Fashion Brand Management:

Fashioning Value Through CSR

Dr Elaine L Ritch
Glasgow Caledonian University
UK
ABSTRACT
This chapter considers the potential of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) to address
concerns that garment-worker exploitation was involved in fashion production. It looks back
to the success of philanthropy from the Victorian era in alleviating poverty and empowering
employees. The chapter also considers evidence from the Hawthorne Studies to support
implementing CSR for the benefit of employees and business, backed up with more recent
examples from Sri Lanka. This is followed by exploring two fashion organisations for which
CSR activities are central to their operations and finally, the chapter draws to a close by
presenting excerpts from consumer interviews as they evaluate fashion garment labels that
address the workers involved in producing fashion.
INTRODUCTION
The mission of this chapter is to expand theoretical knowledge as well as to explore the
opportunity for fashion brand managers to position Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as
underpinning equitable production practice and increasing value for consumers. Through
considering the emergence of philanthropy in the Victorian era which addressed social
inequality, the chapter argues for the potential of CSR to communicate to consumers that the
fashion they purchase is not a consequence of garment-worker exploitation. Although CSR
can include recognition that practice incurs negative consequences upon the environment
(Sen & Bhattacharya, 2001), particularly for the fashion industry through: dyes that filter into
drinking water (Lee & Sevier, 2008), the impact of pesticides to increase cotton production
(Dahllf, 2003) and the long term consequences of textile waste in landfill sites (Shaw et al
2006), the focus of this chapter considers only garment-worker exploitation. The reasons for
this are twofold; firstly, the consumer data presented at the end of the chapter illustrates that
it is garment-worker exploitation that is foremost to consumer concern, due in part to the
success of campaigns which seek to improve conditions and salaries for garment-workers;
secondly, the chapter aims to compare philanthropy from the Victorian era as providing a
template to improving poverty and inequality, something that could be implemented by
brands and retailers who want to provide assurance to consumers that the fashion they
purchase has not been a consequence of exploitation.
For a number of decades, fashion production has incurred allegations of garment-worker
exploitation to ensure competitive pricing. Although not all consumers are concerned for the
provenance of their consumption, research (Ritch & Schrder, 2012; Szmigin, Carrigan &
OLochlin, 2007) has identified that those who do struggle to source fashion which addresses
the issue of garment-workers salaries and working conditions. With some exceptions, such

as H&Ms Conscious Collection and Nikes publication of CSR activities (that includes listing
all their suppliers), fashion retailers are yet to respond to the issues of concern. Further,
H&Ms Conscious Collection positions the environment as more of a focus than garmentworkers and Nikes publication of suppliers does not succinctly provide consumers with
easily digestible information that aids decision-making, although both acknowledge the
growing awareness for CSR. This chapter will explore the potential to position CSR as
responding to increased concern for garment-workers through examining social reform,
addressing inequality, as well as increasing productivity. The chapter reviews literature from
a number of areas, including CSR, ethics, consumer behaviour and management theories, all
of which contribute to the potential of implementing a CSR model within fashion production
to appeal to consumers virtuousness. The chapter also includes examining the approach of
two current fashion brands: Marks and Spencers and jacobs well, who both situate CSR as
focal to their business model. Finally, the chapter concludes by arguing the importance of
CSR with research analysing consumers evaluation of garment labels which include
information on production and the workers involved making the garments.
BACKGROUND
The fashion industry has experienced a number of changes in practice over the last few
decades, primarily due to the emergence of the fast-fashion business model which is reliant
on global sourcing to reduce the price of production (Jones, 2006). The term fast-fashion
refers the amount of time taken from the conceptual design to the garment being available to
the consumer (Morgan & Birtwistle, 2009; Bruce & Daly, 2006). Barnes & Lea-Greenwood
(2006) found that fast-fashion was driven by consumer demand and that price is considered
the main driver for consumption. This has a number of implications for both the environment
and workers involved in garment construction. In terms of the environment, scarce resources
are required to cope with increasing demand, including water and energy (Allwood,
Lauresen, de Rodriguez & Bocken, 2006) and ultimately increased consumption ends in
landfill (Morgan & Birtwistle, 2009). Conjointly there are allegations that garment-workers
in developing countries are exploited through low salaries and long hours to attract
consumers in developed countries through competitive pricing (Hearson, 2006). There are
also allegations that children are involved within fashion supply-chains (Kolk & van Tulder,
2002). Neil Kearney from the International Textile, Garment and Leather Workers
Federation stated Theres no such thing as cheap clothing; somebody has to pay and in this
case its the workers (Dhariwal, 2009). It could be argued that there is an opportunity for
CSR in fashion brand management to acknowledge such criticisms through providing
information on the garment-workers and the fashion industries efforts to avoid exploitative
practice.
PHILANTHROPY AND SOCIAL REFORM
The philosophy behind CSR as addressing socially desirable activities and inequality
capitalises on notions of philanthropy from the Victorian era. Philanthropy embodies
altruistic notions for human welfare and advancement through activities that support this. The
idea was that profitability and production lies in tangent with respecting workers rights. This
includes ensuring humane working conditions, salaries that allow dignity and benefits that
ease working life, such as healthcare, child-care and education. Philanthropy was central to
the development of businesses run by Quakers, such as the confectionary organisations
Rowntrees, Frys and Cadburys. However, one notable example of incorporating

philanthropy within the industrial revolution and an influence for social reform is the New
Lanark cotton mill in Scotland. The mill was founded in 1785 and powered by water wheels
using the river Clyde. By 1795 New Lanark had a population of 1500 workers, including
pauper children from workhouses in Edinburgh and Glasgow (New Lanark, ND). Robert
Owen purchased the mills in 1799 from his father-in-law David Dale, who had founded an
industrial model that acknowledged concern for the workers as well as the production of
cotton. Owen experimented with the welfare of the workforce on the assumption that by
improving their living conditions, production would increase. He was also uncomfortable
with the number of children working in the mill; although this was not unusual at the time, he
would not allow children under the age of ten to work in the mill. This model of industrial
reform pioneered the provision of affordable housing and fair wages for the workers within a
model village. The model village comprised of homes located closely to the workplace, along
with services, such as free healthcare and affordable food; food prices were lower through
buying in bulk and savings passed onto the workers. This concept was to progress into the cooperative movement 1 (New Lanark, ND). There also was little opportunity for workers
education or advancement and Owen was concerned for the workers and their children living
in poverty. Owen addressed this through providing education and recreation. Workers were
encouraged to attend evening classes and children were encouraged to stay full-time in school
until they were 12 years old. Their lessons expanded from reading and writing to geography,
history, music and dancing (New Lanark, ND). New Lanark opened the first infant school in
the UK in 1817, a move that also supported women in the workplace. Owen also held
concerts and balls to allow the workers to relax and enjoy themselves. At the time, Owens
approach was considered outlandish, however the mill became notable for being both
commercially viable and maintaining a healthy and contented workforce (New Lanark, ND).
The inscription below (Figure 1) can be found at New Lanark Heritage Centre where visitors
can learn more about the history of the mill and Owens philosophy.

A co-operative is a group of people who act together for the common goals of members; it does not focus on
profitability, rather it serves to provide value (The Co-operative Group, ND).

Figure 1: Inscription featured at New Lanark Heritage Centre

THE EMERGENCE OF CSR

The previous section illustrates that the notion of combining profitability, production and
concern for the workforce is not new. CSR emerged initially in the 1950's and came to the
attention of academics in the 1970's when a model was developed highlighting four
responsibilities; profitable, law abiding, ethical and socially desirable activities (Matten,
Crane & Chapple., 2003). It has moved to the fore of brand management as consumers
awareness of business practices considered unjust or unfair is growing. For example, practice
within the banking industry is under scrutiny due to risky activities that resulted in the global
economic crisis in 2008. Some banks are attempting to address this through marketing that
illustrates their focus on consumers, rather than bankers bonuses, such as Goodbye unfair
banking (a recent campaign by the Royal Bank of Scotland presented in Figure 2 below).
This addresses consumers concerns for socially desirable activities, particularly when some
banks required tax funding to avoid becoming insolvent. Similarly, the food industry has
faced a number of criticisms, such as the identification of horsemeat in products labelled as
beef. There are strong parallels for the fashion industry with the banking and food industries,
where campaigns seek to inform consumers of unfair practice. Therefore, CSR activities span
a number of industries where trust has been violated, necessitating transparent
communication of the businesses efforts to illustrate equitable change.

Figure 2: Royal Bank of Scotland fairer campaign

(RBS, 2015)
There are a number of books and journal papers that review the CSR literature from a number
of theoretical perspectives, such as strategic incentives of social obligation, stakeholder
relationships and marketing opportunities, such as reputation management (Wang, 2015;
Crane et al., 2008). Underpinning CSR is the recognition that commercial activities seek
responsibility not only to comply with legal obligations, but to demonstrate leadership in
socially desirable practices (McEachern, 2015), particularly when this is not a legal
obligation (Matten et al., 2003). However, sometimes CSR emerges as a response to
criticisms of business practice with the aim of industry self-regulation as opposed to
government intervention or legislative change to improve the businesses reputation (Certo &
Certo, 2012).
CSR is concerned with assuming a moral and ethical obligation to both protect and improve
the welfare of society, assuming that achieving societal goals are as important as
organisational goals. One argument asserting the need for business to adopt CSR is that as a
subset of society, businesses impact on a number of stakeholders within their practice and
human resource management (Certo & Certo, 2012). As a social practice, an organisation has
to consider the way in which the business operations impact on the various stakeholders, such
as those involved in production and consumers. Perry et al. (2014) conceptualise CSR in the
fashion industry as the strategic balance of ethical considerations against the commercial
pressures of cost and lead-time. This situates organisations as communicating to consumers
an assurance of engaging with socially responsible business practice, something that may
play a part in consumer decision-making (Jgel, Keeling, Reppel & Gruber, 2012). Although
the literature examines the theoretical perspective of CSR and considers the application of
this through content analysis (Wang, 2015) and case studies of Sri Lankan garment factories
(Perry, Wood & Fernie, 2014), CSR has not been considered through the lens of
philanthropy. In this sense, this chapter is looking back to the successful, and at the time
progressive, application of social reform within a model village to address social inequality to
argue that similar practice could be implemented currently within garment factories in
5

developing countries. Thus the chapter offers a unique perspective of connecting the textile
industry from the past, through the cotton mill at New Lanark that considers social
obligations, as well as the Hawthorne Studies which encompass stakeholder relationships, to
the future to examine how CRS presents marketing opportunities through reputation
management and leadership in the fashion industry to address consumer concerns that
garment-workers may be exploited during production.
OPPORTUNITIES TO ADDRESS CSR IN THE FASHION INDUSTRY
As established, the fashion industry has incurred allegations that fashion production occurs in
sweatshops in developing countries. The term 'sweatshop' was derived from historical
context, reflecting the conditions experienced by workers. The legal definition used by the
US General Accounting Office is 'an employer that violates more than federal or state law
governing minimum wage and overtime, child-labour, industrial homework, occupational
safety and health, workers compensation, or industry regulation' (Zwolinski, 2006, p. 2).
However, Rivoli (2009, p. 110), who investigated the global production of a t-shirt, describes
sweatshop conditions as controlled, exploited, overworked and underpaid. This section
describes the workers conditions, as detailed in academic research and Non-Government
Organisation (NGO) reports (such as Action Aid [AA] and Labour Behind the Labour
[LBtL]2). Initially, the section begins by defining poverty to gain an understanding of the
cultural distance between consumption and production, and is followed by consideration of
how the fast-fashion business model imposes poverty upon garment-workers in developing
countries.
Defining Poverty
Almost half the global population lives on less than $2.50 per day (Shah, 2013). Poverty can
be described as lacking the calories, protein, vitamins and minerals needed for a normally
healthy life, leading to deaths caused by malnutrition and infection of 15 million children
annually (Singer, 1979: 158). Further, it leads to miserable living conditions; workers in
developing countries have the same values and needs as those in developed countries:
providing their families with sufficient food, shelter and medical access (Singer, 2004).
While those in developed countries can, by and large, afford food, shelter, clothing,
necessary health services and education and have income left over for luxuries, this not
possible for all global citizens (Singer, 1979, p. 161). This chapter argues that the current
fast-fashion model does little to alleviate the poverty experienced by workers in developing
countries, yet the potential to improve their livelihoods is possible through adopting the
philosophy of New Lanark. Before presenting that argument, it is important to consider the
full consequences of the fast-fashion business model on garment-workers.
2

Action Aid is a global movement of people working together to further human rights and defeat poverty, for
all. To do this, they work with communities to empower change, campaigning to raise consumers awareness
of the issues and lobby the UK government and organisations such as the World Trade organisation to change
policy and practice (Action Aid, 2015a and 2015b).
Labour Behind the Label seeks to support garment-workers by improving their working conditions and salaries
through raising consumers awareness and providing information about fashion retailers practice, as well as
supporting garment-workers with information on their rights to bring positive change (Labour Behind the
Label, ND).

The Impact of Fast-fashion on Garment-workers

Fast-fashion accounts for one fifth of clothing sales in the UK (Morgan & Birtwistle, 2009)
and is growing faster than all of womenswear sales (Hayes & Jones, 2006). Fast-fashion is
said to be more profitable for retailers (Hayes & Jones, 2006), as suppliers are chosen for the
lowest unit price and this is often obtained through online auctions (Yu, 2008) where the
factory with the lowest cost will win the contract (Paulins & Hillery, 2009). To ensure the
best price is achieved, buyers operate reverse online auctions, and often the proposed price
does not cover the suppliers costs (Perry et al., 2014; AA, 2007: 24). This is known as the
race to the bottom, where fears that outbidding will result in an economic loss for a supplier
or even the country (Paulins & Hillery, 2009; Rivoli, 2009). Governments of developing
countries are keen to attract multi-national organisations (MNO) to improve economic
prosperity and often accommodate pressure to neglect the enforcement of minimum wages
and employment law (Yu, 2008; Barnes & Kozar, 2008; Allwood et al., 2006). However,
switching suppliers to reduce production costs results in complex supply-chains and does not
enable good working relationships to form. An example of this was illustrated when UK
members of parliament wore t-shirts supporting feminism sold by UK fashion retailer
Whistles in conjunction with the Fawcett Society 3 and Elle magazine. The t-shirts were
alleged to have been made under exploitative practice. Responding to the allegations the
Fawcett Society launched an investigation in November 2014; to date the allegations have
neither been confirmed nor denied, illustrating the complexity of tracing supply-chains and
ascertaining garment-worker conditions (Fawcett Society, 2014). Established supplier
relationships are built on trust and mutual understanding, the benefits of this will be
considered within this chapter.
Fast-fashion has also contributed to diminished seasons (Jackson, 2007); biannual catwalk
shows no longer promote the latest trend, rather a celebrity stylist signals the trend and the
fashion industry reacts with copies of the desired style (McClatchey, 2011). Without distinct
seasons, trends are blurred with new stock arriving in stores weekly (Caro, 2009). Rapid
changes in style, coupled with low pricing, encourage more frequent consumption (Allwood
et al., 2006; Barnes & Lea-Greenwood, 2006) which has had an impact on garment-workers
conditions. During online auctions, buyers will establish a date for which the garments are
required. Therefore, negotiations to secure the contract not only include low production costs,
which impacts upon garment-workers salaries, but also additional pressure to meet the
deadline, necessitating unpaid mandatory overtime for workers of back-to-back shifts up to
14 hours per day (Asia Floor Wage [AFW], 2009). A case study by Yu (2008) of a Chinese
factory producing sports shoes found workers were financially penalised if they did not work
overtime, and frequently exceeded the legal maximum working week of 40 hours. Further,
productivity was managed by coercion and punishment for non-productively. This is
consistent with NGO claims of long hours, abusive supervisors and unfair conditions;
including not being allowed bathroom breaks, overnight lock-ins and drugging. Frequently,
health and safety procedures are ignored, for example safety guards on machinery or
exposure to hazardous chemicals (Yu, 2008) and this has resulted in worker fatalities and
injuries. Moreover, the conditions within the factory, including chemical exposure, noise and
3

The Fawcett Society is a UK charity that promotes gender equality and womens rights at home, work and in
public life (Fawcett Society, ND)

fibre dust, contribute to ill-health (Allwood et al., 2006). This is exacerbated in Export
Processing Zones (EPZ) or Special Economic Zones where factories take advantage of legal
loopholes to attract investors from overseas (Perry et al., 2014; Klein, 2000; Emmelhainz &
Adams, 1999). Within EPZs trade unions are banned and some laws are changed, including
health and safety and wage laws (Hearson, 2006). The workers conditions within the EPZ's
are considered exploitative, with reports of forced overtime, low pay, short contracts, sexual
harassment and abusive behaviour, whilst the living conditions are dirty and cramped and the
water available is unsanitary (Klein, 2000).
As employment within the clothing and textile industry is not reliant on skills or education,
women generally account for 85 per cent of the workforce (Lerner-Kinglake, 2009), with
men employed as supervisors (AA, 2007; Zwolinski, 2006). Often women migrate to obtain
work, leaving behind their children as they cannot afford to keep them, leading to the loss of
supporting family and communities (Rivoli, 2009; Lerner-Kinglake, 2009). Migration results
in a loss of education, further reducing the option of alternative employment and viable
alternatives to provide food and shelter for their children (AA, 2007). Barnes and Kozar
(2008) found that women face discrimination in the workforce, specifically pregnant women
who often experience forced abortions, loss of their job should they marry, and physical
labour which can harm the unborn child (Wong & Taylor, 2000). Inequity continues despite
the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Woman,
adopted in 1979 and ratified in 185 states. Women in developing countries still strive for the
same promotion opportunities and pay as men, and do not receive maternity benefits (AFW,
2009; AA, 2007). For example, in Bangladesh a Labour Law was introduced in 2006
incorporating 25 separate acts, including improved maternity leave, compensation for
accidents in the workplace, deadlines for salaries and stronger health and safety codes.
However, this law is not enforced by the government and therefore the situation for many
workers remains unchanged (Lerner-Kinglake, 2009). Such practice is unacceptable, however
women rely upon this employment to support their family (AA, 2007), especially considering
that working in the garment industry offers for some women an opportunity for improved
autonomy away from controlling parents, an arranged marriage or employment in service
(Paulins & Hillery, 2009; Rivoli, 2009).
Trade Unions have the capacity to increase salaries and conditions in factories by including
the workers in decisions, which would enable workers to negotiate fair wages and working
conditions (AFW, 2009; Rivoli, 2009). Attempts to form unions have incurred
discrimination, loss of employment and sometimes violence (AFW, 2009; Hearson, 2006).
Yu (2008) found that although union officials were elected by workers, the management
offered incentives which were orientated towards the factory rather than the workers to
ensure compliance with the factorys interests. Further, Trade Unions maintain that voluntary
codes of conduct are not as effective as regulation by government, or free collective
bargaining (unionisation), and there is concern that workers committees are used as a
substitute (Barrientos & Smith, 2006). Many retailers, for example H&M and Arcadia,
believe that the formation of unions is not their responsibility, but that of factories and NGOs
(Hearson, 2006). However, production negotiations do not acknowledge the right of garmentworkers to unionise.
Allegations have occurred in factories linked to well-known MNOs (Barnes & Kozar, 2008;
Zwolinski, 2006). Although they insist that suppliers comply with codes of practice in order

to minimise worker exploitation, reduced prices take precedence, resulting in an

inconsistency of priorities (AA, 2007). Critics claim that MNOs, like Tesco, Asda and
Primark, use their force through bulk buying to drive prices lower (Wyllie, 2007). MNOs
have greater buying power and the ability to negotiate a better purchase price than smaller
retailers due to the volume purchased (Paulins & Hillery, 2009; Jones, 2006). Workers in
garment factories making clothes for well-known brands such as Disney, Gap, Wal-Mart, and
Nike were found to earn between 0.5 and three per cent of the actual retail price (Kolk & van
Tulder, 2002; Emmelhainz & Adams, 1999). Yu (2008) believes buyers power could be
used to pay a higher unit price for factories who do attempt to improve workers conditions,
rather than current practice of attempting to make suppliers comply with codes of conduct.
In assuming responsibility for production, rather than the dominant approach currently
practiced by MNOs, implementing Fairtrade principles or a Living Wage would enable
developing countries to grow their own economy to be less reliant on foreign aid from
governments and charities (Singer, 1979). Additionally, Action Aid (2007), Asia Floor Wage
(2009) and Workers Rights Consortium (WRC) (2005) believe that as workers are paid so
little, paying higher salaries or even doubling their wage would have little impact on the
overall price or retailers profit, as explained in Figure 3 below.
Figure 3: Allocation of the retail price of a t-shirt

Supermarket 70%

Exporter
27%
Worker
3%
(Action Aid, 2007, p. 45)
Taking the example of the t-shirt, assuming it was 10 and the worker received 3 per cent
(30p), then doubling this at 60p would not increase the overall price by more than a pound.
As the price of the garment doubles at each production stage, proportional costs to the
workers decrease (WRC, 2005). Free trade should therefore allow developing economies to
grow and improve the conditions of the workers, supported by retailers and brands. This is of
particular importance as many developing countries rely on foreign aid to alleviate poverty.
Further NGOs suggest that raising wages could result in lowering costs due to improved
productivity. Furthermore, the raise could be absorbed, especially when considering MNOs
profit can be as much as four times of production costs (Yu, 2008; Zwolinski, 2006).
Increasing workers salaries will stimulate local and global demand, and reduce poverty
9

through enabling workers to spend within their local economy (Singer, 2004), resulting in a
sustainable production process.
Some consumers deem that governments should protect their citizens from exploitation, but
developing countries strive to improve their economic standing in the global environment
(Strong, 1997). Singer (1979) argues that knowingly ignoring dangerous conditions which
could lead to potential death is akin to murder; however, responsibility is hard to ascertain.
Emmelhainz and Adams (1999) suggest penalties for organisations who are found to violate
workers conditions and pay; however, this would necessitate legislation to implement, and
often CSR activities are preferred by industries to avoid restrictive laws. Also, there are a
number of benefits to global sourcing, such as increasing employment in developing
countries which opens up market potential for new consumption economies. These benefits
sit in tangent with criticisms that garment-workers are exploited through low salaries, long
working hours and no opportunities to bargain collectively to attain work benefits.
Paradoxically, those who make fashion garments are least likely to be able purchase them
(Kaiser, 2005). Inequalities of wealth are glaringly obvious (Singer, 2004: 37); frequently,
workers spend over half their salaries on food alone and still incur an increased likelihood of
malnutrition and health problems, leading to a quicker decline in health and disability (AFW,
2009). It is believed that global poverty could be improved through the application of a fair
wage and consistent contracts (AA, 2007; Dower, 1991). The intention of securing the lowest
production price is now a core feature of fashion production, where the focus on ensuring
consumers in the UK and Europe are enticed to purchase fashion more frequently relies on
competitive pricing and lead times (Bruce & Daly, 2006; Barnes & Lea-Greenwood, 2006).
Consumers may not directly affect global poverty, however by supporting retailers who strive
for a reduction in unit cost, they are contributing to the desire for low cost goods and
benefiting from poverty (Dower, 1991).
The Benefits of Implementing CSR for Fashion Producers
The philanthropic approach of New Lanark, provides an example how commercial success
does not come at the detriment of the workers, offering opportunities for the fashion industry
to implement similar CSR activities, particularly when comparing social reform model
villages against EPZs in developing countries. As expressed earlier, workers in developing
countries have the same values and needs as those in developed countries: providing their
families with sufficient food, shelter and medical access (Singer, 2004). Noting those on
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs establishes the impact of exploitative practice; not only on
feelings of self-worth, but also basic needs for survival. Maslow developed the Hierarchy in
the 1940s to understand motivation, and it remains a well referred to framework for business
to provide a workplace that promotes opportunities for employees to maximise their
potential. The Hierarchy is presented in Figure 4 and working from the bottom up, illustrates
basic physiological needs of food, shelter and time to rest in-between work. The next stage
covers safety needs, which would include medical care as well as health and safety
procedures in the workplace. Above this indicates that feelings of belonging and self-worth
are important for motivation, as is esteem and feelings of accomplishment, all of which will
ultimately lead to achieving individual potential. Yet, when this is compared to reports by
NGOs and the academic study by Yu (2008), as well as the experience of workers from the
cotton mill at New Lanark, garment-workers in some developing countries do not achieve the
basic needs set out in the lower rung of the hierarchy. This is presented in Table 1.

10

Figure 4: Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

The table presents an example of how the philanthropic model of New Lanark and Robert
Owens vision of social reform addresses inequality. It is important to note that the cotton mill
was also commercially successful. Although the UK garment and textile industry has
primarily diminished due to global sourcing to reduce production costs, commercial success
does not need to be at the determent of ethical and socially advantages. Further, recognising
and addressing allegations of exploitation has the potential to demonstrate leadership in
socially desirable practices. This was evident from the commercial success of the New
Lanark model and could be replicated in developing countries meeting both organisational
and societal goals. The next section will address how a business can benefit from
implementing CSR activities and increase profitability as well as improving garment-workers
conditions and salaries through the establishment of a Living Wage and the advantages of
providing a motivational working environment as illustrated by the Hawthorne Studies.

11

Table 1: Comparison of Maslows Hierarchy of Needs, reports of exploitation and the

philanthropic approach of New Lanark
Hierarchy of Needs

NGO reports of exploitation

Remedy of the New Lanark

model

Physiological needs:
food, water, warmth,
rest

Low wages that prohibit sufficient

food for the family

Subsidised food prices from

the village store

Working shifts back to back to

increase income

Working hours that provide an

opportunity for rest

Poor living conditions

The provision of affordable

housing in the village

Lack of implementation of health

and safety provisions, such as
protection when using chemicals

No children under the age of

10 in the workplace

Safety needs: security,

physiological safety

Long working hours and forced

unpaid overtime
Child-labour

Free childcare and education

up to the age of 12
Childcare provisioning
Free healthcare

Leaving children at home to cook

meals and look after younger
children
No protection during pregnancy or
maternity benefits
EPZs prevent laws being enforced
Belonging needs:
affiliation, acceptance,
affection

Esteem needs, feeling

of accomplishment

Little opportunity to unionise and

provide workers with a voice
Financial penalties for refusing to
work overtime

Contributing to a cohesive
collective workforce working
for the common good of all
employees

Bullying in the workplace

Structured working hours

Workers have no opportunity to be Music, concerts and balls to

educated
help the workers socialise and
Unable to pay for education of the relax
children

Night classes for the workers

Roles in management
Self-actualisation:
achieving individual
potential

Limited opportunities for women

to gain promotion

12

Feeling respected and

supported in the workplace

Calculating a Living Wage

This section outlines how a Living Wage can be calculated as representative of the country in
which production occurs. The model was developed by the NGO Asia Floor Wage to provide
a method for working out a Living Wage that is sufficient for a family of four; taking into
consideration basic needs, for example food costs (based on 3000 calories per day for an
adult and 1500 for a child), housing, healthcare and education. The model ensures that a
similar approach can be adapted to wherever production occurs, depending on local food and
housing prices, as presented below:
Figure 5: Calculation of a Living Wage

The cost of food is based on a

standard calorific intake - 3000
calories per adult/1500 per child
consumption unit

The ratio between the cost of food

and other basic needs - such as
clothing, housing, utilites, healthcare
(including reproductive care), social
security, education and savings - it is
1.1

A Living Wage

The wage should provide enough for

2 adults and 2 children = 3
consumption units

The wage is earned during each

county's legal minimum working
week, through not above 48 hours

(AFW, 2009, p. 50)

As such, a Living Wage responds to the physiological and safety needs established by
Maslow, by ensuring that food and housing is affordable in relation to garment-workers
salaries. Yet despite this model being suggested six years ago, it is yet to be implemented by
UK fashion retailers. In terms of meeting the Belonging and Esteem needs found further up
in Maslows Hierarchy, the Hawthorne Studies identified some interesting notions of what
leads to motivation and connectivity in the workplace.
Hawthorne Studies
There are a number of theories on leadership and people management, such as the classic

or management science approaches; however, the Hawthorne Studies emerge from the
behavioural approach which seeks to increase productivity through a better understanding of
what motivates people (Certo & Cetrto, 2012). This theory considers that if leaders
understand their team, and adapt the business around them, the business will be more
efficient.
The Hawthorne Studies were carried out during the 1920s and 1930s at the Hawthorne plant
in Cicero, Illinois that belonged to the Western Electric Company who manufactured
telephones (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004). At the time of the studies, factory work was

13

illuminated by natural daylight or candles and the General Electric (GE) company wanted to
promote sales of light bulbs; therefore GE sought to link better lighting to worker
productivity. The studies examined whether increasing lighting impacted on physical changes
within the workforce. Initial experiments were followed by the involvement of Professor
George Elton of the Harvard Business School and William J Dickenson. The results of the
study were published in the book Management and the Worker (Roesthlisberger & Dickson,
1939) and the results influenced the development of the human relations movement in
business (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004). The belief was that studying workers productivity
under different working conditions would lead to better understanding of what motivated
productivity and the results were measured by worker output. Four of the studies were of
particular importance:
1. The illumination studies (1924-27)
2. Relay assembly test room experiments (1927-33)
3. Interviewing programme (1928-30)
4. Bank wiring observation room experiments (1931-32)
As explained, the purpose of the illumination studies was to test whether increasing light
improved productivity. No correlation was found with increasing light, in fact when the
lighting was reduced productivity increased and the study concluded that lighting was one of
many factors that affected output. It was also found necessary to further control future studies
by examining fewer workers (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004). In the relay assembly test room
experiments six female workers self-selected to participate. At the time of this study, they
had already worked a 48 hour week without tea breaks, including Saturday, and the
researcher listened to their comments to monitor the effects of the length of time they
worked, their attitude towards the work, and the impact of equipment change. It was found
that productivity increased when the workers were given breaks, beginning with five minutes
and moving up to fifteen minutes and a lunch break. This was attributed to the workers
feeling they had achieved an increased status as they were participating in the experiment.
Particularly as they were consulted and kept informed throughout the study and the
friendliness of the researcher increased their morale. This more relaxed atmosphere reduced
their stress at work and as they had all wanted to participate in the study, their bond led to
creating more support for one another: they were working as a team to achieve the same goal.
The notion of increasing productivity, not for financial gain, but to work cohesively through a
sense of belonging is referred to as the Hawthorne effect, and has led to organisations
implementing employee feedback schemes (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004).
Feedback from employees is typically carried out through surveys and interviews, as initiated
from the interviewing programme carried out between 1928-30. Interviews were carried out
with over 20,000 employees; discussions expanded from working conditions to outside
concerns, such as family and social issues. It was found that within the workplace, informal
groups existed which had an element of control on productivity. The back wiring observation
room experiments sought to better understand this aspect and fourteen men were split into
three sub-groups consisting of three wirers and one supervisor, with two inspectors who
monitored the work. The main finding was that although the workers were organised into
formal groups, informal groups became evident based on friendships. Within those friendship
groups, informal rules emerged and were reinforced through behavioural norms. However,

14

this reduced productivity and meant that the workers were not earning as much as they could.
Productivity was controlled by seeking belonging within the informal groups; therefore
workers who were highly productive were referred to as rate busters, whereas those who
were slower were called chisler. Telling the supervisor about something that would get
another worker into trouble, or getting too close to an inspector was also considered
negatively, resulting in exclusion from the group. What lay behind this was the fear that if the
workers increased their output, management expectations would also increase, impacting on
their incentive pay and potentially leading to job cuts. As such, the workers were more
interested in preserving group solidarity than increasing pay (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004).
The results identified from the Hawthorne Studies illustrate the need for positive human
relations within organisations throughout the hierarchal structure, from upper management
and extending to all workers in the business. Increasing productivity comes from
understanding what motivates employees to improve the efficiency of the business. The
studies show the need to adopt a people oriented approach which focuses on building
relationships with people and showing respect. This was evident in the New Lanark model,
where by understanding that the workers lived in poverty, solutions such as providing
affordable housing and food, improved productivity. Similarly through offering education
and providing child and healthcare led to the workers feeling nurtured and provided a sense
of belonging and working towards the common good. The next section will look at how this
is implemented by two current fashion organisations, to illustrate how CSR can benefit both
garment-workers, through better working conditions, and the business through increased
productivity; this is something that would empower consumers to avoid fashion that is a
result of exploitative practice.
BRANDS THAT HAVE INTEGRATED CSR TO APPEAL TO CONSUMERS
This section will discuss two fashion brands which promote CSR as a core ethos to trading.
The first is jacobs well, a fashion production unit in India, who train garment-workers with
skills and aim to provide them with a Living Wage. This will be followed by establishing the
activities of the UK fashion and lifestyle retailer Marks and Spencers (M&S) who
established their Plan A campaign in 2007. Plan A seeks to address sustainability through
establishing 100 commitments that includes fair trading, better workers conditions, carbonneutral production and retailing.
jacobs well
jacobs well is a fashion production unit based in Banglagore in India and is supported and
governed by Brenda Sheil in the UK. The business emerged from the Oasis Trust, a Christian
organisation with philanthropic roots to provide housing, healthcare and education with the
aim of eliminating poverty. The Oasis Trust was founded in 1985 by Steven Chalk MBE and
Oasis India evolved in 1994 seeking to provide women living in slums with employment
opportunities. It also sought to support their vulnerability to different forms of discrimination,
such as abuse, violence and exploitation. Through a three year training programme, the
women learn fashion related skills, such as embroidery, pattern cutting and machining.
Success of the programme is evident: one of the original trainees Lydia Sundar (Figure 7)
began training aged 14 and was supported by jacobs well to gain qualifications in fashion
design and business entrepreneurship. Today, she is one of the company directors.

15

Figure 7: Lydia Sundar, company director at Jacobs well

(jacobs well, 2012a)

jacobs well continue to employ women from poor backgrounds and provide them with
employment to alleviate their poverty. As a fashion unit, jacobs well works with both
independent designers and MNOs to carry out sampling and cut, make and trim (CMT)
production. All of production is carried out at the unit where consistent orders would provide
stable employment for the workers and the ability to take on new trainees. The benefit of
working with jacobs well addresses concern for garment-worker salaries and working
conditions. As a member of the fair trade movement through the World Fair Trade
Organisation there is an assurance that child-labour is never used, wages are fair and the
working environment adheres to health and safety requirements (jacobs well, 2012b). The
website provides a gateway into the production unit, the garment-workers images and life
stories are published so that clients and consumers know who made their garments,
responding to the question of who made the clothing is something highlighted through
Fashion Revolution Day (FRD). FRD emerged after the Rana Plaza factory collapse on the
24th April 2013, which killed 1,129 and injured 2,515, to raise awareness for the true cost of
garment-workers conditions and salaries through encouraging consumers to care about who
made their fashion (as evident in Figure 8 and 9). Held on the 24th of April, the annual
campaign is promoted in 71 countries to increase transparency in fashion production (FRD,
2015). As established previously, many fashion retailers do not know who produced the
garments they sell, due to online auctions and switching suppliers to maintain low production
costs. Jacobs well supports FRD, connecting consumers with the supplier and reducing the
distance between consumption and production (as can be seen in Figure 10).

16

Figure 8: Who made my clothes?

(Greenpeace, 2012)
Figure 9: Who made my clothes?

(Ragazza Moderna, 2014)

17

Figure 10: I made your clothes (jacobs well)

(jacobs well, 2012c)

jacobs well enables transparency within fashion production, therefore consumers who are
concerned about exploitation can be assured that the fashion they purchase has not derived
from exploitative working conditions and salaries. Additionally, it offers the potential for a
sense of pride that their money has contributed to supporting women out of poverty and
providing garment-workers with respect. However, jacobs well is a small production unit,
where control over production is possible. MNOs argue that control is more difficult when
managing more complex supply-chains. The next section will examine how MNO M&S
implements CSR activities that underpin aspects of their business operations.
M&S
M&S are an established UK retailer, selling womenswear, menswear, childrenswear, home
furnishings and food. The business began in 1994 when Michael Marks opened a Penny Bazzar at the
Kirkgate Market in Leeds (Marks in time, 2015). In order to grow the business, Marks required a
partner for investment and Tom Spencer joined him; one of the growing retail sites is presented in
Figure 10.

18

Figure 10: Sheffield the Moor, Norfolk Market 1887

(Marks in Time, 2015)

WW1 resulted in goods becoming more expensive and a new pricing and assortment strategy
was developed, focusing more closely on food and for the first time, clothing. Quality
became the key attribute, something that is still important today, and M&S were committed
to UK production when other fashion retailers began to move production to developing
countries. However, lower priced competitors had an impact on their market share.
Recognising consumers expectations for low pricing, M&S began to source production
overseas despite allegations of garment-worker exploitation. It was here that M&S identified
a gap for differentiation. The CEO at the time Stuart Rose recognised the need in integrate
sustainability at the heart of the business and Plan A was developed because there is no Plan
B. Plan A (illustrated in Figure 11) was devised as an effort for M&S to protect the planet
through sourcing responsibly, reducing waste and helping communities addressing both the
social and environmental impact of global sourcing (M&S, 2015a).
Figure 11: M&S Plan A

(Julia Hailes MBE, ND)

Plan A was launched in 2007, consisting of 100 commitments which would be achieved in
five years and promoted through the stores and on the website. This included activities such
as introducing a five pence plastic bag charge before there was a legal obligation to do so,
engaging in a partnership with Oxfam to encourage consumers to donate unwanted clothing
with the incentive of a 5 voucher for each garment (the shwopping campaign displayed in
Figure 12 below) and responsible sourcing. The successful implementation of the

19

commitments resulted in a number of awards from external organisations, such as

Greenpeace (for responsible sourcing of tuna), Ethical Consumer (for responsible souring of
clothing) and the Carbon Trust (for reducing logistics and retail emissions to become carbonneutral) (M&S, 2015b). M&S has progressed to launch Plan A 2020 with the goal of
becoming the worlds most sustainable retailer (M&S, 2015c). Prior to implementing Plan
A, M&S primed consumers with a campaign called Look Behind the Label in 2006,
illustrated in Figure 13. The premise of this is similar to FRD, to stimulate consumers
awareness of production practice. Research by YouGov4 had previously identified that UK
consumers felt that they wanted to know more about how products are made and factory
conditions (The Retail Bulletin, 2006). As such, Plan A and Look Behind the Label adopt a
total approach, providing an assurance to consumers that they have considered the social
and environmental impact of production and are confident in the measures taken to neutralise
detrimental consequences. This is supported by regular checks on suppliers and increased
audits (The Retail Bulletin, 2006).
Figure 12: M&S shwop campaign

Joanna Lumley, the ambassador for the shwop campaign (M&S, 2015b)

YouGov is an international online market research organisation.

20

Figure 13: Look Behind the Label

(Marketing Society, 2012)

Achieving an award for responsible sourcing of clothing is a result of stringent transparency
in supply-chain management. To do this M&S assert their responsibility to ensure workers
rights are respected. Most notably, it is their partnership with lingerie supplier MAS Intimates
Thurulie (MASIT) in Sri Lanka that is illustrative of good practice. The Sri Lankan
government launched the Garments without Guilt campaign in 2006 to allow their garment
and textile industry to compete against lower labour costs countries and assure MNOs of their
ethical credentials (Perry et al., 2014). As such, the Sri Lankan garment and textile industry is
characterised as implementing better working conditions, salaries, work benefits and
allowing collective bargaining (unionisation). M&S invested in MASIT and production
began in 2008 in a eco-factory that was designed to be both carbon-neutral and address
working conditions (M&S, 2009).
The inception of an eco-factory is not only consistent with the total approach of Plan A, but
offers assurance to consumers that the garments they purchase are not the result of
exploitation, although this does not necessarily account for all M&S garment production.
M&S have expanded through NGO Good World Solutions to carry out research using mobile
phones to ensure that garment-workers in Sri Lanka are happy with conditions within the
factory (Butler, 2013). Perry et al. (2014) explored the impact of adhering to the CSR
activities that underpin business operations within the Sri Lankan garment and textile
industry. They found that improved conditions added value for the business, through assuring
fashion buyers of good provenance and retaining skilled employees which enhanced
productivity. However, competing with low cost labour countries who have more flexibility
in meeting lead times (through enforced and unpaid overtime) reduced their ability to

21

negotiate with MNOs, something also experienced by jacobs well. Therefore, there is a
reliance on developing long-term relationships with MNOs to develop skills, reduce costs and
meet lead times. Perry et al. (2014) reveal the advantages of adopting CSR in the tables
below:
Table 2: Factory management narratives on the linking of CSR activities and outcomes (Used
with permission from the authors Perry et al., 2014)
CSR activities

CSR outcomes

Philanthropic donations to community

Legitimacy within society

Human capital development (training)

Attract and retain better workers; lower labour

turnover

Monthly paid bonus

Attract and retain better workers

Dedicated CSR department or champion

Better control and visibility of CSR

Diversity management

Image and reputation management; legitimacy

within society

Higher than minimum wage salaries

Attract and retain better workers; attract better retail

customers

Minimum worker age (18) higher than legal

requirement (16)

Image and reputation management; attract better

retail customers

Employee-employer councils

Promote harmonious working relationships; lower

labour turnover

Table 3: Factory management narratives on the linking of CSR goals and outcomes (Used
with permission from the authors Perry et al., 2014)
Managers perspectives on workers

Managers perspectives on retailers

CSR as a means of attracting and retaining

better workers

CSR as a means of cementing long-term relationship

Worker outcomes

Retailers outcomes

Human capital (training)

Increased quality levels

Employee-employer councils

Brand assurance given ethical standards

22

The CSR activities undertaken by jacobs well and M&S illustrate the advantages for
businesses of good employee relations including: working conditions, salaries and benefits.
As identified by Perry et al. (2014) and the Hawthorne Studies, this includes attracting and
retaining workers with the necessary skills to be productive and improve quality.
Additionally, it helps with reputation management, particularly when the fashion industry has
been alleged of exploitation, reducing consumers trust of what is involved in fashion
production. What is less known is how consumers will respond to businesses that address
CSR, other than the YouGov survey that inspired the M&S campaign to Look Behind the
Label. Since then, the fashion industry has incurred additional violations of trust, the worst
occurring at the Rana Plaza factory in 2013 which has resulted in FRD to encourage
consumers to ask who made my clothes. The next section explores how consumers evaluate
implications of production and what is foremost in their decision-making.
CONSUMER RESPONSE TO CSR ACTIVITIES
Within this section of the chapter, consumer evaluation of CSR activities will be examined
through data that was collected through qualitative methods. Qualitative research is not
concerned with gathering statistics (Olaogun & Fatoki, 2009), but seeks to explore the
experience of others within the context of a specific topic (Bradley, 1993, p 434).
Researchers use qualitative research to understand social circumstances and report upon
phenomena experienced including how meaning is constructed (for example, feeling,
knowing, thinking, remembering)(Easterby Smith, Thorpe & Jackson, 2008; Thomson,
Locander & Pollio, 1989). These techniques help marketers explore and gain insights into
particular cultural and social categories where consumers make sense of their everyday lives
and construct identities (Moisander, Markkula & Eranta, 2010). Typical of qualitative
research the sample size is smaller, seeking to reveal the particular within the experience
(Smith, Flowers & Larkin, 2009). Unstructured interviews were carried out with 28
participants from Edinburgh who evaluated labels from high street fashion retailers.
The participants were all mothers with children aged under twelve and all worked in
professional occupations, such as teaching (primary, secondary and higher education), law
and managerial positions. Additionally, they were the main shopper for the household,
juggling both employment, child-care and household duties. The labels indicated a number of
sustainable issues, such as made from organic cotton and PET (fleece fabric made from
recycled plastic bottles), or having additional chemicals applied (enzyme washed). However,
what is of importance to this chapter is the labels that address the garment-workers who were
involved in production, as depicted in the Global Girlfriend label, presented in Figure 14, and
the M&S label describing an eco-factory (MASIT), presented in Figure 15. Global Girlfriend
is a fair trade boutique based in Nepal that sells fashion made by women under the ethos that
when women have employment, the money is invested in childrens education and health to
build stronger families and communities. The garments are also made with care for the
environment, including organic fibres and natural dyes. All of this is communicated in the
label, which can be found on the subsequent pages, followed by three themed sections on the
consumer responses: the practicalities of sourcing new fashion; reflecting on allegations of
sweatshop labour; and Fairtrade assurance of equitable production.

23

Figure 14: Global Girlfriend label

24

The M&S eco-factory label depicts that the garment was made at MASIT, pertaining to
carbon-neutral production as well as improved garment-workers conditions. However, the
advantages to garment-workers are not included in the label.
Figure 15: M&S eco-factory

The Practicalities of Sourcing New Fashion

Initially the participants were asked to explain what motivated fashion consumption and
where they purchased garments, for both themselves and their children, before being
presented with the garment labels. It was the labels that initiated discussions around garmentworkers and production implications. Contextualised within the busy lifeworlds of mothers
working in professional occupations, the participants had limited time and finances, as
explained below:
My shopping experience to be honest it is a bit of a chore. It is something else I have
to fit into my working schedule. I have to clothe three children, myself and my
husband. There is a cost factor [and] theres the time to do it. (Participant-28)
Participant-28 explains how sourcing fashion for herself and the family is dependent on time
and money resources. This is considered as an additional chore in her full-time working
week. This sentiment was also expressed by other participants and consequently, there was a
reliance on supermarket fashion, especially for the children whose continued growth
necessitated more frequent garment consumption:
Now I am buying vests and pants and stuff in Asda, just because I am there routinely
and it kind of fits in best. I never get into town anymore, double buggy and kids on
25

buses, it is just too difficult. [Supermarkets] save me a trip into town, with difficult
kids. Even though I am aware that actually [laughing] I am giving lessons about
trying not to support sweatshops in India, etcetera! I am hoping that that will change,
[but even] if I won the lottery, and finance was absolutely no objective, then
convenience would still trump. (Participant-14)
Participant-14 raises a number of considerations: shopping with young children and
negotiating a double buggy around stores is a daunting task. As food shopping occurred
regularly, it was convenient to combine food and clothing consumption, particularly as
supermarket clothing prices were low. However, she also acknowledges that this may be a
consequence of exploitation, as alleged by NGOs. As a secondary school teacher she has
taught pupils of exploitative practice in developing countries, yet found herself opting for
convenience, whereby even the abundance of money would have little impact. Later in the
interview she also mentions that she has changed her food shopping habits (from Sainsbury
to Asda) as price has become more of an issue with three young children; especially as she
has temporarily suspended work and her maternity pay has ended. Affordability was an issue
for a number of the participants, as illustrated below:
I tend to buy cheap clothes actually, for the kids. They go through them so quickly so I
dont see the point in buying more expensive ones. (Participant-15)
Money is quite an issue for us, theres lots of us [family of six]. If I had all the money
in the world I would never buy anything that I didnt know where it came from.
[Laughs] I am astounded at the contradictions in myself when even I can walk around
the supermarket on one day and buy all of the proper ethical and expensive stuff and
on another day I will buy the very cheapest because I am feeling bad about money!
[I] justify it by [thinking] I am just another poorish person who doesnt have all of the
choices that I would want. (Particiapnt-1)
The quotes above illustrate two points of interest: firstly, children go through clothing
continuously, because of growth but also because they play and garments get damaged. This
had reduced the participants threshold for pricing; lower priced garments were preferred as
wear was transient. Secondly, it was assumed that ethically produced commodities are more
expensive, therefore only those who could afford to could contribute positively with
consumption. As children necessitate clothing more frequently and with more than one child
to clothe, feed and provide for, the ability to prioritise ethical consumption reduced. As
illustrated by the participants, this resulted in an internal conflict, where the justification was
attributed as being poor themselves, limiting their options.
Reflecting on Allegations of Sweatshop Labour
Although there was acknowledgement that NGO campaigns implicated that certain retailers,
including supermarkets, used cheap labour to ensure garments were more affordable, there
was a limitation on their time to investigate how, and by whom fashion was made:
I know that I could do more to research the ethics of what I am buying, but I dont
just because I havent got time. Its one of these things that you just dont do.
(Participant-23)
Coupled with finding the time to care for the family and work, it was considered prohibitive
to find the time to determine production conditions for garment-workers. As suggested in the

26

introduction, although some fashion retailers have tried to introduce transparency of

production, making available lists of factories is time consuming and complex to understand.
Additionally, there was confusion over how to judge production to enable consumption
choices that aligned with moral ideology, as explained in the quote below:
You have to be a very well educated consumer, with lots of time on your hands before
you are able to make a sensible decision. I think, ok, I will research whose factories
got central heating, but what about the guy that supplies the fabric to that factory
with central heating? So, ok this factory it doesnt have central heating, but it does
use lovely organic cotton. Theres so much to research, that I dont see how I can
make a sensible decision, about it. So, I kind of think, och thats a nice idea. But my
one t-shirt is not going to help you. So I will just go and buy t-shirts in Asda instead.
(Participant-21)
Participant-21 deliberates the complexities of deciphering ethical production, indicating a
number of implications for working conditions and organic, not only responding to
environmental issues, but including social benefits. Additionally, she recognises that
production is not only about the factory in which the garment is made, but other parts of the
supply-chain. Determining which option responds to better ethical outcomes is confusing and
finding information that would support decision-making is difficult to ascertain. To make a
judgement easily and avoid guilty feelings of buying fashion made under exploitation, some
participants avoided fashion retailers who are alleged of exploitation, as illustrated in the
quotes below:
For social reasons I dont buy my clothes in Primark, because I know what is
involved in the production of their clothes and I cant support that. (Participant-28)
Primark and places like that for me are kind of big no nos and I know that I wouldnt
shop there. (Participant-1)
A number of participants adopted this broad approach, illustrating the damage to reputation
allegations of exploitation incur. However, for some of the participants the impact was less
clear; it was also acknowledged that outsourcing offered developing countries an opportunity
to grow their economy through providing people with jobs, as expressed below:
You take factories away from certain parts of the country or the world, you could be
taking away their only livelihood. For us, 1.00 a day isnt a huge amount, but 1.00
a day is there. But does that make it right? I dont know. (Participant-7)
Is any job, with any tiny amount of money better than no job at all? There are always
going to be people working in such bad conditions, that it is clearly not right. I dont
always know enough to be the one who judges whether it is right or wrong.
(Participant-21)
As expressed in the quotes above, outsourcing offers workers in developing countries the
opportunity for employment. However, the implication of lower salaries as alleged by NGOs
was contestable; the cultural knowledge of whether salaries were sufficient was juxtaposed
with not knowing the economic value. As suggested by participant-7, 1.00 would not enable
a worker in the UK to live, but she did not know how much food and shelter cost in that
country. Participant-21 expands on this, questioning whether having employment is better
than not having any, and she does not feel sufficiently informed to make a judgement. This
illustrates the benefits of CSR activities, in assuring consumers that salaries and working
27

conditions have been considered and are appropriate for the country in which production
takes place, as exemplified within the Living Wage model. Nevertheless, the idea that
exploitation, particularly child-labour, was a consequence of fashion production led to
feelings of discomfort, as expressed by participant-6 and 14:
This idea of child-labour or a pittance for people that are making things. I wouldnt
like to think that Im getting clothes dirt cheap at the expense of other societies.
(Participant-6)
Child-labour is something I feel strongly about. But theres quite a lot that I dont
think [about] now that I have children of my own, because I cant actually bear to
think about it. That is affecting my behaviour probably [and is] probably the reason
that I can buy vests, in Asda. Somewhere down the line, even if its not children,
somebodys been exploited to get that cheapness available to me. Its depressing me
having this conversation, how much these things matter to me, in theory, and get still
dont translate into the way I behave. (Participant-14)
The quotes provide examples of how exploitation and child-labour was viewed, leading to
feelings of discomfort through recognising that consumption behaviours do not match
intention. Consistent with the YouGov poll, there was a desire to know more about what
production entailed, not specific details but assurance that certain practices were addressed. It
was noted that certain terms provided assurance, such as Fairtrade; however, this was more
prominent in the food industry as expressed below:
Clothes shopping, is the area where I feel least able to make choices which are
ethical in terms of knowing the origins of something. With food shopping now Ive got
it down to a fine art and I always try to buy Fairtrade products. There are companies
that arent good to use and you dont use them. You can make that choice and I feel
that with clothes I dont really know. (Participant-1)
As illustrated by participant-1, allegations of exploitation provided valuable information on
which companies to avoid and Fairtrade offered an assurance that workers had been
acknowledged in production, including sufficient salaries.
Fairtrade Assurance of Equitable Production
Fairtrade within the fashion industry is underdeveloped and there is little Fairtrade fashion
available on the high street, where the participants mainly accessed fashion. Preferences for
Fairtrade were also expressed by other participants:
Fairtrade labels, thats a brilliant idea. Thats a wonderful idea. Its so easy just to
recognise the label and it just makes it easier for ignorant people like me to say, ok, I
can do that one. (Participant-15)
I just hate the idea that somebody has grown rich, making profits, and somebody is
not getting a fair wage. Its the kind of personal element that makes Fairtrade really
important to me. If we were fairly trading with each other, then we wouldnt need
economic aid, because everybody would be able to support themselves. Thats just the
heritage we are living with and I dont think I can tackle global poverty and justice
all at the same time. (Participant-14)
The above quotes can be interpreted as twofold: firstly, Fairtrade is recognisable to
consumers as including equitable pay, providing the participants with an increased

28

confidence in the concept of Fairtrade. Secondly, Fairtrade reduces the complexities of

decision-making and issues of global poverty that are overwhelming for consumers to engage
in. Participant- 14 also alludes to poverty in developing countries necessitating economic aid,
exacerbated by global systems that do little to provide governments to lift their citizens out of
poverty and provide sustainable production processes (Singer, 2004). Similarly, the Global
Girlfriend label negated the concern for who produced the garments, illustrated in the quote
below:
Oh this is exciting, isnt it! [reading]. Global Girlfriend. Women made, eco-friendly,
Fairtrade. Yes, very good. [reading]. In-style and human rights [reading] Woman
and communities in need. Non-profit. Wow [reading]. Thats just too good to be true
isnt it? Its organic, its cotton, it has helped woman. Non-profit. You cant miss a
label like that. I would look at it, I wouldnt read every word but I would pick out
[certain words]. It would be a bit like buying organic food, I would feel good about
my choice. (Participant-4)
It can be seen that P-4 has reacted to the label as contributing positively to both concerns for
the environment and garment-workers. Her enthusiasm for the intention behind production is
evident, offering assurance that she is contributing positively to women who live in poverty
through her consumption habits. She states that she would feel good about [her] choice, in
the same way that she feels virtuous when buying organic food. In contrast, the eco-factory
label does not address garment-workers, and does not offer any assurance in this respect, as
expressed below:
A Plan A eco-factory, carbon emissions, renewable. But how much were the people
being paid? Because it can be as eco as it likes, but if they are working a fifteen hour
day, then slightly different. (Participant-27)
It can be seen that NGO allegations have resonated with some consumers, stimulating
concern for production practice and appealing to their sense of virtuousness. The eco-factory
does not address those concerns and cannot be used to support decision-making, this
information needs to be more explicate. The fast-fashion business model has incurred
negative consequences and consumers are seeking information that they can use to avoid
contributing to exploitation. Whereas the New Lanark model illustrates that addressing
concerns for workers can align with productivity, something that was possible over 200 years
ago can be applied today to developing countries. This notion supports CSR addressing the
core responsibilities of profit, legal implications, ethical and socially desirable activities
(Matten et al., 2003). As such, this is appealing to consumers when trust has been violated
through alleged exploitation. Additionally, CRS demonstrates leadership in a competitive
industry with little differentiation other than pricing. Despite the UK no longer manufacturing
mainstream fashion, the issue of what production entails is still relevant, and CSR combines
the commercial pressures alongside ethical implications. The chapter has posited that CSR
pertains to a number of benefits for fashion retailers, such as retaining a skilled workforce,
improving the reputation of the brand name and increasing the quality of the output, which
would also increase consumers satisfaction with the garments (Perry et al., 2104). If fashion
buyers focus on building relationships with suppliers through providing constant orders that
enable factories the opportunity to develop the workers skills and provide space to improve
working conditions, salaries and opportunities for unionisation (Perry et al., 2014). As
identified in the Hawthorne Studies, productivity would increase through harmonious

29

working environments (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004). Assurance that production has not
impacted on garment-workers can be provided through the website, as illustrated with jacobs
well and M&S. Again this enhances the reputation of the retailer, particularly when awarded
with accolades from external organisations, such as Greenpeace, further appealing to
consumers need for virtuousness. The participants also illustrate that they were not seeking
intricate information, taking assurance from the concept of Fairtrade and recognition of the
ethos to which this purports. To this end, labels also play a role in guiding decision-making,
the final quote illustrates the potency of nudging consumers to consider production practice:
Sometimes you get a bit complacent, in everyday life and you start to kind of forget
about those things. I think its good to have labels on clothing to prompt you to think,
I should be thinking about this. (Participant-18)
CONCLUSION
This chapter has explored the potential for the fashion industry to position CSR activities
positively, through addressing concerns that fashion production practice is reliant on the
exploitation of garment-workers to keep prices low. It has traced the philosophical origins of
CRS back to the Victorian era, where philanthropy explored notions of equality and social
reform that were integral to the business model, benefiting both workers and production.
However, rather than progressing industry practice to alleviate global poverty, the current
fast-fashion business model was identified as impacting detrimentally on garment-workers
conditions and salaries. NGOs had brought this to consumers attention, with the aim of
harnessing their distaste to encourage fashion buyers to consider garment-workers within
negotiations with factories.
Supporting the integration of CSR activities that encompass societal and organisational goals,
respecting workers with favourable conditions and salaries was considered advantageous for
efficiency and productivity, as found at historically at New Lanark, the Hawthorne plant and
contemporary examples including MASIT. The chapter also examined CSR from two current
fashion businesses: jacobs well and M&S to consider what activities are appropriate.
Furthermore, the notion of knowing more about garment-workers was also considered from
consumers perspectives through the evaluation of labels that included acknowledgement of
who made the garments. This provided details that can be utilised to alleviate guilt that
fashion consumption is a consequence of garment-worker exploitation, increasing notions of
value. It also provides succinct advice, through a total approach, that gives broad assurance
that the business has considered how practice impacts on a variety of stakeholders. Moreover,
the inclusion of this information provides consumers with feelings of virtue, a novel position
isolated within consumption behaviours that normally induce feelings of guilt. As such,
successful communication of CSR practice provides a win-win situation for the fashion
industry and consumers, through providing an information link between production and
consumption.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Although the Edinburgh based research was limited to a psychographic cohort of mothers
working in a professional occupation, it illustrates the potential of addressing such concerns.
This provides a number of future directions for research, including a quantitative study to
examine a wider sample to identify how common the attitudes reported in this chapter are.
Additionally, qualitative research could explore the attitudes of different cohorts, including

30

younger women who are more likely to buy fast-fashion more frequently, males or
consumers from different geographic locations. Moreover, research could focus on CRS
campaigns to explore how this is interpreted by consumers, as well as examining more
closely consumers awareness of the environmental impact of fashion production and their
response to environmentally friendly fibres, such as bamboo.
The research has a number of implications, including the need to address production as
consumer awareness for exploitation is gaining traction. Although CSR is currently claimed
within the fashion industry, it does not address the issues that are foremost in consumers
awareness nor does it provide assurance that can aid decision-making. The evidence from this
chapter is that implementing CSR into production practice will not be detrimental for fashion
brands and retailers, as evidenced through the New Lanark example, the Hawthrone Studies
and the research by Perry et al. (2014), there are advantages in increased productivity and
appealing to consumers virtuousness. Thus is summarised in the framework below (Table 4):
Table 4: Summary of the implications of adopting a CSR framework
CSR theory

Implication

Increasing profit

Increased productivity and content workforce

Contributing to alleviating poverty in developing countries

Law abiding

Moving beyond adherence to laws to leadership in a competitive

industry

Ethical

Appealing to consumers virtuousness

Aiding decision-making
Reputation management by providing information of who made the
clothes

Socially desirable

Evidence from the chapter suggests that consumers do not want to

contribute to exploitative practice
Improving stakeholder relationships

Consequently, integrating CSR as a broad assurance can position fashion retailers as market
leaders in an industry where trust has been violated, benefiting their reputation and workers
in developing countries.
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Appendix: response to revisions

Revisions: Fashion brand management: fashioning value through CSR (Elaine Ritch)
Reviewer 1

Added excerpts

The chapter provides

substantial background
information on the
issues relating to CSR
from a practitioner
perspective, rather than
a theoretical
perspective.

The mission of this chapter is to expand theoretical knowledge as well as

to explore the opportunity for fashion brand managers to position
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as underpinning equitable
production practice and increasing value for consumers.

Page 1

I suggest that a review

of current research in
this topic will enhance
the contribution of this
chapter to the body of
knowledge in this topic
and improve the lit
review and background
of the study.

There are a number of books and journal papers that review the CSR
literature from a number of theoretical perspectives, such as strategic
incentives of social obligation, stakeholder relationships and marketing
opportunities, such as reputation management (Wang, 2015; Crane et al.,
2008).

Page 4

The lit review section,

although thorough an
engaging, could be
augmented by
considering that CSR
encompasses both
environmental as well
as human issues therefore this
delineation could be
discussed in more detail
and the related concerns
given a separate and
distinct emphasis.

Although CSR activities can include recognition that practice incurs

Page 1
negative consequences for the environment, particularly for the fashion
industry through dyes that filter into drinking water, the impact of
pesticides used to enhance cotton production and the long term
consequences of textile waste in landfill sites, the focus of this chapter
considers only garment-worker exploitation. The reasons for this are
twofold; firstly, the consumer data presented at the end of the chapter
illustrates that it is garment-worker exploitation that is foremost to
consumer concern, due in part to the success of campaigns which seek to
improve conditions and salaries for garment-workers; secondly, the
chapter aims to compare philanthropy from the Victorian era as providing
a template to improving poverty and inequality, something that could be
implemented by brands and retailers who want to provide assurance to
consumers that the fashion they purchase has not been a consequence of
exploitation.

38

In addition to this the lit

review could be
augmented by
identifying the gap in
current literature and
indicating how this
study contributes to the
research on the topic.

I suggest that the

section on consumer
response - although
rigorous and engaging
may benefit from
organisation into the
themed categories of
responses through the
use of subtitles.
The Future Research
Directions have not
been included and this
is a significant
ommission. The topic
of CSR is gaining
traction among
consumers and fashion
industry insiders therefore Future
Research Directions
must be in abundance
and should be included

Although the literature examines the theoretical perspective of CSR and

considers the application of this through content analysis (Wang, 2015)
and case studies of Sri Lankan garment factories (Perry, 2011), CSR has
not been considered through the lens of philanthropy. In this sense, this
chapter is looking back to the successful, and at the time progressive,
application of social reform within a model village to address social
inequality to argue that similar practice could be implemented currently
within garment factories in developing countries. Thus the chapter offers
a unique perspective of connecting the textile industry from the past,
through the cotton mill at New Lanark which considers social obligations,
as well as the Hawthorne Studies which encompass stakeholder
relationships, to the future to examine how CRS presents marketing
opportunities through reputation management and leadership in the
fashion industry.

Added three themed sections: the practicalities of sourcing new fashion;

reflecting on allegations of sweatshop labour; and Fairtrade assurance of
equitable production.

Although the Edinburgh based research was limited to a psychographic

cohort of mothers working in a professional occupation, it illustrates the
potential of addressing such concerns. This provides a number of future
directions for research, including a quantitative study to examine a wider
sample to identify how common the attitudes reported in this chapter are.
Additionally, qualitative research could explore the attitudes of different
cohorts, including younger women who are more likely to buy fastfashion more frequently, males or consumers from different geographic
locations. Moreover, research could focus on CRS campaigns to explore
how this is interpreted by consumers, as well as examining more closely
consumers awareness of the environmental impact of fashion production
and their response to environmentally friendly fibres, such as bamboo.

Page 4/5

Page 22

Page 29

Reviewer 2
the chapter would
benefit from a clearer
structure where you
identify more clearly
the literature review,

The chapter reviews literature from a number of areas, including CSR,

ethics, consumer behaviour and management theories, all of which
contribute to situating the potential to implement a CSR model within
fashion production to appeal to consumers virtuousness.

39

Page 2

the methodology
(actually missing),

Within this section of the chapter, consumer evaluation of CSR activities

will be examined through data that was collected through qualitative
methods. Qualitative research is not concerned with gathering statistics
(Olaogun and Fatoki, 2009), but seeks to explore the experience of
others within the context of a specific topic (Bradley, 1993: 434).
Researchers use qualitative research to understand social circumstances
and report upon phenomena experienced and how meaning is constructed
(for example, feeling, knowing, thinking, remembering)(Easterby Smith
et al., 2008; Thomson et al., 1989). These techniques help marketers
explore and gain insights into particular cultural and social categories
where consumers make sense of their everyday lives and construct
identities (Moisander et al., 2010). Typical of qualitative research,the
sample size is smaller, seeking to reveal the particular within the
experience (Smith et al., 2009). Unstructured interviews were carried out
with 28 participants from Edinburgh who evaluated labels from high
street fashion retailers (Ritch, 2012) as a vehicle for discussion (Thomson
and Hytko, 1997).
The participants were all mothers with children aged under twelve and all
worked in professional occupations, such as teaching (primary, secondary
and higher education), law and managerial positions. Additionally, they
were the main shopper for the household, juggling both employment,
child-care and household duties. The labels indicated a number of
sustainable issues, such as made from organic cotton and PET (fleece
fabric made from recycled plastic bottles), or having additional chemicals
applied (enzyme washed). However, what is of importance to this topic is
the labels that address the garment-workers who were involved in
production, as depicted in the Global Girlfriend label, presented in Figure
14, and the M&S label describing an eco-factory (MASIT), presented in
Figure 15. Global Girlfriend is a fair trade boutique based in Nepal that
sells fashion made by women under the ethos that when women have
employment. The money is invested in the childrens education and
health, which builds stronger families and communities. The garments are
also made with care for the environment, including organic fibres and
natural dyes. All of this is communicated in the label, which can be found
on the following pages.

40

Page 22

the results and their

implications

The research has a number of implications, including the need to address

production as consumer awareness for exploitation is gaining traction.
Although CSR is currently claimed within the fashion industry, it does
not address the issues that are foremost in consumers awareness nor does
it provide assurance that can aid decision-making. The evidence from this
chapter is that implementing CSR into production practice will not be
detrimental for fashion brands and retailers, as evidenced through the
New Lanark example, the Hawthrone Studies and the research by Perry et
al. (2014), there are advantages in increased productivity and appealing to
consumers virtuousness. Thus is summarised in the framework below
(Table 4):

Page 30

Table 4: Summary of the implications of adopting a CSR framework

CSR theory

Implication

Increasing profit

Increased productivity and content workforce

Contributing to alleviating poverty in developing countries

Law abiding

Moving beyond adherence to laws to leadership in a competitive industry

Ethical

Appealing to consumers virtuousness

Aiding decision-making
Reputation management by providing information of who made the clothes

Socially desirable

Evidence from the chapter suggests that consumers do not want to con
exploitative practice
Improving stakeholder relationships

41
All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately.