NATIONAL

UNIVERSITY,
BHOPAL (M.P.)

LAW INSTITUTE

A PROJECT WORK OF
HISTORY ON
CHOLAS THE EMERGENT POWER OF THE SOUTH

SUBMITTED TO:
DR. U.P SINGH
SUBMITTED BY:
BALAJI SAI KRISHNAN
2012 B.A.LL.B. (Hons), 16
Vth Trimester

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take immense pleasure in thanking Prof. S.S. Singh, Director and Uday Sir, our respected
teacher for having permitted me to carry out this project work. I express my gratitude to them
for giving me an opportunity to explore the world of information concerning my project
topic.

Words are inadequate in thanking my seniors and batch mates for their support and
cooperation in carrying out the project work.

Finally, I would like to thank my Grandmother who gave me a little insight on the culture of
South India when I was a small lad and I her blessings would always be there for and my
family members for their blessings and wishes for the successful completion of the project

Contents
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................... 4
Rajaraja I (985 1014 AD)..................................................................................6
Rajendra I (1012-1044 AD).................................................................................7
Socio-Economic Life........................................................................................... 8
THE POWER STRUCTURE OF CHOLA RULE...................................................10
Bibliography....................................................................................................... 13

INTRODUCTION
The Chola Dynasty was a Tamil dynasty, flourished in South India. It was one amongst the
most potent and historically important ancient dynasties ever flourished in the parts of
southern India and was comparable to the Chalukyas, the Pandyas and the Pallavas. In some
areas it has also been the longest ruling empire.

The founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya. He captured Tanjore from
Muttaraiyars in 815 AD and built a temple for Durga. His son Aditya put an end to the
Pallava kingdom by defeating Aparajita and. Parantaka I was one of the important early
Chola rulers. He defeated the Pandyas and the ruler of Ceylon. But he suffered a defeat at
the hands of the Rashtrakutas in the famous battle of Takkolam. Parantaka I was a great
builder of temples. He also provided the vimana of the famous Nataraja temple at
Chidambaram with a golden roof. After a gap of thirty years, the Cholas regained their
supremacy under Rajaraja I.
The Chola Dynasty primarily flourished between the timeframe of latter half of the ninth
century and the beginning of the thirteenth century. During this timeframe, for about two
centuries, the Chola rulers were able to unite the entire country south of Tungabhadra and
rule these lands as a single state. Under the reign of Rajaraja Chola-I and his immediate
successor and son Rajendra Chola-I, the dynasty became supreme in terms of economy,
military and culture, not only in India but in the whole of South and South-east Asia.
At its peak, the Cholas was not even confined to the maritime boundaries of India. Between
1010 and 1200 AD, the Cholas stretched from the bank of river Godavari in the north to the
islands of Maldives in the south. Rajaraja Chola successfully conquered the whole of
peninsular South India, islands of Maldives and some parts of Sri Lanka while his son and
immediate successor, Rajendra Chola, was able to expand the boundaries of the Cholas to
the northern parts of India. Rajendra Chola stretched the empires territory till river Ganga
in the north, by defeating the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala.
The contribution of the Chola Dynasty to Tamil literature and architecture has left a lasting
legacy. The Cholas were great builders and constructed temples throughout their empire. In

their regime, temples were not merely a place of worship but also served as the centers for
economic activities. During their rule, the empire made a remarkable progress in almost
every sphere including the culture, economy and polity.
Many historians considered it to be yet another classical period which had contributed hugely
for the development of the Southern Indian literature, Art and Culture. They actually emerged
as an dominant power in the south and the core region of there control was actually the
Cholamandalam.
The two famous Uttiramerur inscriptions that give a detailed account of the village
administration under the Cholas belong to his reign. After a gap of thirty years, the Cholas
regained their supremacy under Rajaraja I. The founder of the Imperial Chola line was
Vijayalaya. He captured Tanjore from Muttaraiyars in 815 AD and built a temple for Durga.
The Cholas regained supremacy under Rajaraja 1and his successor Rajender 1 who have been
discussed in detail in in the next head.

Rajaraja I (985 1014 AD)

It was under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I that the Chola power reached its highest
point of glory. His military conquests were:
1. The defeat of the Chera ruler Bhaskararavivarman in the naval battle of Kandalursalai
and the destruction of the Chera navy.2. The defeat of the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga and establishment of Chola authority
in the Pandya country.
3. The conquest of Gangavadi, Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi located in the Mysore
region.
4. The invasion of Sri Lanka which was entrusted to his son Rajendra I. As the Sri
Lankan king Mahinda V fled away from his country, the Cholas annexed the northern
Sri Lanka. The capital was shifted from Anuradhapura to Polanaruva where a Shiva
temple was built.
5. Rajarajas last military achievement was a naval expedition against the Maldive
Islands which were conquered.
By these conquests, the extent of the Chola empire under Rajaraja I included the Pandya,
Chera and the Tondaimandalam regions of Tamil Nadu and the Gangavadi, Nolambapadi
and the Telugu Choda territories in the Deccan and the northern part of Ceylon and the
Maldive Islands beyond India. Rajaraja assumed a number of titles like Mummidi Chola,
Jayankonda and Sivapadasekara. He was a devout follower of Saivism. He completed the
construction of the famous Rajarajeswara temple or Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore in
1010 AD. He also helped in the construction of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.

Rajendra I (1012-1044 AD)

Rajendra had demonstrated his military ability by participating in his fathers campaigns.
He continued his fathers policy of aggressive conquests and expansion. His important wars
were:
1. Mahinda V, the king of Sri Lanka attempted to recover from the Cholas the northern
part of Ceylon. Rajendra defeated him and seized the southern Sri Lanka. Thus the
whole of Sri Lanka was made part of the Chola Empire.
2. He reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya countries.
3. He defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya king and the river Tungabadhra was
recognised as the boundary between the Cholas and Chalukyas.
4. His most famous military enterprise was his expedition to north India. The Chola
army crossed the Ganges by defeating a number of rulers on its way. Rajendra
defeated Mahipala I of Bengal. To commemorate this successful north-Indian
campaign Rajendra founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the
famous Rajesvaram temple in that city. He also excavated a large irrigation tank
called Cholagangam on the western side of the city.
5. Another famous venture of Rajendra was his naval expedition to Kadaram or Sri
Vijaya. It is difficult to pin point the real object of the expedition. Whatever its objects
were, the naval expedition was a complete success. A number of places were occupied
by Chola forces. But it was only temporary and no permanent annexation of these
places was contemplated. He assumed the title Kadaramkondan.
6. Rajendra I had put down all rebellions and kept his empire intact.
At the death of Rajendra I the extent of the Chola Empire was at its peak. The river
Tungabadhra was the northern boundary. The Pandya, Kerala and Mysore regions and also
Sri Lanka formed part of the empire. He gave his daughter Ammangadevi to the Vengi
Chalukya prince and further continued the matrimonial alliance initiated by his father.
Rajendra I assumed a number of titles, the most famous being Mudikondan, Gangaikondan,
Kadaram Kondan and Pandita Cholan. Like his father he was also a devout Saiva and built

a temple for that god at the new capital Gangaikondacholapuram. He made liberal
endowments to this temple and to the Lord Nataraja temple at Chidambaram. He was also
tolerant towards the Vaishnava and Buddhist sects.

Socio-Economic Life
Caste system was widely prevalent during the Chola period. Brahmins and Kshatriyas
enjoyed special privileges. The inscriptions of the later period of the Chola rule mention
about two major divisions among the castes Valangai and Idangai castes. However, there
was cooperation among various castes and sub-castes in social and religious life. The
position of women did not improve. The practice of sati was prevalent among the royal
families. The devadasi system or dancing girls attached to temples emerged during this
period.
Both Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish during the Chola period. A number of
temples were built with the patronage of Chola kings and queens. The temples remained
centres of economic activity during this period. The mathas had great influence during this
period. Both agriculture and industry flourished.
Reclamation of forest lands and the construction and maintenance of irrigation tanks led to
agricultural prosperity. The weaving industry, particularly the silk-weaving at Kanchi
flourished. The metal works developed owing to great demand of images for temples and
utensils. Commerce and trade were brisk with trunk roads or peruvazhis and merchant
guilds. Gold, silver and copper coins were issued in plenty at various denominations.
Commercial contacts between the Chola Empire and China, Sumatra, Java and Arabia were
extensively prevalent. Arabian horses were imported in large numbers to strengthen the
cavalry.
Education was also given importance. Besides the temples and mathas as educational
centres, several educational institutions also flourished. The inscription at Ennayiram,
Thirumukkudal and Thirubhuvanai provide details of the colleges existed in these places.
Apart from the Vedas and Epics, subjects like mathematics and medicine were taught in
these institutions. Endowment of lands was made to run these institutions.

The development of Tamil literature reached its peak during the Chola period.
Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi belonged to 10th century.
The Ramayana composed by Kamban and the Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by
Sekkilar are the two master-pieces of this age. Jayankondars Kalingattupparani describes
the Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga I. The Cholas also made rich contributions to the art
of

sculpture.

The

walls

of

the

Chola

temples

such

as

the

Tanjore

and

Gangaikondacholapuram temples contain numerous icons of large size with fine execution.
The bronzes of the Chola period are world-famous. The bronze statues of Nataraja or
dancing Siva are master pieces. The Chola paintings were found on the walls of
Narthamalai and Tanjore temples.

THE POWER STRUCTURE OF CHOLA RULE

The basic premise in the concept of village autonomy of the Cholas was that the villagers
should administer their villages themselves. For this purpose, village assemblies vested with
the power of administration were constituted. In the larger villages with a number of rural
organizations, there were a number of assemblies and a villager could be a member of any
number of these subject to the conditions of membership. A village would consist of wards,
each ward having an assembly of its members some of whom could also be members of a
professional body such as smiths or carpenters or part of a group looking after other village
functions like the maintenance of the local temple. These various groups constituted the
social structure of the village and their relationships were basic to its social life. There would
be a general assembly in addition to the smaller groups.
Most of the local residents were members of the general assembly. The general assemblies
were of three types: the ur, comprising of the tax-paying residents of an ordinary village; the
sabha, whose membership was open only to the Brahmans of the village or else was found
exclusively in villages gifted to brahmans; and the nagaram, generally found in centres of
trade and commerce, since it was devoted entirely to serving the interests of the mercantile
community. The ur and the sabha were found together in some villages while larger villages
had two urs. if necessary.
Local conditions determined the working method of these assemblies. All adult males of a
village were eligible to become members of the Ur, but in effect only elder residents took
active interest, some of them forming a committee to loo
k after routine matters. The sabha worked in the same manner and had the power to constitute
subsidiary commities for works of a specialized nature. Members were elected to the sabha
apparently by lot, subject to the conditions of eligibility, but the sabha made changes in the

method of its working if that was necessary. A tenth century inscription on a temple wall of
the brahman village of Uttaramerur gives the details of how the local sabha worked:
"...There shall be thirty wards.
In these thirty wards those that live in each ward shall assemble and shall elect each person
possessing the following qualifications for inclusion for selection by lot.
He must own more than one-quarter of the tax- paying land.
He must live in a house built on his own site.
His age must be below seventy and above thirty-five.
He must know the mantras and brahamanas.
Even if he owns only one-eighth of the land, his name shall be included provided he has
learnt one Veda and one of the four Bhashyas.
Among those possessing these qualifications only such as are well conversant with business
and are virtuous shall be taken, and one who possesses honest earnings whose mind is pure
and who has not been in any of the committees for the last three years shall also be chosen.
One who has been on any of the committees but has not submitted his accounts, and his
relations specified below, cannot have his name written on the tickets..."
There follows a list of the relations who cannot contest and then the five sins debarring
candidature: killing a Brahman, drinking alcohol, theft, adultery and associating with
criminals. The debarred list also includes fools, one who has taken forbidden dishes, etc. Next
is a description of how the tickets for each of the wards are to be bundled, one bundle is to be
placed inside a pot, then shaken loose by the chief priest, out of which a young boy would
take one. The chief arbitrator would receive the ticket in his palm with all five fingers open,
read out the ticket, get the name confirmed by showing the ticket to other priests, and record
the name and so on.
The great men of these three committees shall hold office for full 360 days and then retire.
Anyone on a committee found guilty of an offence shall be removed at once. For appointing
the committees after these have retired, the members of 'the Committee for Supervision of

Justice' in the twelve streets shall convene an assembly with the help of the arbitrator. The
Committees shall be appointed by drawing pot tickets...
Next the qualification ('possesses honest earnings') of the arbitrator is specified and the
stipulations for the accountant (honest, should submit his accounts in time and should write it
himself) is given, and it ends: the assembly of Uttaramerur- Chaturvedimangalam made this
settlement for the prosperity of our village in order that wicked men may perish and the rest
may prosper. At the order of the great men sitting in the Assembly, I, the arbitrator
Kaladipottan Shivakkuri Rajamangala- priyan thus wrote the settlement." (as quoted by
Romila Thapar, A History of India Volume One)
Inscriptions found elsewhere also describe similar procedures with a different set of
requirements and qualifications for the candidates as also other methods of sanctioning
expenses. Assemblies were generally convened by the beating of a drum and they were
usually held in the temple courtyard. They were instances of fraternal cooperation and exchanges between the assemblies.
Tax for the government was collected by the assembly from its members, in some instances it
was the tax for the entire village taken as a whole. The assembly also had the power to
impose a tax for a particular purpose say, for the construction of a water tank. Such
collections were kept separate from the amount obtained for the state. Records, particularly of
taxes and charities, were maintained by the assemblies and they intervened and mediated in
matters relating to agricultural land holdings, disputes over irrigation rights, etc. Salaried
personnel were maintained by the large assemblies; in other instances, such works were
usually done on a voluntary basis.
Between the village and the king, the king's officer was not the only intermediary and the
assembly was not in any manner affected by that. Feudatories like the Pallava chiefs and
other minor rulers were there in the Chola kingdom, but the assemblies were not involved in
any manner in the relationship between the king and his feudatories. The assemblies were
independent to such an extent that the changes in the relationships at higher levels had no
effect on the life of the village. This freedom from the effect of changes in the administrative
and political structure at the top was possible because of the economic and political selfsufficiency of the village, and, within this framework, social institutions were established and

economic activity in the village was carried out. The revenue was collected by the assembly,
from which the feudatory remitted the king's share.

This system was followed only in the Chola kingdom. In the North as also elsewhere in the
Deccan, the feudatories were no longer politically subordinate to the king; their relationship
with the king meanwhile had transformed into one based on comparative strength. They did
not just pass on the king's share of revenue, but did so on a definite political and economic
basis.

Bibliography

History and Society in South India: The Cholas to Vijayanagar by Noboru Karashima,

2001
History of India by S.C. Raychoudhary, 2010 Surjeet Publications.
Macmillion an advanced history of india by R.C Majundar2010.