Classification of soil

Types of soil (on the basis of moisture content):-

1. Dry:-
2. Saturated:-
A saturated soil is a two phase material consisting of a soil skeleton and
voids which are saturated with water. It is reasonable to expect that the
behavior of an element of such a material will be influenced not only by
the forces applied to its surface but also by the water pressure of the
fluid in the pores. Suppose that a soil sample having a uniform cross
sectional area A is subjected to an applied load W, then it is found that
the soil will deform. If however, the sample is loaded by increasing the
height of water in the containing vessel, as shown in Fig lb, then no
deformation occurs.

3. Partially saturated:-

Types (on the basis of particle size):-

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

Coarse Medium Fine Coarse Medium Fine Coarse Medium Fine Coarse Medium Fine
60 20 6 2 0.6 0.2 0.06 0.02 0.006 0.002 0.0006 0.0002

Table 1. Particle Size Boundaries:-

Coarse
Fine
Organic
Gravel
Sand
Clay
Silt
Boulders
Cobbles
Peat
Soil Properties:-

1. Voids Ratio & Porosity:-

It is defined as “The ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of soil solid”.
It is denoted by “e”.

Mathematically

Void ratio = (Volume of Voids/Volume of Soil Solids)

Using volumes is not very convenient in most calculations. An alternative

measure that is used is the voids ratio, e. This is defined as the ratio of the
volume of voids, Vv to the volume of solids, Vs, that is A related quantity is
the porosity, n, which is defined as ratio of the volume of voids to the total
volume.

Porosity

It is defined as “The ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil
sample". It is denoted by “n”

Mathematically

Porosity = (Volume of Voids/Volume of Soil Sample)

2. Degree of Saturation:-
It is the ratio of the Volume of Water
to the Volume of Voids. It is denoted
by “S”

Mathematically
Degree of Saturation = (Volume of Water / Volume Voids)

It is expressed in percentage and is also known as Percent Saturation. In a

fully saturated sample;

Vw = Vv

Hence S = 1 or 100%

In case of dry sample Vw = 0, thus

S=0

The degree of saturation, S, has an important influence on the soil

behavior. It is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of
voids.

3. Air content:-
It is the ratio of Volume of Air to the Volume of Voids present in the given
soil sample

Mathematically

Air Content = (Volume of Air/Volume of Voids)

Void Ratio, Porosity, Degree of Saturation and Air Content are Volume
Ratio.

4. Water content:-
It is defined as “The ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids”

Mathematically

Water Content =(Weight of Water /Weight of Solids)

It is denoted by w

As a single quantity it is expressed in percentage. In Relationships or

Formulae, it is expressed in fraction .

The moisture content, m, is a very useful quantity because it is simple to

measure. It is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of
solid material. The water content (also known as moisture content) test is
probably the most common and simplest type of laboratory test. This test
can be performed on disturbed or undisturbed soil specimens.

The water content test consists of determining the mass of the wet soil
specimen and then drying the soil in an oven overnight (12 to 16 hr) at a
temperature of 110 °C (ASTM D 2216-92, 1998). The water content (w) of
a soil is defined as the mass of water in the soil (Mw) divided by the dry
mass of the soil (Ms), expressed as a percentage (i.e., w _ 100 Mw/Ms).
Values of water content (w) can vary from essentially 0% up to 1200%. A
water content of 0% indicates a dry soil. An example of a dry soil would be
near-surface rubble, gravel, or clean sand located in a hot and dry climate.
Soil having the highest water content is organic soil, such as fibrous peat,
which has been reported to have water content as high as 1200%.

5. Unit weight:-
Several unit weights are used in Soil Mechanics. These are the bulk,
saturated, dry, and submerged unit weights. The bulk unit weight is simply
defined as the weight per unit volume. It is defined as “the weight of soil per
unit volume of soil”.

Mathematically

Unit Weight of Soil= (Weight of Soil /Volume of Soil)

It is denoted by “ γ ”
It is expressed in

6. Bulk Unit Weight of Soil:-

It is sometimes called Unit Weight only. It is the ratio of the total weight of
soil to the total volume of soil.

Mathematically

Bulk Unit Weight of Soil = (Weight of Soil/ Total Volume of Soil)

It is also called Moist Unit Weight. The weight of the aggregate that fills a 1-
cubic-foot container. This term is used because the volume contains both
aggregate and voids air spaces.

The total unit weight (also known as the wet unit weight) should only be
obtained from undisturbed soil specimens, such as those extruded from
Shelby tubes or on undisturbed block samples obtained from test pits and
trenches. The first step in the laboratory testing is to determine the wet
density, defined as _t _ M/V, where M _ total mass of the soil, which is the
sum of the mass of water (Mw) and mass of solids (Ms), and V _ total
volume of the soil

7. Unit Weight of Soil Solids:-

It is defined as “the weight of soil solid per unit total volume of soil solid”

Mathematically

Unit Weight of Soil Solid = ( Weight of Soil Solids/Volume of Soil)

8. Dry unit weight:-

It is defined as “ the weight of soil solids per unit total volume of sample”

Mathematically
Dry Unit Weight of Soil = ( Weight of Soil Solids/Total Volume of Soil)

Since

W = Wa + Ww + Ws = 0 + 0 + Ws = Ws = Wd , therefore,

When all the voids of soil are filled with air it is called Dry Soil and Unit
Weight as Dry Unit Weight e.g. Oven Dried Soil in Laboratory

9. Saturated unit weight:-

It is defined as “the total weight of saturated soil sample per units its total
volume”

Mathematically

When all the voids of soil are filled with water it is called Saturated Soil and
its weight as Saturated Unit Weight

10. Submerged unit weight:-

It is defined as “the submerge weight of soil per unit its total volume”

Mathematically

Submerged Unit Weight = (Submerged Weight of Soil/ Total Volume of

Soil)
According to the Archimedes’ Principle;

An object immersed in water will experience a buoyant force in upward

direction causing reduction in weight. Thus soil submerged in water will
thus have a unit weight.

11. Specific gravity:-

It is defined as “the ratio of the unit weight of soil sample to the unit weight
of water at standard temperature and pressure i.e. 4°C and 1 atm or
101.325 kPa

OR

It is defined as “the ratio of the density of soil sample to the density of water
at standard temperature and pressure i.e. 4°C and 1 atm or 101.325 kPa

Mathematically

Specific Gravity = (Unit weight of Soil/Unit Weight of Water)

It is denoted by G or S.G.

The specific gravity (G) is a dimensionless parameter that is defined as the

density of solids (_s) divided by the density of water (_w), or G _ _s / _w.
The density of solids (_s) is defined as the mass of solids (Ms) divided by
the volume of solids (Vs). The density of water (_w) is equal to 1 g/cm3 (or
1 Mg/m3) and 62.4 pcf. For soil, the specific gravity is obtained by
measuring the dry mass of the soil and then using a pycnometer to obtain
the volume of the soil.

Because quartz is the most abundant type of soil mineral, the specific
gravity for inorganic soil is often assumed to be 2.65. For clays, the specific
gravity is often assumed to be 2.70 because common clay particles, such
as montmorillonite and illite, have slightly higher specific gravity value.
12. Mass specific gravity:-

13. Weight specific gravity:-

Three Phase System of Soil

A soil mass is a three phase system consisting of solid particles (soil
grains), water and air. Thus four cases arises

1. Soil Particles with NO AIR and NO WATER in voids (Ideal Case i.e.
100% Compacted Soil)
2. Soil Particles with ONLY AIR in voids (Dry Soil)
3. Soil Particles with ONLY WATER in voids (Saturated Soil)
4. Soil Particles with BOTH AIR and WATER in voids (Partially
Saturated Soil)

Bearing Capacity of Soil and Stress Analysis in

Soil Mechanics
Plastic saturated soils (silts and clays) usually have lower shear strength
than non-plastic cohesion less soil and are more susceptible to bearing
capacity failure.
For saturated plastic soils, the bearing capacity often has to be calculated
for different condition Total Stress Analysis (Short term condition) that
uses the un-drained shear strength of the plastic soil.
Effective stress analysis (Long term condition that uses the drained shear
strength parameters (c' & F') of the plastic soil).
Total Stress Analysis
Total stress analysis uses the un-drained shear strength of the plastic soil.
The un-drained shear strength (sigma a) could be determined from field
tests, such as the vane shear test (VST), or in the laboratory from
unconfined compression tests.
If the un-drained shear strength is approximately constant with depth, then
sigma a=c and F = 0 For F = 0, the bearing capacity factors are Nc = 5.5, N
? = 0 and Nq = 1 (Put these values in Terzaghi's bearing capacity equation)

(For strip footing)

Q ult = 5.5c + ? Df

Because of the use of total stress parameters the ground water table does
not affect the above equation. The ultimate bearing capacity of the above
example, the ultimate bearing capacity of plastic soil is often much less
than the ultimate bearing capacity of cohesion less soil. This is the reason
that building codes allow higher allowable bearing pressure for cohesion
less soil (such as sand) than plastic soil (clay).

Also, because the ultimate bearing capacity does not increase with footing
width for saturated plastic soils, there is often no increase allowed for an
increase in footing width. In some cases, it may be appropriated to use total
stress parameters "c" and "F" in order to calculate the ultimate bearing
capacity [For example, a structure such as an oil tank or grain elevator
could be constructed and the sufficient time elapses so that the saturated
plastic soil consolidates under this load. If an oil tank or grain elevator were
then quickly filled, the saturated plastic soil would be subjected to an un-
drained loading.]
This condition can be modeled by performing consolidated un-drained tri-
axial tests (ASTM 4767-02, 2004) in order to determine the total stress
parameter (c & F). Based on F value, the bearing capacity factors would be
obtained from figure; and then the ultimate bearing capacity would be
calculated from equation 1. If site consists of two layers of cohesive soil
having different shear strength parameters/properties; Calculate the ratio of
the un-drained shear strength of layer 2 to the un-drained shear strength of
layer 1 i.e.

c2/c1 = su2/su1

Determine the ratio T/B, where T= vertical distance from the bottom of the
foundation to the top of the layer 2 and B = width of the foundation. Enter
the values (c2/c1) in graph, intersect appropriate T/B curve, and determine
the value of Nc For strip footing; F = 0 (N ? = 0 Nq = 1).

Effective stress Analysis:-

The effective stress analysis uses the drained shear strength (c' & F') of the
plastic soil. The drained shear strength could be obtained from tri-axial
compression tests. This analysis is termed as long term analysis because
the shear induced pore water pressure from the loading have dissipated
and the hydrostatic pore water conditions now prevail in the field. Because
an effective stress analysis is being performed the location of the ground
water table must be considered in the analysis.

The first step to perform the bearing capacity analysis would be to obtain
the bearing capacity factors (Nc, N ?, Nq) from Fig; using the value of F'.
An adjustment to the total unit weight may be required depending on the
location of the ground water table. Then Terzaghi's bearing capacity
equation would be utilized (with c' substituted for c) to obtain the ultimate
bearing capacity, with a factor of safety of 3 applied in order to calculate the
allowable bearing capacity or pressure.

Governing case:-
Total stress analysis will provide a lower allowable bearing capacity for soft
or very soft saturated plastic soils. This is because load will consolidate the
plastic soil leading to an increase in the shear strength as the time passes.
For long term case, the shear strength of the plastic soil is higher with a
resulting higher bearing capacity. Effective stress analysis will provide a
lower allowable bearing capacity for very stiff or hard saturated plastic soils.

Firm to stiff plastic soils are intermediate condition. The ORC and the
tendency of the saturated plastic soil to consolidate (gain shear strength)
will determine whether the short term condition or the long term condition
provides the lower bearing capacity. Bearing capacity analysis for granular
soils Granular soil does not liquefy, but rather there is a reduction in shear
strength due to an increase in pore water pressure.

Examples include sands and gravels that are below the ground water table
and have a factor of safety against liquefaction is greater then 2 the
earthquake induced excess pore water pressure will typically be small
enough that its effect can be neglected. Using the Terzaghi's bearing
capacity equation and an effective stress analysis and recognizing that
sands and gravels are cohesion less (i.e. c' = 0) Terzaghi's bearing
capacity equation

Qult = cNc + q'Nq + 1/2 t BN

For cohesion less soil

Qult = 1/2 t BN? + t Df Nq

For shallow foundations, it sis best to neglect the second term (?t Df Nq) in
equation 2. This is because the term represents the resistance of soil
located above the bottom of the footing, which may not be mobilized for
punching shear failure. So, Qult = 1/2 ?t BN?

Cohesion less soils include gravel, sands Cohesion less soil develops its
shear strength as a result of frictional and interlocking resistance between
the individual soil particles. This is due to confining pressure. In case of
cohesion less soil c = 0

Qult = cNc + q'Nq + 1/2 ?t BN?

First term c = 0
Qult = qNq + 1/2 ?t BN?

For cohesion less soil the location of the ground water table can effect the
ultimate bearing capacity.
The depth of the bearing capacity failure is often assumed that the soil
involved in the bearing capacity failure extends to a depth equal to width of
footing. Thus for a ground water table located in this zone, change the third
term in the above equation.

Earth Pressure Coefficients - Active Earth

Pressure, Passive Earth Pressure
Retaining structures:
The structure used to retain or support the material/soil is
called retaining structure. e.g. retaining walls, which may be
of RCC, brick or stone masonry or sheet piling etc

Retaining walls:
A retaining wall is a structure designed to sustain the material pressure of
earth or other materials as grains, ores, etc

Surcharge:
The material which lie above the horizontal level of the retaining structure is
known as surcharge. The angle which this material makes with the
retaining wall is called surcharge angle.

Lateral Earth Pressure

In 1929 Terzaghi (The Father of Soil Mechanics) conducted experiments
on the retaining wall and showed the relation of pressure on the wall if wall
changes its position i.e. to move inwards to the backfill, outwards of it or
remain at its place. There are three types of earth pressures on the
basis of the movement of the wall.

1. Earth Pressure at rest

2. Active Earth Pressure
3. Passive Earth Pressure

These are explained below

Pressure at rest:
When the wall is at rest and the material is
in its natural state then the pressure
applied by material is known as Earth
Pressure at Rest. It is represented by Po.

Active earth pressure:

When the wall moves away from the backfill, there is a decrease in the
pressure on the wall and this decrease continues until a minimum value is
reach after which there is no reduction in the pressure and the value will
become constant. This kind of pressure is known as active earth pressure.

Passive earth pressure:

When the wall moves towards the backfill, there is an increase in the
pressure on the wall and this increase continues until a maximum value is
reach after which there is no increase in the pressure and the value will
become constant. This kind of pressure is known as passive earth
pressure.

This means that when the wall is about to slip due to lateral thrust from the
backfill, a resistive force is applied by the soil in front of the wall.

Coefficients of Earth Pressure - Earth Pressure

Coefficient
On a small unit at depth Z in the back there are two kinds of pressure.
 1. Vertical Earth pressure:
The pressure applied in the vertical direction due to the backfill lying
above it.
2. Horizontal Earth pressure:
The pressure applied in the horizontal direction due to backfill is
called the horizontal pressure or lateral earth pressure

Coefficient of active earth pressure at rest:

When the retaining wall is at rest then the ratio between the lateral earth
pressure and the vertical pressure is called the co-efficient of the earth
pressure at rest,

Ko = lateral pressure / vertical pressure

Co-efficient of active earth pressure:

When the retaining wall is moving away from the backfill the ratio between
lateral earth pressure and vertical earth pressure is called co-efficient of
active earth pressure.

Ka = lateral pressure / vertical pressure

Co-efficient of passive earth pressure:

When the retaining wall is moving towards the backfill, then the ratio
between the lateral earth pressure and the vertical earth pressure is called
the Co-efficient of passive earth pressure.

Ka =lateral pressure / vertical pressure