Professional Documents
Culture Documents
GENERAL NOTIONS
Urban-planning means the unified development of cities and their
neighbourhoods. For most of its history, urban-planning delat primarily with the
regulation of land use and the physical arrangement of city structures, as guided by
architectural, engineering, and land-development criteria. In the mid-20th century it
broadened to include the comprehensive guidance to the physical, economic and
social environment of a community. Elements characteristics of modern urbanplanning include:
- general plans that summarize the objectives of (and restrains on) land
development;
- zoning and subdivision controls that specify permissible land uses, densities,
and requirements for streets, utility services and other improvements;
- plans for traffic flow and public transport;
- strategies for economic revitalization of depressed urban and rural areas;
- strategies for supportive action to help disadvantaged social groups;
- guidelines for environmental protection and preservation of resources.
The generic term of town has today a variety of forms: traditional town,
metropolis, urban area, and urban agglomeration. It is better to use a wider meaning
of the notion, which is urban phenomenon. This term covers all the urban forms,
whatever their size.
During the last decades the town-planning term suffered important changes
compared with the initial meaning. Even though this practice of organising the space
is very old, the town-planning is a recent discipline born at the end of the XIXth
century. Today town-planning includes a wide range in which are involved many
urban disciplines: sociology, urban economy, urban engineering, urban financial
administration, and urban low.
For the sociologist, the city is the physical expression of the inner social
relations; for the engineer, the city is a system of under structures of all kinds; for the
ecologist, it represents the condensation of human productions that disturbs the
natural order; for the economist, it is the ensemble of profitableness factors often
unequally distributed.
The urban structure term reflects better the urban phenomenon on the whole
and offers a simple and effective model starting from the systems and structures
systems.
Town-planning is a spatial expression of politics such as: economics, social,
cultural, ecological.
It concerns all the aspects connected to:
- physical and spatial planning;
- arrangements ;
- financial administration
of the terrains at all levels (rural, urban, metropolitan, regional, national,
international).
It requests an interdisciplinary approach for the integration of all aspects:
physical, social, cultural, economical, political.
It requests a work in a team.
The town-planning methods include:
- the synthesis and analysis;
- the composition and creation;
- the financial administration of the territory.
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Generally speaking, this science has in view some aspects like: history,
organisation, equipping, long term development, conservation and administration of a
town. The aim of planning is to efficiently transform the reality and change it in
accordance with the human aspirations. Planning means to settle the objectives and
the achievement ways of them. The followed steps are:
- the settlement of problems to solve;
- the definition of the goals;
- the evaluation of ways;
- the assessment of the efficiency;
- the fixing of the realistic goals, taking into account the problems
emergency;
- the searching of the priority order;
- the differentiation of the objectives in accordance with the priority list;
- the selection of the proper intervention ways;
- the insurance of the objectives achievement in the foreseen period of time.
The town-planning is the science that studies the arrangements of towns and
their surroundings using different ways for a better site of streets, buildings and public
services in a manner that can give to the inhabitants healthy, convenient and
agreeable conditions.
The shape of a square, the site of a lighting post in a street, of a tree, the
combing manners of the drinking and used water, the colour, shape and sitting of
screen signs, street publicity, advertising the solving way of collective dwellings,
organisation of the building terrains, places for statues, all of them are town-planning
problems.
The town-planning study analysis: how it originates the evolution in time, the
adoption of human requirements at the zone topography, hygiene aspects,
circulation, improving of life conditions of the community, arrangement and
embellishment of town through:
- protecting the inhabitants from difficulties due to climatic conditions and
cohabitation (living together);
- arranging the activities from urban agglomeration in order to obtain maximum
outputs and minimum expenses;
- creation of a harmonious and pleasant life frame considering aesthetics as
progress factor.
The modern profession of town planning arose in response to the urban
problems caused by rapid industrialisation from the late 19th century. Social reformers
recognised the need for corrective intervention to deal with the growth forces
unleashed by modernisation.
The missions of the town-planner are:
1) the needs identification (present and future) of the collectivities and
emphasising: - the opportunities;
- risks;
- constraints;
- implications of actions.
2) the proposal of necessary actions for starting, organisation, protecting and
changes based on the study results in the form of: - politics
- arrangement plan
3) insurances
leading
resources
changing
needs
of plans / politics according to the evolution of
objectives
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effects
implications
of changes according to their appearances
Building and housing codes govern the quality and safety of construction of
new buildings, as well as subsequent maintenance. In most instances, the codes
specify the materials to be used, their minimum quality, and the building components
necessary in a structure that is suitable for human occupancy.
In the town planning activities are involved social, economic, social and
environmental policies. Although the physical appearance and functioning of the city
are the traditional focus of the town planning, the citys population, economic
resources and environmental issues are an important concern. Thus, contemporary
town planning continues to focus on physical design, but also addresses the many
long-range social and economic decisions that must be made.
A city has social and economic capital. The city government acts as a
purchasing agent for many services needed by residents and businesses- for
example, education, water supply, police and fire protection and recreation. The
quality, character and efficiency of these services require planning to fit needs and
desire with funding, with technological change, and with objectives for physical
development.
Town planning should be concern with providing decent housing ( and minimal
economic aid) to residents who cannot afford this basic amenity. When local housing
is deficient and economic resources permit its upgrading, the town planning
department may survey housing conditions and coordinate funding to finance its
development and rehabilitation.
The citys economic development and redevelopment also fall with the scope
of town planning. Economic development plans make use of a mixture of incentives,
technical assistance and marketing to create jobs, establish new industry and
business, help existing enterprises, rehabilitate what is salvageable and redevelop
what cannot be saved.
Town planners today are becoming ever more involved with environmental
concerns. Environmental planning coordinates development to meet objectives for
clean air and water; removal of toxic and other wastes; recycling of resources;
energy conservation; protection of wetlands; hillsides, farmlands, forests and
floodplains; preservation of wildlife, natural reserves and rivers. Historic preservation
strives to keep important buildings and places as part of the permanent environment
and uses them to finance the maintenance costs.
Although town planners may report to mayors, city managers or other officials,
their true clients are the people and businesses of the city. Their plans must reflect
the interests and priorities of these two groups, and the programmes that are
implemented must help the city survive and maintain the quality of life that these
group desire.
I. Town-planning political act
2.Fundamental concepts
The local development is a process that meets the local population
interests:
- the physical development with two types of investments:
one connected to spatial planning and physic environment of the
town;
one tied to the land use, by the possibilities of localization for
industrial companies;
- the industrial development, including the financial support and
consulting services;
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The
relations
and
determinations
of
the
hierarchical
systems
Territorial
macrosystem
- the arrangement
plan of the
European territory
- the arrangement
plan of the
national territory
-the
harmonization of
the sectorial
policies of the
development and
rehabilitation of
the human and
natural habitats
-interrelations
between the
settlements
it influences the
territorial
systems of
inferior level
- the ecologic
balance of the
ecosystem (urban
or rural)
- own identity
- functional
independence
- homogeneous
morphological
structure;
-complementarity
inside the system
- relative
independence
- it limits the
districts;
- it solves the
circulation;
- it harmonizes
the settlement
functions
- it limits the
homogeneous
structures;
- it distributes
the circulation;
- it distributes
the
public
utilities network
- it determines
the conditions
for
authorization of
- continental
- national
Territorial
system of
settlements
- the county
- the region
- the arrangement
plan of the county
- the arrangement
plan of the
regional territory
- the general
town-planning
plan
-the general
regulations of
town-planning
System of
human
habitat,
urban and
rural
- the town
- the village
Subsystem
- the district
- the regional
town-planning
plan;
- the general
regulations of the
town-planning
Microsystem
the
ensemble
territorial
unit
of
- original
structure adapted
to the specific
functions;
it determines
the systems
development of
inferior level
reference
Element
regulations
- it settles the
location
of
buildings
- the insurance of
the optimum
conditions;
- the positive
impact on the
environment
the building
- the building
and the town
are
mutually
determined and
have
equal
value
The assessment scheme of the policies and strategies for the urban areas
devepolment-rehabilitation
SCHEMA
3.History
The roots of the town
During history, the social, political, economic, cultural conditions created many
ways of understanding the space and arranging it.
Even though the term is quite recent, people had to arrange the space and life
frame long time ago.
Paradoxically, the agriculture explains the town roots. The first nomad tribes
became sedentary during the stone age, between 8000 and 5000 B.C. and began to
practice agriculture, on the second place being the hunting activity.
The region called the The fertile horn (today; Turkey, Israel, Liban, Egypt,
Iraq) was the first place where humans became sedentary and began to practice
agriculture.
Beginning with that time, using new techniques and irrigations, it resulted a big
production of food, more than it was necessary. This extra production was used to
feed people in limited spaces, more populated and practicing unagricultural activities.
This phenomenon was growing in Neolithic (5000 -2500 B.C.), when there were built
the lacustrian buildings in the Nil, Tiger and Euphrates valley, where the ground was
more fertile and near the navigable ways.
If the agricultural progresses allowed the towns development, the
unagricultural goods and the wealth created in towns, determined in its turn the
increasing of the demand of goods. In other words, the agriculture and urban
progresses are going hand in hand. After two thousands of years, the first urban
civilisation was born.
The antique towns were not the hazard result, but an aware practice, where
the shape, plan, placement were the results of military and religious preoccupations
of those societies.
Later, the agricultural, political, commercial, industrial preoccupations
determined other ways and techniques of space arrangement.
The origin of urban civilisation is attributed to the appearance of agricultural
excess. It is necessary to understand the reasons and means of spaces arrangement
in different societies. The agricultural excess allowed the appearance of some
unagricultural activities and later of some urban professions. The most important are
the administrative, religious, military, trade and transport activities.
The excess of goods created by different type of activity, must be changed for
some others to ensure for each man a variety of supplies. This is the root of the
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market. The trade became quickly an activity as important as the goods production
itself. It wasnt possible that the same people to practice the production and trade
activity in the same time. The trade became itself a speciality that could encourage
the economical production increasing. Beginning with this moment the wealth existed
in sufficient quantities not only for changes, but also for being accumulated. Some
people having as professions the production, administration and trade activity, and
some other holding the political and religious power, they could influence and control
the society. The social hierarchy was established in accordance with the power and
wealth.
Social forms and urban forms
The town is the physical frame where the social classes are fighting for getting
the economic excess. To enable the changes, the urban settings must be placed
near the transport ways or at the crossings.
The populations could give a shape of the built environment in accordance
with the religious, military, politic and economic preoccupations, that can explain the
urban forms. In their ways, the religious, politic, commercial and industrial towns
express the way of arrangement of spaces depending on the dominant social group.
The religious town
The religious town is typical for the antique world. For them the town
represents the centre that gathered the people in a single place and the priests could
communicate with the divine forces. Under the pretext of being divine, the priests
take the agricultural excess and accumulated and administrated the goods and the
wealth.
The antique urban life was lead by the high society. So, Athena was built
around an acropolis: a high fortress where were built the temples, divine monuments.
In a symbolic way, the rest of the town was lying downward from these sacred
places. The whole town become a real divine sanctuary. The royal power was
represented by the palace buildings near the sanctuary. In some case, like in
Babylon, different walls delimitated even the social classes. In the centre were the
buildings for the kings and the priests.
The Greek architect Hipodamus of Miletus planned important Greek
settlements such as Piraeus. Called the father of town planning, he emphasized a
geometric design for towns. The citadels were oriented so as to give a sense of
aesthetic balance; streets were arranged in a grid pattern and housing was
integrated with cultural, commercial and defence facilities.
The Romans continued these principles. Their designs for monumental
temples, arches, gymnasiums and forums are classic examples of town planning
based on strict regard for symmetry. Their colonial cities, planned as military camps
called castras, were laid out with a grid of streets surrounded by rectangular or
square defensive walls.
Very important were the theatres, the amphitheatres, the public squares, the
roman phorum and the temples. The libraries, the stores, the law courts proved the
variety of activities from that time.
The brightness of the roman towns was the result of a long evolution. Rome
called the queen of the cities was a model for all the towns built afterward.
The essential principle imposed in the town building was the harmony and the
discipline spirit. Platon said that only the law and discipline could have positive
effects on the community life. Aristotel in politics said that the hygiene, defence and
circulation requirements are the main priorities for the town buildings. Another
principle was that of the urban functions specialization. The main characteristic of the
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Viewed from this perspective, town planning requires more than a narrow
specialist who can develop and implement a physical plan. More general skills and
activities are also needed. They include:
- the collection and analysis of data about the city and its population;
- research into the need for and availability of social services;
-the development, evaluation, coordination, and administration of programmes
and timetables to supply these services;
- programmes for economic and housing development and redevelopment
not only planning, but also packaging, financing and carrying out the development,
establishing public and private partnerships;
- effective use of political activity and citizen participation to influence the
character of and give support to development programmes.
The problem of the urban areas organization is a present one. It can be
discussed as the ideal town term.
The ideal town is an organised political and social structure considered to be
perfect; it has all the features that made it real.
Fig p23
The commander fixed the headquarters, in a higher area; this place was called
castrum, a defending area, near the market, water and circulation ways. Near the
castrum lived the fighters, near the market the merchants and on the outskirts the
farmers.
From now on, the religion, the mysticism and the philosophy became more
important. New buildings appeared in towns: churches, schools, dwellings that would
change the settlement physiognomy.
In many towns, there were 2-3 centres of influence: churches and castles.
Another separation was on the religious criterion: Jewish district, Christian
district. Each social class (the poor, clergy, aristocracy) crated its own area.
Ill the industrial period, the only way of the urban areas development was the
population increasing.
5.3. The interurban migration
During the time, inside the urban settlements there were some population
movement generated by different causes:
- disasters like: volcanoes, earthquakes, flooding; many towns
disappeared (Pompei, Herculaneum, Babylon, Nineveh).
- political causes:
- wars and invasions had a big impact on the town
physiognomy by destruction and rebuilding;
- moving the capital from one place to another together with
all the administration.
5.4. The urban migration
Usually the city population are moving from one district to another.
There are:
- slow migration meaning the inhabitants moving;
- daily migration connected to the daily activity;
- seasonal migration tied to temporary staying (spas).
The causes are:
- administrative: moving some education institutions, markets,
hospitals, could result in population movement;
- economical: building a new industrial unit could displace the workers
from another district; today the central part of the city has only the
office, banks and stores buildings and the dwellings are outside from
this area, creating in this way the daily migration;
- technical: new districts are populated with people from old ones and
the old buildings become inhabited with poorer people;
- sanitation: the sick buildings determined people to move in other
without problems.
5.5. Concentration and dispersion of population
The centre of the urban settlement was established around the local
administrative headquarters. During the peace period, the population was settled
along the main communication ways, that are converging toward the locality centre;
in this way was created the outlying districts.
The sense of the population movement was initially from the exterior to interior,
then being an ebbing. This kind of movement are permanent, even today.
Today there are some alternatives of urban-planning based on the
concentration and dispersion of population: the development of the rural
neighbouring areas and the creation of satellites localities.
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The result of researches concerning all the conditions mentioned above are
plotted on group of problems and situation plans at the same scale.
It results the following draw-mapping:
- the water basins;
- the certain slopes;
- the depth of underground water;
- the ground characteristics;
- the land degradation degree;
- the sun lighting periods.
Analysing these draw-mappings, it results the conditions of possibilities for
building on that terrain.
There are three categories:
- terrain good for buildings, that does not require important measures;
- terrain with limited possibilities of using for buildings, that requires
some strengthening works;
- unsuitable terrain for building.
All the conditions cumulated in a synthesis draw-mapping allow the
assessment of the using way of terrain and the way in which it influences the shape
and structure of the future urban area.
The placement selection is made after a comparison study of a number of
alternatives, taking into account the town-planning solutions given by the terrain. The
analyses of different alternatives is based on some cost indexes:
- the cost of the vertical systematization;
- the cost of the possible strengthening works;
- the cost of public utilities works;
- the cost of buildings, foundations;
- the cost of public transportation.
From the comparative analysis are selected the most economical placements,
but not neglecting the comfort conditions, the hygiene and sanitation.
Building a new town near an existent one is easier at the first step, but after a
while it is difficult to integrate the old centre.
The development of an existent town rises some special problems, being in
many cases limited because of the existent industrial areas, railways, natural
elements or underground exploitation.
The development by extension of an existent town is made only after the using
of all internal possibilities (the using of all terrains). The territorial extension is made
by:
- coterminous extension of the terrain - it is favourable from the point
of view of the connections with the town centre and public utilities;
- creating colonies (satellites) it involves important investments and
special endowments.
8.Urban functions
All the urban settings, natural or conventional formed, must answer to some
necessities.
Ex.: - Romans built towns because of strategic reason wishing to introduce their
civilisation or to create local administrative premises.
- Opening a mine urban setting.
1) Administrative function
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The categories of relations between the urban frame elements are divided in
two:
A. utilisation relations;
B. composition relations.
A. The utilisation relations are:
cooperation relations important buildings which are mutually
completed (offices, production hall);
servicing relations
buildings with different importance
(dwellings and endowments);
indifference relations buildings without connections;
embarrassment relations
theatres production buildings,
hospitals sport field.
B. The composition relations are classified:
a) after their nature (appearance, volumetry); there are
concerning to the shape, dimensions, colour;
b) after the effect on the ensemble; there are connected to
the composition relations and may be relations of
domination
subordination
To achieve the necessary unity of the ensemble, it is possible only by
emphasizing a dominant element which sets on the other subordinated elements.
The relations between the component elements of the urban frame have a
complex feature, they are not delimitated, but they exist and influence in a dialectic
way.
10.THE MAIN NATURAL FACTORS
The lack of sanitation of the urban settlements is caused by wastes as a result
of human activities. These wastes pollute the atmosphere, the land and water. This is
the reason why it is absolutely to take measures.
10.1.The land
The land influence is difficult to evaluate. But the permeable ones are
favourable, like sand, gritstone, limestone, and the waterproof ground, like clay, marl,
are unfavourable.
The level of the underground water must be higher than 2,5m.
10.2. The water
The influence of water on public health is evident. The quantity and quality of
the drinking water on the people health is very important.
10.3. The atmosphere
Another causes of urban pollution are: the gases, dust, suspended particulates
matter in air.
The atmosphere acts like a purifying agent by ventilation, temperature,
moisturizing, and drying.
The atmospheric air quality is influenced by the wind direction and intensity. If
the wind is cold, it must be avoided the streets along the dominant wind direction. In
warm areas this is favourable. The dwellings must be placed in a way that winds do
not brink smokes, gases from industrial area. The dominant wind direction could be
influenced by hills, rivers, air temperature and other atmospheric conditions.
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- land erosion;
- air temperature;
- towns ventilation.
The wind transports the impurities and on buildings has a mechanical action
proportional with its speed.
The wind features are:
- direction;
- intensity;
- frequency.
The wind may be
- week
with the speed 0.5 5 m/s;
- mean
8 10 m/s;
- strong
10 - 18 m/s;
- tornado hurricane
> 18 m/s.
The position of buildings against winds is very important from the ventilation
and protection against winds effects point of view.
Fig.p65
It is better to avoid some unfavourable configuration:
- to avoid the industry placement in the wind direction toward the
dwellings areas;
- to avoid the dwellings placement on the hills.
For a better protection of dwellings, buildings must be placed with the small
size in the wind direction or oblique.
Green areas are an efficient protection against winds.
11.2. Town sanitation
Adequate sanitation is critical in controlling diseases and improving the quality
of life in communities. However, it is very difficult to define and quantify what
constitutes adequate sanitation. Like the basic water requirement, adequacy
depends on socio-cultural factors, traditions, and practices, and needs to be judged
with respect to peoples priorities.
Poor sanitation leads to diseases and often death, especially in the lowincome high-density settlements.
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As measures: filters, and wet processes in industries and other and removing
gases and impurities measures.
11.2.3. Noise control measures
Noise can be defined as unwanted sound, and an audible acoustic energy
that adversely affects the physiological and/or psychological well-being of people, or
which disturbs or impairs the convenience or peace of any person. It can be
generalized by saying that the sound becomes unwanted when it:
- hinders speech communication;
- impedes the thinking process;
- interferes with concentration;
- obstructs activities (work or leisure);
- presents a health risk due to hearing damage.
Definitions of disturbing noise and a noise nuisance
Disturbing Noise
Noise Nuisance
Means a noise level that exceeds the Means ant sound, which disturbs or
ambient
sound
level
measured impairs or may disturb or impair the
continuously at the same measuring convenience or peace of any person.
point by 7dBA or more.
Ambient sound level means the reading Ambient noise means the totally
on an integrating impulse sound level encompassing sound in a given time, and
meter taken in the absence of any usually is composed of sound from many
alleged disturbing noise
sources, both near and far.
Noise level means the reading at a Residual noise is the ambient noise that
measuring point in the presence of any remains at a given situation when one or
alleged disturbing noise at the end of a more specific noises are suppressed.
total period of at least ten minutes after Specific noise is a component of the
such meter was put into operation, and , ambient noise which can be specifically
if the alleged disturbing noise has a identified by acoustical means and which
discernable pitch, for example, a whistle, may be associated with a specific source.
buzz, drone or music, to which 5 dBA is
added.
Physical properties of sound
Sound is the result of pressure changes in the air, caused by vibration or
turbulence. The loudness of these pressure changes is stated in terms of sound
level, and the rapidity with which these changes occur is the sounds frequency.
Sound level is expressed in decibels(dB). To hear sounds, air pressure
changes must be very rapid. Changes must complete a cycle at least 20 times per
second and not more than 20 000times a second. The rate at which these cycles
repeat is called the frequency of the sound and is measured in Hertz. One Hertz is
equal to one cycle per second.
Different types of sound
Continuous sounds are sounds that have little or no variation over
duration of time.
Varying sounds are sounds that have differing maximum levels over
duration of time.
Intermittent sounds are sounds that are interspersed with quiet
periods.
Impulsive sounds are sounds that are characterized by relatively high
sound levels over a very short duration of time.
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Mainly the duration and level of the noise determine the effects of noise. Long
lasting, high level sounds are the most disturbing and damaging to hearing and
generally the most annoying. Duration of sounds is also important; in that intermittent
sounds appear to be less damaging to hearing than continuous sounds because of
the ears ability to regenerate during the quiet periods. However, intermittent and
impulsive sounds tend to be more annoying because of their unpredictability.
The cost of noise
Economic interest has always dominated noise control, but we now have to
weigh this against other likely costs such as:
loss of earnings;
loss of productivity;
burden on the health services and the criminal justice system;
increasing violence;
human misery;
social anger;
loss of quality of life that noise causes.
Typical everyday noise levels
Decibels (dB)
Common sounds
Perception
10 dB -30 dB
Whisper, quiet
Barely audible
conversation
30 dB 50 dB
Rainfall, quiet office,
Heard faintly
refrigerator, computer
50 dB 60dB
Dishwasher, normal
Moderate level
conversation radio
60 dB 70 dB
Hairdryer, heavy traffic,
Moderate to loud
ringing phone
70 dB 80dB
Noise office, alarm clock
Loud
80 dB 90 dB
Electric razor, vacuum Loud to very loud
cleaner
90 dB -100dB
Chain saw, air
Very loud
compressor, jackhammer
100 dB -110 dB
Rock concert, power saw,
Extremely loud
hifi on full
110 dB -120 dB
Jet take off, nightclub, Extremely loud to painful
thunder
120 dB 130 dB
Shotgun
Painful
Industrial and means of transportation development have as a result the
increasing of noise level with negative influence on human health.
Some effects of continuous noise:
- hearing annoying;
- nervous system shaking;
- irascibility increasing;
- working power decreasing.
The sonorous intensity level on a quite street is 30 40 dB, and with high
traffic 79 90 dB.
The bearable threshold for a human organism is 70 dB if the noise is
continuous.
In industry the noise level 70 110 dB
air craft
110 120 dB
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The noise level is influenced by climate, relief, water, vegetation and town
organization.
The wind speed influences the propagation distance a high level of moisture
reduces the propagation distances and lessen the noise intensity because of
reflexion and absorption phenomenon the importance of water surfaces.
Measures to have in view:
the town zoning ensures the correct sitting of factories, industries and
residential areas to reduce noise pollution to the minimum
the industries placement must be chosen so that the dominant wind will blow
toward town;
the green spaces must be placed between the streets and buildings;
buildings must be arranged with the long side perpendicular on the street
direction with green areas between them;
when the streets have on both sides continuous buildings, or when buildings
form open spaces noises are reflected in many directions and are also amplified;
it is better to place toward the streets some screen buildings playing other
roles than dwelling. It is recommended to plant trees with dense wreath linden tree,
aspen tree, chestnut tree.
noise buffers in the form of sand, covered with grass, may be considered as
a means of protecting communities from unacceptable noise levels. These barriers
need to be large enough to make them effective;
noise pollution from aircraft is controlled through the zoning of airfields away
from residential areas;
road noise can be controlled by setting maximum noise levels for each class
of motor vehicle and through information such as traffic flow, speed, light/heavy
traffic.
Fig p72, 73
The street noise depends on:
- traffic intensity;
- circulation features;
- the kind of vehicles are in traffic;
- circulation speed.
extractive,
processing,
intermediate.
The presence of the raw material plays an important role. From it depends the
placement and structure of urban areas.
Depending on the caused noxiousness degree:
industry
wholesome, healthy
unwholesome
industry
disturbing
undisturbing
intermediate
Depending on the noxiousness and insurance degree of the industrial area,
we can estimate the size of the safety (security) area.
Fig p77
- Faraway from towns are placed the unwholesome industries. The sanitary
protection area is 500 1000 m.
These industries require big land surfaces, or implies big quantities to be
transported or degrade the ground.
- At the town limit are placed the industries that require smaller quantities of
row materials or processed materials. The sanitary protection area is 100 300 m.
- In towns are placed industries which dont require railways and are
wholesome. SPA = 50 m.
12.1.2. The placement industry
The tight connection between industry and row materials sources, consuming
centres, imply easy, direct and cheap transport connections.
The transport can be achieved by water, railways, roads or by pipes (for some
products).
The transport by water
- is economic;
- can be transported big quantities;
- is the most rigid;
- speed transport is reduced;
- it requires: harbours, platforms for loading and unloading
The rail roads
28
- constructive.
The group of industries may be served by a mutual transport network
a
rational using of land:
The land surface for the sanitary protection area is decreasing.
The auxiliary buildings (store houses, garages) administrative buildings,
services and transport networks are used in common.
The site works are organized more rational. When we establish the criteria
organisation of industrial district, we have to take into account that some industries
uses the wastes of others;
It is better to avoid to groups food industry with mechanic industry because the
last one is in general a dust producer;
The size of the industrial district depends on the insurance criteria and a
rational repartition of the transport means.
12.1.4. The industrial area reorganisation requires:
- the study of the industrial development by a fully documentation on the
existent situation
otherwise it results economic, functional, sanitary, constructive
deficiencies;
- depending on the existent repartition and their features, it is necessary to
regrouping the small enterprises;
- analysing the repartition, the buildings state, the way of using of services
networks, we can decide if some of industries could be moved in other places. When
we chose another place, we have to take into account the same rules concerning the
position toward the transport network, energy sources, dwelling areas;
- the development on the existent place is possible when:
- that industry is not an obstacle for the city development;
- if we have protection measures for the unwholesome industries.
It is better to move those industries that are unwholesome, dont permit the
development of the city and are not economical justified.
12.2. THE DWELLING AREA
12.2.1. The dwelling area placement
The relief conditions influence the building placement, the streets route, the
general composition of the dwellings ensembles.
The building placement terrain slope depends on:
- if the slope is 1-2%, buildings could have any direction;
- for 2-5%, the length of buildings parallel with the line of the bigger slope, it
must be limited because of big difference of the scale which raises the
prise of the building. If these situations cant be avoided, the building
sections must be unwedded in vertical direction, or it must be realised an
horizontal platform, which leads to a big volume of excavations;
- for 5-8% the only solution is to place buildings perpendicular to the parallel
with line of the bigger slope;
- for >8% small buildings.
The access ways serving the dwelling area are directly influenced by the
terrain relief. The longitudinal slope of the streets must not be grater than 4-6%. The
most economic is p = 1%. In the case of big slopes, streets must be drown diagonally
or in winding.
30
Like the town, the dwelling area may be developed in an intensive way
(exploiting the internal resources increasing the number of floors, or building in area
with a few building) or by an external development, beyond its limits.
12.2.2. Structure and organisation of the dwelling area
For a better organisation, for the circulation insurance and to avoid long
distances till the different endowments, the dwelling area is organised in complex
town-planning units:
- dwelling group;
- quarter;
- district;
- sector.
Each of them has some interdependence.
The difference between these units results from the:
- size of surface;
- number of inhabitants;
- endowment degree (social + cultural);
- importance of streets which serve that unit.
Between them exists a tight interdependence concerning:
- shape;
- position;
- size;
- circulation connection.
In new towns may appear all the units, while in the existent one because of
ancient streets, some unit as group, district have their own organisation. These units
are surrounded by collecting streets, and have an independent organisation to avoid
crossing the circulation way for different necessities.
In small towns, it could exist an unique organisation.
In big towns, it could exist sectors made of a number of districts.
The district is made of 3-7 districts connected with the district centre including
all or a part of endowments (administrative institutions, cultural, commercial, sanitary,
medical). The endowment degree is a function of number of inhabitants including:
administrative building (post office, police office), cultural institutions (clubs, cinema),
sportive centre, commercial centre, polyclinic (medical centre). The placement is
made as possible in the geometric centre.
Depending on the: - relief
- adopted service system the districts could be with a
- organisation way
- mononuclear structure
- polinuclear structure
with or without dwelling group.
The district is limited by the big streets or natural obstacles, or planted zones.
The district is crossed over by secondary streets which separate the quarter
and ensure the access to the dwellings.
The district surface depends on the number of quarter, on the circulation
specific features and relief conditions.
The district is the organizatoric unit of the town including a number of quarters
and a core (district centre) in which there are these endowments necessary for the
population and which are rarely used.
These endowments which are not parts of the district centre must be uniformly
distributed on the surface.
31
The quarter is made or not of many more groups of dwellings surface 15-45
ha, number of inhabitants 3000-12000 includes endowments for frequent uses or
daily using:
- education institutions;
- commercial complex;
- units for services;
- medical centre;
- playing places for children;
- sport field;
- parking, garages;
- cultural buildings.
The placement for these buildings is made as uniform as possible so that the
longer distances to the building dont be greater than 400 m.
The quarter is limited by collecting streets, natural elements or the terrain limit
of some institutions. The circulation inside the quarter must be reduced as much as
possible to the access to the dwellings.
The dwellings group, if it exists, is a part of the quarter. The surface area is
2-8 ha, the number of inhabitants is 400-2500, depending on the size, mean number
of buildings storeys, relief conditions.
The connections between dwellings and the endowments must be direct, easy
and short. Very important is the maxim insurance of the pedestrian and vehicles
circulation.
The territory must be rational used by grouping the dwellings and
endowments, avoiding the terrain waste, but ensuring the needed free space.
The dwelling disposition must ensure a good sun lighting of buildings, terrain,
and a better protection against dominant winds.
Depending on local situation and circulation network we have several
schemes for quarter.
Fig p103
(a) it is not recommended because the groups of dwellings are isolated,
without connections and the access from the main street is made at small and
numerous intervals;
(b) its a single connection with the collecting street, the access to the
dwellings is made through the endowments area, the dwellings placement allow a
better using of the territory and the local network ensures a convenient circulation;
(c) the buildings are grouped around a green space, that can receive the
endowments. There are connections between the dwelling groups and there is a
single access from de main street. The drawback of the solution is that the
peripherical distribution ring is used uneconomic, on a single side.
(h)(i) the drawback is the general circulation
(h) an access of carriage connections
(g) (f) has a great number of streets and blind alleys
(d) (e) convenient access
(d) the connection between the dwelling group is made by pedestrian walks
(e) has a quarter monocore, without dwellings groups.
12.2.3. The plan shape of the quarter
a) rectangular favourable for a horizontal terrain it is easy to be built and
the most economic;
b) anyhow (any rout); it could have diverse forms.
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The green spaces and the endowments can be placed in two ways:
- centralized advantageous for grouping the green spaces.
- decentralized has a better distribution of endowments and a more direct
connection between green spaces and dwellings.
The internal streets network ensures the connection between buildings and
guide the inside circulation to the exterior; it is made of:
- local streets (internal) - closed (blind);
- open at both sides.
- carriage alleys (access or service)
- pedestrian alleys has a breadth multiple of 0.75 m for a single flux of
pedestrian.
Fig p106
The distance between buildings and carriage alley will be minim 4 m and
maxim 60 m till the most far-off building entrance.
The places for carriage streets is chosen so that:
- they ensure the rapid movement of rain waters;
- to lessen the negative consequences of circulation (accidents, dust,
noxes, noise);
- to ensure easier connections between different elements of the town.
When the vehicles circulation is very important, and also the pedestrian
circulation, we can build pedestrian passages superior (gang ways) or inferior ones.
12.2.4. Types of dwellings and their grouping
To ensure better comfort conditions, hygiene and sanitation means to require
a better organisation of the dwelling area, a better choice and grouping of buildings.
The choice of the building type is a function of:
- land and underground conditions;
- a best using degree;
- climatic conditions;
- type of wishes apartments;
- buildings distribution in the build environment.
In the urbanistic units of the dwelling area are used 2 categories of buildings:
a) buildings with individual dwellings with 1-2 floors and 1-2 apartments on a
floor. The inhabitants have a lot of land;
b) blocks of flats with many storeys and the surrounding land being used in
common.
The buildings grouping is made:
1. after a peripheral distribution along the street;
2. around a planted core (where can it be placed the daily endowments;
3. after a disposition in depth; it has some advantages:
- it ensures an entire organisation of the units from the area;
- it has a higher variety;
- it has a rich expressivity.
The peripheral distribution is adopted when the existent town placement is
imposed by the relief conditions and the existent streets.
Depending on the direction of the streets, the buildings could be placed in
many ways:
- parallel with the longitudinal axes of the street, making a linear front;
- perpendicular or oblique to the street;
- could form open or closed precincts.
Fig p112
33
The service radius R is the distance in straight line from the medical,
commercial, cultural endowment to the far off dwelling.
the cinemas, placed in the district centre and also in the town centre; the
required capacity is 24 places/1000 inhabitants;
the theatres, placed in a specific area, with many transports possibilities;
the capacity is 10 places/1000 inhabitants;
the museums and exhibitions halls; the recommended area is 10m2/1000
inhabitants;
the libraries, placed in quite areas, near parks or education institutions;
the clubs, placed in the dwelling area, requiring green surfaces, sport
fields; the required area is 0,25m2/inhabitant.
necessary, the building without value, are demolished; the others are kept eventually
supporting strengthening works.
12.3. The green areas
The aim and the role of the green areas are the following:
- social, cultural, educational;
- hygienic, physiologic;
- utilitarian.
They ensure possibilities of recreation, improve the microclimate, and they
protect the built areas against noise and light. The green areas fix the slopes and
limits the fires.
Very important is also the aesthetic role; they emphasize the architectural
works, the view effects and could hide some anaesthetic aspects.
12.3.1. The classification of green areas
from the using point of view:
- green areas for general using parks, gardens;
- green areas for limited using gardens around dwellings and institutions.
from the destination point of view:
- green areas for recreation;
- green areas with cultural, decoration features;
- green areas with utilitarian character protected areas.
from the position from the town:
- internal spaces (urban);
- external spaces (parks, protected areas).
12.3.2. Repartition and dimensioning (sizing, proportioning) the planting
area
The repartition could be made in different systems:
- in spots;
- in bands (strips)
rectangular
ring-shaped
radial
trefoiled
- mix.
The distribution must be as uniform as can be, depending on the population
distribution.
The dimensioning of the planting spaces depends on the:
- size of town (surface and number of habitants);
- type of building;
- industry nature;
- climatic and relief conditions.
The planting spaces represent 8-15% from the entire surface or 1015m /inhab.
Parks must have minim
20 - 30 ha.
Gardens
5 - 20 ha.
Squares
0.3 - 2 ha.
2
It is better to avoid the easily flooded areas or with important noxes favourable
are the placements near the water basins.
Are chosen the unsuitable terrain for buildings:
- with important slopes;
- with underground water at small depth
- filling terrain.
The land must be: - well sun lighted;
- well protected against cold winds;
- have water alimentation sewerage.
There are three styles to create the green spaces:
a) the composition method with regular route, geometric, classic,
architectural. where the space is organised with straight alleys and tidy
vegetation, with symmetrical shapes, giving a monumental features; this
method emphasizes the value of a building and has a wide decorative
utilization;
b) the composition method with free tracts and landscape (paysagist)
characterised by free tracts, giving to the ensemble a picturesque aspects;
c) the mix method or composite which is a between method; it creates quite
zones, making an easier traffic.
satisfy their basic mobility, but this number varies according to the city
considered. For instance, walking account for 88% of all movements
inside Tokyo, while this figure is only 3% for Los Angeles.
Freight transportation. As cities are dominant centres of production and
consumption, urban activities are accompanied by large movements of
freight. These movements are mostly characterized by delivery trucks
moving between industries, distribution centres, warehouses and retail
activities as well as from major terminals such as ports, railyards,
distribution centres and airports.
Evolution of the spatial structure of a city
Core activities are those of the highest order in the urban spatial structure,
namely tertiary and quaternary activities involved in management (finance and
insurance) and consumption (retailing).
Central activities are concerned by production and distribution with
activities such as warehousing, manufacturing, wholesaling and transportation.
Planning and transport
There is a direct, well-researched connection between the density of an
urban environment, and the amount of transport into that environment. Good quality
transport is often followed by development. Development beyond a certain density
can quickly overcrowed transport.
Good planning attempts to place higher densities of jobs or residents near
high-volume transport. For examples, some cities permit commerce and multi-storey
apartment buildings only within one block of train stations and four-lane boulevards,
and accept single-family dwellings and parks further away.
Densities are usually measured as the floor area of buildings divided by
the land area. Plot rations below 1.5 are low densities, and above five are very high.
Most city centres are well above five. Skyscrapers easily achieve densities of thirty or
more. Increasing development density has the advantage of making mass transport
systems, district heating and other community facilities (schools, health centres, etc.)
more viable. However critics of this approach dub the densification of development
as town cramming and claim that it lowers quality of life and precludes from
realising their (sub)urban desire for a house with a garden and off-road parking
space.
Automobiles are well suited to serve densities as high as 1.5 with basic
limited-access highways. Innovations such as car-pool lane and rush hour-use taxes
may get automobiles to neighbourhoods with plot ratios as high as 2.5. Densities
above 5 are well served by trains. A widespread problem is that there is a range of
residential densities between about two and five that causes severe traffic jams of
automobiles, yet are too low to be commercially served by trains or light rail. The
conventional solution is to use buses.
Fig. Relationship between transport and land use
12.4.1. Types of streets
There is a direct, well-researched connection between the density of an urban
environment and the amount of transport into that environment. Good quality
transport is often followed by development. Development beyond a certain density
can quickly overcrowd transport.
Good planning attempts to place higher densities of jobs or residents near
high volume transport. For example, some cities permit commerce and multi-storey
apartment buildings only within one block of train stations and four-lane boulevards,
and accept single-family dwellings and parks further away.
The internal transportations ensure the connection between different
elements of the town, having a double function: to guide the persons and goods
40
transport and to divide the territory to obtain the shape and size of the complex urban
units.
In the existent towns, the streets network is in general inadequate and can
not cope with the growing number of the means of transportation. Often the transit
traffic is included in the local traffic. Because the number of the vehicles is
continuously growing, it is necessary to protect the central part from an excessive
traffic and also the dwelling districts from the heavy and speedy traffic.
The streets classification depends on:
- the size and nature of traffic;
- the connections importance;
- the way of solving the transversal profile.
The categories of streets are:
- streets of first degree thoroughfare;
- streets of second degree collecting main streets;
- secondary streets;
- special streets quays, esplanades, cornice streets.
The basic streets network is made of thoroughfares and collecting main
streets.
The thoroughfares have 4 traffic lane/way and are:
- main transit streets;
- radial streets;
- transversal streets;
- ring streets, rounding the central part;
- deviation streets.
The collecting main streets have 2-3 traffic lane/way and are:
- secondary penetration streets;
- connection additional streets.
The main streets have a collecting function of the traffic from different areas of
the town and to distribute it to other areas by means of basic network.
The secondary streets ensure the penetration to different objectives inside the
urban areas. On these streets, it is not allowed the public transport.
The local streets make the connection between buildings and the secondary
streets.
The streets schemes are of two kinds:
- of natural or spontaneous formation;
- of conventional or preconceived creation.
The schemes are of different forms:
- geometric:
- orthogonal;
- linear;
- cruciform;
- parallel;
- rectangular.
- radial;
- ring shaped;
- of free rout.
The orthogonal scheme is easy to be drown, the land division is clear and
simple and it allows an easy organisation of the land.
The disadvantages are: the monotony given by the uniform aspect of the
streets and their length.
The radial and ring shaped could be of natural or voluntary formation. This
solution has a concentration of main streets in the central part, called civic centre.
41
The connection between the centre and the outlying districts is made in a direct way.
The distances to the outlying districts are long. The ring shaped scheme hasnt some
of these disadvantages.
The free rout scheme has a sinuous form and is used mainly at the small
towns, placed on a roughly terrain.
At the same time with the streets scheme drawing, there are established the
positions of the interest centres at the main streets crossings or in connection with
some thoroughfares.
The street elements are:
- the route;
- the longitudinal profile;
- the transversal profile.
A normal traffic depends on a correct solving of these elements.
In big cities, it is better to separate the pedestrian and the vehicles traffic. This
can be done in horizontal or vertical plan.
The separation in the horizontal plan is achieved by creation of parallel routes;
the pedestrian traffic passes through the dwelling area. To cut the distance for
pedestrians, between two parallel streets can be placed some passages.
In the case of the separation in vertical direction, the ground level is dedicated
to the pedestrians and the vehicles traffic is at the upper level, or vice versa: the
vehicles at ground level and the pedestrian on the upper level, on special pavement.
The first alternative has the advantage that it ensures a better security, people
can enjoy of the planting spaces, but it requires expansive and difficult works for the
vehicles.
The second alternative is more economical and has a better organisation of
the parking places.
In big cities, with a heavy traffic, the main streets are placed on a higher level,
with crossings at different levels. More often are used suspended roads solutions,
independent from the traffic at the ground level.
Depending on their importance and function, the streets can be:
- straight;
- curved;
- with a broken line.
The straight route is the most convenient for traffic. It is used for main streets
or when are emphasized some important buildings. But the straight route become
tiring and monotone when it is too long.
The curved route is used for secondary streets; it depends on the relief and it
is also necessary to respect the visibility conditions at minimum 200m.
The broken line route is used only when is made of portions of line sufficiently
long.
12.4.2. The streets elements
The longitudinal profile is influenced by the specific features of the terrain. It
could be concave, convex, or inclined in a single direction.
For a traffic in good conditions are admitted maximum and minimum values for
slopes, depending on the speed vehicles and pavement nature. The more convenient
is 1-2,5%. For the traffic security, the concave longitudinal profiles must have
minimum radius of 600 1000m and for convex profiles 1000 -2500m. The concave
profile is better than the convex one because it ensures a good visibility and a large
view in that area.
The transversal profile depends on the traffic and hygiene requirements.
Depending on the traffic requirements, the span of the traffic lane could be:
- for one flux for pedestrians: 0,75m;
42
100
4
80
5
60
6
4025
78
The trumpet system is adopted when there are three traffic ways, but one
is more important. It requires one art work and a reduced surface.
- The prolonged loop system is used when two of the four traffic lanes are
more important. It requires two art works and allows a good visibility.
Fig pag 157
The railways
It is the most economic mean of transportation, having a high speed and low
energy consumption.
The disadvantages are: the direct connection to the relief, the limitation of the
inclination because of the reduced friction between rails and wheels and the limitation
of the curvature. Usually the slope is 18% and the curvature is 600m.
The high cost for building a railway is compensated by the energy savings.
The railway complex placement
The railway is made of rails, stations for travellers, for goods, industrial,
marshalling yard, deposits. Depending on the town and traffic importance, it could be
one or more stations, with a certain or more functions. For small towns, a single
station answers to all the necessities.
It is better that the railways route to avoid the dwelling districts.
There are some solutions:
- The tangent solution allows a good exploitation of the railway and also the
town development; it is favourable for small towns.
- The ring shaped solution has 1-2 stations; it allows a good railway
operation, but the town development has some problems.
- The diametrically solution is the most favourable from all the points of view.
- The radial solution allows the free development of the town but has some
problems concerning the operating and the direct connections.
- The ring-shaped solution has the advantage of the radial solution, but it
eliminates the difficulties concerning the transit travelling.
Fig p 160
The transport by water
It is favourable for heavy and big transportations. This way is very economic,
but has an imposed route and requires harbours and special works.
The transport by air
Compared with other solutions, it is the least rigid and has a high speed.
The choice of airports is a big problem, because they must be placed faraway
from the towns at minimum 30 minutes distances with the public transport and 1
8Km from the main road or railway. Related to the position of the town and the wind
direction there are some possible alternatives shown in the figure.
Fig p163
The first solution is favourable for landing, but is not favourable for the take-off
because it is made in the town direction, the air plane must win height on short
distances. Another disadvantage is the noise propagation toward the town because
of the wind direction.
The third solution is favourable only for landing.
The second is the most favourable, because the airplanes are not obliged to
fly over the town.
Fig p164
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48