1 Stress and Strain CONCEPT REVIEW i2L.2 INTRODUCTION ‘This book mainly deals with the deformation of clastic materials in engineering field. Most engineering materials are considered to be homogeneous. The properties of a homogeneous material are uniform throughout its body. However a homogeneous material may be isotropic or anisotropic. A material is said to be isotropic its properties are same in all directions. Many engineering materials like bricks, concrete, etc. are ‘isotropic. Materials like timber are anisotropic since their properties differ significantly for directions paraltel and perpendicular to the grains. Metals can also acquire directional propertics through rolling or extruding process because these Processes tend to orient the crystals in certain direction 1.1.4 Stress vs. Strain Load applied ona rigid body may be axial tension ‘or compression, shear or volumetric as shown in Fig, 1.1. Resistance of a body to extemal load is, called stress and is governed by Hooke’s law within elastic zone: “Stress in an elastic material is proportional to strain”. This can be written mathematically for three cases of deformation (Fig, 1.1) as follows: (i) For axial deformation (compression or tension) Axia stesso un ‘Axialstain ~ € on where, Axil force | F axial stress, o= Atalferes =F (42) Axial strain, e= Eloweation AL (3) Thitiallength and, E = Young’s modulus, constant for each elastic material Shear strain, = Angular deformation in radians, (= Modulus of rigidity or sheer modulus, ‘constant for each clastic materialZ__ Strength of Materials Area d 100 Sain 6) = (ii) For volumetric deformation (compression or tension) Volumeticstress Volumetiestmin "2, where, Volumetric strain, _ Changein volume _ AV 6 Trtalvolume ~ 7 and, K = Bulk modulus Itshould be noted thatthe magnitude of stess.and extemal pressure willbe ecual at equilibrium (.e., hen there is no movement ofthe body under the applied lon). ‘Sign Convention: Tensile stresses and strains are normally considered +ve. 6) an 1.2 AXIAL TENSILE TEST Allaxial load test ere conducted at a constant rate of loading orata constant rate of stain, the former being more common in use. Figure 1.2 shows stress-strain plot for mild steel. It is linear from starting point Oto the limit of proportionality point P, up to which Hooke's law remains valid. ‘After pint P the stress-strain curve deviates slightly from the straight line towards clastic limit E, Beyond point £, the stress increases up to the "upper yield point ¥, and then there is an unstable 300 Stress-Strain Curve for Mild-steel1.2.2 True Stress—True Strain There is an error in the computation of stress and strain if they are calculated based on initial aree ‘and length since both are changing during the test. InFig.|.2 firmlineshows this epparentstress-strain relation. True stress-strain curve (shown by dotted line in Fig.1.2) can be obtained as follows. Let initial cross-sectional area and length of the sample be dp and Lo, respectively (LS., 1608-1972 recommends Ly = 5.65/4e for axial tension test) ‘At any stage cross-sectional area and length of the sample be 4 and L, respectively, Therefore at any stage, Force F Apparent stress, = —E = “4 = (1.8) in ew Elo Apparent strain, e= <"® 9) Ty E ‘True stress, (1.10a) A Twestrin, €= f%et0,£ (ta) ines = [Fotoe 7 (ta If the volume changes are neglected, thea Axly AKL Tne sress, 3=HxA =5(1+8 (1.106) do Lo ‘True strain, = vee =log.( +e) (1.l1b) The difference between true stress-strain and apparent stress-strain is significant only at higher strain beyond elastic limit. 1.2.3. Poisson's Ratio ‘The cross-section of the specimen reduces under the axial load which causes transverse or lateral strain ¢). d-d, Lateral strain, = where, (a) fo fiameter of specimen at any stage, j= initial diameter of specimen ‘The ratio of lateral strain le, and longitudinal strain [e| under axial load is called Poisson's ratio, isson’s ratio, f= = (13) Minus sign indicates that lateral and axial strains are of opposite signs. Poisson’s ratio is constant for most of the materials up to propor- tionality limit and its value ranges from 0.25 to 0.35, The theoretical maximum value of 2 is 0.5 for incompressible substance. 1.2.4 Modulus of Resilience and Strain Energy The modulus of resilience is the strain energy stored in a material per unit volume when loaded upto elastic limit. __ Average force x distancemoved Strain Volume i 0+, AXAL Modulus of resilience ( ) De TL ho, xe La 2 2E ata = area uncer stress-strain plot shown shaded in Fig. 1.2. 5 Working Stress Ifa structure is to work within elastic limit, the design stress or working load should always be less then the yield stress with a factor of safety. Yield stress Working stress = Feror of safely (as) 1.2.6 Modulus of Toughness It is the measure of total energy a material can absorb prior to facture. Modulus of toughness is the total area under stress-strain plot. 1.2.7 Creep, Relaxation and Fatigue These three phenomena are astociated with the plastic deformation of solids. The stress-strain plot in Fig.1.2 is drawn by inereasing stress or strain continuously and no time is allowed for one to develop due to increases in other. However, at her stress level strain will increases with timeat constant load. This phenomenon is called creep and corresponding strain is creep strain, Relaxation is somewhat reverse of creep. If a material is strained ata constant level, the stress in the material reduces with time, This phenomenon is called relaxation. The materials fil at a fatigue stress much smaller than their rupture stress if they are subjected to a specified number of cycles of alternating tensile/compression loading or loading/ unlcading, The endurance limit or fatigue limit is the maximum reversed stress below which an infinite number of cycles may be applied without, rupturing the specimen, The endurance limit for most enginceting materials is less than the clastic limit. Figure 1.4 shows loading/unloading curves meet at a common point which is decreasing with successive cycles untoa stability point. Thearea of hysteresis loop shownis the energy dissipated with each cycle. Similar hysteresis loop is obtained in ‘complete reversal of load cycles. These phenomena are now getting special aitention since the basis of structural design is now shifted from working load ‘theory to plastic design. 1.2.8 Volume Change ‘Consider a cube of initial volume Vy =a xc, of the tension specimen. If the strain parallel to the x-axis is €, the strains parallel to sand z-axis are, by= EE UXE The deformed volume, V=a(l+e)xb(—pe)xc(l— pe) =axbxc(l+e(l-pxey =axbxc[l+(l-2¢ (neglecting higher order terms of €) ‘Thus change in volume, AV=axbxe(l-3e (1.16) Ifthe volume does not change during the test, Eq, (1.16) indicates the maximum possible value of is 0.5. 1.2.9 Shear Stress-Strain Diagram Ordinarily, the important properties of metals are obtained from axial tension test, provided Pois- ‘Stress and Strain (05) son’s ratio is determined during the test. The modulus of rigidity can then be calculated from the formula, G= E72 (1+ 1). Mechanical properties such as shearing proportional limit, shearing yield. strength and shear ultimate strength arc defined in a manner similar to the axial tension test. The ‘mechanical properties of a material are occasion- ally determined from shear test. The mest common, shear test uses a thin walled tube under torsion. ‘The shear stress-strain relationship is then estab- lished using Eo, (4.1) through (44)ifr, 1, @and T are known by measurements. 1.2.10 Compression Stress-Strain Diagram For most ductile materials, true stress-strain curves are practically the same in tension and compression. The two curves are quite different when engineering strains are used, since the specimen tend to bulge in compression. Figure 1.6 shows stress-strain curve for ductile and britle ‘materials in compression and tension, 4,3 GENERAL 3-DIMENSIONAL STATE OF STRESS A body can be subjected to varying stress in all the three directions as shown in Fig.1.7. Body forces F,, F,, F, may also be acting alongwith direct stresses and shear stresses. The equations for equilibrium in three directions can then be written as follows. ots Br tA 0 (1.17) 2 ge 20 (117 + SEHR, 0 (1.17) me + F = 0 (1.170) Now consider equilibrium of moment of the forces about an axis parallel to the z-axis and passing through center of the face ABCD,Strength of Materials 6 Compression 6 ‘Compression y, ip Tension ‘Tension ? ; e Stres-siran curve Stress-strain curve fr ductile materials for bitte materials Figa6 4 fatty md t=t, — (Iles The differential equations for equilibrium in 9 polercvordinstesarederveds follows (Example 1.25) Neglecting product of four differential terms in ‘comparison to three differential terms gives, +A =0 (1.180) fy Be (17d) Similarly it can be shown that, 24h =0 (.18b)tmomena cee Torsion CONCEPT REVIEW ANALYSIS OF CIRCULAR ‘SECTION—THE TORSION Circular shafts transmit power normally in mach- ines through torsion. Figure 4.1 showsa cylindrical bar of length L and radius R, rig end and subjected to a torque, T assumed that, (1) Plane section remains plane after torsion and there is no warping. (2) Allcross-sections normal to longitudinal axis at equal distance undergo same relative rota- tion. Consider a line AB on the surface of the bar parallel to its longitudinal axis. Line AB is displaced to AC by an angle ¥, after the torsion 7 is applied. From Fig. 4.1, Shear strain 1, a @ and, Angle of vit, 0= SE w From Eqs () and (i), RO y- £8 Gi) L Similarly, the shearstrain y at any radius is given by, ee) laa Circular Bar under Torsion Fig 1 sv the applied toson F xin aerate way by double arow Tsing righthand tum le, i. the ‘fingers of right hand point wards the direction of the twist, then thumb point in the direction ofthe torsion applied T.70 Strength of Materials Shear stress Tisrelated to shear strain 7 as follows, r0G reyxG=T% 4.1) and therefore shear stress t varies with r from O at the conter to a maximum Tyg, ~ROGIL at the surface. Now consider shear stress Tacting ‘onanclementary annular area of width dr, at radius ras shown in Fig. 4.1(b). Shear force on the elementary area = rx area = Tx (2m) xdr ‘Torque due to shear force on the elementary area = 1x (2m dr) *r The external torque T must be equal to the ‘torque to internal forces. Thus integrating over the entire cross-section. T= fi rx(anrxdy) xr 5 = fi Fox cnrx yar (42) on TH BR 8G _ 160 (43) 2 EE where J= 2R4/2, is called polar second moment of the cross-section. Torsion equation is given by ‘combining Eqs (4.1) and (4.3) as follows. 4) 4.2" GENERAL EQUATION FOR TORSION—ST. VENANT THEORY Consider a prismatic bar of constant arbitrary ‘cross-section subjected to torsion T as shown in Fig. 4.2. z-axis is taken to coincide with the geo- metric axis of the bar. The two assumptions used in the analysis of circular sections, do not hold good for non-circular sections due to warping. In his s0 called semi-inverse method, St.Yenant assumed that the projections of a warped cross- section rotate as a rigid body and the warping is taken tobe identical forall the cross-sections, ie. independent of the axial location. Figure 4.2(b) shows a partial cross-section of the bar ata distance z from the origin. Itis assumed that no rotation occurs at z = 0, and the angle of twist 0 per unit length is small. Displacements 1, v and w of point A to 4’ in x, y and z directions, respectively are, Figi4i2) Bar of an Arbitary Section under Torsion w= 162 x sin a= -y@ 45a) v= rz Xcos @= x82 (4b) w= fey) (5c) where x and y are the coordinates or point 4 and w isthe warping which isa function x, coordinates only. Substituting Eq. (4.5) in strain-displacement Eq. (1.19). (46a) aw =~ Au 04S (6b) ow 04 8 (4.60) yy (4.6e) Again substituting Eg. (4.6) in three-dimensional stress-strain Eq. (1.23), 0,~ 6," 0,7 %y=0 (479) av o(>0+%) (4.7) tye 6(0+2) (410) Thus the state of stress is pure shear for the assumed deformation. Substituting Eq. (4.7) in equilibrium Eq. (1.17) (neglecting body forces),is zero atthe corners. The formulae for maximum shear Stress ya, and angle of twist 8 can be derived either by the membrane analogy or by the theory of elasticity as follows: Profile along diagonal Profilealong (@)Contoursof —(b) Membrane (¢) Shear stress membrane profile in distrib versquare ——_iferent hole directions Tr ; 4.16 Toa ™ Sa? ) 4.17) where the coefficients cand Bare given in Table 4.1. (Refer books on the theory of elasticity for further details of the solution). Thin Walled Members of Open Corss-section While applying the mem- brane analogy to a bar of thin rectangular cross- section, the membrane can be assumed to be of a constant cylindrical shape neglecting the slope at the thin ends, ie. dz/dy= 0, as shown iin Fig. 4.6. ‘Substituting in Eq. (4.15), integrating twice and using boundary condition that dz/dx = 0 at x= 0 and z= O at x= 12 gives, Table 4.1 Coefficients for Rectangular Bars Torsion 73 £ m2 SS I~ bb "1 Membrane Profile Membrane Analogy for Thin Rectangular Section PYLY 43) ] Now the volume under the parabolic cylindrical ‘membrane, (4.18) V= Area of the parabola x length 2xext xb where = pP/8S at.x=0 in Eq. (4.18) pit 125 According tomembrane analogy, 1/Sis replaced by G, p by 26 and 2 by the applied torsion T which gives the expression for the angle of twist per unit length as follows, or, @ x (4. ow (4.19) ‘The membrane analogy also requires that, a. yo E =266 ‘The maximum shear will occur at x= 1/2. on Fam GO (4.20) ‘One can casily visualize the solution of the torsion problem for other type of thin walled sections using the membrane snalogy. For example the complex probzlem of the torsion of an I-section oO OS 175-20 a 0.208 0231-0239 0.246 B 0.141 0196 0214 0229 28 30 40 60 100 =» 0258 0267 0.282 0299 0.313 0.333, 0249 0263 0.281 0299 0.313 0.333,EXERCISES PROBLEMS 4,1 Theshaft coupling shown in Fig. 428 transmits, torque through & bolts of 20 mm diameter. Determine the torque which can be transmitted if the allowable shear stress in the bolts is 50 MPa, Neglect the plate friction. 820mm ig. 4.29 43 A solid circular bar of varying cross-section is subjected to torque as shown in Fig. 4.30. Determine the maximum shear stress in the ‘bar and the angle of twist of the free end if the shear modulus G ~ 80 GPs. A 42 A flange coupling is connected by 10 mm 4 diameter bolts in three circles as shown i xe [) ) 1009 Fig. 4.29. It is required to transmit 1000 HP T at 1200rpm. Determine the maximum shear TEN 3am stress in the bolts.5 Shearing Force and Bending Moment CONCEPT REVIEW 5.1_INTRODUCTION ‘A beam isa structural member which is primarily required to withstand bending and shearing forces in addition to axial force if any. Normally axial forces are insignificant and therefore neglected. Ifaxial force is large then the beams are further analysed as beam-columns in a separate chapter. ‘A beam is statically determinate ifthe number of unknown support reactions sre equal to the number of equations of static equilibrium, ie. ZF, ), ZF, = 0, EM = 0. A hinge in the beam can transfer shear but moment is not transferred to its either sides. A hinge gives an additional condition Of static equilibrium, i, EM = 0, at the hinge. Figure 5.1 shows the number of support reactions for statically determinate beams. An additional support will make the beam statically indeter- minateand a lesser number of the support reactions will make the beam an unstable mechanism. A roller support does not support the beam in its axial direetion but gives suppor in transverse direction — upward or downward both. Except in case of long, span bridges a proper hinge and roller suppor is. rarely provided in actual structures. In general the beams are designed to withstand maximum bending moment and since a statically determinate beam will generally have a higher bending ‘moment—an assumed hinge and roller support is on safer sie. at ta (i Simply supported beam R —4—— Ry Gi) Builtup cantilever beam Hinge (Gi) Continvous beam with hinge Fig.5.1, Statically Determinate Beams‘Shearing Force and Bending Moment 93 5.2, BENDING MOMENT AND ‘SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAMS Bending moment and shear force diagrams show the variation of shear force and bending moment ina structure, For cantilever beams itis simple to calculate shear force and bending moment at any section starting from the free end. In case of a simply supported beam under loads 6 kN/m. 8 kN and 20 KN.m as showa in Fig. 5.2, the support reactions R, and R, are first calculated using ‘equilibrium equations EF = 0 and 2M = 0. The shear force and bending moment at any section 4~A can now be calculated by considering an imaginary cut at the section and the static equilibrium of the free body diagram of either left or right of the section A—A will give shear force V and bending moment Af. crore @ Bein “Ty, HQ, anit * (@) Simply supported beam @ $00 544 ce ® (b) Free body diagram 20KNm "Ta, Figo 5.2.1 Sign Conventions As cartier in Art, 2.2, +ve direction forces on +ve faces and -ve direction forces on ~ve faces are usually taken++ve. The shear force and the bending ‘moment applied at the ends of a beam as shown in Fig. 5.3, are taken as positive. Positive bending moment diagram is sometimes drawn on tension face of the member, otherwise +ve or ve sign is to be marked in the diagram. (—]) Fig. 5.3 Positive Shear and Moment Shear force and bending moment diagram by parts: SF. ndB.M. diagrams for a beam under several loads can be obtained by the principle of superposition by adding SF. and B.M. diagrams for the beam under individual force. 5.3 RELATION BETWEEN LOAD Ww, SHEAR V AND MOMENT M Consider an elementary length dx in a simply supported beam with an arbitrary load as shown in Fig. 5.4, vig vii Se ol) eae =e f Ty v+au Ved¥-V +wde=0 6.1) or, Slope of S.F. diagram = load intensity at that section If there is no load at a section then the shear force will be constant and the slope of the shear force diagram will be zero. In case of @ uniformly distributed load, the slope of S.F. diagram will be downward. d(av)__ ae Vr) =-2 > " aa) a” (5.2)‘94 Strength of Materials ive, if w decreases in x-direction (ciw/de is ~ve), then the shear force diagram will concaveupwards. “Taking moment about point Q in the right face in Fig. 54, ae EM,<0; M+dM—M-Vas+w 5 =0 ‘Neglecting square of a small term, d = 0 = (5.3) or, Slope of B.M. diagram = SF. at the section If the shear force is +ve, then the ben ‘moment diagram will slope upwards. Equation (5.3) shows that the maximum or minimum bending moment occurs when either the shear force changes the sign or it is zero. (34) i.e. ifV increases in x-firection (dVideis-+ve), thea the bending moment diagram will concave upwards. Equation (5.1) is not valid at 2 concentrated load and Eq, (5.3)is not valid ata couple applied on the beam. They are however valid bewween concen- trated loads and couples, respectively. Since V =-J we and M= J Vdx, if w is n degree curve, P will be n + I degree curve and M will be in-+2 degree curve. In case of uniformly distributed load, wis uniform, Vis linear and M is of second order parabola as shown ia Fig. 5.11. These concepts areexplained by Fig. 5.5 incase of acantilever. The shear force diagram is ~-ve in EXAMPL Example 5.1 Draw shearing force and bending ‘moment diagrams for the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 56. Solution Free body diagram: Consider an imaginary cut ata distance x from end A. Shearing force V and bending moment M (assumed in +ve directions) are required to act for the equilibrium of the section. case (i) snd —ve in case (ii). The shear force diagram slope downward in both cases as dV/ds = =w, is -ve. Bending moment diagrams are —ve in both cases as the deflected shape is hogging. The bending moment will slope upward in case (i) as Jove (620) J and J, are always ve while /,, may vary from Veto “ve values. Radius of gyration about x and y axes are defined as, ~ VITA, > fUTA (6.3a,b) PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM Consider the plane area A shown in Fig. 6.2. The axes rg and yg pass through the centroid of the plane surface. The x and y axes are located at distances :x, and y, respectively from the axes through the centroid, The moment of inertiaabout x-axis forthe element of area dA is given by, dl,=(y,+y edd ¥6 Fig, 6.2 Forentire area 4, the second moment of area about x-axis is, therefore, 1= gt HY (64a) Similarly, Tyo yg * Ax} (6.4b) ‘The paralle! axis theorem for product moment of area is derived similarly as follows, y= Jats Jot + se" oat = feats fants [ayers forma OF, y= leg At, $040 08, y= hiya + AX (4c) ‘5 PRINCIPAL AXES AND PRINCIPAL SECOND MOMENT OF AREA Atany pointin the plane of anarea there exist two perpendicular axes about which the second ‘moments of area are maximum and minimum for that point. These maximum and minimum values of second moments of area are termed as Principal second moments of the area. Consider two sets of reference axes x-y and x,y, in a plane’area A as shown in Fig. 63.'The second moment of area with respect to.x, axis is,17 Strain Energy and Impact Loading 17.1, INTRODUCTION ‘Whenever body is strained, the energy is absorbed in the body. The energy, which is absorbed in the body due to straining effect is known as strdin energy. The straining effect may be due to gradually applied load or suddenly applied load or Ioad with impact. Hence the strain energy will be stored ia the body When ‘the load is applied gradually or suddenly or with an impact. The strain energy stored in the body is equal to ‘the work done by the applied load in stretching the body. 17.2. SOME DEFINITIONS. Before deriving the expressions for the stain energy stored ina tody duc to gradually applied load or suddenly apptied load or load with am impact, the following terms will be defined : 1. Resilience, 2. Proof resilience,and 3, Modulus of resilience. 17.2. Resilience. The total strain energy storedina body iscommonly known as resilience. Whenever the straining force is removed from the strained body, the body is capable of doing work. Herce the resilience is alsodefined as the capacity of a strained body for doing work on the removal ofthe straining force. 17.22. Proof resilience. The maximum strain energy, stored in a body, is known as proof resilience. “The stain energy stored in the body will be maximum when the body is stressed upto elastic limit. Hence the roo resilience isthe quantity of strain energy stored in body when strained upto elastic Himit 17.23. Modalus of resilience. [Lis defined 48 the proof rel sn important property of a material, Mathematically, Proof wesilie Modulus of resilience = Puot STS — -nce of a material per unit volume. Itis 173. EXPRESSION FOR STRAINENERGY STORED IN A BODY WHEN THE LOAD IS APPLIED GRADUALLY IA 17.1, we have in a body isequal to the work done by the applied load in stretching, the body. Fig. 17.1 shows toad extension diagram of a body under Aersile est upto elastic Timit. The teasit: loud P increases gradually from zero to the value of P and the extension of the body increases from zer0 to the value of x. ‘The load P performs work in stretching the body. This work will be storedin the body as strain energy which isrecoverable afier the load P is removed. —s | —+ Loap Let P= Gradually applied load, b—— x ——4 -e= Extension of the body > EXTENSION A= Cross-sectional area Fig. 174 593,2 BENDING MOMENT, SHEAR FORCE, AND DIAGRAMS 2.1 INTRODUCTION Bending moment at a section XX is given by the algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces acting to the left of the section or acting to the right of the section. (Fig 2.1) M = Rx - Wa, OR M = R,y - W,.a, ~ W,.a, Where R, and R, are the support reactions. Refering to Fig. 2.2, shear force at section XX is given by the algebraic sum of the forces acting on the left hand side of the section or acting on the right hand side of the section i.e. 5536 Strength of Materials Problems and Objectives FL = R,-W, OR F, = W, + W, ~ Ry From the above Ry - W, = W, + W;- Ry or, Ry + Ry = W, + W, + Wy which proves that total upward force equals total downward force. Fig. 2.2 With the help of bending moment diagram (B.M.D) and shearing force diagrem (S.F.D), if drawn to scale, we can know the values of bending moment (B.M) and shearing force (S.F) at any section at once. 1.2 SIGN CONVENTIONS Moment of upwerd fore taken es positive bending moment. Moment of downward force is taken as negative bending moment.Bending Moment, Shear Force, and Diagrams 57 48h. “SF. Fig, 2.3 Left hand portion of section moving up is taken as positive shear force Left hand portion of section moving down is taken as negative shear force (Fig 2.3) SOLVED PROBLEMS ON BENDING MOMENT AND SHEAR FORCE 2.1 A cantilever 3 m long is loaded with point loads of 2 KN at the free end and 3 KN at 1 m from fixed end. Draw B.M.D and S.F.D and indicate the values of B.M and SF at significant points. Soln: Bending moments at B, C and A are M, =2x0 =058 22 2.2 Soln: Strength of Materials Problems and Objectives Me =-2x2 = -4 KN-m [moment of downward force —ve] My =-2x3-3x%1 = -9KN-m Shear force at B, C and A Fy = +2KN Un Fig. Prob 2.1, left hand side of section Xx tends to move up] Fo = +24+3KN [Do not add the point load at C i.e. +3 to +2 KN to get 6 KN at C. It will be easy to draw S.F.D] F, = +243 = +5 KN. A cantilever 4 m long is loaded with uniformly distributed load {u.d.l) of 1 KN/m ov: whole length together with a point load of 2 KN at the free end. Draw B.M.D and S.F.D. tilever 4 m long is loaded with uniformly distributed load .d.l) of 1 KN/m over the whole length together with a point load of 2 KN at the free end. Draw B.M.D and S.F.D. Between BA, x measured from B.z x x M, Hx Ox. = ~2K-1K ~2x - 0.5x2_ [Equation of a parabola] FL = 42+ ox = +24 1x [Equation of a straight line] At Bx =0 am M, = -2 x 0-0.5(0) =0 4 = 2 x 40.514)? = -16 KN-m F, = +2KN, Fx = +2 + 1(4) = +6 KN 3 a > x 0 Putting x = 1m, 2mand3 min M,. We get M, = -2 x 1-0.8(1)? = -2.5 KN-m M, = -2 x 2-0.6(22 = -6 KN-m M, = -2 x 3-0.5(37 = -10,5 KN-m 2.3. Draw B.M.D and S.F.D for the cantilever loaded with couples as shown in Fig. Prob. 2.3. Soin: Kiem 2KNam os B 1m 2 m——> Fig. Prob. 2.3,3 BENDING STRESSES IN BEAMS INTRODUCTION When a member or structures are subjected to external loading it deforms and internal resistances or stresses develop against external bending and shearing force. In this chapter we will try to find out these stresses with the nelp of certain assumptions. 3.1 FORMULAE TO BE USED IN BENDING STRESS M_f_eE TOY "R Where M = Bending moment at the section considered Moment of resistance of the beam section Moment of Inertia of the beam section about the axis ‘of bending i.e |, 13 114 Strength of Materials Problems and Objectives bending stress at the layer considered distance of layer considered from neutral layer INote: The neutral layer passes through centre of gravity of the section] modulus of elasticity of beam material radius of curvature of neutral layer (e) Oiis the centre of curvature© Fig. 3.1 (a), (b) and (c) It is clear from Fig. 3.1(b) that maximum compressive stress will occur at the top layer and maximum tensile stress at bottom layer. Putting in the above equation 3.1, maximum compressive and tensile stress can be found out as given below Mit lt 1 Ye Ve Bending Stresses in Beams 115 3.3 ASSUMPTIONS (i) Value of modulus of elasticity in tension and compression are same i) A transverse section of the beam remains plane even after bending. (iii) The elastic limit is not exceeded. liv) Material is homogeneous and isotropic 3.4 FORMULAE FOR MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENT-FOR SOME SIMPLE CASES () Cantilever with point load at the free end. Maximum bending moment at fixed end A 4 8 1 Fig. 3.2 M=WwWxtCantilever carrying a uniformly distributed load (u.d.£) Maximum bending moment at A lm | Fig. 3.3 we 2 Total load ext (ii) Simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load at centre. Maximum bending moment at centre 116 Strength of Materials Problems and Objectives nic I Fig. 3.4 (iv) Simply supported beam carrying u.d.| over the whole span Maximum bending moment at centre = Fig. 3.5 WL Mee where W= w x L = Total load. 3.6 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF SOME REGULAR SECTION (a) Rectangular Section Let D = depth of section B = width of section(i) About a Line Passing through Centre of Gravity 1 1, = 2 me = 7z0 xB li) About a Side x width x depth?, Bending Stresses in Beams 117(c) Solid Circular Section Let D = diameter of section. lon = bey = Bq?” 2 Yve™ 7 YZ (d) Hollow Circular Section Let _D = out side diameter d = inside diameter Ye SOLVED PROBLEMS ON BENDING STRESS 3.1 A beam 8 cm x 12 cm is 4 m long simply supported at its ends supports a cental load W at the centre. If the maximum bending stress is limited to 4000 Nicm? find the value of ‘W’ when i) Smaller dimension is used as depth greater dimension is used as depth Comment on your finding. Soln: Maximum bending moment at centre m= Wty = Sp Nm wx4 4 =100 W N.cm. 100 N-cm w c (@) 2m——>«—— 2m —>| L=4m:(0) *~ <> > t2om (© xf x i kKe< kb om—>| Fig. Prob. 3.1 (a), (b) and (c) Bending Stresses in Beams 119 (i) When the smaller dimension is used as depth we know Mot roy Mntxt or, wtxy or, 100W = 4000x512 W = 5120 N. Ans. IRefering to Fig. Prob. 3.1 (b) 1 a = 7g * 12 x 89 = 512 cm* 8 y = =4eml {ii) When greater dimension is used as depth f weknow M . t I Yy or, M = fet or, 100 W = 4000 x +182 W. = 7680 N, Ans3.2 20 Soin: [Refering to Fig. Prob 3.1 (c) 1 + 3 4 oe = 7g * 8 x 129 = 1152 cm y = = 6m) Comment: greater dimension should be used as depth to support greater load. A simply supported beam of span 4 m carries a uniformly distributed load of 2 KN/m over the whole span. If the maximum bending stress is limited to 6000 N/cm? find the dimension of the am if it is of rectangular section having depth = 2 x width. Strength of Materials Problems and Objectives Maximum bending moment at centre We M =" KN-m (W =Total load = @ x L = 2 x 4 = 8 KN) = 400000 N-cm We know M Let B = width of section 1 D = depth of section = 2 x B (Given) or, mM 1 lye 7B x D3 uM y-2 2 or, M or, 400000 = 6000x 28128)? or, Be = 100 B = 4.64.cm Ans,wou 0 =2KNim ' | y 4 0.x i l i Fig. Prob. 3.2 {a)-and (b) Bending Stresses in Beams 2B 2 x 4.64 9.28 cm Ans. 1216 TORSION 6.1 INTRODUCTION Power generated by a prime mover is transmitted to other machines through shaft. The shaft is subjected to bending moment causing bending stress and shear stress. The product of tangential force acting ‘on the surface of shaft and its radius is called torque or twisting moment and the shaft is said to be subjected to torsion. Under torsion every cross-section of the shaft is subjected to shear stress and due to transverse loading bending stress. In this chapter we will study the effect of torsion only. 1.2 FORMULAE TO BE USED IN TORSION T_&_ 68 hb RO where T = Torque to be transmitted Polar moment of inertia f, = maximum shear stress at the surface of shaft maximum radius of shaft G = modulus of rigidity of shaft material 227 > "28 Strength of Materials Problems and Objectives 0 = angle of twist of shaft in radian £ = length of shaft Torque = tangential force P x radius of shaft PxR Solid shaft let D = diameter of shaft |, = =0* 32 nu 2 shear stress sc. shear strain Angle of twist ZAOA’ =6 Hollow circular shaft Let D= outside diameter d = inside diameter l= 5 (0*-a*) Fig. 6.1 (a) and (b)Torsion 229 6.3 POWER TRANSMISSION Torque x angle tuned through/min Power = 60 Tx2mN = Go Watt where T = Torque in N-m N = r.p.m of shaft In case of variable torque T is the average or mean torque. SOLVED PROBLEMS ON TORSION 6.1 A solid shaft is to transmit 25 KW at 600 rpm. ff the maximum shear stress is limited to 6000 N/cm? find the diameter of shaft. If G = 8 x 10® N/cm? find the angle of twist in a length of 3 m. Tx2aN 60 25 KW 25 x 1000 Walt speed of shaft 600 r.p.m Soln: Power Power N Power x60 2aN _ 25000 x60 2x x 600 = 39788.74 N-cm N-m 2 4 4 x100 N—om