Electrical Transients in Power Systems SECOND EDITION ALLAN GREENWOODA NOTE TO THE READER This book has been electronically reproduced from digital information stored at John Wiley & Sons, Inc. We are pleased that the use of this new technology will enable us to keep works of enduring scholarly value in print as long as there is a reasonable demand for them. The content of this book is identical to previous printings, In recognition of the importance of preserving what has been written, it is a policy of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. to have books of enduring value published in the United States printed on acid-free paper, and we exert our best efforts to that end, Copyright © 1991 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada. Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act withoul the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: Greenwood, Allan, 1923— Electrical transients in power systems/Allan Greenwood.—2nd ed. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Transients (Electricity) 2. Electric power system stability. 1. Title TK3226.G73 1991 621.319'21—de20 O- 12844 ISBN 0-471-62058-0 (acid-free paper) cIP Printed and bound in the United States of America 109876543CONTENTS Preface to the First Edition Preface L Frndamental Notions abwut Mectrical Transients wie + ne The Laplace Transform Method of Solving Differentiat Introduction 1 ‘Circuit Parameters 1 Mathematical Statement of the Problem and Its Physical Interpretation 3 Circuit Charucteristics or Thumbprints The Principle of Superposition 6 Problems 9 Equations 21 22 2.3 a4 25 26 The Concept of a ‘Transform 11 The Laplace Trensform 12 Some Simple Applications of the Laplace Transform in Circuit Problems 18 Building Other Transforms 26 Operational Impedance 27 Duhamel's Integral—Response of a Cizcuil to an Arhitrary Stimulus 24 Problems 33 References 36 Simple Switching Tansients a 32 33 34 Introduction 37 The Circuit Closing Transient 37 The Recovery ‘lransient Initiated by the Removal of a Short Circuit, 47 Double-Frequency Transients 52 Problems 37 References 61 Damping ad Some Observations on the RLC Circuit 62 1¥ Wb 62vill CONTENTS 4,2. The Basic Transforms vf the ALC Circuits 64 4.3 The Generalized Damping Curves 72 4.4 The Series RL Cireuit 75 4.5 Resistance Switching 80 4.6 Load Switching #3 4.7 Other Forms of Damping 87 4.4 Damping and Frequency 87 Problems 88 References 91 witching Transients 5.1 Normal and Abnormal Switching Transients 92 §.2. Current Suppression 92 5.3 Capacitance Switching 100 5.4 Other Restriking Phenomena WH 5.4 Transformer Magnetizing Inrush Current 113 5.6 Ferroresonance 116 Problems 122 References 124 ‘Transients in Three-Phase Circuits 6.1 Introduction 126 6.2. Importance of the Type of Neutral Connection 126 6.3 Switching a Three-Phase Reactor with an Isolated Neutral 128 64 Three-Phase Capacitance Switching 132 6.5 The Symmetrical-Component Method for Solving Three- Phase Switching Transients 140 Problems 147 References 149 Transients in Direct Current Circuits, Conversion Equipment and Stathe Var Controls 7.L Totroduction 13) 7.2 Interruption of Direct Current in Low Voltage Circuits 150 7.3. Transients Associated with HVDC Circuit Breakers 158 7.4 Delayed and Periodic Functions 160 7.5 Characteristics of the Thyristor and the Gate Turn Off (GTO) Thytistor 166 7.6 Commutation Transients—The Current-Limiting Static Circuit Breaker 169 7.7 Commutation Transients in Conversion Equipment 174 a2 150 = 18 CONTENTS 7.8 Transients in Static Ver Control Equipment 184 Problems 185 References 126 Electromagnetic Phenomena of Impartance Under Transient Conditions 8.1 Introduction 188 8.2 A Review of Electrostatic Induction with Some Transient Applications 189 8.3 A Review of Electromagnetic Induction and Related Topics 192 8.4 Steady-State Penetration of Magnetic Flux and Current into Conductors 200 8.5 Transient Penctration of Magnetic Flux and Ourrent into Conductors 20 8.6 Electromagnetic Shielding 219 8.7 Implicatians of Blectromagnetic Effects far Cryogenic Systems 228 8.8 Other Electromagnetic Manifestations of Practical Concern 229 Problems 230 References 231 Traveling Waves and Other Transients on ‘Transmission Lincs 9.1 Circuits with Distributed Constants 233 9.2 The Wave Equation 238 9.2 Reflection and Refraction of Traveling Waves 243 9.4 Behavior of Traveling Waves at Linc Terminations 246 9.5 Lattice Diagrams 255 9.f Attenuation and Distortion of Traveling Waves 257 9.7 Switching Operations Involving Transmission Lines 262 9.8 Multicenductor Systems and Multivelucity Waves 274 9.9 Switching Surges on an Iniegraicd System 287 Problems 294 References 298 Principles uf Transient Modeling of Power Systems and Components MAI Introduction 300 10.2 Frequeney Response of Networks and Components 3011 10.3 Capacitance of Windings 308 10.4 Frequency-Dependent Parameters 309 ly 188 233,12 ‘CONTENTS 10.5 Cirewit Reduction 312 References 321 Modeling Power Apparatus and the Behavior of Such Equipment Under Transient Conditions 111) Modeling of Transformers 322 11.2 Modcling of Generators M9 11.3 Modeling Motors 355 11.4 Model for an Overhead Transmission Line 363 ILS Models for Cables 370 11.6 Modeling of Steel Cores 372 11.7 Miscellaneous Components 378 Problems 380) References 382 Computing Aids tu the Calculation of Electrical Transients: 121 Intrednetion 385 12.2 The Transient Network Analyzer 386 12.3 The Digital Computer 392 12.4 The Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) 413 12.5 The Hybrid Computer 421 References 421 ‘System and Component Parameter Values for Use in Transient Calculations and Means to Obtain Them by Measurement 13.1 Introduction 424 13.2. Transient Parameter Values for Transformers 424 13.3 Transient Parameter Values for Reactors 444 13.4. Transient Parameter Valucs for Generators 445 43.5 Measurement of Transicnt Recovery Voliages in a Power Plast 446 13.4 ‘Transient Parameter Values for Motors 448 13.7 Transient Parameters for Transmission Lines and Cables 451 13.8 Characteristics of Bus Work 446 13.9 Capacitance of Instrument Transformers 459 Problems 460 References 461 Lightning 14.1. The Scope of the Lightning Problem 463 14,2 The Physical Phenomenon of Lightning 464 14.3 Interaction between Lightning and the Power System 469 322 aa is td 17 CONTENTS. xi 14.4 Computation of a Specific Lightning Event 478 14.5 Induced Lightning Surges 487 14.6 Thunderstorm Tracking and Other Recent Developments 484 Problems 485 Referemecs 487 Insulation Coordination 490 ISL Some Basic Ideas About Insulation Coordination 490 15.2 The Strength of Insulation 491 15.3 The Hierarchy of Insulation Coordination 499 15.4 Test Volluge Waveforms und Trunsicnt Ratings 5(11 15.5 Deterministic and Statistical Approaches to Insulation Coordination 504 Problems 510 References 511 Protection of Systems and Equipment Against Transient Overvoltages 513 16.1 Introduction $13 16.2 Protection of Trunsmission Lines Against Lightning 513 16,3 Lightning Shielding of Substations 517 16.4 Surge Suppressors und Lightning Arsestets 517 16.5 Application uf Surge Arresters 538 16.6 Surge Suppressurs for Direct Current Circuits $47 16.7 Surge Capacitors and Surge Reactors 348 16.8 Surge Protection of Rotating Muchines 554 16.9 Transient Voltages and Grounding Practices 556 16,1) Protection of Control Cireuits 560 16.11 Surge Protection Schome for an Industrial Drive System 366 Problems 569 References 573 Case Studies in Electrical Transients 575 17.1 Introduction 575 17.2 Misoperation of Protective and Switching Equipment During Source-Side Faults 575 17.3 Transients Associated With Bank-lo-Hank Capacitor Switching 579 17.4 Voltage Fscalution Due to Multiple Reignitions During Switching 583 17.5) Transient Behavior of a Transformer Coil 390)xii CONTENTS 17.6 Internul Resonance in a Transformer Winding 599 17.7 An Tovestigation of Arrester Separation Distance 605 References 610 18 Fquipment for Measuring Transients él 18.1 Some General Observations on the Measurement of Transients 611 18.2 Frequency Response, Bandwidth, and Rise Time 613 18.3 The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope fl6 48.4 Cameras for Cathode Ray Oscilloscupes 628 18.5 Magnetic Recording uf Transients 625 18.6 Equipment for Measuring Transient Currents 629 18,7 Transient Voltage Measuring Equipment 641 Problems 651 References 653 19 Measuring Techniques and Sorge Testing «54 19.1 Introduction 654 19.20 Minimizing Problems of Interference 654 19.3 Differential Measurements 660 19.4 Multichannel Sequence Timer 661 19.5 Low voltage Surge Testing 663 19.G Measurement of Random Disturbances 671 19.7 Mexsurement of Fast T'ransicats 678 19.8 Surge Voltage ‘lesting 686 19.9 High Power Testing 99 19.10) Case Studies in Transient Measurements 70% Problems 723 References 724 Appendix 1 Table of Laplace ‘Nransform Pairs 727 Appendix 2. Natural Cosines 723 Appendix 3. Natural Sines Ta Appendix 4 Exponential and Hyperbolic Functions 735 Appendix § Statistical Information TH Index 740 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION book is a distillation of my experience teaching electrical transicnts to successive classes of college students und practicing engineers. It also reflects fourteen years of considerable involyement with practical transient problems on electeic utility and industrial power systems. Its purpose ix to teach students and engineers the fundamentals of this vital subject and to equip them to recognize and solve transient problems in power networks and components, Practically has beca @ paramount concern in its prepa- ration, Many of the basie motions concerning the transient behavior of electric circuits were well explored by Steinmetz and other early pioneers. What is new is the emergence and re-emergence of perennial problems in dliffercat guises with new applications aud new equipment, Like successive genera. tions of cigarettes and candy bars, these problems are much the same in different Wrappers. | have attempted to set out the fundamental ideas at the beginning of the buok and made a consistent effort to show theresfter how one peels away the superficial differences in practical transient studies, to a Point where basic principles can be applied. Where formal mathematical analysis is called for, | have chosen to use the Laplace transform method. This is explained but not justified, in Chapter 2. However, there are many places in the hook where solutions to problems are reached by relatively simple process of deduction, which stresses Physival insight. In such instances mathematical rigor has been subordinated to physical understanding; mathematics is often ysed to facilitate this understauding rathcr than as 2 substitute for it. It is ™y cxperience that the majority of students and engineers. expecially those wha do not have 3 mathematical turn of mind, proceed best hy first considering the particular and ihen progressing to the more general. ‘The material tends to increase in complexity as the book progresses: single-phase circuits are studicd before dhree-phuse circuits, and lumpy Sircuits before distributed circuits. This has one added Advantage when the hook is used for course text purposes, Certain chapters can be used as a basis for an undergraduate course, which could stand by itself, or lead naturally to a graduate course based om the material of other chapters. ‘The presentation is broader im seope than most other texts on this subject, for it combines the experimental with the analytical and supplements both iiladv PREFACE TU THE FIRST EDITION with many examples from actual investigations, Though basic knowledge of transients may ot have wdvanced in recent yeurs at the same rate us formerly, there has been a tremendous proliferation in the techaiques used to study transients. The use of computers is a good example Chapter 14 is devoted to this topic. Recent advances in instrumentation for measuring transients has been spectacular; useillosenpes with storage tubes, sampling tubes, aad traveling wave tubes are eet examples. These devices and their iit din Chapter 16, ee ane acaba td to the breadth of this hook. In Chapter 8 T have ulicmpted to draw from diverse places in the literature and pul together as a consistent whole a collection of facts regarding certain electromagnetic phenomena that play a significant part in many transient glectric disturbances. These relate to electric and magactic coupling between Circiits, more especially to the transient penetration of current, and flux into conduciurs, These have an important bearing on such mutters as pickup, shielding, attenuation or damping, and losses, The sccond arcu concerns the circuit characteristics of power system components. Onc may be very adept at manipulating equations, hut this will be of little value unless the results can he reduced to practical terms. | have therefore included a compilation of typical characteristics of system clements, such as the capacitance and inductance of transformers, reactors, buswork, and the natural frequencies and time constants of such apparatus. I wish to acknowledge the considerable contributions that many of my colleagues and associates in the Generul Electrical Company have made indirectly to this book through countless discussions over the years on the subject of transients. | would like to make special mention of Dr. ‘T. HT. Lee, W. F. Skeals, and E, J. Tuohy, for most stimulating exchanges on many topies. ALLAN GREENWOOD Media, Pennsylvania March 1970 PREFACE It is twenty years since I wrote the first preface; itis as relevant now as whea it was written. This is not to say that nothing has changed, but that my objectives and approach remain the same. Thus, the abiding fundamentals have been left untouched in this edition, except where more recent ex- Periences have changed my own perceptions and insights and where, hopefully, I have been able ta improve the presentations as a consequence. During the 1950s and 1960s, engineers were slowly beginning to apply computers to the solution of power system transient problems. The past two decades have sccn an enormous prowth in this activity, which has been both a blessing and a curse. A blessing because it has made it possible to attack and resolve very complicated problems in a breadth and depth incunceivahlc in former times. A curse boeause some engineers have heen seduced by the methods and lost sight of the physical aspects of the phenomena involved. For this reason I have continued to stress the physical while broadening and updating the computational treatment of transients in accordance wil Present practices. To use a computer for solving a transient problem requires some repre- Sentation or model of the component ur system involved. Two new chapters have been added to address the subject uf modeling; models fur rhost types of power equipment ure discussed, The adequacy of models, the caution fequired in using them, the necd for validation, and the relationship between the model and the physical eatity it represents, are all stressed. A serious omission in the First Edition was any concerted treatment of insulation coordination. ‘This has been correetcd with the inclusion of Chapter 15 which is exclusively devoted to this topic, This chapter and Chapter 16 on protection, reflect lhe revolution that metal uxide surge arresters have caused in the power industry Mote illustrative material in the way of figures and diagrams and worked ckamples have been included in this new edition, One entirely new chapter of case studies has been added, which demonstrates modeling and ccrmputa- ional techniques as they have been applied hy practiciag engineers to specific problems, References have been updated from the published work of the Last twenty years, many of them from the last five years, ‘There has been a virtual explosion in the equipment for measuring sleetrical transients, most especially where digital techniques are involved, ‘This hus required heavy revision of the two chapters on measuring equip-xvi PREFACE ment and measuring test methods. This hus heen supplemented by the inclusion of case studies showing how the new equipment is applied. The original text has been criticized for its lacie of problems that ie reader could work through for himself, Accordingly, a number of suck problems, well over a hundred in all, have been added at the end of most chapters. Answers are provided, It is my plan to produce a supplement of ions in due course. ; ae aan to acknowledge the many contributions of others to this book, | would mention in particular the generations of students from whom 1 eve learned so much as I have strivem to teach them. Also, my sincere thanks go to Ms, Hazel Butler for typing the manuscrip!—a formidable task, well done. ALLAN GREENWOOD Tortola, British Virgin Islands March 1990 1 Fundamental Notions about Electrical Transients 11 INTRODUCTION Au electrical transient is the outward manifestation of a sudden change in circuit conditions, as when a switch Opens ur closes or a fault occurs on a system. ‘The trunsicmt period is usually very short. The traction of their ‘Operaling time that most circuits spend in the transient condition is insig- nificant compared with the time spent in the Steady stale. Yet thesc transient Periods urc extremely important, for it is at such times that the circuit components are subjceted tu the greatest stresses from excessive currents or voltages. In extreme cases damage results, This may disable 1 maching, shut down a plant, of black aut a city, depending upon the circuit involved, For this reason a clear appreciation of events twking place during transient periods is essential for a [ull understanding of the behavior of clectric circuits, Tt is unfortunate: that many clectrics! cousineers have only the baziest conception of what is happening in the circuit at such tinics, Tndectl, some appear to view the subject as bordering on the occult. Yet transients can be Understood: they can be calculated and sometimes prevented, of at least controlled, su ast be innocuous to the circuit or power system on which they appear. In this chapter we consider some basic ideas about electri Transients which will lay the ground work for their stuily in preuter depl 1.2 CIRCUIT PARAMETERS Examination of any electric circuit shows that it is made up of thee kinds of Parameter: Resislanee R Inductance L Capacitance ¢ All componcuts. whether in 2 utility system, industrial circuit, ur elsewhere, Possess cach of these attributes to a greater or lesser depres. Under Meady-stile conditions une will frequently predominate, for example, in- 12) FUNDAMENTAL. NOTIONS ABOUT ELECTRICAI TRANSIENTS ductance in a reactor. In the transient siate, however, conditions may be very different. On occasion the distributed capacitance af the reactor winding will momentarily be its must important feature. ‘The resistance, induclance, and capacitance of a circuit are distributed quantities; that is, each small part of the circuit pussesses its share. But it is frequently found that they can be treated as “lumped” constants, conoen- truted in particular branches, without seriously impairing the accuracy of calculations, We shall sc treat them in much of this book. In circumstances where the technique is not suitable, as ia dealing with long transmission lines, different approach will be used. ‘The parameters L and ¢ arc characterized by their ability to store energy, L in the magnetic field and C in the electric Geld of the circuit, ‘These stored energics are functions of the instantuneous curreal J and voltage V, and are, respectively, dzP and bev? In contrast, the parameter Ris a dissiputer of eaergy, the rate of dissipation being KJ al any instant. Under steady-state conditions, ihe energy stored in the various induct- ances and capacitances of a direct current circuit ure constant, whereas in an alternating current circuit, energy is being transferred cyclically between the Ls and Cs of the circuit as the current and vollage rise and fall at the frequency of the supply. “This latter process is attended by certain losses, depending upon the resistance: present. The losses will be supplied by the various sources in the system. When any sudden change occurs in a cirewit, there is generally a redistri- bution of cnergy to meet the new conditions, and in a way, it is this that we are studying when we inquire into the nature of transients. It is very portant to realize that this redistribution of energy cannot take plave instantaneously for two reusums: 1. To change the mugnetic energy requires a change of current. But change of current in an inductor is opposed by an emf of magnitude £ lide, ‘An instantaneous change of current would therefore require un infinite voltage to bring it about. Since this is unrealizable in practice, currents in inductive cireuits do aot change abruptly and conseyuently there can be na abrupt change in the magnetic cnergy stored. Another way of stating this is that the magnetic flux linkage of a circuit cannot suddenly change. 2. To change the electtic energy requires a chunge in voltage. The voltage actoss a capacitor is given by V= QC, where Q is the charge, and its rate of change is dv de. & cst ole = Als MATHEMATICAL STATEMENT OF THR PROBLEM = 3 For an instantancous change of voltage an infinite current must flow. This too in unrealizable; consequently the voltage across © capacitor cannot change ubruptly mor can the cnergy stored in its associated electric field, ‘The redistribution of energy following a circuit change takes a finite time, and the process during this interval, as at uny other time, is governed by the principle of energy conservation, that is, the rate of supply of energy is equal to the rate of storage of energy plus the rate of energy dissipation These three simple facts—current through um inductor cannot suddenly change: voltage across a capacitor caunot suddenly change; cnerey conserva- tion must he preserved at all times—are fundamental to understanding electrical transicnts. ‘To fully appreciate the implications of these Eacis is to touch the essence of the subject. 1.3 MATHEMATICAL STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND IES PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION ‘The statement of any circuit transient problem properly starts with the setting down of the differential equation or equations describing the be- havior of the system when excited by the particular stimulus being studied. This is usually done quite readily with the aid of Kirchhoff’s laws, Consider the very simple prablem depicted in Fig. 11. As « consequence of closing a switch, w capacitor is charged through w resistor. ‘To find the current, we might express the circuit equation using Kirchhoff's first law ay follows: r= i+ v= n+ | oar (13a) To find voltage across the capacitor, the differential equation might be STitlen wv VeRCTI+Y, (1.3.2) inasmuch as Rt I ~ vi cmv | Fig. 1.1, The RC circuit.40 FUNDAMENTAL NOTIONS ABOUT ELECTRICAL TRANSIENTS dQ dit a, at I< Solving Ey. 1.3.2 by separating the variables, dV, at , OR . 1 In(¥- Kj) RC + constant or Vi =V¥- de (1.4.3) where A is a constant to be evaluated from the initial conditions in the cirenit, If € is precharged to ¥,(0) before the switch is closed, setting :=0 yields Wav [Vide eRe (1.3.4) This solution is shown graphically in Fig. 1.2, which illustrates » point made in the last seetion, When the capacitor is connected tu the battery it does not instantaneously assume the potential of the battery but proceeds to that value through a transient, which in this instance has an exponential form. This is a simple problem, but it has all the important atisibutes of far more complicated problems. For this reason we will look at it in more detail, ‘There are two recognizable parts to the solution given in Eq. 1.3.4. The first term, V, represents the final steady state when the capacitor is charged fo the buttery voltage. ‘The sceand term is the truc transient which links the itial conditions to this final steady state in a smooth, continuous manner consistent with the physical restrictions of the circuit. The form of this transient term depends essentially upon the circuit itself. The magnitude depends upon the manner in which the stored energy is disposed at time zero. This cxponential will manifest itself regardless of the stimulus or drive 2. Capacitor voltage in the cireuit L.L after the switch is closed CIRCLE CHARACTERISTICS OR THUMHPRINTS . 5 creating the disturbance, Indeed, such a circuit with no stimulus at all, left to dissipate its stored energy, would do so in this same characteristic manner: the capacitor voltage would decline exponentially if the battery was short circuited. Por the circuit of Fig, 1.L, this term would he derived from the simpler equation (1.3.5) which yields fora solution ¥, y, (Oe Mathematical texts dealing with differential equations refer te the solution obtained when the drive is set equal to zero as the complemenzary solttion, Its physical significance is now clear; it describes the transient bndge between jal and final steady-state conditions, As slated earlicr, it reflects the character of the circuit, In this instance the term © *° may be described as the “thumbprint” of the RC creuit. The se-culled particular solution, on the ather hund, reflects the drive or stimulus creating the disturbance. When applying analytical methods to the solution of circuit problems, it is important tu consider the physical interpretation af the solution reached. ‘This will be attempted throughout the book. 1.4 CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS OR THUMBPRINTS Tt was pointed out in Section 1.3 that the single characteristic of the RC Sireuit which distinguishes it trom other circuits is its exponential response, ¢ to any disturbance. Since ~ &{RC must be dimensionless, RC has the dimensions of time; hence it is referred tu as the fime constant, As we have Pointed out, » cireult takes a finile time to adjust from one condition to another folluwing any disturbance. At the instant of closing or opening a Switch, for example, we have certain initial conditions. Ultimately we reach A new steady state, The time constant is a measure of how tupidly this change takes place. After one time constant, 1/e of the change remains to be accomplished, or (1 - 1/e) has already taken plice. After thee time Senstants, conditions are within 5% of their final value. This is an approp ate time to look into the characteristics of wther combinations af circuit slements. These clementury circuits arc shown in Fig, 1.3, Close examination of these: ciicuits reveals some startling facts. ‘The only Kind of response: that is evoked when un clecttic circuit comprising lumped slements is disturbed takes the form of exponential functions or combina- Bons thereof with real or imaginary cxpoaents. These will sometimes Sinbine to give sine or cosine functions. This is the case in the LC cireuit,§ © 0 FUNDAMENTAT. NOTIONS ABOUT ELECTRICAL TRANSIENTS asuRe en iith Fig. 1-3. Thumbprints af some simple circuils. Now sines und cosines are periodic functions, which suggests the idea of a frequency, This su-called natural frequency is the thumbprint of the LC circuit. Thus we find that when such cirewits are excited, mo matter how, they oscillate at their natural frequencies. The (0 circuit dors nut have a time constant becuuse when il is stimulated it cioes not achieve a final steady condition but instead continucs to oscillate about such a position. The period of ihe oscillation, which will be shawn ta be 2a(LC)'" replaces the lime constant. The RL circuit is similar to the RC circuit except that its time constant is L/R rather than RC. Through experience in handling transient problems and familiarity with solutions, the amount of formal calculation required is diminished. It becomes possible to construct solutions in what might at first appear to be an intuitive manner. In fact, it is a consequence of consciously or uncon- sclously recognizing the thumbprints thus far discussed and applying the several other fundamental concepts outlined in the first four sections of this chapter, The only combinations of components not shown in Fip. 1,3 are the serics and parallel RLC circuits, But bere again such cirewils rewct to a drive in the same manner as the simpler circuits, albeit the exponents may be more abstruse. These two circuits are given special treatment in Chapter 4. More extensive circuits are made up of combinations of the simple circuits, so that in the transient state they continue to demonstrate the sarne forms as their component parts. Their responses may be more complicated but they are no more complex. 1.8 THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION Superposition is a very important principle in many branches of physical science and a very powerful tual for solving problems. It states that in any linear system if a stimulus S, produces a response R,, and a stimulus 5, produces a response R,, then 5, and 5, applied simultaneously will evoke a response R, + #,. The principle is not restricted to two stumuli but is true THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION = 7 for aily finite number. A linear system is one in which the response is proportional to the stimulus, A simple example is Mooke’s Law, which states thal the extension uf a spring is proportional to the force applied to it ‘Thus the principle of superposition tells us that if a weight W, hung on a spring extends the spring 8,, and a weight W, causes an extension &,, then the extension will be 6, | 4, if the weights W, and W, are attached to the spring simultancously. The application of superposition in steady-state circuit theory is based on. the lincar relationship between emf and current. Thus, in a network comprising numerous branches, with say n suurces disposed around the network, the currents can he calculated in any particular branch by de- termining the sum of the currents that cach souree emf would drive individually. The procedure is to short cirvuit every source hut one, leaving, only the intenmal impedance of the remaining m—1 sourees. It is then possible to obtain the current the one remaining source gives rise to in the branch of iterest. The procedure is repeated for the other sources in turn With all sources operating simultaneously, the current in the branch in question is the sum of the individual currents just calculated, paying due regard to their sigm, Note that the principle of superposition is just as valid for the trunsient state as it is for the steady state, so that transients can be added to transients, or transients to steady statcs. We shall take advantage ‘of this un many occasions There are two particular applications of the principle of superposition that are of fundamental importance, Harlicr in this chapter it was stated that Most Lransients ure the result of switching operations, The term “switching Operation” is used in its broadest sense, meaning an event in which a new path for current is created of an existing path is eliminated. [t includes the accidental application and removal of faulis as well as the closing and opening operations of switehcs or circuit breakers, Even a light @ transmission line or adjacent structure can be considered a switching operation in that a new path for current is created. Such operations are very conveniently studied by the principle of superposition. Consider the opening of a switch im an alternating current circuit (Fig, 14a) and the subsequent interruption of the current. Usually the current is not interrupted by simply parting the switch contacts. It continues to flow through an are that forms between the contacts; actual interruption is effected when the current comes to rere, ag it does regularly twice each cycle in a,c. circuits. The current might appear as shown in Fig. 1.48. A. current of this form would also be realized if, at a cuzrent zero, a current which we will designate f, were superimposed on the existing current, which we might designate f, (Pig. 14c). Lp to instant A, J, is flowing in the circuit. After this instant, the net current flowing in the cirenit is zero. Physically, we cin think of this process as one in which interruption is simulated by injecting into the cit at the contacts of the switch, a current equal in Magnitude but opposite in sign to the existing current. When J, alone is& FUNDAMENTAL NOTIONS ABDUT ELECTRICAL, TRANSIENTS Zz aX (a) a i a — fe) Fig. 1.4. The principle of superposition applied to the opening af a switch. (a) The circuit. (b) The current. (c) Superposition of an injected current. flowing there is a certain distribution of voltage about the circuit ax 2 consequence of the emf E. If we remave that emf and inject current f; inte the circuit, another distritwtion of voltage would be evident. The Principle ‘of Superposition states that when both of these stinwli, the emf E and the injected current /,, are applied simullaneously, the total response will be the sum of the individual responses. Since the combination of these stimuli effectively simulates current interruption, this combined respanse will give the circuil’s response to the interruption and will include all the transient effects thereby evoked, ‘The closing of 8 switeh can be treated in a similar manner. Before closing there will be a certain voltage across the switch; it could, fur example, be varying at power frequency. When the switch closes, this voltage disappears It is as if 8 voltage exactly equal and opposite 10 that formerly existing actos the switch contacts was suddenly applied at these points. By super- position, curcents and voltages uboul the cireuit after closing the switch can be obtained by adding to the currents and voltages existing with the contacts. open, these stimulated by applying at the switch, the voltage appearing ar the contacts before the switch was closed with its sign reversed. Recall the restriction that was placed on the application of superposition when the principle was intraduced al the beginning of this sectiun: the method can be applied only in linear circuits. There are some components in utility und industrial power systems thut ure nonlincar, for example, any saturable device such as an iron-cored reactor or an unloaded transformer. PROBLEMS | 9 Here the current is not directly proportional to the voltage, though this condition may be approximated over limited ranges. The application of superposition must be restricted to these ranges. Nonlineur resistors ure used from time to time, expecially as protective devices. Again, the principle of superposition should not be applied where these are located. Finally, any type of rectifier is un extremely nonlinear device since it presents almost zero impedance to the Now of current in one direction, but an almost infiuite impedance to current flow in the other direction. Superposition cannot be applied indiscriminately, although it will be shown that, with care. it can be used over certain intecvals, even in cirenits containing rectitiers, PROBLEMS 1 Fig. 1P.1, The current in Fig. LP.1 has already reached a steady value when 4 closed, Derive an expression for the current through & after the closing of S, 1.2 TE V¥=S00V, £ =20mil and R= WM, calculate the voltage across the inductance [ms after the switeh $ is closed in Fig. 1P.1_ L3 ,=5uF, 6,-0.5 oF ? R, = 1000, #, = 1000 8 IP. Initially, the capacitor C, in Fig, 1P.2 is charged to 100kKV, C, is uncharged. ‘The switch 8 is closed and 40 ys later the gup G sparks over, What is the current in RX, and the voltage on C, immediately after sparkuver?10) FUNDAMENTAL NOTIONS ABOUT ELECTRICAL TRANSIENTS 1.4 How nwch energy has been transferred to C, from C, at the time of gap sparkover? How much has been spent in 2,7 b ae i 0, = S pF. C—O. er T = lamH 15 ¥,(0) = 100 kV, ¥,00) = 50 kv Fig. ‘What is the maximum voltage attained by C, and the frequency of the current that flows in L, after the switch ix closed in the circuit of Fig. iP,3? 4.6 What other natural frequeney could be produced by the components of Fig. 1P.3 if they were configured differently? 1.7. A cupucitor C charged to voltage V is discharged into an inductor L. What is the voltage on C at the instant when its stored enerey and that of the inductor are equal? 2 The Laplace Transform Method of Solving Differential Equations 2.1 THE CONCEPT OF A TRANSFORM Having obtained some physical notion of what an electrical transient is, we now proceed to show how transients can be studied in a quantitative manner. Kelvin once remarked: 1 offen say that when you can measure what you are speuking uboul, und express it in numbers, you know something about ity but when pou cannat measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager und unsatisfactury kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts, advanced Lo the stuge of Scienor, whatever the niatier may he. ‘Today we would probably state this verity in a different way: “To under- sland something, you must be able ta hang a number on it.” In this chapter we lay the groundwork for “hanging numbers" on electrical transieats: The initial approuch is rather formal. We use the conecpt of a transform. The name tansfonm is really a contraction of » more descriptive title, a functional transformation. Tt implies the performing of some operation ona function to change it iato a new function, frequently in a different variable. The new function is referred to as the transform of the old. Such a transforma cared out for a purpuse, in our cuse to simplify the solution of differential equations. ‘There ure many transform operations in everyday use in engineering which aie nut formally given the name, but which nevertheless are fumction- al transformations. Whenever we use a phasor notation to represent a sinusvidally time-varying quantity we atc making @ functional transforma- tion. This might also be said of the process of taking the logarithm of a fumber. The number is the function, its logarithm is its transform. This Transformation is made to replace the processes of multiplication and division by the simpler manipulations of addition and subtraction. When such an operation has bee performed, the product obtained is the Lrans- form of the solution, in this case its logarithm. To obtuin the solution proper one must go through a reverse process, or inverse transformation, that is,12 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD take the antilogarithm. In most instances this last step will not he carried aut formally in our analyses. Instead, we will refer to 4 table of functions and their transfonms and extract the applicable function for our particular transform, This is akin to entering @ table of lugurithms to find the antilugarithm of a specific logarithm . The simple transient in the RC cieevit, reviewed in Chapter 1, ix 2 useful illustrative example, although it does not represent the type of problem regularly encountered in power systems. Practical cirewits are fur more complicated, 50 thui, even after simplification for the purpuse of analysis, they often gctain many circuit elements in series-parallel combination. Consequently, it require several differential or integro-differential equa- tions (une for cach mesh) to describe the behavior of the uit and each may be more complicated thun Eq. 1.3.1. These equations must be solved simultaneously to evatute the variables of interest. To do this efficiently, some systematic techrique must be employed. We use the Laplace trans- form method for this purpose, "The Laplace transformation, when applicd to terms of an ordinary differential equation, converts the equation into an algebraic equation. In 30 doing the vuriable ¢ disappears and a new variable s is introduced. The Laplace transformation has the added virtue of drawing attention to the initial conditions by providing just enough terms for these conditions to be sutisfied, When operated upon in this munner the equations of the problem Jose their trunsient aspect and appear more like equations of a steady-state problem in the new variable s. The procedure is as follows. After setting down the clifferential equations describing a problem, the terms are transformed one by one to obtain an algebraic equation for each of the initial differential equations. These: are then solved simultancously for the variable of interest, to give what is culled the operational sofution, The time Lunction corresponding to this operational solution is then found from a table of transforms, or on Tare occasions by applying the inverse Laplace transformation [1], which is a means for inverting transforms from first principles. 2.2 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM The Laplace transform of a function Fir) is defined mathematically as follows FR) = c Fite “de @2n or, more precisely, tim fF Fae "de (2.2.2) THE LAPLACT: TRANSFORM 13 Another symbol used for the Laplace transform of FU) is /(s). For currents and voltages it is usual to write ZA) = is) and 2¥(A) = (5), reserving an uppercase letter for the function itself and a lowercase letter for ite transform. We proceed with the minimum of justification for the way in which we apply and manipulate the transform, since our purpose is to use the transform as a tool rather than to stuely it for itself, However, there are certain questions that arise when one first applies this method. For example, are there aay restrictions on F(z), or does every function have # transform? ‘The mathematical answer to this question is that the Laplace transform can be obtained for any function of exponential urder. This means any functiun that does not increase with ¢ more quickly than e diminishes. This is another way of saying that the transform has meaning only if it is possible to perform the integrating operation described by Eq, 2.2.2, Thus we find thar fis of exponential order, bul e” is uot, since, regardless of the value of s (as Jong us it is finite), as f increases, ¢ eventually increases indefinitely. Tn practical problems of citcuit analysis, we arc investigating the behavior of a teal physical system, and to any real physical stimulus there will be a real physical response, thus in our ares of interest the integral will always converge. Another question thit arises is whether the Laplace transform follows the distributive law. That is, is the transform of a sum, the sum of the transforms af the parts? The answer is yes, and it can be stated thus: SELF (0) + FCO) = ER) + FR) (2.2.3) Ti will be observed that the operation of taking the transform (Eq. 2.2.2 brings ahout a change in variable. We start with a function of ¢, Fi), and finish with a function of s, f(r). Tho charactor of + itself is rclatively unrestricted. In general it can be said that x can be real or complex: It ix often written seotjw (2.2.4) Further discussion of this is left until we have developed a number of transforms. To do this, we start with some of the more common stimuli encountered in ciccuil problems. 1, The constant V: eve [ Ve “ds e “dt {since V does not vary with 1)10 THELAFLACE TRANSFORM METHOD (2.2.5) 2. The ramp (typically a current ramp), a function which increases uniformly with time, f(t) =: err Ete" dt rf te alt Integrate hy parts: (2.2.6) 3. The exponential e" (the great prevalence of exponential functions in electric cirevit theory has already been stressed}: ae =[ ea : = [ema ; fae ale (lor ray (227) Note that ifs 5.3) CO Re rrcnr (2.5.3) In this expression z(s) = R + Es. nally, the third problem in Section 2.3 derives the current in un LC circuit, oxcited by applying a vollage V. Equation 2.3.23 can he rearranged in the form ¥ 1 => By fe (2.5.4) In this instance, 1 2(s)= Ls 6 oe These examples indicate that 2(s) is formed by writing fs for each inductance amd 1/Cs for each capacitance in the circuit. Resistors ure unchanged, that is, they appear simply as X. There is a similarity between these expressions and the symbolic represcatation of inductive and capaci- tive reactances by joi. and Mijas in steady-state a.c. analysis, In fact, the latter is a special cage of the former; the Laplace representatioa includes the steady state. Thus to solve a transient problem by use of the opcrationul impedance, proceed as if solving for the alternating current in the branch of interest, wieh un alternating voltage applied. Aa example will make this clear. It is desired to caleulate the current that would flow in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.ha when a vollage V is applied at A and B. If this was a steady-state ac problem and V a steady-state alternating voltage, the representation of Fig. 2.64 would be used. The corresponding operational DUHAMEL'S INIEGRAL—RESPONSE OF A CIRCUIT 29 L fk Pa CRT R k 4 aoa te BA tt Ly Ly ae z es oo te Fig. 2.6. Comparison of a.c, symbolic representation (h) and the operational impedaner (¢) for an RLC circuit (a). impedance diagram for the transient problem is shown in Pig. 2.fic. 7s and Cs in parallel have au impedance: thus, eet (2.4.5) de iene a eps qaey! Had the stimulus been some other function, for example, 2 decaying exponential, for Ve ™ we would have used Vi(e + a) instead of the Wis used for the step function in Fq. 2.5.5 _ When the subject of investigation is u voltage, the operational impedance is used in the farm v(s) = e(s)2(s). ‘The method of solution just described is best suited for problems when the cirenits arc initially dead, that is, for circuits that contain no stored chergy. This would be the case if initially all the currents were zero and all the capacitors were discharged. Its use is not restricted to such circuits, but one must upply superposition with great care for circuits with nonzero initial conditions. Fur this reason, the author prefers in most instances the method described earlier of setting up the differential equatiuns from Kirchhaff's laws und applying the Laplace transform. 2.6 DUNHAM INTEGRAL—RESPONSE OF A CIRCUIT TO AN ARBITRARY STIMULUS: The material in Sections 2.5 and 1.5 (the principle of superposition) can be Utilized to determine the transient response of a cirenit to a stimulus of300 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD arbitrary form, The method is formalized in Dubamel's integral, which we will introduce shortly. Consider Fig. 2.7a, which represcats the waveform of a voltage surge U(!). This can be approximated by the stepped waveform shown in Fig. 2.76, The degree of wpprosimation will improve as the number of steps increases. Now superposition tells us that the response to a succession of stimuli can be obtained by adding the responses of the individual stimuli, In this instance, the stimuli are slep functions and as Carter [2] puts it, “If the stimulus applied to # circuil consists of a succession of shocks, the response to the stinmulus may be obtained by udding together the responses to these shocks.” We therefore need the response of the circuit to a step, or more precisely ta 4 unit function, or step of unit height, often written simply 1. If we designate this response E/,(t), the response to a step of height V, that is, to Wel, will be ¥- U,(0). Tn the notation of the Laplace transform the unit function is written 1 + (2. €'1e: (2.6.1) thus, when such a step is applied to a circuit whose operational impedance is 2(s), the operational expression for the current will be 1 ze (2.6.2) his) The inverse transform of the current, or what we have called w (2) in general wi) =hio= #7 eo (2.6.3) ue fe) (by) Fig. 2.7, Surge waveform approximated by # succession of steps. DUHAMEL'S INTEGRAL—RESPONSE OF A CIRCUIT 4 Turning now to Fig. 2.76, the initial value of U(e), U(0), evokes a response U(U)-2,(/). To this must be added, al appropriate intervals, the response to the other steps. Consider the one that starts at time r; a time Ar elapses before the nest step is applied. It follows, therefore, that the height of this step is t!'(r)-Ar where €/'(r) is the value of df//de at the instant 7. Measured from that Jnstant, the circuit's response to this shock will be UG), (t— 77. Consequently the response of the circuit to the whole succession of steps up to time ¢ is C(O), (0) + 5 u a)u,(¢— 7) Az Q Where U(r) is declining, the steps are negative, but they are treated in exactly the sume way. Proceeding to the limit where Ar becomes indetinitely small, we find that (1) causes a response u(/), given by ut) = UC)a (e+ I U'(ree- de (2.6.5) ‘This is Duhamel’s integral. Notice that in evaluating the integral, r is the variable; ¢ is treated as a constant. Carter [2] points aut that hy integrating by parts and by other elementary means, we may prove that Duhamcl's integral can he written in the following alternative ways: uC) = U(O)u, (2) 4 [ Uru r) dr (2.654) (1) = 1 (0)U(e) + fi uifs)UGr 7) dr (2.6.50) MH= COW L)+ | mi GU dr 42.6.5) wt) acon + | U(ryueye— 4) de (2.654) u(t) = tT, Ulrhy— 7) dr} (2.0.50) uit) = et: uy (TU — 7) cr} (2.6.5/) The choice berween these different alternatives is often determined hy the Problem to be solved. An example will make this clear, For this example we will consider the response of the RI. ciecuit shown in Fig. 2.8 to 9 stimulus3200 THE LAFLACE TRANSFORM METHOD: x Fig. 28. An RL circuit stimulated by an exponential drive. Ugj=Vve" (2.6.6) ‘We will solve this first by the regular Laplace transform method developed in the first few sections of this chapter. Subsequently, the Duhamel's integral will be applied to show this alternative approuch. ‘The differential equation describing the circuit behavior is de R+L 7 =Ve (2.6.7) Transforming the equation gives Ris) + Loifs) — LI) ~ If the circuit is initally dead [i.c., (0) =O), ¥ (Rt inet a) (208) its) - latroducing A- RIL, this may be written v ifs)= ie NGray (2.6.9) It is appasent that Eq. 2.6.9 can be rewritten fd 1 sta sta! (2.6.10) An ee a which contains the now familiar transform of Eq. 2.2.8 and leads to the solution Af)= tte (a —a) 26.11) & PRORLEMS 43 To solve the problem by Duhamel’s integral, we must first find u(r), which we have alrcady done im Section 2.3. It is apparent from Eq. 2.3.13 that a ()= A= ha =e") (2.6.12) From Eys. 2.6.6 and 2.6.12, it seems that the form of Duhamel’s integral given in Eq, 2.6.56 best suits this problem since the faet that u,(l)=0 simplifies the expression. Now, ae! w= Therefore, from By. 2.6.5, ater u(t) = a= vero AE x , f arp Lt which accords will solution 2.6.11. We have been thinking in terms of a voltage stimulus, but it should be clearly understood that Duharnel's integral can be applied equally well if U(t) is current stimulus. In this case o,(¢) will be a voltage and will be obtained by multiplying the current by the impedance: m= | ea) or atg= gt a PROBLEMS 2.0 Using the method of pa fractions, evuluate the following Laplace transforms (obtain the time function): W sw 450-248 1 da* s(s" + a) as? +135 41 . 2 SIs + 68a 2 23 24 2.6 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD The transform of a certain voltage is given by: 19x10 42.1% We +2x 10" Byaluate the wansform and sketch its form with reasonable accuracy, How much energy will be dissipated when the switch ia the circuit in Fig. 2P.1 is closed, The capacitor C, in Pig. 2P.1 has an initial charge of LOC; C. is discharged. Culculute the falluwing: a. The peak current b. The current 200 jes after the switch closes c. ‘The ultimate energy stored in C; d. ‘The ultimate voltage on C, If the resistor in Problem 2.3 is teplaced by an inductor with the same OO Hz reactance, calculate the following, once the switch is closed: a. The instantaneous current b. The peak current . The energy stored in the inductance Lms after the switch is closed d. The energy stored in C, at the saue instant. Show that if one capacitor is discharged into another through a resistor, the energy dissipated im the resistor is independent of the value of the resistor. Each phase of a 3-phuse capacitor bank is rated 6 MVA at 13.8/ WV. A second bank has 3 rating of 3) MWA at 13.8/V3 EV. The two arc fo be paralled by momentarily connecting them through a 1000 stainless steel resistor (one for each phase), whieh will he subsequently shorted out. You are to design these resisturs (determine the length and cross-sectional area of the wire to he used) if the temperati of a reabitur is not to croeed 200°C, when the switching oper: made at a time when one capacitor is at positive peak voltage and the other af negative peak voltage. PROBLEMS 48 The characteristics of stainless steel are: density =7.9p/em”; specific heat = 0.5 J/g per "C; vesistivit 72 wdc. Assume that no heat is lost t the suttoundings during the switching operation What will he the weight of the resisitor? What will be the peak current during the switching operation? 27 Fed co b= 2 R- 360 R,- 108 Fig. 27.2, Figure 27.2 shows the field coil of a machine. It is excited by closing switch S, onte an 800 ¥ d.c, bus. Determine the cnergy stored in the coil, and the enerpy already ated in it, 18 efter S, is closed When the evil current attained a stcady valuc, §, is opened and 3; is closed simultancously. What will he the voltage across $, 0.15 later? How much cnergy will cventually be dissipated in R,? 24 We are often required to design test circuits which will pencrate surges of specific wavelurm, These arc then uscd ta apply surges to pieces of Power equipment (transformers, gencralurs, reactors, ctc.) we wish to fest, Sometimes we wish to simulate the effect of a lightning surge, sometimes a switching surge R-190 6, = 2068 A; 1009, = 0.05 9F Fig. 273, Figure 27.3 shows a busic form of impulse generator, When ©, has been charged and the gap G is caused to spark over, an impulse Voltage is gencrated at the output terminals A ancl A. Without solving the equation of the cirewit, compute a good estimate of the following when the precharge voltage is 5O0KW and the gap discharges.3600 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM METIIOD a, The maximum current in Ry b, The maximum voltage across C, c, The time when this voltage (bh) is reached d. The output voltage ufler 0.5 ps e. The output voltage after 50) ses 29 any Ok rray ¥ Lo a-0aa L-O0k Fig. 264. Rand L in Fig, 2P-4 represent the resistance and inductance uf the field winding of a machine. The switch § has been closed and a steady direct current is Rowing from the source V, When § is opened, an are is established between its contacts which develops a voltage af 400 ¥, opposing the flow of current. Plot the current after 8 opens. REFERENCES 1. §. Goldman, Laplace Transform Theory and Elecirieal Transients, Dover Publica tions, New York (1996). 2 G. W. Carler, The Simple Calculution of Electrical Trunsients, Cambridge Uni versity Press, New York (1944). 3 Simple Switching Transients 4.1 INTRODUCTION Tt was pointed ut in Chapter I that a transient is initated whenever there is a sudden change of circuit conditions; this most frequently vecurs when a switching operation takes placc, All the samples studied thus far have heen concerned with switching transients, but they have been confined tu circuits with dic. drives. In this chapter we consider wc. circuits, restricting our- selves to two problems: (1) the closing of w switch or circuit breaker to energize uw load and (2) the opening of a breaker to clear a fault. This provides an opportunity to discuss some of the practical details of switehing transients A prime concern throughout dhis text is the emphasis on the physical aspects of what is occurring in the circuit. Mathematics is used as an adjunct to this cnd, not as a substitute for it, The Laplace transform method developed in Chupter 2 has helped to simplify and systematize the mathe~ matics. However, where there are opportunities to simplify the mathematics further, we shall take therm, Ultimately, we will find that we can circumvent the mathematics entirely in many of the problems we are about to discuss, proceeding directly to the solution by deduction, 3.2 THE CIRCUIT CLOSING TRANSIENT Example Iz Energizing an RL Circuit, The eirewit involved ia this example is that of Fig, 3.1, It has been reduced to its barest essentials in the interest of initial simplicity. The toad ix represented by 2 scries combination of resistance and inductance, which has a steady-state power factor given by & R cosy = = 421 mee Tz] ew Ly Gan ‘The sumree is assumed to have neglioible impedance compared with the load, The source voltage is ¥, indicating a phasor varying at the supply frequeney w, When the switch § is closed, the equation expressing the current is ”38) SIMPLE SWITCHING TRANSIENTS ns R ¥ L Fig. 3.1. An RL cirouit with a sine wave rive dt a RISE Be TVA We 3itt (wot te) (3.2.2) The inclusion of the arbitrary phase angle # permits closing of the switch at any instant in the voltage cycle. Before attempting to solve Eq. 3.2.2, let us consider for a moment what we have already discovered about this cireuit. It is clear that in due course the current will attain a steady-state value of W/Z, and that it will lug in phuse the voltage by an angle ¢ defined by Hq. 3.2.1. However, it is equally dear that except perhaps for some special circumstance, the current cannot achieve this value instantaneously, because the circuit inductance demaads that the current sturt at zcro. We would suppose, thercfore, that there is some transient that leads the current to its steady-state value in a smooth, continuous way and that sinve this is an AL circuit, che exponential e~*" will play an important part in the solution, These observutions say a great deal abuut the solution of Kg. 3.2.2, although as yet we have made no attempt to solve it. We now proceed to this task, Equation 3.2.2 can be rewritten art tS =v Ginwtcos 4 cos we sin #1) ‘Transforming both sides, Val SES + sane) te tw G2) Ris) + Lsi(s)— LAO) = Remember that sia 9 and cos @ are constants once the value of # has heen assigned. In this circuit J(0}) =, so the operational solution for current is (“2 cos 2 rain g oF aren Feet Faw!) Gat) ‘This can be written more consisely as follows: ee A ae (3.2.5) (taNete) Gale to) THECIRCUIT CLOSING TRANSIENT 38. where R Afr ta cos B r 1 7m a, bu ‘These are new transforms, but they can be reduced readily by the method of partial fractions outlined in Section 2.4, Simple manipulation reveals that ee 4) (steals +a") (ate p eta 4m? a (3.2.6) Therefore t -1 meee (« * cos wt + © sin wt) (3.2.7) The other terms, Bs/(s a)(x" + w") in Bg, 3.2.5 can be evaluated by the same method. Instead Jet us turn around Eq. 2.2.12 and obtain the laverse transform of this second term by differcetiating Eq. 3.2.7: 1 (stale tea) (ato) x(-oe “4 wsin ont @cogwt+ 1-140) (3.2.8) Equation 3.2.4 can now he cvaluated swith the aid of Es. 3.2.7 amd 3.2.8: ¥; [ase unoe fun) 10 aertay +sin A(e cosa? + w sin wt — ae ~| “Teor re iw) [(@ vos # — a sin Oe — (w cos # — wu sin O) cus wr + (ce cos # + ws si 8) sin coi] (3.2.9) wLtR= we, so that sine = wi(e" | aa?) Equation 3.2.9 simplifies further: [-sin (@— ¢)e | sin(wt+ 4 —e)] (Paw = “a, apr [ain (ar +0 - ¢)—sin(#- ple | (3.2.10)40) SIMPLE SWITCHING TRANSIENTS This is precisely the form we predicted before envharking on the analysis. ‘The first term is the steuuy-state final valuc. Its amplitude is ¥,,/|2| and it indeed has a phase angle ~@ with respect to the voltage. The second term is the transient, It involves, as expected, the exponential ¢ *'*; moreover, at {=0, it is equal and upposite to the steady-state term, thus assuring that the current start from zero, Equation 3.2.10 is depicted graphically in Fig, 3.2. Tn the vory special case where the switch closes at the instunt when & ~ 9, the transicnt term will be zero and the current wave will be symmetrical. On ihe other hand, if the switch closes when @ = g == 9/2, the transient term attains its maximum amplitude and the first peak of the resulting composite curreat wave will approach twice the peak amplitude of the steady-state sinusoidal component, This has same significant practical implications for circuit breakers. An important function of a circuit breaker is to close cirewits as well as open them and on occusions a breaker will close into a short circuit. The R and {. in Fig, 3.1 represent the resistance and induction of the source in this context; clusing the switch is equivalent to the occurrence of 4 fault. The closing angle # is arbitrary, so it is possible to hit the condition whece the current is fully offset for which the peak of the first loop approaches a muximum value of twice the peak short circuit current. In a three-phase reuit, the closing angles in the different phuses are 120° apart if the poles close in mechanical synchronism, so there is # good chance that this condition, or something close to il, will be met on some phase al every closing operation, The circuit breaker must he designed clectrically, mech- snically, and thermally to withstand this duty and perform the subsequent operations (such as opening and reclosing) without its effectiveness being impaired, Electromagnetic forees set up by such currents could cause buckling of parts in an inadequately designed cireuit breaker, It should be remembered that these forces arc proportional to the square of the current. Thus, if the current is doubled, the forces are inercaxed fourfold, Recutanl cureedt fe) Fig. 3.2. Asymmetrical altemating current from Eq. 3.2.10 THE CIRCUIT CLOSING TRANSIENT — 41 Similar asymmetrical currents can flow through the contacts of a closed breaker if a chor circuit occurs on the sysem it is protecting, These so-called high “momentary currents” will encourage the contacts te weld at the points where they touch, due to the energy dissipated there in contact resistance. In configurations where the contacts are bulted together this condition may be mace worse by the contacts “popping,” that is, being momentarily driven apart, with the establishment of an arc, by the clectromagnetic forecs of the currents converging on and diverging from the points of contact. Again, any weld su formed must not impair the efficiency of the circuit breaker. Its mechanism must be able to break the weld and subsequently rupture the fault current if called upon to do so. Cireuit breakers frequently have eo interrupt asymmetrical cuttents, for a Tault can occur at any point in the cycle. Some may not be able to do this at the current zero following 2 major Inop of current, The are will reignite and interruption will be effected after the minor loop. However, when we consider recovery wollages it will be apparent that current amplitude is not the only influential factor in determining whether a breaker will sucecssfully interrupt. The rate of decay of the transient component of an asymmetrical current depends upon the time constant of the circuit, It is often referred to as the de, decrement of the circuit. It varies with the type of circuit and is usually expressed in terms of the X/A ratio rather than the £./R time constant. Typicul X/F ratios for different circuits are given in Chapter 13 Tf we know the time from the initiation of the fault to the parting of the circuit breaker contacts and the available fault current on the system, it ix possible to determine the actual current the breaker has to interrupt. Clearly ina circuit with a high decrement, the duty will be less severe than in une where the time constant is long. Tt is not usual for the opening of a breaker to be deliberately delayed in order that the current may become more symmetrical, Such considerations as limiting of damage at the fault, thermal overloading of lines and equipment, and system stability make it mandatory to remove the fault a3 soon as possible. Figure 3.3 gives same oscilloscopic records of closing transients showing the effect of varying the instant in the eyele at which current is initiated. Fxample 2: Capacitor Inrush Currents, Shunt capacitors, connected be- tween line and neutral or line and ground, are common sights on power Systems. They may be there to correct a lagging power factor, or in some cases, Lo provide voltage support for the system. In some applications they are switched in and out quite frequently ws the system load varies and the system voltage fluctuates. Tt will be shown thal such switching operations are hontrivial and should be carefully considered when designing capacitar banks und their associated switching equipment [1,2]. In this example we focus on the closing operation or energization of the capacitor bank, Quite often the capacitor hank is divided inta a number of parallel4200 SIMPLE SWITCHING TRANSIENTS (THE CIRCUIT CLOSING TRANSIENT _ 43 ea ie source CF Switching capacitors on a substation bus. Capacitor Bus (a) Vig, 3. sections which can be switched independently, In Fig. 3.4 there are two sections with their switches 8, and S,, The source intuctance is represented by /., while Z, represents the inductance of the Incal cireuil comprising the two capacitors and their bus and ground connections. Resistance is assumed to be negligible Consicier first the closing of switch 5,. It was shown in Section 2.3 (Eq 2.3.24) that the current that flows when an LC circuit is energized is given by ey (3.2.11) where Z,=(L/C)"? and (U0) is the instantaneous voltage driving the current. If the capacitor is discharged V(0) will be the instantaneous supply vollage. If the capacitor has an initial charge giving it a voltage V,-(0), this must be added to the supply voltage paying due regard to sign. Put another, way, (0) is the instantancous voltage ucross the switeh at the moment dt closing. For the purpose of calculating the transient inrush cusrent, it is common practice to treat this ux a constant voltage since the frequency of the transient current is usually much higher than the power frequency, so that the power frequency voltage changes very little during the period of interest. Relating Eq. 3.2.11 specifically to Fig. 3.4 we huve te} sieat curcents showing vatious degrees of symmetry. (a) He) = veo) 4) asymmetrical, (c} Fully axymenetrical ee vem (ee,y" 3.3. Examples of tra i (3.2.12) mactrical. (b) Partiull Consider a 34,5KV system, solidly grounded, with an available short cireuit current at the bus of 25kA rms, symmetrical. Assume C, 18 MWA bunk and C,— 0 MVA bank: for C,, VAVI- 1x WW, whence normal44° SIMPLE SWITCHING TRANSTENTS Fig. 3.5, Schematic diagram of cupac- Le : itor banks. = 2 60 Te current 1.8 107 “Wie Ms x10) thus, C,=401 aE Source reactance = 34.549 x 25 = 0.797 fh, so L =0.0021 IT (=2100 2H) Peuk inrush current if the switch doses al voltage peak (34, S93) (40.1 2000)? = 3,893 kA “This is more than 9 > peak 6 Hz current. Frequency = 1/2ar(i.€,)'? = $48 He (justifies assumption of constant sowree voltage). Consider next the closing of switch §,. As 4 first approximation we will neglect current from the sowree, This simplifies the circuit, leaving €,, C; aad EL, series-connected. £, depends entirely om the geometry or physical dimensions of the capacitor bank. A typical arrangement might be as shown in Fig. 3.5. ‘The inductance of buswork depends on the size of the conductor. For aluminum angles and channels often used in capacitor banks, a figure of 0.2 Hit is reasonable, For thinner conductors it could be (4 pI tt Using 0.3 wH fe gives £,=0.3« 64-192 pH 2 = 14.32 Gi C= 2228 wR oo Ee ‘THE CIRCUIT CLOSING TRANSIENT 45 ie ; na ‘Phe surge impedance of the eireuit = Z = (19.2/14.92) "= 1 1580. In- rush current from C to C,, assuming C, discharged and C, charged to peak “system voltage Zo, ~ GL SVE) (VS & 1.158) = 22.39 KAL peek! 10% Frequency of iarush current = => aavine = 9.00 KH ‘This justifies neglecting current from the source Hf C, has recently been disconnected and is being re-energized, it is -entiecly possible that it will retsin charge from its previous energization, In the extreme case, this trapped charge could give C, a voltage almost equal in cpiagnitude and opposite in sign to C,. The peak inrush current could then approach 48 kA. Such excessive high frequency currents can create problems for a oumber of reasons, First, they produce severe mechanical stresses, Second, they can fnduce undesirable transients in neighboring circuits; low power relay and control ciceuits being particularly vulnerable, This problem is discussed in Chupter 8. A variety of methods have beea considered and used for reducing Aansient intush currents on capacitor bank switching. 'Vhe surge impedance can be increwsed by the intentional addition of inductance in the form of u meactor, Resistance can be added to damp the oscillation (see Chapter 4), Dut unless this is shorted out following the operation, the steady-state losses are greatly increased. Shorting out requires 4 sccond switch which is more elaborate and costly. A critique of different solutions has been published by ‘O'Leury and Harner [3]. Another approach is to usc synchronuus switching which means closing the switching device al a selected point im the cycle, This is done, ideally, when there is ao voltage between the contacts. It requires carcful sensing, Precise and consistent mechanical operation of the switch and independent _Speration of the poles of the three phases. Moreover, there is always the Problem of prestrike, the tendency for the intercontact gap to breakdown _ and establish current before the contacts physically louch, because of the woltage stress between therm. For these reasons the method has not been Widely used. The source was ignored in the bank-to-bank switching operation ex: 4inined above. Its effect ix felt, however, in due course, The first rapid transient brings about an exchange of charge between the capacitors being itched; they are brought to a common voltage since losscs damp out the (ransient in practical installations, The common voltage is different from the Supply voltae, scx sccond transient follows curing which the two capacitor banks are restored ta supply potential. The initial inrush transient and the Oring transient can usually be treated separately, sinve the first is usually ted before the second has really started,4600 SIMPLE SWITCHING TRANSIENTS ‘The common voltage following inrush can be determined by considering charge conservation. The procedure will be illustrated with the example ot Fig. 3.4. 1 will be assumed that C, had a residual voltage of —8 KY at the time of switching and that the supply voltage was at a positive peak. Since charge is conserved when the capacitors ure connected together, CKO) + E41) = (C+ CE) (3.2.13) where V's) is the subsequent common voltage. Thus, CV (0)+ GVA) _ 40.1 = 28.17 22.28 8 ve) C+G ai. + 22.28 = 15 25kV ‘The instantaneous supply voleage is 28.17 kV (peak system yoltage) su that, i i 7 i ing as far above this value, as neglecting damping, the two capacitors will swing as they started below, i.c, from 15.25 kV to 41.09KV. The frequency of this restoring oscillation will be ee Tn af L(C,+ C0 =439.7 HE The current invotved is given by ECE v,-venl£ 7) sin ay pan sayle ~ (28.17 -18.25)(S 2) sin ey = 2.227 sin ot kA G.2.14) The whole transient disturbance is depicted in Fig. 3.6, Fig. 3.6, Vollge oscillations during bank-tw-bank capacitor switching. a TUE REMOVAL OF A SHORT CIRCUIT 47 3.3 THE RECOVERY TRANSIENT INITIATED BY THE REMOVAL OF A SHORT CI ny ‘The simplest circuit that can be chosen to illustrate this phenomenon is that shown in Fig, 3.7, It contains only what is necessary for the purpose. It is assumed that the load being fed through the cirewit breaker is suddenly isolated by the occurrence of a fault and that the fault is a dead short circuit. ‘The L is all the inductance limiting the current to the point of fault, and C is the natural capacitance of the circuit adjacent to the circuit breaker. Such capacitance always exists. It comprises capacitance to. ground through bushings, current transformers, andi so forth, and perhaps the capacitance of an adjacent transformer, as well as capacitance actoss the breaker contacts that will be grounded on one side by the fault. Circuit resistance und other forms of loss will be meglected at this Gime. When a fault occurs on a system, a substantial fault current usually flows. The parting of the circuit breaker contacts does not in itself interrupt the current, for an are will be established between the parting contacts, through which the current will continue to flow. Successful interruption depends upon controlling and Gnally extinguishing the urc. Different types of circuit breaker use a variety of different agencies to bring this about, Fortunately, in alternating current circuits at least, the current passes through zero twice each cycle. [tis ut une of these instants that interruption is actually effected. Tn the circuit of Fig. 3.7 the current is assumed to be symmetrical and will be completely reactive since il is limited entirely by inductance, This means that at the instant of current zero, the circuit voltage will be at a maximum. value, but the voliage al the switch comtacts, and therefore across. the capacitor (’, will be the are woltage. The relative importance of the arc Voltage varies, In high-voltage circuits it is usually only a small percentage af the system voltage. In low-voltage circuits it may be much more significant Fur the first examination of the cnsuing cvents, it will be assumed that the arc voltage is negligible. Tn this analysis, time will be measured from the instant of interruption when the fault current has just come to zero, Since the source voltage is a” Z Croult breaker ae Source Va Vex COs wt Fault Fig. 3.7. Equivalent circuit for studying the transient recovery voltage when a cireuit breaker clears a fault.48° SIMPLE SWITCIING TRANSIENTS sinusvidally varying quantity and is at its peuk at the moment, it is expressed ag Vi, cos wr, The circuit equation is thercfore te Sve ¥,, 608 aie (3.3.1) ‘There are two unknowns, Jand ¥,., so another relationship between them is required. "Chis is dV. -¢ (3.3.2) It for after the switch has cleared, the only path for current is into the capacitor, The combination of these equations gives Ve Le Vu ic dV, dt cos wt (3.43) Before solving this equation, Jet us consider, us we did with the closing transient in Section 3.2, what kind of a solution we might expect from the physical conditions in the circuit. Ultimately, after the cireuil breaker has completely cleared the fault, we would expect to sec across its contacts the voltage of the supply. But at the moment of clearing (= 0), the voltage is the previous arc voliage, which we have chosen to neglect. The voltage cannot change discontinuously because capacitor ( must be charged. We would therefore expect that following current zero, a transient would be initiated whereby C is charged from the supply through the inductance L. Our experience with LC circuits in Chapter 2 leads us to expect that this will cause an oscillation at the natural frequency of the circuit, . ‘The analysis is very similar 10 that used im Section 2.3. Let 1/0 = wy, and transform Eq. 3.3.3: x Sf la) — 3¥j,(0) — VECO) + aagucks) = a, Fat or s , Ft) Ste, rt Bela) = Mn + ¥Q(0) 3 iret aaa? we (s+ a rr + ag) "aaa Ie we neglect arc voltage the secoad term on the right is zero. The third term is also zero because, from Ex. 52 vq = 42 <0 THE REMOVAL OF A SORT CIRCUIT 49 Therefore only the first term remains. Now 5 (yw Ms? + we Therefore: and (COS 42! — COS ayl) (3.3.5) Equation 3.3.5 is the voltage appearing across the switch contacts alter current zero. It is the classical transient recovery voltage (TRY) described by Park and Skeats [4]. Almost invariably m, % ra, so that arjf(iay — Ww] =, Thus to a very close approximation, Vet) = ¥,, (008 at — cos ant’) (3.3.8) Indeed, it often happens that over the period of intercst (the time for which the natural frequency oscillation persists), there is little change in the power frequency term. In this casc Eq. 3.3.6 cam be further reduced to give Vet) = F,[1 — cos ot] (3.3.7) This is very evident from Figure 3.4 which shows an oseillogram of the current inlerruptivn periud. In this case the TRV uscillation (lower trace) lasts for abuut 600 ws. The decline of the current to zero can be seen in the upper trace. Tt will be noted that the TRY begins with a small excursion of the opposite polarity to the instantaneous system voltage. This indicutes some current chopping, a subject discussed in Sectiun 5.2. Events before and after current zero are depicted in Fig. 3.8. This diagram shows the accuracy of the predictions we made before starting the analysis. It was pointed oul then that there would be losses in the system that would damp out any disturbance created by the opening operation. This damping is not included in Bq. 3 ‘but has been Lntreduced into Fig. 3.8 und is evident in Fig. 3.9. Observe how the voltage approaches twice the Peak system vollage when the twn components interfere constructively. Up to the instant of current zeto, the capacitance in Fig. 3.7 has been Short circuited by the fault, With the successful operation of the cireuit breaker this constraint is removed; the source will therefore altempt to sharge the capacitance to its own potential. The situation is quite similar ta500 SIMPLE SWITCHING TRANSIENTS Trensient resouney volte, V4 interruption of the fault current that depicted as curve (b) in Fig. 2.4 and we see ihe inertial effect of the cinouit inductance causes ihe overswing of voltage we observed there If the natural frequency a, is high (if L or @ or both are very small}, the voltage across the switch contacts will rise very quickly; this is the case in Fig. 3.9, If this rate of application of the recovery voltage should exceed the rate of buildup of dielectric strength in the medium between the contacts, the breaker will be unable to hold off the voltage and a so-called reignitian will occur, This usually results in the switch carrying fault current for at least another half cycle. It is for this reason that im British Literature the recovery transient is often referred to as the restriking vollage. (Perhaps the two different names for the same phenomenon, recovery voltage and restrikiag Fig. Perimentally with corresponding current (upper trace) 9 Circuit breaker transient recovery voltage (lower trace) obtained es TIE REMOVAL OF A SHORT CIRCUIT sa voltage, reflect the basic optimism ar pessimism of American aud British gwitchgear engineers!) It is apparent that the rate of rise af the reeavery voltage, fcr... is an important factor is switchgear upplication. It gives a measure of circuit severity from a switchgear point of view. As already mentioned circuits that Jead to the highest res.y.s are those with high muturul frequencics, Aa gicored reactor is a good example. Consider such a choke with an inductance of ImH and an effective capacitance uf 400pF, its catural frequency will be $s ee as Ie(lo xe x1 Ny 399 OOM This represents a period of 4 jus. On a 13.8-KV circuit, neglecting damping, the voltage will swing to twice [he system peak in half a period. The mean rate of rise of voltage during this time is lherefore 2x 19.82 y Fag TS RVins This is beyond the clearing capability uf many circuit breakers. Another example of a very fast is that initiated on the elcaring of a “kilometric fault”, This is discussed in Chapter 9 _ ft was shown in Section 3.2 that when a switch is closed al random it is likely that the current will lack symmetry. It can have any degree of Ssymmctry, depending upon the instant ia the voltage cycle at which the Switch is closed. Similarly, a fault current can have any degree of asymmetry depending upon the time in the cycle at which the fault occurs, The circuit aker will again interrupt at current zero and the recovery voltage will estate about the instantancous value of the supply voltage. But with an asymmetrical fault current the voltage will ao longer be at its peak. Vhe raid recovery voltage is therefore not as high. This is illustrated in Pig. : ip although it was pointed uut that is not the case. For example, consider the arc voltage term in asform gives a cosine at the natural frequency wp, FAO) 608 wget N ‘ me A the value of the arc vollage at the time of current zero (1 <0), ot ctor always has the are voltage impressed across it as long as a ists. This adus toa similar term im the recovery voltage tending Se this switching transient. The effect is offset by a second cffect of$2 SIMPLE SWITCHING TRANSIENTS Asymmetrical feutt eurrent Fig. 3.19, Voltage tansient following the interruption of un asymmetrical current the are voltage, which is to oppose the current flow and thereby change the phase of the current, bringing it more into phase with the supply voltage, ‘Thos, when the switch clears, the supply voltage is aor at its peak. These: two effects are ilustrated in Fig 3.11, which should be compared with Fig, 3.8, where the are voltage hus beea ignored. 34 DOURLE-FREQUENCY TRANSIENTS ‘The simplest form of the double-frequeney transient is that initiated by opening the circuit breaker in the circuit shown in Pig. 3.12, [a this diagram 1, and ©, are dhe inductance and stray capacitance on the source side of the breaker. Here ZL, and C, might represent un inductive load and its stray capacitance (e.g., an unloaded transformer). When the switch operates in such a cireuit it completely divorces the load from the supply. Thereafter the two halves of the circuit behave independently. It is pussible to deduce what happens following such a switching operation without resorting to uny Fig. 3.11, The cffect of are voltage on the recovery Wansient adter switching, DOUBLE-FREQEUNCY TRANSIENTS 53 Scurce, Cy ca v Fig, 2.12. Circuit with (wo natural frequencics. matical analysis. Before the switch opening, the 60Hz voltage will m proportion to the inductances, that is, to a close approximation the ‘af the capacitors will be =e Ek; is likely that /.,® L,, otherwise the regulation would be very poor. so Cand C, are charged to something a little less than the instantaneous em 1 yotrage. When the current passes through zero, this voltage will be at peak. Following current interruption C, will discharge through L., with a al frequency given by —— SAT fi Inlb.o" GAT) While C,, now free to take up the source potential, will oscillate about value until the losses of the system damp out the disturbance. The ‘of this oscillation will be (3.4.2) ; iia and 3.134 fecovery voltage across the circuit breaker contacts will be the differ- between these two, as shown in Fig. 3.13¢ There are many other twa-lrequency circuils thal vecur in practice. One at is cneountered quite often is ones in Fig. 3.14, which also shows one a wows a circuit breaker clearing a short it on the secondary side of a eee. In this case /,, represents the ie Up to the transformer, L, the leakage inductance. of the trans while C, and C*, are the inherent system capacitances on either side € transformer. We recognize this as a deuble-trequency circuit by the two LE loops. ver, it is by no means clear what the natural frequencies are. becauseSH SIMPLE SWITCHING TRANSIENTS Fig. 3:13, Double frequency recovery transient, (a) Suse side transient, (1) Lou! side transient. [c) Recovery voltage across the switch, +i Trarstormer Fault Fig. 3.14. Haample of a two-irequeney circuit DOUBLE FREQUENCY TRANSIENTS 55 the loops are mutually coupled, Still more obscure is the relative amplitude ‘of the two component! frequencies. To determine the recovery transient we avast analyze the circuit Contrary to what one might suppose, the algebra rapidly becomes quite complicated, We assume that during the period of interest the change in the source voltage is negligible, It can then be represented hy a cunstant voltage ¥. Because the reaclance of C, at 60 Hz is very much highcr than the corresponding rewclances of L, and L;, it is safe to assume that the initial voltage distribution fs determined by the Ly or, more specifically, that the initial yoltage on C, is givem by by , ¥,(0) = Bali v (3.4.3) The following equations cam he wzitlen: pecan thes L [ V,=¥ Lap = ¥,,(0)+ Fay tf, — 4.) de (3.4.4) | tdi G45) di, dd, Slab (3.4.6) When transformed, these equations read as follows: ve (0) 4 Lysis) byl ()=- + ee LAG bl or i L ids) Ve tO) Vv ~i0o(ty ge)+ EPA eh 47 (y= (348) ¢ FH rysigts) + biQ(O) — Lastest LG) G49) ‘Vime is measured from the instant when the switch clears at current ze7, so that /,(0) = #,(0) =0. From Kgs. 3.4.8 and 3.4.9, (3.4.10) Substituting Fas. 3.4.10 amd 3.4.8 in Bq. 3.4.7,$6 SIMPLE SWITCHING TRANSIENTS ¥,,(0) Lacs 5 a “eg Tey aS Tae The expression on the left-hand side of Eq. 3.4.12 is « quadratic in st The equation can therefore be rewritten: tg + wi )ls? + 2 )u, (p= av(? - Bs) or 1 Bs vy fs) = av aaee Fete ted) Wreees oy as in which a, ,, 4, and B are constants, dependent upon the ciccvit parameters £,, C,, L,, and C. Inverse transforms for the twa terms can be obtained by taking partial fractions of by looking up the inverse transform in the table in Appendix 1, From there we find the sulution to be cus yt a sa tt ea ae 2 bale; — el) (3.4.14) PROBLEMS $7 It is clearly possible to write Fq. 3.4.14 in terms of the circuit constants £.,, ae but the expressions ure very lengthy because of the complicated relationships between these quantities and «, and a. At this. point (e., Eq, 3414) in a practical problem, one is well advised 10 substitute numbers before proceeding This exercise shows, if nothing cise, bow quickly the algebra and arith- metic hurgeon with a modest increase in the complexity uf the problem. For this reasun we explore in later chapters methods whereby some af this labor can be avoided, most notably by the use of a digital computer. PROBLEMS 3. Viewed from the point of fault, 2 three-phase system can be repre- sented by an ideal three-phase, 13.8 kV (tus) generator, with a series impedance of (0.02 | jU.43) O.phase. The system is solidly grounded. A tault-to-ground occurs on one phase when the imstautancous vol tage is 3.5kV and declining. Calculate the approximate value of the first and second peaks of the fault current. Calculate approximately the maximum force/meter on the phase and ground buses at « point where they run parallel, 20.em apart Without formal analysis involving differential equations, determine the voltage V,,across the capacitor in Fig. 3P.1. when a. A step of voltage, V, is upplivd ut the terminals A and 7 from an infinite bus b. A ramp of current, /'/, is injected from 9 current source inty the terminals 4 and & 3.3. Figure 3P.2 shows two capacitor banks, C, und C,. in a substation. C, is energized, hut ( is discharged. ‘The three-phase, 60112 ratings of the banks are: C,. 5MVA; C,, 3MVA, on a 13.8K¥ base, The smrce has @ short circuit r ing of 2hkA rms at 13.8kW. The inductance of the loop between C, and C,, represented by L, is 30 wIT.58 a4 38 SIMPLE SWITCHING TRANSIENTS ‘Capacitor banks. Fig. 37.2. Calealate the peak transient voltage that will appear on C, and the peak transient current that will flow in E,, if the switch S is closed at the peak of the voltage cycle. Point aut any assumptions you make, Fig. 3B = Figure 3P.3 represents one phase of a three-phase, 69 KV circuit, containing a source and a capacitor bank C, which is rated at 15 MVA ‘phase. C =60 wD Calculate: a. ‘The peak voltage that can be attained by © when the switch is closed and C has an initial voltage of +40 kV, recognizing that the closing can take place at any point in the cyele b, The time it will take for € to reach this voltage c. The peak current during the operation d, The steady state rms current passing through the switch after the transient has subsided (any practical circuit would contain some damping) PROBLEMS | 59 A line to ground fault occurs 48 indicated in Fig. 3P.4, close to the secondary terminals of a 2¥)(34,$ kV transformer. The Lrausformer has a three-phase rating of H10MWA; it has 0.1 pu reactance on this base. Calculate: a. The fault current bh. The time to peak of the transient recovery voltage when the circuit breaker opens ta interrupt the fault current. A value of 12.7 nF can be assumed for the effective capacitance per phase of the transformer secondary winding. 3.6 ii 0 its Ly Fig. aP-8. The capacitor ©), in Fig, P3.5 is initially charged to VQ(0): C, is uncharged. Show that when the switch is closed, the voltage across Cy is of the form Vo) = AV, (0}{608 wt — 008 vt} Determine the constants A, o,, and ary a7 Fig, 17.6, The circuit in Fig. 3P.f represents one phase of a three-phase installation in which capacitors can be connected to, or removed from, a 230KkV bus, The reactanees are based on 250M VA, three: phase, ‘The switch 5, has been closed for some time, The switch ¥, is closed when the supply voltage of this phase is 20° beyond its peak4.8 or a SIMPLE, SWITCHING [RANSIENTS and C, is completely discharged. Compute the lowest voltage und the highest voltage that the point # attains during the transient disturb- ance thul follows the closing of 5, AUSNKEW AS. RV 20 MVA, thice-phase trumsfonmer has a reactance cof 10% and a resistance of 0.4%, Calculate tu a reasonably close approximation the peak fault current in the low voltage winding, under the worst conditions, if a three-phase fault occurs at the low voltage terminals. For the purpose of the calculation the impedance of the source can be considered negligible. Wf the fuult current is interrupted by # circuil breaker ou the high voltage side of the transformer, and if the eapacilance per phase of ihis winding is 5200 pF, determine the frequency of the transient recovery voltage seen by the breaker. Refer azain to Problem 3.8. Let us now assume that the impedance of the 138kV source is not neglisille and that it has the same XR ratio as the transformer itself. Let us further state that a symmetrical fault on the 138k¥ bus would develop a fault current of 18 KA runs. Determine the frequency and relative magmitude of the transient recovery vollage of the circuit breaker when it interrupts the fault described in Problem 3.2, Assume that the stray capacitance on the source side of the breaker ix 12,000 pF. Fig, 30.7. The circuit shown in Fig. 3P-7 is designed for “synthetically” testing circuit breakers, i.e., making a meaningful test on a breaker without a power system or large lest generator. The circuit breaker under test, 5,, is initially closed. The test starts by closing $, (this will prohatly be some kind of triggered gap), which causes C,, which has been previously charged, to discharge through $, and the reactor f.. The contacts of 8, are opened soon after this current starts to Mow. 5; arcs until current zero, at which time, if intetruptian oecurs, the circuit automatically applies a Wansient recovery voltuge across 5, It is required to test a brewker with a peak current of ISkA ut 60/Hz, and then apply a TR¥ with a peak of 20kW at 9N0TIz. What a REFERENCES 6 should he the values af C,, C,, and £, and to what initial voltage should C, be charged? Make a sketch showing: a. The current through ¥, b. The voltage on C, before und after current 210 e. ‘The TRY If the X/R ratio of the transformer im Problem 3.5 ix 12, calculate the peak value of the fault current if the fault occurs when the voltage 7 past its peak 32 100 oF: 40 xf Omi; fe, — 20 iH Fig. 3B. C, and L, in Fig, 3P8 are oscillating; C, and P, are de-cnergized. The switch is closed when Vj, ~ 0 ancl J, =500.A. Calculate: a. Peak voltage reached on C, b. Peak current reached inf; c. Frequency of the current inf, d. Magiamm voltage on €, prior to clusiug the switch REFERENCES 1.8.8, Mikhail und M. F. MeGramughin, “Evaluation of Switching Con: coms Associsted with $5kW Shunt Capacitor Applications,” Tras. IEEE, Vol. PWRD-1 (1885), No. 2, pp. 221-230. M. McCauley, D. L; Pelfrey. W. C, Roetiger and C.B. Wood, “The Inupact of Shunt Cupacitur Installations on Power Cireuit Breaker Appli tions,” Trans. 166, Vol. PAS-99 (1980), pp. 2210-2222 3. R. P. O'Leary and R. Hl. Hamer, “Evaluation of Methods for Controlling the Overvoltages Pruduced by Energization of a Shunt Cupacitor Bank,” CIGRE Report Ne. 13-05 (1988) 40K 11, Park and W. F. Skeitts, Magnitudes und Kates of Tise,’ 2-24 “Circuit Breaker Recovery Voltages, Trans. ATER, Vol, 50 (1931). pp.4 Damping 4.1 SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE RLC CIRCUI All LC cireuits that we have cxamined have been loss-free in that no dissipative element hes been included. But all practical circuits have losses: arising primarily from circuit resistance and ivon losses in equipment. In addition, the system loads represeat very important dissipative elements. Whether loads or losses, the dissipation is accommodated by including resistance in the circuits. In making transient analyses, all losses usually are: neglected in the first instance, grcutly reducing the complication of the calculations, Moreover, this approach leads to solutions that give severely high avervoltuges. Once the general behavior of the circuit has heen established, the modification introduced by the system losses can be consid- ered separately, Latroclucing resistance always has the effect af damping out the natural oscillations of a circuit. How quickly this occurs, or indeed whether the circuit cam oscillate at all, will depend upon the exteat of the losses, or, put another way, the valuc af R relative to the values of £ and C. This chapter is devoted exclusively to studying two very important circuits, the parallel and series RLC circuits, which ace illustrated in Pig 4.1. These circuits are considered important because the networks involved in many practical transient problems in power systems can be safely reduced other of these configurations for the purpose of analysis. In nstances, the network ean be reduced to a number of these simple circuits which are su loosely coupled that, on being treuted indepen- dently, they yicld results al acceptable engineering accuracy [1]. ‘The behavior of electric cigcuits is surprisingly simple. This is especially truc of the two circuits now uader consideration. The differential equations describing the two circuits im their transient stale are essentially similar. For the parallel circuit, Fig. 41a, the equation can be written as 2 vais oi Ae it + em (4.4) where de cum be the current in any of the branches, or the voltage across the circuil, The F(¢) depends upon the drive. For the series circuit, Fig. 4.14, the equation is ae Rd we oe ane +Te = fo (4.12) 62 SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE KLE CIRCUIT 63 2 £ Fig. 4.1. Parallel and series REC’ circnils fo) thy where dis the voltage across uny component of the current through the circuit. We note that the only difference hetweea Eqs. 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 is in the coefficients of their second terms. ‘These cvelficignts are themselves interesting. To satisfy Eys. 4.11 and 4.1.2 they must have the dimensions of T ‘, Accordingly we designate them us follows: parallel circuit time constant = RC = Tp (4.1.3) Pere ore t seriew cireuit time constant = 5 ~ Ty Observe that the product of these lime constants is the square of the angular perind of the undamped cir mrenestt G14) If we define a parameter q as the rulio of the resistance R to the surge impedance, 7%, =(L/C)' that is, m=z (4.15) then the quotient of the time constants 7), and i’, is eyual 10 9: 7 RC (4.1.6) These relationships lead tu a duality in the analysis of the series und parallel Circuits, While the basic phenomena in these two circuils are. simple, the solutions to the equations can be complicated. There is ample scope for efor in Manipulating the algebra, To reduce the computational labor once the fundamental ideas have been grasped, we use the following approach to short cut several stages of the nucmal analysis of a problem.64 DAMFING ‘There is a small number of transforms that appear regularly in the ational solutions for problems involving these circuits, We shall invest the effort required to find their inverse Wransfurms and then we shull plot these inverse Uansforms in 3 seties of dimensionless curves using 7, Uefimed in Eq. 4.1.6, asa parameter. Thereafter, when we cnowunter these trans- forms in solving practical problems, the solutivas can be extracted from these curves With about the sume effort as one would expend in using a graph of 2 trigonometric function. - 4.2 THE BASIC TRANSFORMS OF TIE REC CIRCU 1S Before proceeding to the general approach just described, we look at a few specific problems. ‘This will help verity some of the assertions that have been made and introduce the basic transtorms referred to im the last section Consider the solution for the current in the inductor in the parallel circuit, when 4 awiteh is closed in the capacitor branch, allowing C to discharge through R and Z. Let this current be f,, ‘he current from the capacitor must be equal to the sum of the currents im the other Iwo branches. Calling the capacitor voltage V., ee alte (4.24) We may also write (4.2.2) Eliminating V, from Figs, 42.1 and 4.2.2, or On a 1 di, ae Ne le te ey (4.2.3) aT. da TF which accords with the ussertion made in Eq, 4.11. Here F(t) is zero because there is no cxternal drive. Jn the symbols of the Laplace transform, Eq. 4.2.5 may be written THE BASIC TRANSFORMS OF THE @LC CIRCUITS 65 f 1 (sien rate But /,(0)=0, and from Ey, 4.2.2, 13(0)= We(0)/L. With these substitu: tions in Eg, 4.2.4 Digtsy~ (++ Para) +10) (42.4) vet) 1 4.25 Lo oP +irpys (i {42'3) ifs) = 7 Equation 4.2.5 contains the basic transform of the parallel ACE circuit. Te, of variations of it, always appear in the operational salution when such a circuit is disturbed, The transfer is evaluated in the following manner: ie art amt Pe retstpt (ry Wo ayes.) =e a 3) 8 wheres, anes, are the roots of s* + Un'Ty) +1 'T°}=0 and are given by ‘Thos (4.2.77 We recognize # simple transform here and can write the inverse transform teadily: Ve(O) LULIT) - A ‘The form of this solution will depend upon the values of s, uni s,, From Eq. 42.6, if 17] 2477", then 9, and sy are real, Tf, on the other hand, UT. fm bap ay 8] : . (4.2.00) Le jan? Uy" -jt4n?- 1 ae (you or (4.2.11) ¥V-(0) 27 pe “7% £4) = ra aay? For the inverse of the basic transform with which we started (Ey. 4.2.5), we can now write oe 1 2 vs(T,) ve cael sin (4 1°? 5 FE aed ot Toppa ialdn - UO oF This looks rather formidable, but it will soen be apparent that at 1s mot as bad as it would appear. There are two features about the expression that are worth noting. First, it involves only the parameter 7 and the time constant Tp. Second, wherever ¢ appears it is divided by 27,. We shall take advantage of these facts shortly. Meanwhile, consider the case ia which 5, and s, are real. When y=}. snap i GI soled iy ee 2 tr, | (1—4y")"] Vherefore, the inverse transform is somewhat different: ‘ 4 _ vite F4+G/T,) 1 (UT?) (4n* Sea! PST ape TE aye _t =e ea pedis aoe i= a ( THE BASIC TRANSPORMS OF THE ALC CIRCUITS, 67 The corresponding solution to the problem (Eq, 4.2.8) is obtained by multiplying Ey, 4.2.14 by F(0)! There remains one other possil y=1/2, The transform is then of slightly different form, 1/[s4(1/27p)/, which we have not evaluated. We can Teadily see what the result will he by considerin; the limit of Eq, 4.2.14 as n> 1/2. Let (14a)? = a, and let 27 ua ‘ qe oo sinh aly =a" "r+ sinha’ Sr = (4.2.13) =te"Tr (4.2.16) There are thecefore three solutions for the current in the inductor ef a parallel RLC circuit when the capacitor is discharged through the other wo branches. The form of the solution depends upon the vulue of 7. These solutions ure collected together again here fer convenience: V(t) 27 pe TF ‘ Tele) = Ye) Fe in tag” 1? trom (42.11) E - Th Hay= sacte from (4.2.16) VO) 2T,¢ Or rs Hye eee inh (1 —4y?)? from (4.2.14) Lo ia) aT, Examples of each solution are shown in Fig. 4.2. Suppose now that instead of the inductor current F, we wish to find the capacitor voltage V;,. Them starting with the same Bags. 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 we eliminate the current, Differentiating Eq. 4.2.1: ay, dt fe ay, dt ele RC dt ie L +¢ (4.2.37)68: DAMFING THE BASIC TRANSFORMS OF THE REC CIRCUITS 69 AAC Therefore KA) = RO but £,(0)-0, so ¥.(0)__ ¥-(0) 5 a0) - -— 42.21 V0) ise T, (42.20) When this is substituted in Eg. 4.2.19, it cancels with part of the first term ‘on the right and gives for the operational solution a Hels} = Uie(H 42.21 volt} = vel aT Fy) « } Equation 4.2.21 contains the second important transform associated with the parallel Ki.C! circuit: ae w'+(a/T,) + (T") This is the transform ot Eq. 4.2.1 multiplied by 5. It is apparent from Eg. 2.2.12 that multiplying a transform by s hus the effect of differentiating ant inverse trunsfocm: a et ‘ver damped * — . cides 1 OO) Vig. 4.2. The induetor current in x paraliel RLC cirewit for ditterent depres of eet Faeyr) damping, (4.2.23) Equation 4.2.22 allows the transfurm lo be evaluated at once from the first Substitute for dffde from Eq, 4.2.2, asic cinnstorm Fer n= 1) Bo aa or (4.2.18) si (T) tit?) satel 2 yur _t t [cos (4y WW" oe For = 1/2 This is identical in form to the equation for current. Transforming Eq. : . ne ( a i got Sg 4.2.23) 4.2.18 gives [P+Ot le \ a7! : } fs ‘ane 3 (t+ = i Fadel) (s+ Fi) ¥et0) + velOy (42.19) For n<1!2 Sure Ws ae It is evident from Eg. 4.2.1 that + (iT) 40 IT) ape dull) Baty “ny sinh (1-477 ot Hee Re _ Gay? 2,qo) DAMPING Fig. 4.3. Exciting an RIC circuit with a camp of current. There is one other important transfurm that is frequently encountered with the parallel RLC circuit, and that is f — Tp) VEE) sis ‘Asan example of how this cun arlsc, consider what happens if such a circuit is excited by a ramp of current, J’t as shown in Fig. 4.3. The current increases uniformly at a tate of f A/s. We ussumeé the cirewit is initially dead, that is, there are no currents flowing in any branch and © is discharged. ‘After the ramp of current is applicd, the currents ia the three branches are: In the resistor: fra av dt In the inductor: h- zc In the capacitor; = Their sum is the injected current J't: HO aD i ye RICHIE dt= le or, differentiating, 4224) ‘Taking transforms, 1 f ( Lo aso (e+ e+ p)ebl=5e i [s+ - \wewy+ voy (4.2.25) ; THE BASIC TRANSFORMS OF THE RLC CIRCUITS 71 Now, ¥(0)—0 and F'{0)- 0 also, since ¥'(0)— ¢-(0)/C and initally there is no current in any branch of the cireuit. Equation 4.2.25 therefure reduces to 1 t Sean e (4.2.26) ves) This is the third transform we spoke of. This transform can be evaluated with the aid of Eq, 2.2.1, which says that to multiply a transform by 1/5 is to integrate its inverse transform. So the inverse transform of Eq. 4.2.26 can be obtained by integrating Eqs, 4.2.12, 4.2.14 or 4.2.16, depending on the yaluc of 7. Alternatively, we can take partial fractions: 1 sly? + (T+ 2/1 3 (4.2.27) WHET) Tf +e (UT This inverse iransform of cach term on the right has been obluined before. ‘The result is as follows; For n> 1/2: 1 Brena Perera ae tiT FOP For y=1/2: — =(2T,1| vara Tae QT] Loe (1 For y=1!2: 1 i f sinh (1 —4y ! ¢ = ee | [a+ tse) + ry a—4r) es ayv2 fT + cosh (1 4y°) ll (4.2.28) We now have expressian for the inverse transforms of the three basic transforms72 DAMPING 1 5 1 Foetaotdiny Ft) =e peers IT of the parallel KLC circuit, As predicted in Section 4.1, the expresstuns ure complicated. ‘Te simplify we teduce the solutions to sets of dimensionless curves for different values of 4. 43 THE GENERALIZED DAMPING CURVES The best approach to this subject is to consider a specific example. In Eq. 42.11 it was shown that ben the capacitor im a parallel ALC circuit is discharged through the other two branches. the inductor current is vive by ¥A0) 27, * nine a an M2) 42.1) We observe that wherever { appears, it appears ia conjunction with the time constant Ty, Let ¢/2n ~ 1/27, so that (43) where, as before, Tis the ungular period Lf of the undamped wave, and time is therefore measured in units of this amount Substituting Eq. 4.3.1 in Fq. 4.2.11 via) aye ot L()=—+~T a fay ym sn an 0" ‘The first part of this expression, V(O)/''L, can be written K(N)Z, inasmuch as TYE = (LC) V4, = 1/Z,. As expected. it has the dimensions of current, ‘The remainder of the expression, (4.3.2) Ty sin (4? —1)*? 29 is dimensionless, being a function of the ratios y and ¢' _ Consider the situation where there is no damping, which is reached in the limit as — =, For this special case Ey. 4.3.2 reduces to (4.3.3) which is a sinusoidul current with a peak amplitude V(0)/2,, Mur any finite value of 9, sin! must be repluced by the Lunetion x THE GENERALIZED DAMPING CURVES 73 fia = va sin Gby™ 434) weft IE (4-1) A family of curves is drawn for f,() in Fig. 4.4 (or different values of y with fas the independent variablc, ‘These curves can be used to evaluate tir’) whenever this transformer occurs. All that is necessary is lo compute the value of » for the circuit being studied. ra 1? sin (dy? — 1)" 32H being, R eye year?) ‘here =p -R(F) ire For series ciscuits, substitute A for erly14 DAMPING ef Fig. 4.5. Subsidence transient in a parallel RL’ circuit. The peak of the undamped waw sets the vertical scale for the curves, and knowing 7 we have determined which curve represents our solution. Equa- tion 4.3.1 simplifies the obtaining of a time scale. An example will help to clarify this procedure. Figure 4.5 illustrates the problem discussed at the beginning of Section 4.2. In that section an expression was dcrived for the current in the inductor when the switeh § is closed, We will now muke use of that analysis and the dimensionless curves of Fig. 4-4 to obtain a numerical solution for the values shown in Fig. 4.5, “The uperational solution for J, was given in Eq. 4.2.5; 1 pa(lir’y ‘The structure of the transfurm tells us that our curves im Fig. 4.4 are appropriate, The first step is to calculate the surge impedance of the circuit: rat? paseiorty" 4=(2 aa ) =a Next, obtuin 7; R _ 430 === 7-152 ze ms ee ‘This means that the curve identified as = 1.5 in Fig. 4.4 closely represents the form of the current J, - Without any damping the current peak would be V(0) _ 20,000 i 2S =WI7A Because of the damping introduced by R, the curve fora = 1.5 peaks ar only 1.65 of this value: 1, (peak) = 70,7 * U.65 — 46.0.4. THE SERIES ALC CIRCUIT s To obtain w time scale, we must find the angular period T: T-(LCy? = (8 10 9 1077)? = 28S as This means that euch unit of f in Fig, 4.4, for this specific probiem, represents 24.3 cs. ‘This means that /, reaches its first peak after approxi- mately 38 ws, and the frequency of the damped oscillation is approximately 4306H7 The numerical answers to this problem were gleaned directly from the generalized curves, out recourse to evaluating or even reaching the expression for J, derived in Kg. 4.2.11. Ina very real sense, the curves of Fig. 4.4 are a graphical representation af the expression are 1 H(i Tp FE) ‘There is no necd to evaluate the transform for each problem, sinec this has becn done. We now po directly from the operational sofution of a problem to the selution proper in graphical form In precisely the same manner, and with exactly the same substitutions {letting (27, = 1/2) that were applied in developing the curves of Fig. 44, the inverse transforms L et TD i 4 WIT) FE ee ean also be represented by sets of dimensionless curves for different values ofp. This hus been done in Figs. 4.6 and 4.7. We shall make extensive use of all these curves im later chapters of this bouk, In the meantime we direct attention to the RLC circuit shown in Fig. 4.16. 4.4 ‘THE SERTES REC CIRCUIT At the beginning of this chapter, it was asserted that the basic equations describing the behavior of paralicl and scrics NC circuits were identical in form, as given in Kgs. 4.1.1 and 4.1.2. An example will now he taken to demonstrate this point. Suppose a battery of voltage V is connected to a Stties REC circuit in which the capacitor is initially discharged. What current will flow? Let the unknown current he #. Adding the voltage around the circuit leads to the following equation 42d 4] mobo +e | tanv (44.1)16 | DAMPING Differentiating Ey. 44.1 and rewrronging, ai k ait Lat (4.4.21 ‘This is indeed of the same form as Eq. 4.1.2. Introducing the series time constant FIR = 7,, Eg. 4.4.2 can be rewritten as ai ido Bae poe (4.4.3) Transforming this equation, ite) — s0(0) — 2'¢oy 4 HEL AO) hs) 7, T, or + Ein FO) (4.4.4) Inasmuch as the circuil is inductive, the current must start fram zero when the battery is connected, therefore 0)-0, Also, from physical reasoning, it is clear that (0) = FYE, since at the moment of closing the switch, there is no vollage on the capacitor, and / =0. therefore the only tenm in Eq. 4.4.1 is the second. Inserling this information into Eq. 4.4.4, ine MYST st ity tain) ‘This is the same basic transform that we obtained frem the parallel RLC circuit. The form is precisely the same, the difference in detail is the appearance of Ty rather than 7’, in the coelficieat of s. The inverse transform can be derived by the same steps Lhul were used with the parallel circuit, and perhaps not surprisingly, the results ure similar. For the oscillatory condition, 0285 sin (4a? — 1)? (44.6) : By Vhis is the same as J, in the parallel circuit with the substitutions of T, for T,. and A for 7. The parameter A is the reciprocal of , that is, Zy 447) THE SERIES ALC CIRCUIE TT Similar expressions for the current can be developed for the critically damped and overdamped conditions: inte (a=12) = (4.4.8) vo 27, = ern : eS h{1—4a7y” 5 (A= 1/2) pa ain ar a-4a) . (4.9) We note that for critical damping A= 1/2 or R=22,. If R<2%, the circuit is oscillatory, if R= 2Z, the creuil is overdamped. Contrast this with the paralle] ireuil. Here for critical damping = 1/2 or R= 2/2. The circuit is oscillatory if R~ Z,!2; it ts overdamped if R= Z,'2, This interest ing duality extends much further. [t is clear from the example: just studied that For A» 1/2: (4.4.10) For A<1/2: nat sr sinh (1-4a7y'* i x a Dy iT) +s With the substitution of A for y and 7°, for T,., these arc identical to the corresponding inverse tiansforms for the parallel circuit set down in eys, 4.2.12, 4.2.14, und 4.2.16. Consequenily, making the same substitutions, ihe generalized curves of Fig. 4.4 developed for she paraltet circuit can be wed equally weil far the series circuit, By an extension of the same reasuning, this is alsn true of the curves of Figs. 4.6 und 4.7, For the series case : ‘Vhat is, as before, time is measured in units equal to the period of the undamped wave, We will now illustrate how the generalized damping curves are used to solve a practical power system problem.78 0 DAMPING Fig. 4.6. Plot of the function sett _ sine(ay? = 1)" 2n (49° 1) = |eost 4a? 1 being For series circuits, substitute A for 1. THE SERIES ALC CARCUIT 79 | aa! 1 1 Fig. 4.7. Plot of the function way f Sindy? 1) ati 2 tae.) Abia yim Fg ye nen} being ae! 1 _k ey et pe aE Fw) TD] embere sm eel: ea800 DAMPING 4.5 RESISTANCE SWITCHING Many circuit breakers, especially those used in transmission circuits, employ resistors in the course of their operation [2]. Their primary use in moder ircuit breakers is to reduce voltage transients on clo uw subject that is discussed in chapter 9. However, they were used originally during opening [3] and still provide w useful function at these times, when they arc present, Such resistors serve one af two tunctions. In a multibreak circuit breaker they miay be used to help to distribute the transient recovery voltage more uniformly across the several breaks. Alternatively, their purpase is to reduce the severity of the Lansieat recovery voltage al the time of interruption by inwodueing damping into the oscillation, A resistor of comparatively high ohmic valuc would suffice for the first af these duties. The only requirement would be thut its resistance be low compared with the reactance of the capacitance shunting the breaks al the frequency of the recovery transient, To reduce the transient recovery voltage requires a considerably lower value of resistor. Figure 4.8 shows a typical resistance switching circuit reduced to its barest essentials, Im this figure, L represents the system inductance, €' the stray capacitance shunting the breaker, and A the resistor used to modify the recovery transient. When the fault current proper hus been switched, a residual current will remain flowing through &. This must be interrupted subsequently by opening the auxiliary interrupter &. We now show how to determine the valuc of R to achieve a desired modification of the transient recovery voltage in any particular situation. It was explained in Section 1.5 and illustrated in Fig. 14 how the principle of superposition can be used to calculate Lransient recovery voltages. This is done by determining the response of the circuit 10 a current equal in magnitude but of opposite sign to the fault current, when itis injected inte the circuit at the switch contacts, Viewed from the switch contacts, the eireuit elements KR, L, und C appear in parallel, Let us suppose that the fault current being interrupted is symmetrical. Lt will be given by Véml.. The problem thus reduces to that represented symbolically in Fig. 4.9, The transient period of interest is usually short compared with the time for a hall cycle of the injected current wave, This is because the natural frequency of Ceeun breaker oy a * Source () ® 2 Fault ~ : Fig. 4.8, Circuit breaker. with shunt resistor, cle va Laull. 81 Fig. 49 Equivalent circuit fur the resistance switching problem, the circuit is usually much higher than the power frequency. For this reason the injected current can be Lreated a5 a ramp, of slope VL amp/s or v r at (45.1) where V is the instantaneous system voltage at the moment of interruption. This is precisely the sume circuit and the same stimulus as we examined in Section 4.2 und illustrated in Fig. 4.3. It was shown there that the oper- en by ational solution for the switch voltage was gi sale as +(9'T,) +0! in which /*= VL. The inverse transforms for this expression were given in Eq, 4.2.28 for different values of 4, bul, more important, their form was. shown in the generalized curves of Fig. 4.7. The (1 — cosine) wave, for which q=«, is the unmodified, undamped recovery transient. The other curves show the cffect of introducing watious vulues of shunting resistor, which the different values of imply. A specific example will make this cleur Consider a 345 KV, 25,000) MVA, three-phase air blast circuit breaker, Itis capable of interrupting approsimately 40,000 4, which might be accom- plished by having two breaks or interrupters in series. Withuut damping of any kind, interrupting a symmetrical current, it was shown in Section 3.3 that the transient recovery voltage wmuld reach w peak of twice the system Yoltage. In this example, this would be 2 x MSv2/W3 = 582 KY, for a system with grounded neutral, Suppose that it is desired to reduce the voltage to 0% of this value or approximately 1-8 fer 9, Before this can he translated into a specific ohmic value for the resister, we must know more about the circuit. A 345 kV system with an available fault current of 40.000 A has a 60 Hz reactance of 345,000 40,0003 {L. which represents an inductance of 13.2mH. This then is the / in Fig. 4.9. A typical value for the capacitance C of a 345 kV bus to which the breaker is connected might be 25,000 pE. This gives, for the surge impedance of the bus,82 DAMPING Now, ify - 1-8, R-yéy= 18 * 25-130 Et ‘Thus, to achieve the required reduction of transient recovery voltage, euch of the two interrupters in the circuit breaker should be shunted with 650.0. Figure 4.10 shows an actual resistur designed for this kind of duty, ‘This has a luwer ohmic value so that il would effect an even greater reduction in the transient voltage peak in the situation just cxamined, Note how the resistor is fashioned to reduce its inductance. Any inductance in the resistor will reduce its clfecliveness. Accordingly, it is farmed from a thin ribbon of stainless steel. The cibbon goos hack and furth between the inner and outer radii, progressing around the circle. Alternate Tayers are progressed in opposite directions so as to reduce the inductance still further. When the resistor current is subsequently interrupted a sccond transient will be initiated. To study this it is necessary to introduce the capacitance ©", shunting the resistor break, and, if it is significant, the inductance of the local loop ta the fault, This is shown as am cquivalent circuit in Fig, 4.11. A LOAD SWITCHING = a4 é i 5 ET alae | ape Le i ee Fig. 4.11. Resistance switehing—equivalem circuil for interrupting the resistor current. ‘This appears tw be a more complicated circuit than we have analyzed sa far. but it can be sclved along jar Fines. 4.6 LOAD SWITCHING The most frequent functions performed by some switching devices are to switch on and switch off loads, which in many instances can be represented by @ parallel RL cirenit. Low power factor loads will be predominantly inductive, high power factor loads predominantly resistive. When such a load is switched off, the effective capacitance of the load becomes important ia determining the form of the transient generated. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.12, ft is obvious that this resembles the resistunce switching just described (cf. Fig. 4.9). The load depicied in Fig. 4.12 has a relulively high power factor. When Fig, 4.12. Transient evoked when switching a load. (a) Simple equivalent circuit. (1 ‘Tronsicnt wullage actos the load. (c) Transient voltage across the switch