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PHYSICAL SOIL STATES AND SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Free swell ranges for some clay minerals are shown in Table 4.3.

TABLE 4.3 Ranges of Free Swell for Some

Clay Minerals
Clay minerals
Calcium montmorillonite (Ca-smectite)
Sodium montmorillonite (Na-smectite)
Illite
Kaolinite

Free swell (%)

45145
14001600
15120
560

Whats next . . . Eight examples will be used to illustrate how to solve a variety of problems involving the
constituents of soils. In the first example, we will derive some of the equations describing relationships
among the soil constituents.

EXAMPLE 4.1 Deriving Soil Constituent Relationships

Prove the following relationships:
wGs
e
g
(b) gd 5
11w

(a) S 5

(c) g 5 a

Gsgw 1 1 1 w 2
Gs 1 Se
bgw 5
11e
11e

Strategy The proofs of these equations are algebraic manipulations. Start with the basic definition and then
manipulate the basic equation algebraically to get the desired form.

Solution 4.1
(a) For this relationship, we proceed as follows:
Step 1:

Write down the basic equation.

S5
Step 2:

Vw
Vv

Manipulate the basic equation to get the desired equation.

You want to get e in the denominator, and you have Vv. You know that Vv 5 eVs and Vw is the weight of
water divided by the unit weight of water. From the definition of water content, the weight of water is wWs.
Here is the algebra:

Vv 5 eVs ;Vw 5

S5

Ww
wWs
5
gw
gw

Gsw
wWs
5
e
egwVs

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4.3

PHASE RELATIONSHIPS

(b) For this relationship, we proceed as follows:

Step 1:

Write down the basic equation.

gd 5

Step 2:

Ws
V

Manipulate the basic equation to get the new form of the equation.
gd 5

Ws
W 2 Ww
wWs
W
5
5
2
5 g 2 wgd
V
V
V
V
6 gd 1 wgd 5 g
gd 5

g
11w

(c) For this relationship, we proceed as follows:

Step 1:

Start with the basic equation.

g5

Step 2:

W
V

Manipulate the basic equation to get the new form of the equation.
g5

Ws 1 Ww
Ws 1 wWs
W
5
5
V
Vs 1 Vv
Vs 1 Vv

Substituting w 5 Se/Gs and Vv 5 eVs, we obtain

g5

Ws 1 1 1 Se/Gs 2
Vs 1 1 1 e 2

Gsgw 1 1 1 w 2
Gsgw 1 1 1 Se/Gs 2
5
11e
11e

or
g5a

EXAMPLE 4.2

Gs 1 Se
bgw
11e

Specific Gravity of a Coarse-Grained Soil

An ASTM D 854 test was conducted on a sand. The data are as shown below. Calculate the specific gravity.
Mass of pycnometer
5 38.2 grams
Mass of pycnometer and dry soil
5 64.3 grams
Mass of pycnometer, dry soil, and water 5 154.8 grams
Mass of pycnometer and water
5 138.5 grams

Strategy Prepare a table of the data and carry out the calculations as given in Section 4.3 (5. Specific gravity).

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PHYSICAL SOIL STATES AND SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Solution 4.2
M1 5 mass of pycnometer
M2 5 mass of pycnometer and dry soil
M3 5 mass of pycnometer, dry soil, and water
M4 5 mass of pycnometer and water
Ms 5 mass of dry soil 5 M2 2 M1
M5 5 mass of water displaced by soil particles 5 M4 2 M3 1 Ms

5 38.2 grams
5 64.3 grams
5 154.8 grams
5 138.5 grams
5 26.1 grams
5 9.8 grams

Specific gravity, Gs 5 Ms /M5

2.66

EXAMPLE 4.3 Calculation of Void Ratio and Porosity

A container of volume 2.83 3 1023 m3 weighs 9.8 N. Dry sand was poured to fill the container. The container and
the sand weigh 52.3 N. Calculate (a) the void ratio and (b) the porosity. Describe the condition of the soil (loose or
dense). Assume Gs 5 2.7.

Strategy Since you know the volume and the dry unit weight, you can calculate the dry density and then find e
using Equation (4.12). The porosity can be found using the void ratioporosity relationship.

Solution 4.3
Step 1:

Calculate the weight of dry sand.

Weight of sand and container 5 52.3 N
Weight of container 5 9.8 N
Weight of dry sand, Ws 5 52.3 2 9.8 5 42.5 N 5 0.0425 kN

Step 2:

Calculate dry unit weight.

gd 5

Step 3:

Ws
0.042.5
5
5 15 kN/m3
V
2.83 3 1023

Calculate the void ratio.

Equation (4.12):

gd 5

Gs
Ws
5
gw
V
11e

Solving for e, we get

e 5 Gs

Step 4:

Calculate the porosity.

Equation (4.7):

Step 5:

gw
9.8
2 1 5 2.7
2 1 5 0.764
gd
15

n5

e
0.764
5
5 0.43 5 43%
11e
1 1 0.764

Describe the soil.

Table 4.2: For n 5 43%, the sand is medium dense or firm.

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4.3

EXAMPLE 4.4

PHASE RELATIONSHIPS

Calculating Soil Constituents

A sample of saturated clay was placed in a container and weighed. The weight was 6 N. The clay in its container was
placed in an oven for 24 hours at 1058C. The weight reduced to a constant value of 5 N. The weight of the container
is 1 N. If Gs 5 2.7, determine the (a) water content, (b) void ratio, (c) bulk unit weight, (d) dry unit weight, and
(e) effective unit weight.

Strategy Write down what is given and then use the appropriate equations to find the unknowns. You are given
the weight of the natural soil, sometimes called the wet weight, and the dry weight of the soil. The difference
between these will give the weight of water, and you can find the water content by using Equation (4.3). You are
also given a saturated soil, which means that S 5 1.

Solution 4.4
Step 1:

Write down what is given.

Weight of sample 1 container 5 6 N
Weight of dry sample 1 container 5 5 N

Step 2:

Determine the weight of water and the weight of dry soil.

Weight of water: Ww 5 6 2 5 5 1 N
Weight of dry soil: Ww 5 5 2 1 5 4 N

Step 3:

Determine the water content.

w5

Ww
1
3 100 5 3 100 5 25%
Ws
4

Note: The denominator is the weight of solids, not the total weight.
Step 4:

Determine the void ratio.

e5

Step 5:

wGs
0.25 3 2.7
5
5 0.675
S
1

Determine the bulk unit weight.

g5

Gsgw 1 1 1 w 2
W
5
1 see Example 4.1 2
11e
V

g5

2.7 3 9.8 1 1 1 0.25 2

5 19.7 kN/m3
1 1 0.675

In this case the soil is saturated, so the bulk unit weight is equal to the saturated unit weight.
Step 6:

Determine the dry unit weight.

gd 5

Gs
Ws
2.7
5a
3 9.8 5 15.8 kN/m3
bgw 5
V
11e
1 1 0.675

or

gd 5 a

g
19.7
5 15.8 kN/m3
b5
11w
1 1 0.25

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PHYSICAL SOIL STATES AND SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Determine the effective unit weight.

gr 5 a

Gs 2 1
2.7 2 1
b gw 5 a
b 3 9.8 2 9.9 kN/m3
11e
1 1 0.675

or
gr 5 gsat 2 gw 5 19.7 2 9.8 5 9.9 kN/m3

EXAMPLE 4.5

Calculation of Water Content of an Unsaturated Soil

The void space in a soil sample consists of 80% air and 20% water. The dry unit weight is gd 5 15.7 kN/m3 and
Gs 5 2.7. Determine the water content.

Strategy You can calculate the void ratio from Equation (4.12) and the degree of saturation because you know
the amount of air and water in the voids. Then use Equation (4.9) to find the water content.

Solution 4.5
Step 1:

Calculate the void ratio from the dry unit weight.

gd 5

e5

Step 2:

Gsgw
11e
Gsgw
2.7 3 9.8
215
2 1 5 0.685
gd
15.7

Calculate the water content.

Se 5 wGs
w 5 Se/Gs
We need to find the degree of saturation, as this is the only unknown value apart from w.
The degree of saturation is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids. Since the volume of
water is 20% of the void volume, the degree of saturation is 20%, i.e., S 5 0.2.
w5

Se
0.2 3 0.685
5
5 0.051 5 5.1%
Gs
2.7

Alternatively:
You could substitute e 5 wGs /S in the equation for dry unit weight in Step 1 and find w directly instead of finding e first.

EXAMPLE 4.6 Determination of Aggregate Requirement for a Roadway

Aggregates from a material storage site are required for the embankment of a roadway. The porosity of the aggregates at the storage site is 80%, and the desired porosity of the compacted aggregates in the embankment is 20%.
For a section of the embankment 7.6 m wide 3 0.61 m compacted thickness 3 305 m long, calculate the volume of
aggregates required.

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4.3

PHASE RELATIONSHIPS

Strategy The simplest way is to find a relationship between the n and the volume of the aggregate.

Solution 4.6
Step 1:

Calculate the volume of the embankment.

Vemb 5 7.6 3 0.61 3 305 5 1414 m3

Step 2:

Calculate the volume of aggregate required.

Let Vss 5 volume required from the storage site, and Vemb 5 volume of embankment.
Vss
1 1 ess
5
5
Vemb
1 1 eemb

eemb
1 1 eemb
1 2 nemb
1 2 0.2
5
5
54
ess
1 2 nss
1 2 0.8
12
1 1 ess

12

Vemb 5 4 3 1414 5 5656 m3

EXAMPLE 4.7

Application of Soil Constituent Relationships to a Practical Problem

An embankment for a highway is to be constructed from a soil compacted to a dry unit weight of 18 kN/m3. The
clay has to be trucked to the site from a borrow pit. The bulk unit weight of the soil in the borrow pit is 17 kN/m3
and its natural water content is 5%. Calculate the volume of clay from the borrow pit required for 1 cubic meter of
embankment. The swell factor is 1.2 (20% free swell). Assume Gs 5 2.7.

Strategy This problem can be solved in many ways. We will use two of these ways. One way is direct; the other
a bit longer. In the first way, we are going to use the ratio of the dry unit weight of the compacted soil to that of the
borrow pit soil to determine the volume. In the second way, we will use the specific volume. In this case, we need
to find the void ratio for the borrow pit clay and the desired void ratio for the embankment. We can then relate the
specific volumes of the embankment and the borrow pit clay.

Solution 4.7
Step 1:

Find the dry unit weight of the borrow pit soil.

gd 5

Step 2:

g
17
5
5 16.2 kN/m3
11w
1 1 0.05

Find the volume of borrow pit soil required.

Without consideration of swell factor:
Volume of borrow pit soil required per m3 5

1 gd 2 compacted soil
1 gd 2 borrow pit soil

18
5 1.11 m3
16.2

With consideration of swell factor:

Volume required 5 SF 3 volume of borrow pit soil required 5 1.2 3 1.11 5 1.33 m3
Alternatively:
Step 1:

Define parameters for the borrow pit and embankment. Let

V91, e1 5 specific volume and void ratio, respectively, of borrow pit clay
V92, e2 5 specific volume and void ratio, respectively, of compacted clay

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PHYSICAL SOIL STATES AND SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Determine e1 and e2.

gd 5

g
17
5
5 16.2 kN/m3
11w
1 1 0.05

But
gd 5

Gs
gw
1 1 e1

and therefore
gw
9.8
2 1 5 2.7 a
b 2 1 5 0.633
gd
16.2

e1 5 Gs
Similarly,

e2 5 Gs
Step 3:

gw
9.8
2 1 5 2.7 a b 2 1 5 0.47
gd
18

Determine the volume of borrow pit material.

Vr1
1 1 e1
5
Vr2
1 1 e2
Therefore,
Vr1 5 Vr2

1 1 e1
1 1 0.633
5 1a
b 5 1.11 m3
1 1 e2
1 1 0.47

Considering the swell, we get

Volume required 5 SF 3 volume of borrow pit soil required 5 1.2 3 1.11 5 1.33 m3

EXAMPLE 4.8 Application of Soil Constituent Relationships to a Practical Problem

If the borrow soil in Example 4.7 were to be compacted to attain a dry unit weight of 18 kN/m3 at a water content
of 7%, determine the amount of water required per cubic meter of embankment, assuming no loss of water during
transportation.

Strategy Since water content is related to the weight of solids and not the total weight, we need to use the data
given to find the weight of solids.

Solution 4.8
Step 1:

Determine the weight of solids per unit volume of borrow pit soil.
Ws 5

g
17
5
5 16.2 kN/m3
11w
1 1 0.05

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4.4

Step 2:

PHYSICAL STATES AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS

Determine the amount of water required.

Additional water 5 7 2 5 5 2%
Weight of water 5 Ww 5 wWs 5 0.02 3 16.2 5 0.32 kN
Vw 5

Ww
0.32
5
5 0.033 m3 5 33 liters
gw
9.8

Whats next . . . Water significantly influences the strength and deformation of fine-grained soils. In the
next section, we discuss how water changes the state of fine-grained soils.

4.4 PHYSICAL STAT E S A N D I N D EX

P R O P E R T IE S OF F INE - G RA I N ED SO I LS
The physical and mechanical behavior of fine-grained soils is linked to four distinct states: solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid, in order of increasing water content. Let us consider a soil initially in a liquid
state that is allowed to dry uniformly. If we plot a diagram of volume versus water content as shown in
Figure 4.3, we can locate the original liquid state as point A. As the soil dries, its water content reduces
and, consequently, so does its volume (see Figure 4.2b).
At point B, the soil becomes so stiff that it can no longer flow as a liquid. The boundary water
content at point B is called the liquid limit; it is denoted by LL. As the soil continues to dry, there
is a range of water content at which the soil can be molded into any desired shape without rupture.
The soil at this state is said to exhibit plastic behaviorthe ability to deform continuously without
rupture. But if drying is continued beyond the range of water content for plastic behavior, the soil
becomes a semisolid. The soil cannot be molded now without visible cracks appearing. The water
content at which the soil changes from a plastic to a semisolid is known as the plastic limit, denoted
by PL. The range of water contents over which the soil deforms plastically is known as the plasticity
index, PI:
PI 5 LL 2 PL

(4.17)

As the soil continues to dry, it comes to a final state called the solid state. At this state, no further volume change occurs since nearly all the water in the soil has been removed. The water content
at which the soil changes from a semisolid to a solid is called the shrinkage limit, denoted by SL.
The shrinkage limit is useful for the determination of the swelling and shrinking capacity of soils. The
liquid and plastic limits are called the Atterberg limits after their originator, Swedish soil scientist
A. Atterberg (1911).

B
C

Volume

FIGURE 4.3

Changes in soil states

as a function of soil volume
and water content.

D
Solid

Semisolid

SL

Plastic

PL
Water content

Liquid

LL

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