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Module 7
(Lecture 24 to 28)
RETAINING WALLS
Topics
24.1
24.2
24.3
24.4
INTRODUCTION
GRAVITY AND CANTILEVER WALLS
PROPORTIONING RETAINING WALLS
APPLICATION OF LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE
THEORIES TO DESIGN
24.5 STABILITY CHECKS
Check for Overturning
Check for Sliding Along the Base
Internal Stability
External Stability
Internal Stability Check
Tie thickness
Tie length
External Stability Check
Check for overturning
Check for sliding
Check for bearing capacity
Module 7
(Lecture 24)
RETAINING WALLS
Topics
1.1
1.2
INTRODUCTION
GRAVITY AND CANTILEVER WALLS
PROPORTIONING RETAINING WALLS
INTRODUCTION
In chapter 6 you were introduced to various types of lateral earth pressure. Those theories
will be used in this chapter to design various types of retaining walls. In general,
retaining walls can be divided into two major categories: (a) conventional retaining walls,
and (b) mechanically stabilized earth walls.
Conventional retaining walls can generally be classified as
1.
2.
3.
4.
Figure 7.2 Approximate dimensions for various components of retaining wall for initial
stability checks: (a) gravity wall; (b) cantilever wall [note: minimum dimension of
is 2 ft ( 0.6 m)]
The fundamental theories for calculating lateral earth pressure have been presented in
chapter 6. To use these theories in design, an engineer must make several simple
assumptions. In the case of cantilever walls, use of the Rankine earth pressure theory for
stability checks involves drawing a vertical line through point A, as shown in figure
7. 3a, (which is located at the edge of the heel of the base slab. The Rankine active
condition is assumed to exist along the vertical plane . Rankine active earth pressure
equations may then be used to calculate the lateral pressure on the face . In the
analysis of stability for the wall, the force (Rankine ) , the weight of soil above the heel,
, and the weight of the concrete, , all should be taken into consideration. The
assumption for the development of Rankine active pressure along the soil face is
theoretically concrete if the shear zone bounded by the line is not obstructed by the
stem of the wall. The angle, , that the line makes with the vertical is
sin
= 45 + 2 2 sin1 sin
[7.1]
Figure 7.3 Assumption for the determination of lateral earth pressure: (a) cantilever wall;
(b) and (c) gravity wall
Figure 7. 3 Continued
A similar type of analysis may be used for gravity walls, as shown in figure 7. 3b.
However, Coulombs theory also may be used, as shown in figure 7. 3c. If Coulombs
active pressure theory is used, the only forces to be considered are (Coulomb ) and the
weight of the wall, .
If Coulombs earth pressure theory is used, it will be necessary to know the range of the
wall friction angle with various types of backfill material. Following are some ranges
of wall friction angle for masonry or mass concrete walls:
Gravel
Range of (deg)
Coarse sand
20-28
Fine sand
15-25
Stiff clay
15-20
Backfill material
27-30
Silty clay
12-16
In the case of ordinary retaining walls, water table problems and hence hydrostatic
pressure are not encountered. Facilities for drainage from the soils retained are always
provided.
In several instances, for small retaining walls, emiempirical charts are used to evaluate
lateral earth pressure. Figure 7.4 and 5 show two semiempirical charts given by Terzaghi
and Peck (1967). Figure 7.4 is for backfills with plane surfaces, and figure 7.5 is for
backfills that slope upward from the crest of the wall for a limited distance and then
become horizontal. Note that 12 2 is the vertical component of the active force on
plane ; similarly, 12 2 is the horizontal force. The numerals on the curves indicate
the types of soil described in table 1.
Figure 7.5 Chart for estimating pressure of backfill against retaining walls supporting
backfills with surface that slopes upward from crest of wall for limited distance and then
becomes horizontal (after Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, Second Edition, by K.
Terzaghi and R. B. Peck. Copyright 1967 by John Wiley and Sons. Reprinted with
permission) (note: 1 kN/m3 = 6.361 lb/ft 3 )
Chart for estimating pressure of backfill against retaining walls supporting backfills with
surface that slopes upward from crest of wall for limited distance and then becomes
horizontal (after Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, Second Edition, by K. Terzaghi
and R. B. Peck. Copyright 1967 by John Wiley and Sons. Reprinted with permission)
(note: 1 kN/m3 = 6.361 lb/ft 3 )
STABILITY CHECKS
To check the stability of a retaining wall, the following steps are necessary:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
This section describes the procedure for checking for overturning and sliding and bearing
capacity failure. The principles of investigation for settlement were covered in chapter 4
and will not be repeated here. Some problems regarding the overall stability of retaining
walls are discussed in section 5.
Figure 7.6 Check for overturning: assume that Rankine pressure is valid:
Table 1 types of Backfill for Retaining Walls
The factor of safety against overturning about the toe-that is, about point C in figure 7. 6may be expressed as
(overturning
[7.2]
Where
= sum of the moments of forces tending to overturn about point
= 3
Where = cos
[7.3]
For calculation of the resisting moment, (neglecting ), a table (such as table 2) can
he prepared. The weight of the soil above the heel and the weight of the concrete (or
masonry) are both forces that contribute to the resisting moment. Note that the force
[7.4]
[7.5]
Where
= width of the base slab
Area
(2)
1
2
4 = 4
2 = 2 2
1 = 1 1
2
3
3 = 3
5 = 5
6 = 6
3
5
6
3
5
6
1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
cos ( /3)
[7.6]
(sliding ) =
[7.7]
Where
= sum of the horizontal resisting forces
= sum of the horizontal driving forces
Figure 7. 7 indicates that the shear strength of the soil immediately below the base slab
may be represented as
= tan +
Where
= ( ) tan + +
[7.8]
= cos
[7.9]
The only horizontal force that will tend to cause the wall to slide (driving force) is the
horizontal component of the active force , so
Combings equations (7, 8, and 9) yields
(sliding ) =
( ) tan + +
cos
[7.10]
( ) tan ( 1 2 )+ 2 2 +
cos
[7.11]
In some instances, certain walls may not yield a desired factor of safety of 1.5. To
increase their resistance to sliding, a base key may be used. Base keys are illustrated by
broken lines in figure 7. 7. It indicates that the passive force at the toe without the key is
= 122 2 + 22
However, it a key is included, the passive force per unit length of the wall becomes
= 122 12 + 22 1
Where
sin = = 0
However,
= (1) + (2)
[7.12]
= (1) + (2)
[7.13]
The magnitudes of (2) can be reduced if the heel of the retaining wall is sloped as
shown in figure 7. 8b. For this case,
The magnitude of A, as shown in figure 7. 9, is valid for = 45 . However, note that in
figure 7. 8a
= 121 2
Hence
(2) = 121 [ ( )2 ]
= 121 ( )2 + 2 1 [ ( )2 ]
Sloping the heel of a retaining wall can thus be extremely helpful in some cases.
[7.14]