tempts t0 promote a re men who had ousted “whiff of grapeshe skinned Corsican named Napoleon Bonaparte, who from being the Directory’s saviour and servant was soon to prove its master. How are we to explain this almost incredible French Revolution, this astounding lispersed the mob. ‘The officer in command was a sallow- mixture of idealism and courage and cowardice, reform and tyranny? (Chiefly by bearing in mind this fact - that France, a country undergoing a radical reshaping of her organs of government, at the critical moment was plunged into war, both national and eivil. War, with the fear it generates, often produces reckless violence against opponents at home, and so it was in the French Revolu- tion. Further, the democratic creed of the French Revolutionaries, based on idcalism rather than practicability at the time, encouraged the belief that the mob is always right, and robbed leader after leader of the will or courage to halt the mob when it was obviously wrong. By the system of open debates in Assembly, Convention, Clubs and local committees, those who urged moderation were always liable to be shouted down and accused of the unforgivable offence of counter-revolutionary sentiments. Worst of all, pethaps, was the permission given in July 1792 to the local assemblies ofthe forty-eight Paris sections (the electoral dis consider themselves in permanent session. This meant thatthe fanatics could always outstay the wearied moderates and reverse any decisions they dis- liked. At critical moments, too, the undue importance of the Municipal Govern ‘ment of Paris, or Commune, which was early captured by the extreme Left, had a disastrous effect on the more moderate Conve ‘Thus partly because of the war, internal and external, partly because of the genuine difficulty of keeping a hold on a country freed from the shackles of centuries, partly because theories of the revolutionaries and the practice of open debating, partly because of the independence of the Commune and the sections, the conduct of afairs rapidly drifted into the hands of extremists, and the Revolution developed from a movement for peaceful reform into a welter terrorism and bloodshed. Yet it must never be forgotten that when the frenzy violence died, the permanent benefits of reform remained. These did not include democracy, for France had shown herself as yet incapable of it. They did, however, include equality before the law, admin i the unreal CHAPTER 5 The Revolutionary Wars and the Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte 1. From the First Coalition to the Treaty of Amiens, 1793-1802 We must now follow the career of the fascinating and repellent genius who in almost equal measure restored and ruined France, We have seen how, for a num- ber of reasons including the threat of her doctrines and the occupation of the Austrian Netherlands, the war which revolutionary France had declared against ‘Austria in 1792 had by 1793 developed into a war against a European coalition ‘The price of France’s initial failure in this was the Terror and dictatorship. {orship, directed mainly by the Committee of Public Safety, succeeded xy situation. By 1795 the work of Carnot and others on the ‘only planned campaigns and organised armies but also sad the advance at Fleurus in 1794 which recaptured enthusiasm of the ragged French troops had xr. Holland, too, had not only failed on land driven Prussia and Spain from the and lost a fleet captured by a cavalry charge across the ice, but had also been ‘compelled to make a peace which put her forces at the disposal of France. The borated with the French, and 1 into the Batavian Republic 1d the main originator and pay- Europe, though she capture of Toulon Spanish in 1793 (and its loss four months unsuccessful expedi- in Brittany, det First Coalition, Fleurus Formation of Batavian RepuAlls, the Pyrenees, and the oceans. Already in October 1795 the Austrian Netherlands had been declared planned to attack Austr were snch armies to attad addition a third army was to enter capture the Austrian possessions there, I via the Tyrol. The soldier app from Toulon in 1 friendless, one-m¢ umphed over his revol ie had been on the spot in the diffi and his prompt order to fetch cannons and fire on the mob had saved the new 'y. His rewards were the command of the ly in love and who had useful aristocratic connections. March 1796, after a two-day honeymoon, Bonaparte departed for in a month he had pulled his lx, ill-equipped, and disorganised troops the I find there honour, glory, and wealth.” A few days after he he had suoceeded in his frst object of separating the Austrian and, Sardinia was demanding peace from a general ery, no cavalry, and no boots’ The rest of +. By biliant strategy and marching he superior opponents into positions where they their forces against his entre strength had preserved her exist |, and that even. where iped the French, were thus soon to find was, it was “Treaty CampoFrance enriched and glorified, and the name of Napoleon Bonaparte sent ringing throug] t, Britain, who would never feel secure while a major sea-power occupied the coast of the Low Countries. Accordingly 1797 saw a determined French effort to crush her. It was, indeed, a critical year for Britain with no allies, an imminent revolt in Ireland, mutinies in the fleet, crisis, and control in India threatened by the French inspired Tippoo Sahib. But the schemes of France went astray, in spite of the fact land and Spain had now to act as her allies and move their fleets at her dictation, At the end of 1796 an attempted French invasion of Ireland at Bantry Bay had been scattered by storms, and the French efforts of 1798 to carry aid tothe revolt of Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen were little more successful ‘The graver danger to Britain during these years in fact came from France's compulsory allies rather than her own disorganised navies, until Jervis and Nelson (his second-in-command, whose initiative won the day) defeated the off Cape St Vincent and Duncan disposed of the Dutch at Camperdown. for the moment was safe was left to the conqueror of Italy to devise a more brilliant, if fundament impracticable, scheme of attacking the obstinate island. Knowing that Bi as a world power to whom commerce was the life-blood, Bonaparte planne capture Egypt (which was part of the Ottoman or Turkish Empi in Bi trade in the Mediterranean, and possibly even advance overland and seize India. ‘The fascination which the East had exercised over his mind from boyhood urged hhim on, as well as that vaulting ambition which My glory is threadbare, ‘This little Europe is too small a ficld. Great celebrity can be won only in the East.” ‘The Directory readily approved the proposal ~ Bonaparte was becoming so powerful that it might be wise to keep him away from France. So with an army of 38,000, « large group of scientists and antiquarians and 400 boats, and with the whole expedition financed by plunder from two new French vassal-republics (the Helvetic and the Roman), Bonaparte sailed from Toulon for Egypt. Eluding Nelson, he took Malta from the Knights of St John en route, cleverly continued to give Nelson the slip, and arrived off Alexandria in July 1798. Before the month was out he had overwhelmed the famous Turkish cavalry force, the Mamelukes, at the Battle of the Pyramids (‘Forty cent ‘Nelson came on the French fleet at anchor in Aboukir ‘0 cutting off French communications with Europe. ‘ments Bonaparte could not advance to In thus driven into adopting Syria, pushing through and smashing the Ottoman Empire. Proved an easy victim (he again posed as the ‘ ce to help defend the city. Frustrated, ‘crush a 1 republic in Naples, and captured Piedm« ined because her halfomad ‘Tsar Paul was s John and resented Bonaparte’s move towards the E juld be reserved for Russian and Turkish influence. From the French troops were being expelled by the fierce sack general Suvorov, while the other French armies were hanging on with ir conquests on the Rhine, in the Netherlands, and in Switzerland. re were, too, rumours of royalist plots and treachery among French generals, ince a wave of unpopularity was almost submerging the Directory. The nwers stole away from Egypt in two is, leaving his deserted expedition to its favourite 5 to find a substitute for hops, and fishing in the Nil Mamelukes, and lea ‘concern for the Knights i despite having taken it ith this situation partly by Second Coali Napoleon overthro the Directory October-Novembs 1799: the coup d of Brumaire ‘The Consulate, 18 ‘Treaty of Luné 1801 ‘The Armed Neutr:ns, 1802 04 {that iron, timber, and corn could be seized 1, for example), and partly by smashing the The Danes were given twenty-four hours t0 with= league, and refused; during the subsequent British attack Nelson did hs famous telescope trick to ignore the instructions of Sir Hyde Parker Further, the assassination of Tsar Paul by a court party in Russia tired of his insane suspicions helped the British cause, for his successor, ‘Tsar Alexander I, ‘was opposed to France. “The year 1801 thus finished with Britain triumphant in the Mediterranean and the Baltic. Farther afield, on the suggestion of the exiled Prince of Orange, she had occupied the Dutch possessions of Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope; and she had also captured Trinidad from the Spanish, France was eq fon the European continent. On both sides there were accordingly peace, and in March important terms were Malta to the Knights return France was t key now, it seemed, devote he Cape to the Dutch and Ceylon and 1 ; and in 2. Napoleon Bonaparte’s Achievements in France as First Consul and Emperor, 1800-14 ‘Asa general, Bonaparte’s genius was, finally, unproductive, because he took on tions which in different ive work dates from his years as free from war when he could forms have endured tot First Consul (1800-0) wl government into an imperial dictatorshi He kept representative ith himself as the Emperor Napoleon, ins only in a powerless form, but secured the ’s central government perished with him. However, his earlier jon of local government (an area which the revolutionaries of 1789 had --chaos) became the basis of the modern French system. As First and owed their positions to, the central government, They in the Département, the sub-Prefect in the Arrondissement, and Consulate made is largely neglected elementary edu jon by fou itary secondary jence and mathematics were subjects studied fea expected to contol virtua feat ne nntutons catered for gs“ dono te ay plan nsuction for ung females, sid Napleon, eden sn nab for them, Dect they are never ele upon oe ae etl them wo consid themes the re Hb ne soed ie en of talent by founc Legion of ‘000 new hereditary nobles, incl xlrod counts, quite apart from the members of is eft hia mak on Bonaparte, foal hisirelgiows nature this een had sere te Chichi Fane aa gins had nought bout iis conic ae aesiuionary deities as the Guddess of Reason and the eee tof fashion the Chur in Franc in 1800 Patan Rome, Neverthees, the overwhelming ote heart even if the incu were drive a hard bargain with Rom: s. The French State was to choo nd generally control Education ‘The Legion of Honour, 1802ior Church, which would be under only the nominal leadership of the Pope. Above the Church lands confiscated atthe Revolution were not to be returned. Thus the peasants were won over to Bonaparte not only because he restored their religion bbut because he saw that they kept their recent gains. The Concordat did not please everyone ~ one distinguished general was overheard to remark Deum which celebrated the reconciliation: “The only thing lacking at ‘mony is the million dead men who died to get rid of this nonsense.” Bon, however, knew he was on firm ground in appealing to : He saw in religion what he called ‘the cement of ~ something useful in binding men together and keeping them satisfied, something that young ladies especially should study to make them meck and obedient wives. In other words, religion was for Bonaparte only an instrument. The true depth of his Catholicism may be judged from the way he later annexed the Papal States and had the Pope carried off to Franc created, and advisory boards set up for many manufactures, arts, and eras, High Protective tariff sheltered French industries from foreign competition; technieal schools, prizes, loans, and exhibitions encouraged new processes; and France, deprived of certain staple articles by the Continental System,? managed to develop effective substitutes such as chicory for coffee and beet for cane-sugar. New cotton machines were invented and factory acts passed. Further, by main- taining a stable currency based on gold, and by his creation of the Bank of France while First Consul, Napoleon won the support ofall the business interests. In fact, by an elaborate series of decrees Napoleon’ government regulated almost the whole of the national life—art, the theatre, the press, commerce, industry, and mn. This regulation was not all gain. High tariffs meant great hardship for consumers in the form of increased prices, government censorship greatly freedom of publication, and regulation of industry hindered as well as sd industrial development. Whatever the merits of his general fina i and commercial policy, there is ss treasures stolen from Ttaly inebleau were restored, ‘The planning of a great group of arterial om the Arc de Triomphe and the clearing of the Tuileries 1808 — until, in test was perhaps the Jaws of France on such topics them. After the old tangle ind Baronial laws which had been complica- gs of the committee which reviewed the lawyers’ drafts, isive influence on its development. Often he was able to secure ‘or to place his weight behind clauses which increased the power of hhusband or the father ~ Napoleon’s great of authority. Saw o n wed few legal rights iscivil code was not a very progressive document women and permitted a father to have his child temporarily imprisoned. confirmed the legal equality of male citizen, helped to bring social and enabled Frenchmen ~ and others ~ to understand the main principles in South America. Through widely adopted by different states in Europe and in South A Zh ‘nde therefore Napoleon helped to give one of the main bulwarks of domestic 4 great legal system — not only to France, but to the world,renewal CHAPTER 6 The Struggle Against Napoleon 1. From the Renewal of War to the Height of Napoleon’s Power, 1803-10 ‘The Peace of Amiens was always unlikely to give more than a short breathing space. It did not mention a question of the greatest importance to Brit French annexation of the Austrian Netherlands; and it left both sides still d suspicious and thout the real will to peace. France refused to give any greater freedom to British trade; British caricaturists refused to be kinder to Bonaparte too, was clearly planning to extend her influence in the Near East, India, ‘West Indies ~ but equally clearly Britain would brook no important two rivals ‘were at war again, France being helped by Spain after the British seizure of some Spanish treasure ships destined as subsidy for France, ‘The struggle whi wed was a more personal one ‘war against France. By 1804, when Bonaparte rid himself of his fellow Consuls and became the Emperor Napoleon, the flame of the French Revol dying down. ‘Thenceforth Europe had to deal ther than the burning zeal of a nation. the intention of mounting a direct attack on Bri an enormous force in camp at Boulogne. “The Chan needs but a little courage to cross.’ So an army of 10% or the venture, and some 1,500 Napoleon first mar- he said, tsa ditch sh grasped the plan. Having thus secured an over- the Channel, the F panish fleets could safely ish newspapers! When Napoleon did, and he got it once more from the English newspaper Villeneuve approached Spanish waters he therefore found a British fore from the el der Admin Clr reny nee him, Moreover, hugh fw inch ships had managed to slip out of Rochefort, the main naval force in the French Atlantic ports, that at Brest, had not escaped blockade at all. Seeing his tottering, Villeneuve obeyed his alternative orders and put in at the naval tacties: we only know one manoeuvre, just what the enemy wants us to do.” rage, Napoleon now broke camp at Boulogne and prepared to lead his army t Austria, as a third Coalition, in which Britain and Russia were joined by in the year, It was aimed against Napoleon’s and declared himself King of Italy. Napoleon was to the enemy. Speedily the men from the Boulogne ‘were marching to central Europe as only the French armies could march — im to convey forces to Naples. Disregarding wt-minute order superseding him, the French admiral sailed, and on 21st October 1805 the thirty-three French and Spanish ships confronted the twenty Nelson and Collingwood off Cape Trafalgar. When the day finished favourite mode of attack (breaking the enemy line and concentrating a ime) had won its last and greatest rnch navy was crippled, and the luckless Villeneuve committed suicide. st of the war Britain was safe from invasion, and British sea-power, in his first great bat sd a crushing defeat Austrians and Russians at ‘he news of this second and Nelson fol Villeneuve 3 ‘Third Ulm and AusterlitayFerenc sateite Ste. J Preencsties TE intepenser Sets rv tate Sito RUSSIAN EMPIRE FINLAND, 8 ff, , i; Bia: ay! = 28 Fa 2 as eS 2: ge 22 ae. unexpected disast and worn. steed 10 hand over to Napo ' possessions in Italy inelucling Venice atl to reduce her German states. With Austria powerless, Na set up a union of west German states kn y soon declared their resignation from the old Holy Roman Empire, whi Napoleon then declared he could no longer recognise. Francis of Austria thereupon ‘esigned as its head, to become Emperor of Austria instead; and the Holy nan Empire, which had endured in name at last fora thousand years, came to a ‘turn of Prussia came next. Prussia had not joined the Coalition Jena, 1806 ive against him. In doing this he could count on the help of the Poles, to whom, many other peoples at first, he appeared as ‘the liberator’, He encountered ler recognised Napoleon's arrangements on the Continent, including the federation ofthe Rhine andthe seting up of a new Grand Duchy of Warsaw. im Alexander received the promise of a free hand in Eastern Europe and a inthe Turkish Empire when it was to be annexed. More important ‘ered Brin should refuse to give up her enol conquest or her in Napoleon's “Continental System’. At the same time, Prussia made promises. The Continental System was the basis of Napoleon’ strategy from this point, ‘The Continent falgar Napoleon had come to realize that Britain could not be con- System ec by sea, and he therefore sought to use against her nota military or naval but “ ic weapon ~in other words, to strike a deathblow to her trade and wealth It was a policy which the earlier Revolutionary governments had initiated, but th he was to systematise. For this purpose he issued from Berlin in 1806, after of Jena and later from Milan a series of orders known as the Berlin and Berlin and Mile Decrees, the effect of which was to forbid France or any of her alles or Decrees, 1806 tory to accept British goods, which were to be confiscated whenever allowing her to import certain French goods uy but not to sell), Napoleon hoped to rob Britain of her financial criss, and bring his enemy to bankruptcy. e successful, it would have to be applied 807 he had crowned ww. Yet his capacity for chewing. seemed unlimited,med the Grand I nd secure in the new Russian alliance, he hoped that the ‘seods would soon settle his last outstanding problem, n was swift and effective ountries which accepted Napoe! locks ' Port excluding British vessels was to be deprived the opportunity of rer nations. Britain thus aimed at inent of alternative sources of supply, causing rising prices and inst Napoe any French navy wi ichy of Warsaw. the vessels were duly sur- danger being thus removed, Britain « + Orders in Council effectv and the grim trade war began to stifle the {impression on the extrem: priests, they firmly resolved not to accept +809, had caused the Pope to be kidnapped and thi in M of the Peninsula to Nap her army ~a highly important des tory at Baylen and the British and Port 808 fortune began to desert the French in the , by a mutual arrangement tra ~ staged a desper rkation at Corunna, but prev as the Convention a hurried Portugal, ide turned again, The landed again in Portugal here he defeated King Joseph at Talaverahere else had they operated in a barren Population, French commanders indifferent wvements only from Napoleon in Austria, ten depended on the English newspapers for his information ft cavalrymen was necessary to get a message from e ry to get a message from one village to another, a smaller umber would be murdered by peasants. Slowly Wellington aves strong and prepared w advance. Theft cack ner apecig " great edifice, a Elsewhere, the system as yet remained to Walcheren, off the m succeed in fighting, I victim to the swamps and Austria, too, tempted to try conclusions once more by French failures in found Napoleon still far too strong at the battle of Wagram, lost even ritory, and had to promise to enforce the Con ‘was made to ally with Napoleon and supply him with a new Marie Louise ~ for Josephine had not provided the Emperor ‘now conveniently divorced tan sent an expedition land, but it did not even Lingering under inefficient com- ope was secure and that his tain and the Peninsula - would soon be cleared up, EFFECT OF THE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM ON BRITAIN (1H ITAIN (THROUGH FRENCH Before. After. ~) sugar and laid up and ied to his dependent allies or conquests to compensate forall the improvements iections that his government had made. In 1811 came the revolt whic the beginning of the end. The Tsar, tired of doing without Brit is goods, annoyed at the annexation of a relative’s territory (Oldenberg), 'y Napoleon's marriage with an Austrian rather than a Russian princess, re to help him in his Eastern ambitions, broke was one of the most appalling retreat;andasthey they devastated the country, denuding it of supplies and shelter. The ling army could not be fed; death and desertion carried off thousands, so the cold set in two-thirds had disappeared. Napoleon struggled nw, hoping that its capture would end not only the war but all the supply. Outside the capital the greatest battle of the campaign was Borodino - which the French won at the cost of 30,000 horses and 50,000 the dead left seven or eight deep on the field of conflict. ‘opponents. After five weeks in the ruined cit ‘but turn back ~ and, since Russian armies reat over the desolate li Borodino had to be encountered again, but one man at least was not e most beautiful battlefield I have ever seen in my life’, remarked on. By Novernber the cold had come to complete the catastrophe. As they ‘with Ney in the rear heroically fighting a battle a day against the ever- ssing Russian forces, the Emperor realised that his presence was essential in rebuild the shattered military strength of his Empire. ly 42,000 men, the Prussians had adopted a Campaign, 1812 Borodino ‘The retreat from Moscowapply the ssians, and Swedes had managed ipzig, 1813 (sometimes known as the ‘Battle of the Leipzig, 1813 the French forces were overwhelmed. Rapidly they retreated across the Allies in pursuit. Rejecting a very generous peace offer which ven France her ‘natural frontiers’ and so left her withthe Rhineland im, Napoleon laid himself open tothe inevitable an invasion of France the Peninsula Wellington during 1811 had succeeded in liberating Peninsular War v 13 mtuguese forces were were about to do so Invasion of France (who by the Treaty of Chat and agreed on some of their peace on first to accept terms and then short service, and so had a reserve about 120,000 strong. the Prussian War | a as his kingdom. lcon was already waiting in the wings. Just before his fench Senate, guided by alleyrand, a former bishop and foreign the Republic and Napoleon, set up a provisional government and or the restoration of the Bourbon line. ‘This was in accordance with the Restoration of he Allies. The new king was the elder surviving brother of the executed Bourbon monarchy XVI. He took the title of Louis XVIII, and to make his accession more Louis XVITL the French, promised to rule by the terms of a Charter which guaran- jon, He had some difficulty in leaving his exile in in five years transformed an almost medieval secured snd wal fr mages cheweres had broke which certain land was ot i a head ps a pens mene iota therm ‘even greater imposed no armyoboao LUMINATIONS FOR THE PEACE OF PARIS, sham, illuminated to celebrate the peace asclighting began in coal mine offices near Whiteha m Murdoch for lighting factories in the English slater used for lighting muscholds until the second half of the nineteenth from about 1792. es, but did not become general in century. Even then it was largely an capitals. Apart from this, F d be represented at this ut the redistribution 0 war in Europe enabled Bi ports, and the seizure ish-born American subjects from American ships. Britain in fact was on the greatest eof ‘rench delegate, ision and bring France into the select, is by inducing Britain and Austria rate should Russia or Prussia attempt to e was threatening). When news of this leaked o over when a still more alarming piece of .ews that Napoleon had decamped from instant action, Within about an law and renew hostilities against him, ined by many smaller powers. More striking e Congress ns, was signed on th June 1815, nine days before the last great at Waterloo, ‘The tactics ofin strongly be Savoy (which she had occupied sth-east. In addition they army of occupati ks of art, At and Prussia France, and on) and some frontier areas in the indemnity, and suffer eturn of the remaining I 1 Waterloo Napoleon died fe had spent much of his time ind arranging the history of his career to he best advantage. Europe would never again be troubled by hishim wholeheartedly after 1806, them little freedom. ‘The Italians, utch were all overtaxed. In Russia and Spain the French revolu- very backward peoples, and here he ing. Further, after his introduction the whole of Europe. It was a task beyond the power of any one man or any one nation, even when the man was Napoleon and the nation the French. Even if he ‘Turkish Empire, to (on, a demon he him- the beginnings lamage that can IAPTER 7 ‘he ‘Congress System’ : Congress of Vienna and the Post-War ‘ment, 1814-15 jes and the other European powers met at Vienna in the autumn of ced two main tasks, The fist was to make or approve detailed arrange. or sharing the spoils of victory, bearing in mind thatthe great powers had tmade a number of preliminary agreements. This had to be done without ctors at each other's throats. The second task was, in so doing, to (a stable Europe unlikely to sufer further great upheavals ih representatives of all the European states were invited, and the confer~ ‘nas convened in the name of seven Allies and France it was understood that sion-making would be reserved to the ‘Big Four’ among the Allis ~ ‘Prussia and Russia, The chief delegates of these powers ~ the Minister Metternich, the British Foreign Secretary Cast ‘sian Chancellor Hardenberg, and the Russian Foreign ‘was overshadowed by his master, Tsar Alexander I) ~met house to discus the whole range of Congress business, but wiwers were confined to more restricted matters and their own partic ‘Congress was very old, however, the chief French delegat sated power which had caused all the trouble, Tal jing that the blame for past event ‘hogged the major business, m cother represent ime on their hands; Fos this reason the Congress proved to be one Congress of Vienna, 1814-15 ‘The Four Major Powers — ~and the Fifth ‘Talleyrand and Aegitimacy”