Soil Mechanics

By
Dr. Ngangom Mamata Devi

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 Soil Mechanics
Soil mechanics can be stated as the study of the properties, behaviour and
application of soil consisting of an assemblages of fine rock particles and clay
minerals.

Index properties of Soils and their laboratory determination:

a. Water Content: The water content of a soil is the ratio of the weight of water to
the weight of solids.

First, a small quantity of moist soil is taken in a clean container after

accurate measurement (say W). The soil sample is then dried in an oven for 24
hours maintaining a temperature of 1000C to 1100C and thereafter cooled in a
desiccator. Then the weight of the cooled dry sample (Wd) is taken. The difference
of these two weights (W-Wd) gives the weight of the water of the soil sample. The
percentage of water content (w) of the sample is given by w = (W-Wd/Wd) x 100
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b. Specific Gravity: It is the ratio of the weight of dry soil (γs) to the weight of the
water (γw) of equal volume of soil, both measured at the same temperature.

A density bottle is generally used in the determination of specific gravity

of soil. The weight of the density bottle (W1) is first taken. Then the weight of the
oven dried sample (W2) is measured after cooling in a desiccators. The difference
of these two weights (W2-W1) gives the weight of the dry sample.

The bottle with soil sample is then filled up with distilled water and its
weight (W3) is taken. Hence, the weight of water in the bottle with the soil sample
is (W3-W2).

The material is taken out of the bottle and cleaned. The bottle is then
filled with distilled water and its weight (W4) taken. The weight of water in the
bottle without soil sample is (W4-W1).

Therefore, the specific gravity of soil is:

G = γs/ γw = (W2-W1)/ (W4-W1) (W3-W2) 3

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c. Unit Weight: The unit weight of a soil mass is defined as its weight per
unit volume. It is expressed as kilonewtons per cubic metre (kN/m3).

Determination of unit weight involves taking the weight as well as

the volume of the sample. The volume of soil solids is obtained from the
weight of the solids divided by the specific gravity (G) of the solids.

To determine the volume of a cohesive type of soil in the

laboratory, the soil sample is cut into a regular shape such as cube, then
coated with paraffin and finally the volume is taken by the water
replacement method.

The unit weight of soil solids (γs) is the weight of the soil solids
(Wd) per unit volume of the solids (Vs).

γs = Wd/ Vs
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d. Density of Soil: The density of a soil is defined as the mass of the soil per
unit volume. It may be of different types such as bulk density, dry density,
saturated density and submerged density.

➢ Bulk density: the bulk density of soil is the weight per unit volume. If W is
the weight of a soil sample and V is the volume of the soil, the bulk density is
expressed as γ = W/V.

➢ Dry density: The dry density of soil is the ratio of weight of the soil mass in
dry condition to its volume before drying. γd = Wd/V

➢ Saturated density: The saturated density of a soil sample is the ratio of the
weight of the saturated soil sample to the volume of the saturated sample.
γsat = W sat/V sat

➢ Submerged density: The submerged density is the ratio of submerged

weight of the soil solids to the volume of the soil mass. γ' = (Wd)sat/V
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e. Porosity: Porosity of the soil is the ratio of volume of voids to the total
volume of the soil mass. N = Vv/V

f. Liquid Limit (Lw): The liquid limit is measured in a standard liquid testing
apparatus that consists of a brass cup seated on a rubber base and provided
with a handle that can be raised or dropped from a standard height.

About 120g of soil is mixed with water to make a cake. The cake is
kept in the brass cup making a V shaped separation such that the gap between
them is 2mm at the bottom and 10mm at the top and 8mm in depth. 6
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 Strokes are then given to the cup by rotating the handle until the two
parts touch each other. At this stage, the number of strokes used is noted and a
soil sample is taken from the cake and its water content measured.

Tests are repeated with different water contents such that the number
of strokes required remain between 15 and 50. Atleast four such tests are done,
each time recording the number of strokes and the corresponding water
content of the soil mass.

g. Plastic Limit (Pw): It is the minimum water content at which the soil when
rolled into threads of 3mm diameter just starts crumbling. Nearly 20g of air
dried soil is mixed with water until it becomes plastic in nature. A small
quantity (say 8g) of this soil is rolled on a glass plate to make a thread of
uniform diameter of about 3mm for the entire length. If no cracks are
developed in it, the thread is kneaded together and the soil is rolled again.
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 The process is continued until fine cracks just start developing on the
surface of the threads. At this point, the water content of the soil is measured
which gives the plastic limit of the soil.

h. Shrinkage limit (Sw): If a saturated soil sample with water content more
then the shrinkage limit is allowed to dry up slowly, its volume will be
gradually reduced. However at a certain stage, further reduction in water will
not change the volume of the soil sample, the pore spaces being filled with air.
The water content corresponding to this stage is the measure of the shrinkage
limit.

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Field Method of Density Determination

a. Water displacement method: A soil specimen of regular shape is collected

from the field by a core cutter. It is then coated with paraffin wax to make it
impervious to water.

The total volume (V1) of the waxed specimen is found by determining

the volume of the specimen. The volume of the specimen is given by

V = V1 – (Mt – M)/ Pp

Where Mt is the mass of waxed solid, M is the mass of the specimen without
wax and Pp is the density of paraffin.

Dry density of the specimen =

(M/V)/(1+w), where w is the water content

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b. Sand Replacement Method: The apparatus needed for the sand
replacement method consists of a calibrated container, soil cutter chisel, tray
and a sand pouring cylinder fitted above a sand pouring cone with a shutter.
Dry clean sand particles of size ranging between 600 micron and 300 micron
are used in the cylinder.

First a flat ground of soil is chosen for conducting the test. Soil is then
excavated from the place with the help of the chisel by making a test hole
about the size of the calibrated container. The weight of the excavated soil is
taken (W). Next, the cylinder is filled with sand and the weight of the cylinder
plus sand is measured (W1). The sand from the cylinder is then run into the
calibrated container so that the volume of the sand is equal to that of the
container (V). The sand filled cylinder is then placed over the calibrated cone
and the sand is allowed to pour until it stops falling when the shutter is closed.
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 The sand in the cone is collected and its weight (W2) taken. The
cylinder is then placed over the container and the sand is allowed to pour until
no further sand runs down. The weight (W3) of the cylinder with sand is
taken. The cylinder filled with sand is then placed over the excavated hole
until it fills the hole. The container with the remaining sand is weight (W4).
Thus we have the volume of the calibrating container (V).

If W' is the weight of the sand needed to fill the calibrated container,
then W' = W1-W2-W3.

Therefore bulk density of sand γs = W' /V g/cm3

Weight of sand in the hole W'' = W1-W4-W2

Therefore the bulk density of soil γ = W γs / W'' g/cm3

Dry density of soil γd = γ/(1+w) g/cm3

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c. Core Cutter Method: In this method, a cylindrical core cutter is inserted
into a clean soil surface and a cylindrical soil sample having the same volume
(V) as the cylindrical soil cutter is obtained.

First, the weight of the cutter plus soil is taken.

Second, the weight of only the cutter is noted.

The difference of the two readings gives the weight of the soil sample
(W).

Next, the water content (w) of the excavated soil is determined in the
laboratory. Thus the bulk density of soil,

γ = W / V g/cm3

And Dry density γd = γ/(1+w) g/cm3

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d. Rubber Balloon Method: The apparatus of the balloon cone method of
testing of soil includes a water filled vertical cylinder having a bottom opening
over which a rubber membrane or balloon is stretched. The cylinder is so
graduated that water levels are visible to read the volumes. A small hand
pump is attached so that air can be forced into the top of the cylinder. When a
specimen is placed over a test hole, the pumped air forces the balloon and
water into the hole. A typical hole is 100 mm in diameter and is 100 m deep.

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 The volume is determined directly by noting the water level in the
cylinder before and after the balloon is forced into the test hole. The difference
in volume is the volume of the hole. The water and balloon are retracted from
the test hole by reversing the air pump and evacuating air from the cylinder.
The outside atmospheric pressure forces the water and balloon back into the
cylinder. The soil is removed from the test hole and its wet and dry weights are
recorded. Then density can be calculated similar to sand cone method.

Swelling Clay and its expansive characteristics:

Certain types of soil, especially clayey soil when soaked with water
may increase in volume. This characteristic is essentially due to the presence of
swelling type of clay like montmorillonite, which can hold a large quantity of
water and then swell many times its volume. 15
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a. Laboratory test for swelling coefficient: Swelling or expansion characteristic of
clayey soil or clay is related to its plasticity. Clay with plasticity index above 35 is
found to have high swelling. Whether a clay sample is of swelling type or not is
determined by a simple test in the laboratory.

The clayey soil collected from the field is sieved in a 45 micron sieve. The
portion of fines (clay) that remains in the pan below the 45 micron sieve is collected.
Then, a measured quantity (say 10ml or 20ml) of this clay sample is taken in a
graduated cylinder and dispersed in 1000 ml in water. The water mixed clay sample
in the cylinder is kept undisturbed for 24 hours to find the change in volume. Any
observed increase in volume indicates that the clay is of swelling type. The
percentage increase in volume with respect to the original volume is the measure of
swelling.

If L is the original volume of the sample inside the cylinder and L' is the
volume of the sample after swelling, the swelling coefficient is expressed as

S = (L' - L)/ L x 100 16

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b. Measurement of Expansion Pressure: The pressure exerted by expansion of
swelling type of clayey soil or clay can be measured in a consolidometer or proving
ring apparatus. The specimen of soil is compacted in a Proctor mould and then cut
into the size of the cell in which it is to be placed for the test. The cell of the fixed
type of consolidometer contains two porous stones, the lower one being fixed and
the upper one movable.

The specimen is allowed to soak in water. As the specimen starts to swell, a

very small increase in expansion in volume is subjected to load until it comes to its
original position. The load is applied by operating the spindle of the proving ring
apparatus or the trolley head of the consolidometer. A curve is plotted for the
swelling percentage versus applied load from the results of three such tests. This
helps to understand the soil behaviour under different loads. The moisture content
and the density of the specimen are measured before and after the test. This helps
to determine the moisture content and density at which the expansion will be
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1. Soil Permeability: It is defined as the capacity of the soil to allow flow of
water through its voids. When a porous media such as sand permits water to
pass through the interconnected voids or pore spaces, it is called permeable.

However, clay though highly porous, is said to be impermeable as the

voids are not interconnected and as such water cannot pass through it.
Movement of water through soil exerts pressure known as seepage pressure.

2. Consolidation of Soil: When a saturated and compressible soil is kept under

static load for a long time, its volume decreases due to compression. The
compressive load squeezes the pore fluids and reduces the pore spaces causing
an overall reduction of the volume of the soil mass. Such process of
compression resulted from long time loading to cause decrease in soil volume is
termed as Consolidation.
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 The primary consolidation that decreases the soil volume is attributed
principally to the decrease in void spaces between soil particles. In primary
consolidation, compression refers to the processes where particles in the
stressed zone are rearranged into a more compact or tighter configuration as
void water is squeezed out. Secondary compression is the additional
compression that occurs at a constant value of effective stress after excess pore
water has been dissipated.

Laboratory test of Consolidation: In the laboratory, consolidation test is

conducted using a consolidometer that consists of a loading frame and a
consolidation cell in which the specimen is placed between two porous stones.
The porous stones enable the squeezing out of water from the sample during
testing. Both the porous stones placed at the two ends of the specimen take part
in the compression of the specimen.
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 To start with an initial pressure, say 0.1kg/cm2 is applied which is
gradually increased to 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8 and finally 10kg/cm2. For each
increase in pressure, the compression is read out from the dial gauge
fitted with the machine at intervals of 0.25, 1.0, 2.5, 4, 6, 9, 12, 20, 25, 36,
49 and 60 minutes and then 2, 4, 8 and 24 hours.

After the completion of consolidation by applying the maximum

pressure, the specimen is removed and the weights of the soil solids and
the water content are determined.

The dial gauge reading foe rebound after removal of the pressure
is also recorded. The test data is used to calculate the void ratio and the
co-efficient of volume change.

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3. Soil Compaction: Compression of soil accomplished by loading for a short
period is known as compaction. It is a quick process of densification and
stabilization of soil. A soil mass loses its compactness when it is excavated from
its natural source and deposited elsewhere.

Compaction is a process by which the soil particles are rearranged and

closely packed, thus resulting in a decrease in the void ratio and an increase in
density. The extent of densification of soil is dependent on the amount of
compaction. Increase of compaction leads to an increase in dry density and a
decrease in water content.

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