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Challenges in integrating distributed Energy

storage systems into future smart grid
Conference Paper August 2008
DOI: 10.1109/ISIE.2008.4676896 Source: IEEE Xplore

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Challenges in Integrating Distributed Energy Storage

Systems into Future Smart Grid
Egon Ortjohann1, Alaa Mohd1, Andreas Schmelter1, Nedzad Hamsic1, Danny Morton2
South Westphalia University of Applied Sciences/Division Soest, Lbecker Ring 2, 59494 Soest, Germany
2
The University of Bolton, Deane Road, Bolton, U.K.
E-mail: ortjohann@fh-swf.de, Mohd.Alaa@fh-swf.de, D.Morton@bolton.ac.uk

Abstract- Distributed energy storage systems in combination

with advanced power electronics have a great technical role to play
and will have a huge impact on future electrical supply systems and
lead to many financial benefits. So far, when Energy storage
systems (ESSs) are integrated into conventional electric grids,
special designed topologies and/or control for almost each
particular case is required. This means costly design and debugging
time of each individual component/control system every time the
utility decides to add an energy storage system. However, our
present and future power network situation requires extra flexibility
in the integration more than ever. Mainly for small and medium
storage systems in both (customers and suppliers) side as the storage
moves from central generation to distributed one (including
intelligent control and advanced power electronics conversion
systems). Nevertheless, storage devices, standardized architectures
and techniques for distributed intelligence and smart power systems
as well as planning tools and models to aid the integration of energy
storage systems are still lagging behind.

I. INTRODUCTION
Fossil fuels are the major source of energy in the world
today. However, as the world is considering more economical
and environmentally friendly alternative energy generation
systems, the global energy mix is becoming more complex.
Factors forcing these considerations are (a) the increasing
demand for electric power by both developed and developing
countries, (b) many developing countries lacking the resources
to build power plants and distribution networks, (c) some
industrialized countries facing insufficient power generation
and (d) greenhouse gas emission and climate change concerns.
Renewable energy sources such as wind turbines, photovoltaic
solar systems, solar-thermo power, biomass power plants, fuel
cells, gas micro-turbines, hydropower turbines, combined heat
and power (CHP) micro-turbines and hybrid power systems
will be part of future power generation systems [1-7].
Nevertheless, exploitation of renewable energy sources
(RESs), even when there is a good potential resource, may be
problematic due to their variable and intermittent nature. In
addition, wind fluctuations, lightning strikes, sudden change of
a load, or the occurrence of a line fault can cause sudden
momentary dips in system voltage [3]. Earlier studies have
indicated that energy storage can compensate for the stochastic
nature and sudden deficiencies of RESs for short periods
without suffering loss of load events, and without the need to
start more generating plants [3,8,9]. Another issue is the
integration of RESs into grids at remote points, where the grid
is weak may generate unacceptable voltage variations due to

power fluctuations. Upgrading the power transmission line to

mitigate this problem is often uneconomic. Instead, the
inclusion of energy store for power smoothing and voltage
regulation at the remote point of connection would allow
utilization of the power and could offer an economic
alternative to upgrading the transmission line.
The current status shows that several drivers are emerging
and will spur growth in the demand for energy storage systems.
These include: the growth of stochastic generation from
renewables;
an
increasingly
strained
transmission
infrastructure as new lines lag behind demand; the emergence
of micro-grids as part of distributed grid architecture; and the
increased need for reliability and security in electricity supply
[10]. However, a lot of issues regarding the optimal active
integration (operational, technical and market) of these
emerging energy storage technologies into the electric grid are
still not developed and need to be studied, tested and
standardized. The integration of energy storage systems (ESSs)
and further development of energy converting units (ECUs)
including renewable energies in the industrial nations must be
based on the existing electric supply system infrastructure. Due
to that, a multi-dimensional integration task regarding the
optimal integration of energy storage systems will result.
In the conventional integration and operation planning
process of bulk power plants, normally a top-down strategy,
coming from a general energy consumption point of view
down to a stepwise detailed description is used. This leads
often to a top-down planning strategy. In this strategy, the
planning horizon is subdivided in long-, medium- and shortterm planning task. The discretion of the time scale in each
planning step is a compromise between accuracy and the
number of technical and economical boundaries. This planning
strategy is mainly driven by economical consideration in a
unidirectional electrical power supply chain. In these planning
strategies the detailed control functionality can be only figured
out when the system model in the planning approach is detailed
enough. This means the detailed accuracy of the model inside
of each planning stage (long, medium, short-term, quasistationary, dynamic) defines the optimal layout of those
conventional supply systems.
In the case of distributed generation (DG) the technical
boundaries are initially more important for the planning
process to get an economical optimal supply configuration
under stable operation conditions. When this is not taken into

consideration in the first planning steps, it can often lead to a

conflict potential between the energy supplier and the
operator/investor of ECSs, especially the ones based on
Renewable Energy Sources (RESs). Therefore, the need arises
for planning and integration strategy which already includes
clear specifications and definitions of the system inherent in
forefront. This means, the process of system modelling and
structuring for optimal integration of Energy Storage Systems
(ESSs) and Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) must already
include ESS and DER control functions, limits and boundaries.
These requirements lead to Bottom-up strategy starting from
decentralized (distributed) generation up to the centralized
conventional electrical supply system. With Bottom-up
strategy clear definition of supply and control functionality
between ESS, DER and the electrical grid can be derived.
Based on these fast changes rapid and general
implementation strategy for energy storage systems in
combination with DERs into the electric grid is the main
planning task in the near future. This is also needed to
overcome the current gap between R+D activities of ESS
development and the grid integration process. This will force
as well the ESS availability and make the R+D process of
those kinds of new grid elements more effective.
II. ROLE OF ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS
Breakthroughs that dramatically reduce the costs of
electricity storage systems could drive revolutionary changes
in the design and operation of the electric power system [12].
Peak load problems could be reduced, electrical stability could
be improved, and power quality disturbances could be
eliminated. Storage can be applied at the power plant, in
support of the transmission system, at various points in the
distribution system and on particular appliances and
equipments on the customers side of the meter [12]. Fig. 1
shows how the new electricity value chain is changing
supported by the integration of energy storage systems.
Energy storage systems in combination with advanced
power electronics (power electronics are often the interface
between energy storage systems and the electrical grid) have a

Fig. 1: New electricity value chain with energy storage as the sixth
dimension. [Reproduced based on material from the Energy Storage Council
(ESC)]

great technical role and lead to many financial benefits. Some

of these are summarized in the following sections.
1. Technical Role and Functions of Electricity Storage
Systems (ESSs)
Grid Voltage Support
Grid Voltage Support means power provided to the electrical
distribution grid to maintain voltages within the acceptable
range. This involves a trade-off between the amount of real
energy produced by generators and the amount of reactive
power produced.
Grid Frequency Support
Grid Frequency Support means real power provided to the
electrical distribution grid to reduce any sudden, large loadgeneration imbalance in order to keep the grid frequency
within the permissible tolerance for periods up to 30 minutes.
Grid Angular (Transient) Stability
Grid Angular Stability means reducing power oscillations (due
to rapid events) by injection and absorption of real power.
Load Levelling / Peak Shaving
Load Levelling is rescheduling certain loads to cut electrical
power demand, or the production of energy during off-peak
periods for storage and use during peak demand periods.
Whilst Peak Shaving is reducing electric usage during peak
periods or moving usage from the time of peak demand to offpeak periods.
Spinning Reserve
Spinning Reserve is defined as the amount of generation
capacity that can be used to produce active power over a given
period of time which has not yet been committed to the
production of energy during this period [11].
Power Quality Improvement
Power Quality is basically related to the changes in magnitude
and shape of voltage and current. This result in different issues
including: Harmonics, Power Factor, Transients, Flicker, Sag
and Swell, etc. DESSs can mitigate these problems.
Power Reliability
Can be presented as the percentage/ratio of interruption in
delivery of electric power (may include exceeding the
threshold and not only complete loss of power) versus total
uptime. Distributed energy storage systems (DESSs) can help
provide reliable electric service to consumers.
Ride Through Support
Ride Through means the electric unit stays connected during
system disturbance (voltage sag). ESSs have the potential of
providing energy to ride-through.
Unbalanced Load Compensation
This can be done in combination with four-wire inverters and
also by injecting and absorbing power individually at each
phase to supply unbalanced loads.
2. Financial Benefits of Energy Storage Systems:
In [13] detailed analysis of energy storage benefits is done
including market analysis, the following are some highlights:

Cost Reduction or Revenue Increase of Bulk Energy

Arbitrage
Arbitrage involves purchase of inexpensive electricity
available during low demand periods to charge the storage
plant, so that the low priced energy can be used or sold at a
later time when the price for electricity is high.
Cost Avoid or Revenue Increase of Central Generation
Capacity
For areas where the supply of electric generation capacity is
tight, energy storage could be used to offset the need to: a)
purchase and install new generation and/or b) rent generation
capacity in the wholesale electricity marketplace.
Cost Avoid or Revenue Increase of Ancillary Services
It is well known that energy storage can provide several types
of ancillary services. In short, these are what might be called
support services used to keep the regional grid operating. Two
more familiar ones are spinning reserve and load following.
Cost Avoid or Revenue Increase for Transmission
Access/Congestion
It is possible that use of energy storage could improve the
performance of the T&D system by giving the utilities the
ability to increase energy transfer and stabilize voltage levels.
Further, transmission access/congestion charges can be
avoided because the energy storage is used.
Reduced Demand Charges
Reduced demand charges are possible when energy storage is
used to reduce an electricity end-users use of the electric grid
during times grid is high (i.e., during peak electric demand
periods).
Reduced Reliability-related Financial Losses
If storage reduces financial losses associated with power
outages. This benefit is very end-user-specific and applies to
commercial and industrial (C&I) customers, primarily those for
which power outages cause moderate to significant losses.
Reduced Power Quality-related Financial Losses
If energy storage reduces financial losses associated with
power quality anomalies. Power quality anomalies of interest
are those that cause loads to go off-line and/or that damage
electricity-using equipment and whose negative effects can be
avoided if storage is used.
Increased Revenue from Renewable Energy Sources
Storage could be used to time-shift electric energy generated
by renewables. Energy is stored when demand and price for
power are low, so the energy can be used when a) demand and
price for power is high and b) output from the intermittent
renewable generation is low.
The previous listed functionalities point out that those energy
storages in combination with power electronics will have a
huge impact in future electrical supply systems. This is why
any planning and implementation strategy should be related to
the real-time control and operational functionalities of the ESS
in combination with DER in order to get rapid integration
process.

III. STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES

Energy storage can be defined as the conversion of electrical
energy from a power network into a form in which it can be
stored until converted back to electrical energy [14].
The current situation of electrical energy storage systems is
characterized by a) disagreement on the role and design of
energy storage systems, b) common use of storage only by
large pump hydro or small batteries - other devices, c) new
available technologies are still under demonstration and
illustration, d) no recognized planning tools/models to aid
understanding of storage devices e) system integration
including power electronics must be improved and f) it seems
small-scale storage will have great importance in the future.
Many energy storage systems are available nowadays with
different technologies, capabilities and applications. In [15, 16]
detailed comparison of different technologies can be found,
these include:
Pumped-Hydro Storage: is the oldest and largest of all of the
commercially available energy storage technologies. Facilities
exist in size up to 1,000 MW. Conventional pumped hydro
facilities consist of two large reservoirs; one located at a low
level and the other is situated at a higher elevation. During offpeak hours, water is pumped from the lower to the upper
reservoir, where it is stored. To generate electricity, the water
is then released back down to the lower reservoir, passing
through hydraulic turbines and generating electrical power.
There are also many small hydro schemes of less than a
megawatt and even just a few kilowatts normally in isolated
grids.
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES): systems use offpeak power to pressurize air into an underground reservoir (salt
cavern, abandoned hard rock mine or aquifer) which is then
released during peak daytime hours to power a
turbine/generator for power production. CAES is the only other
commercially available technology (besides pumped-hydro)
able to provide the very-large system energy storage
deliverability (above 100 MW in single unit sizes) to use for
commodity storage or other large-scale setting. Two plants
currently exist, with several more under development. The first
operating unit is a 290 MW unit built in Huntorf, Germany in
1978. The second plant is a 110 MW unit built in McIntosh,
Alabama in 1991. Small-scale compressed air energy storage
(SSCAES), compressed air storage under high pressure in
cylinders (up to 300 bars with carbon fiber structures) are still
developing and seem to be a good solution for small- and
medium-scale applications.
Regenerative Fuel Cells: also known as redox flow-cell
batteries are capable of storing and releasing energy through a
reversible electrochemical reaction between two salt solutions
(electrolytes). Different designs exist around zinc bromide
(ZnBr), and sodium bromide (NaBr) as the electrolytes.
Charging of the facility occurs when electrical energy from the
grid is converted into potential chemical energy. Release of the
potential energy occurs within an electrochemical cell with a
separate compartment for each electrolyte-physically separated
by an ion-exchange membrane. The scale of the facility is

based primarily on the size of the electrolytic tanks, giving

promise for this technology to join CAES and pumped hydro
as large-scale energy storage options. One facility (15 MW,
120 MWh) was developed in the UK by Regenesys
Technologies, with another (12 MW, 120 MWh) set for
operation by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA).
Batteries: A number of battery technologies exist for use as
utility-scale energy storage facilities. Primarily, these
installations have been lead-acid, but other battery technologies
like Sodium Sulfur (NaS) and Lithium ion are quickly
becoming commercially available. All batteries are
electrochemical cells. They are composed of two electrodes
separated by an electrolyte. During discharge, ions from the
anode (first electrode) are released into the solution and deposit
oxides on the cathode (second electrode). Reversing the
electrical charge through the system recharges the battery.
When the cell is being recharged, the chemical reactions are
reversed, restoring the battery to its original condition. A
number of installations exist including a 40 MWh (10 MW)
facility in Chino, CA and a 20 MW in Puerto Rico. These
facilities can provide a number of applications covering the
industry in the generation, transmission and energy service
sectors. Batteries are the best option available today for storing
small to medium quantities of electricity.
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES): an
emerging technology, systems store energy in the magnetic
field created by the flow of direct current in a coil of
cryogenically cooled, superconducting material. Due to their
construction, they have a high operating cost and are therefore
best suited to provide constant, deep discharges and constant
activity. The fast response time (under 100 ms) of these
systems makes them ideal for regulating network stability (load
levelling). These facilities currently range in size up to 3 MW
units and are generally used to provide grid stability in a
distribution system and power quality at manufacturing
facilities requiring ultra-clean power such a chip fabrication
facility.
Flywheels: A flywheel energy storage system stores energy
through accelerating a rotor up to a high rate of speed and
maintaining the energy in the system as inertial energy.
Advanced composite materials are sometimes used for the
rotor to lower its weight while allowing for the extremely high
speeds; energy is stored in the rotor in proportional to its
momentum, but the square of the angular momentum. The
flywheel releases the energy by reversing the process and using
the motor as a generator. As the flywheel releases its stored
energy, the flywheels rotor slows until it is fully discharged.
Although most of the flywheel technology was developed in
the auto and aerospace industry, flywheels have seen most
commercial success targeted for power delivery capabilities in
the 150 kW 1MW range. These systems are compact and
have lower maintenance costs and requirements than battery
systems. The main focus for development of this technology
has been the power quality and reliability market [3,4].
Super Capacitors: These components have both the
characteristics of capacitors and electrochemical batteries,
except that there is no chemical reaction, which greatly

increases cycling capacity. Energy storage in super-capacitors

is done in the form of an electric field between two electrodes.
The energy/volume obtained is superior to that of capacitors (5
Wh/kg or even 15 Wh/kg), at very high cost but with better
discharge time constancy due to the slow displacement of ions
in the electrolyte (power of 8002000 W/kg). Super-capacitors
generally are very durable, that is to say 810 years, 95%
efficiency and 5% per day self-discharge, which means that the
stored energy must be used quickly.
Thermal: Not generally thought of as one of the new, hightech energy storage technologies, thermal energy storage
systems already exist in widely used applications. Thermal
systems can either be ice-based for peak shaving commercial
and industrial cooling loads or molten-salt based for steam
production.
Hydrogen: Hydrogen energy storage is still in the
developmental stages as well, but will be an integral
component of any post-fossil energy market. The hydrogen can
be stored in a gas, liquid, metal hydride or carbon-based form,
which is then released through a chemical reaction to power a
fuel cell. There are several hydrogen storage modes, such as:
compressed, liquefied, metal hydride, etc. For station
applications, pressurized tanks with a volume anywhere
between 10-2 and 10,000 m3 are the simplest solution to date.
Currently available commercial cylinders can stand pressures
up to 350 bars.
IV. SITUATION OF ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS
MODELLING AND SIMULATION
To develop and assist the optimal power system layout, the
modelling/simulation is essential. A variety of actions are
going in this area to develop detailed technological models and
economical market analysis. It is worth noting that a significant
feature of much of the DESS modelling lay in the field of
Power Electronics (PE), recognising the key enabling role of
devices such as DC/DC converters and DC/AC inverters, in the
successful control and grid integration of many forms of
DESS.
A report of the British Department of Trade and Industry
(dti) called Electrical energy storage systems a mission to
the USA published in December 2006 declares many facts.
One of the surprising results of this mission was that the utility
visited stated it did not undertake any detailed modelling of the
integration and impact of energy storage devices on its
network, although it is currently appraising several utility-scale
demonstration systems. Instead, the utility relies on the vendor
(i.e. the ESS manufacturer or third-party system integrator) to
undertake such studies and to provide assurances that the ESS
will meet a performance specification produced by the utility,
i.e. the utility takes a black box approach to the ESS
connected to its network [17]. This is actually the case in most
of the utilities.
Maxwell Technologies and Ansoft have jointly developed a
model of the super-capacitor for the Ansoft product Simplorer.
This is to help future customers of ultra-capacitors to evaluate
the technology. Maxwell has a library of tools available for use

(in Excel) and a link to a third-party tool, namely NREL

Advisor (advanced vehicle simulator). In another project, EPRI
funded Power Technologies International (PTI) to develop
SMES and battery models for PSS/E (Siemens Power System
Simulator for electrical transmission planning). As previous
work modelling these technologies using PSCAD had proved
to be difficult due to the level of detail and characterisation
necessary in PSCAD, and the inability to locate the necessary
parameters. PSCAD is fundamentally a transient analysis
package whereas PSS/E is predominantly a load flow package.
EPRI has also produced a bespoke model for evaluating the
benefit of employing energy storage called DYNATRAN
(Dynamic Analysis of Interconnected Systems with Energy
Storage) which employs Monte Carlo simulation to study unit
commitment/ dispatch [17]. Current state-of-the-art simulation
tools being applied in feasibility studies worldwide include
Hybrid2 and Homer, both developed at the US National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). A new simulation tool
developed at Ris, IPSYS, can accurately model the control of
DG systems under real life conditions, including voltages,
frequency and losses. IPSYS currently includes components
such as wind turbines, diesel generators and lead-acid batteries,
with more to come [18]. Different groups are using
MATLAB/Simulink models and then validating the modeled
results with laboratory results. However, there are so far no
standard planning tools/models to aid understanding of storage
devices.

V. MAIN REQUIRED SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL

OBJECTIVES
Based on the discussed actual research activities in the field
of energy storages, it is clear that many activities are still under
process. In future power supply systems with enormous share
of renewable energy sources the energy storage is expected to
take place at all grid levels in the electrical network. A large
portion of these storage systems applications will be
established at the medium and low voltage grid levels.
Furthermore, energy storage systems in combination with
power electronics are expected to be key elements for the
growth and integration of distributed generation (DG) and
renewable energy sources (RES) into the eclectic system to
build future smart grids. This will be triggered by the
increasing demand on decentralised use of RES for example
photovoltaic (PV) and wind energy converters (WEC). The
integration of energy storage systems in electrical networks
requires in-depth study regarding the location, type of ESS and
the operating control/management. This leads the utilities to
face a complex new technical and economical process to get
optimal supply system applications, which is taking the utility
and the customer side in balanced consideration.
This need for optimal integration increase especially for
small ESSs and DERs were efficient integration and control
strategies are needed to get good economical and technical
balance between the utilities and the customer side. Therefore,
an optimal position in the electric network should be found to

Fig. 2 : Integrating different distributed energy storage systems (DESS) to the electric grid.

get the maximum efficiency and utilization advantages.

However, energy storage still faces a lot of obstacles and
represents a weak link in the electricity supply chain, early in
development and many issues still to address.
Fig. 2 illustrates how complex this task can be. In this figure
the principal opportunities for storage integration are shown.
The figure is oriented on the conventional electrical supply
network of bulk power systems with a high share of DG in
combination with storages.
The following main scientific and technological objectives
can be defined:
To investigate the feasibility/efficiency of integrating
different distributed energy storage systems in combination
with distributed energy and their influence on the penetration
of renewable energy sources as well as on the electric grid and
conventional power stations. This includes tied-in and standalone, mini/micro grids (AC/DC), Hybrid power systems
(HPS) and power parks (See Fig. 2).
To develop standardized control strategies for energy
storage systems taking both storage and grid side into
consideration [19]. This includes improvement and
optimization of advanced power electronics converters to act as
interface between energy storages and the electrical grid.
To develop a standard rapid planning and integration
strategy based on standard mathematical descriptions and
automation software founded on bottom-up analysis. This
should lead to a rapid planning and integration strategy in
which the planning task is producing the automation platform
for the real system including storage system behavior, power
electronics, control functions, and operation modes, etc.
The modeling platforms in combination with standards will
produce an optimal integration process and strategy for ESS
which are particularly quick adaptable in the field. This will
cover the gap between the development process of ESS and the
integration process to the electric grid. That leads to efficient
technical and economical well balanced integration of energy
storage systems into the electrical conventional supply system.

storage systems including the storage and grid side. This

includes improvement and optimization of advanced power
electronic converters to act as interface between energy
storages and the electrical grid. In addition, it is essential to
develop standard rapid planning and integration strategy
supported by standard mathematical descriptions and
automation software based on bottom-up analysis. This should
lead to a rapid planning and integration strategy in which the
planning task is producing the automation platform for the real
system including storage behavior, power electronics, control
functions, and operation modes, etc. Doing this will solve most
of the technical and economical planning and integration tasks
of Energy Storage Systems into electrical grids.
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[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]
[7]
[8]
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[10]
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VI. CONCLUSIONS
The optimal integration of decentralized energy storages will
be an extremely important task in the near future for the
utilities. The main target is to develop general and
exceptionally flexible integration strategy for the integration of
distributed energy storage systems based on standard flexible
soft- and hardware platforms. The main focus should be on
small to medium sized storages which are installed closely to
distributed energy resources. In comparison to large energy
storages the installation of huge number of small sized energy
storages is a stepwise process.
Therefore, there is an obvious need to investigate the feasibility
/efficiency of integrating different distributed energy storage
systems in combination with distributed energy resources and
their influence on the penetration of renewable energy as well
as on the electric grid and conventional power stations. It is
essential to develop standardized control strategies for energy

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