven cooking bag, which is lighter, cheaper, and
easier to work with, but less durable. If dark pots and/or bottom trays cannot be
located, these can be darkened either with flat-black spray paint (one that is non-toxic
when dry) or black tempera paint.

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The solar box cooker typically reaches a temperature of 150 C (302 F); not as hot as
a standard oven, but still hot enough to cook food over a somewhat longer period of
time. It should be remembered that food containing moisture cannot get much hotter
than 100 C (212 F) in any case, so it is not necessary to cook at the high
temperatures indicated in standard cookbooks. Because the food does not reach too
high a temperature, it can be safely left in the cooker all day without burning. It is best
to start cooking before noon, though. Depending on the latitude and weather, food can
be cooked either early or later in the day. The cooker can be used to warm food and
drinks and can also be used to pasteurize water or milk.

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Solar box cookers can be made of locally available materials or be manufactured in a

factory for sale. They range from small cardboard devices, suitable for cooking a
single meal when the sun is shining, to wood and glass boxes built into the sunny side
of a house. Although invented by Horace de Saussure, a Swiss naturalist, as early as
1767, solar box cookers have only gained popularity since the 1970s. These
surprisingly simple and useful appliances are seen in growing numbers in almost
every country of the world. An index of detailed wiki pages for each country can be
found here.

Environmental advantages
Solar ovens are just one part of the alternative energy picture, but one that is
accessible to a great majority of people. A reliable solar oven can be built from
everyday materials in just a few hours or purchased ready made.

Solar ovens can be used to prepare anything that can be made in a conventional oven
or stovefrom baked bread to steamed vegetables to roasted meat. Solar ovens allow
you to do it all, without contributing to global warming or heating up the kitchen and
placing additional demands on cooling systems. Nearly 75 percent of US households
prepare at least one hot meal per day; one-third prepare two or more. Some of those
meals could be made in an environmentally responsible way, using a solar oven.
The World Health Organization reports that cooking with fuel wood is the equivalent
of smoking two packs of cigarettes a day. Inhalation of smoke from cooking fires
causes respiratory diseases and death. One of the solutions advocated to address this
problem is solar cooking which makes no smoke at all. It just uses free and abundant
solar energy.

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