BING sitsfunction oy, so--2. Explain the changes that occur > Bgross.arnéuton during:the, ~ nission of afietve impulee, 2 Divisions of the N ‘System : ‘Identity the two:major ‘visi the nervdus system mete as. son have raised their ‘movement to an art form: Their. moverrients, like the. idreds ive make ever) day, aré made possible by the nervous °- ‘stem, with ies intricate network’: © of nerves (inset). : Ti The Nervous System Guide For Reading © What is the function of the nervous system? 1 How is the structure of a neuron related to its function? How is a nerve impulse transmitted? Most of us have played softball—a game that requires not only athletic skill but also control and communication. The catcher and the pitcher must agree on the pitch before it is thrown. The batter must be alert for the signal to bunt, take a pitch, or swing away. On-base runners must know if they are expected 10 steal a base. From the dugout,-the coaches send in signals about these and other important matters. Communica: tion is vital to a team’s success. Communication is also vital to the survival of living organ- isms. In ordér fo interact with their ériviroininéft, rulticelilar organisms have developed a communication system at the cel- lular level. Within these organisms, specialized cells allow messages to be carried from one cell to another so that com- munication among all body parts is smooth and efficient. In humans, these cells make up the nervous system. The nervous system controls and coordinates all the essential functions ¢ the human body. The nervous system receives and relays in- formation about activities within the body and monitors and responds to internal and external changes.Figure 37-2 One of the body's The Neuron The cells that carry messages throughout the nervous sys tem are called neurons. Because the messages take the form of electrical signals, they are known as impulses. Neurons can be classified into three types according to the directions in which these impulses move. Sensory neurons carry impulses froin’ the sense organs to the brain and spinal cord. Motor neurons: carry impulses from the brain and spinal cord to muscles’ glands. And interneurons connect sensory and motor neuroi and carry impulses between them. Although neurons come in all shapes and sizes, they haves.) enough features in common that we can draw a typical neuro1 x See Figure 37-3. The largest part of the neuron is the cell bod The cell body contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasi Most of the metabolic activity of the cell, including the genera’ tion of ATP and the synthesis of proteins, takes place in the céll, body. Spreading out from the cell body are short branched exp billiGns Of neurons can be seen in~-- --tensions called dendrites, Dendrites carry impulses from the. this electron micrograph. Note the ropelike axon at the bottom of the photograph. environment or from other neurons toward the cell body. The == long fiber that carries impulses away from the cell body“is! called the axon. The axon ends in a series of small oc called axon terminals, which are located some distance fi61 the cell body. Neurons may have dozens or even hundred8‘6t dendrites but usually only one axon. : axon terminals. Dendrite Golgi apparatus Nucleolus Myelin sheath 810The Nerve Impulse More than 150 years ago, the Italian scientist Luigi Galvani, a pioneer in the study of electricity, found that nervous tissue (groups of cells that conduct impulses) displays electrical ac. tivity. This electrical activity is in the form of a nerve impulse, which is a low of electrical charges along the cell membrane of a neuron. This flow is due to movement of ions across the membrane. RESTING POTENTIAL As shown in Figure 37-4, a nerve cell has an electrical potential (also known as a voltage) across its cell membrane because of a difference in the number of pos- itively and negatively charged ions on each side of the cell membrane. This potential is approximately 70 millivolts (mV), One millivolt is equal to 0.001 volt. (By contrast, the potential between the poles of a flashlight battery is 1500 millivolts, or 15 volts.) What is the source of this potential? Proteins in the © neuron known as sodium-potassium Pumps move sodium ions (Na*) out of the cell and actively pump potassium ions (K*) into the cell. As a result of this active transport, thé cytoplasm of the £ neuron contains more K* ions and fewer Na* ions than the sur- , founding medium. The cytoplasm also contains many nega- = tively charged protein molecules and ions. However, K* ions leak back out across the cell membrane more easily than Na* | ions leak in, and the negatively charged protein molecules and « Jons de not leak in or out. The net result of the leakage of posi- ‘tively ‘charged ions out of the cell is a negative: charge on the inside of the neuron’s cell membrane. This charge difierence is « known as the resting potential of the neuron’s cell membrane. ~The neuron, of course, is not actually resting because it must ‘Produce a constant supply of ATP to fuel the sodium-potassium pump. As a result of its resting potential, the neuron is said to be * Polarized: that is, negatively charged on the inside of the cell » Membrane, and positively charged on the outside. See Figure «37-4. A neuron maintains this polarization until itis stimulated. aie Figure 37-4 The resting potential across the neuron cell membrane is established when the protein pump in the cell membrane pumps potassium ions (K*) in one direction 4nd sodium ions (Na*) in the other (A). As the protein pump continues 10 work for a while, a large number of K* ions enter the cell and a large number of Na* ions leave the cell @). The cell membrane, however, is more leaky to K* ions than it is to ‘Na* ions. As a result, more K* ions leak out of the cell, and fewer Na* ‘ons leak into the cell. This léakage ‘causes an excess of positive charges on the outside of the membrane and n excess of negative charges on the inside (C). ‘© Protein pump ‘© Sodium ion (Na*) © Potassium ion (K*) — Leakage of small amount of taidge SF large amount of ~ Je of large amou K* out of cellFigure 37-5 When the inside of a neuron's cell membrane is negatively charged with respect to the outside, it is said to be polarized. If a Stimulus is applied to the membrane, electrical changes occur across the cell membrane and may result in an impulse (A). Atthe leading edge of the impulse, a small part of the membrane becomes depolarized. When this happens, sodium gates open, the membrane becomes more permeable to Na* ions, and an ~ action potential occurs (B). As the action potential passes, potassium gates open, allowing K* ions to flow ‘out. This outward flow of K* ions restores the resting potential, and the membrane is said to be repolarized (C). The action potential continues to move along the axon in the direction of the nerve impulse (0). Key — Closed sodium and potassium gates ~~~ Opened sodium gates THE MOVING IMPULSE A nerve impulse is similar to a ripple passing along jhe surface of a pond. Instead of a splash, the impulse causes a movement of ions across the cell mem- brane of a neuron. How does this movement occur? The cell membrane of a neuron contains thousands of tiny molecules, known as gates, that allow either sodium or potas- sium ions to pass through. Generally, the gates are closed. At the leading edge of an impulse, however, the sodium gates open, allowing positively charged Na* ions to flow inside the cell membrane. The inside of the membrane temporarily be- comes more positive than the outside. The membrane is now said to be depolarized. As the impulse passes, the potassium gates open, allowing positively charged K" ions to flow out. The membrane is now said to be repolarized, which means that itis ‘once again negatively charged on the inside of the cell mem- brane and positively charged on the outside. The depotarization and repolarization of a’ membrane pro-’ | duce an action potential, The nerve impulse can be defined as. an action potential traveling along the membrane. There are several important facts about impulses (action potentials) that you should keep in mind. First, an impulse is not an electric current. Instead, it is a wave of depolarization and repolarization that passes along the neuron. Second, an impulse is much slower than an electric current. Electric cur- rents move almost instantaneously, whereas action potentials usually travel at speeds ranging from 10 centimeters per sec- ond to 1 meter per second. Third, unlike an electric current, ‘, the strength of an impulse is always the same—there is either an impulse in response to a stimulus or there is not. A eine + + + + + + + T T T T~ Depolarized Polarized Repolarized Depolarized a12PROPAGATION OF THE IMPULSE Until now, we have discussed the nerve impulse as if it occurs in only one place on the membrane. However, an impulse is self-propagating. That js, an impulse at any point on the membrane causes an impulse at the next point along the membrane. We might compare the flow of an impulse to the fall of a row of dominoes. As each domino falls, it causes its neighbor to fall. Unlike dominoes, however, the impulse can restore itself. Imagine dominoes that can set themselves back up and wait to fall again! Although the nerve impulse is self-propagating, it can move in only one direction. This is because the part of the membrane behind the impulse has a brief period during which its sodium gates will not open. As a result, the impulse cannot go backward. : THE ROLE OF MYELIN As you just read, impulses can move along the membrane of a neuron at rates as fast as 1 meter per second. Although this.rate. is impressive, it is not practical for jarge animals. For example, a giraffe might have to |< wait three or four seconds for impulses to travel from its feet to its brain. Such delays would make large animals hopelessly un- coordinated. But as you probably know, girafles are graceful and efficient in their movements. What improves the rate of impulses along an axon? The an- swer is a substanice known as myelin, Myelin, which is com- posed of 80:percent lipid and 20 percent protein, forms an insulated shéath, or wrapping, around the axon. The most important feature of myelin is that there are + small nodes, or gaps, between adjacent sheaths along the axon. As an impulse moves down a myelinated (covered with myelin) * axon, the impulse jumps from node to node instead of moving © continuously, along the membrane. This jumping greatly in- * creases the speed of the impulse, Some large myelinated axons = conduct impulses as rapidly as 200 meters per second. This '. speed is significant when compared with speeds of only a few millimeters per second in small unmyelinated axons. The formation of myelin around axons can be thought of as a crucial everit in evolution. Because of myelin, the propagation of the nerve impulse is faster in vertebrates than in invertebrates! Figure 37-7 Most nerve fibers, such as the human auditory nerve (right), ‘are wrapped in myelin, which forms a thick outer covering. In myelinated fibers, the action potential jumps from node to node (lef). Figure 37-6 Because many of the ‘axons of vertebrates, such as the giraffe, are wrapped in myelin, nerve impulses travel more rapidly than they do in invertebrates.fh TE ee __. THE THRESHOLD Roca ent ot apuise in response to's is always the same—either there is an imp oe stimulus or there is aot, In other words, a stimulus must be of x adequate strength to cause a neuron to conduct an impulse. The minimum level of a stimulus that is required to activate a neuron is called the threshold. Any stimulus that is weaker 7s than the threshold will produce no impulse; any stimulus that. is stronger than the threshold will produce an impulse. Thus a nerve impulse follows the all-or-none principle. = ji We can illustrate the all-or-none principle by again using a row of dominoes. Syppose we were to give the first domino in. the row a slight pusk. If the push was really slight, the domino would not move at all: If we were to push a little harder, the domino would teeter back and forth a bit, touching the next’. domino. A slightly stronger push would cause the domino té fall, hitting the next domino. We have succeeded in reaching the domino’s threshold and the row of dominoes would co tinue to fall~~ fees cnamenr i It is important to mention that the all-or-none principle not restricted to impulses as they travel along neurons. It also. = occurs when impulses move from one néuron to another and when information from the environment causes a nerve itt: 1) pulse to occur. ge The Synapse As you may recall, the axon ends with many small swell ings called axon terminals. At these terminals the neuron maj, make contact with the dendrites of another neuron, with. receptor, or with ah effector. Receptors are special send neurons in sense organs that receive stimuli from the external environment. Effectors are muscles or glands that bring about coordinated response. The points of contact at which impulses: are passed from one cell to another are known as synapses.5: The axon terminals at a synapse contain tiny vesicles’0 sacs. These tiny vesicles are filled with chemicals known. a5; neurotransmitters. A neurotransmitter is a substance thal ig, 4 used by one neuron to signal another. eee When an impulse moves down the axon and arrives at the: axon terminal, dozens of vesicles fuse with the cell membrane. and discharge the neurotransmitter into the small gap betwee! the two cells. See Figure 37-8. The molecules of the neurg> transmitter diffuse across the gap and attach themselves. {0° special receptors on the membrane of the neuron receiving.the: impulse. When the neurotransmitter becomes attached to the ce membrane of the adjacent nerve cell, it changes the permeal ity of that membrane. As a result, Na* ions diffuse through the « membrane into the cell. This process continues for only 4 few’ milliseconds, stopping when the neurotransmitter detaches. from the membrane. However, if enough neurotransmitter. isAxon terminal, Figure 37-8 When an impulse arrives at the axon terminal, + dozens of vesicles fuse with ~~~ the axon membrane, releasing neurotransmitter molecules into the je synaptic gap. These molecules eres gy SE diffuse across the gap and combine SE NSC ASG? with receptors on the membrane of the adjacent neuron. Compare the structures in the diagram with those in the electron micrograph. Dendrite of adjacent neuron released by the axon terminal, so many Na* ions diffuse into the neuron that the neuron becomes depolarized. A threshold is reached and an impulse (action potential) begins in the sec- ond cell. 7 _ _ After the neugotransmitter detaches from the membrane of the cell, it is rapidly removed or destroyed, thus halting its ef- fect. The molecules ‘of the neurotransmitter may be broken : ! down by specific enzymes, taken up again by the axon terminal and recycled, or they-may simply diffuse away. AtGuide For Reading E! What are the two major divisions of the nervous system? Figure 37-9 The human nervous system is made up of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system contains the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system contains all the nerves that carry information to and from the ceniral nervous system. 816 § -2 Divisions of the ie Nervous System al units of the nervous sys~ ‘al cells. Instead, they are communication network Neufons, which are the function; tem, do not act alone as individu; joined together to form a complicated that gives rise to the human nervous system. The human ner* vous system is divided into two major divisions: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. ‘The central Wervous system, which serves as the control: center of the body, consists of the brain and the spinal cord Both the brain and the spinal cord are etcased in and pro; tected by bone. The functions of the central nervous system are. similar to those of the central processing unit of a compute) The central nervous system relays messages, processes infof: mation, and compares and analyzes information. But the cen tral nervous system does not~come in~contact “withthe: environment. This job is left to the other major division of the. nervous system—the peripheral nervous system. we ‘The peripheral nervous system lies outside of the central nervous system. This means that it consists of all the nerves. (bundles of axons) and associated cells that are not part of the: brain and the spinal cord. Included here are all the cranial (pertaining to the brain) and spinal nerves,and ganglia (GANG: glee-uh; singular: ganglion). Ganglia are a'collection of nervé cell bodies, You will read more about the two major divisions the nervous system in the following sections: & Figure 37-10 The human nervous system is divided into. mar subdivisions. What are the two major subdivisions of the system?§-3 The Central Nervous System As you have just read, the central nervous systém consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the main switch- ing unit of the central nervous system; it is the place to which impulses flow and from which impulses originate. The spinal cord provides the link between the brain and the rest of the body. ‘The brain is a highly organized organ that contains approx- imately 35 billion neurons and has a mass of 1.4 kilograms. In addition to being protected by a bony covering called the skull, the brain is also wrapped in three layers of connective tissue known as the meninges (muh-NINH-jeez). Connective tissue, as its name implies, connects one tissue to another. The inner- most layer, which covers and is bound to the surface of the brain, is called the pia tater.’ It is a fibrous layer made up of many blood vessels, which help to carry food and oxygen to the spinal cord. The outermost layer, called the dura mater, is composed of thick corinective tissue. The arachnoid (uh-RAK- noid) is the thin, cobweblike layer between the pia mater and the dura mater. Between the pia mater and the arachnoid is a space that is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The cerebrospinal fluid protects the brain from mechanical injury by acting as a shock absorber. In order for the brain to perform its functions, it must have a constant supply of food and oxygen. If the oxygen supply to the brain is cut off even for a few minutes, the brain will usually suffer enormous damage. Such damage may result in death. The spinal cord is continuous with the brain and emerges from the opening at the base of the skull. The spinal cord stretches downward for approximately 42 to 45 centimeters. Like the brain, the spinal cord is protected by bone (vertebral coliiin), by the meninges, and by cerebrospinal fluid. Arachnid layer Blood vessel Guide For Reading © What are the parts of the brain? © What are the functions of the brain and the spinal cord? Figure 37-11 The brain and . the spinal cord are wrapped in three layers of connective tissue called the meninges. The innermost layer is called the pia mater; the outermost layer is called the dura mater; the middle layer is called the arachnoid. The photograph shows the intricate network of blood vessels that constantly supply the brain with food and oxygen.“Eile aaa aticny Right Lett hemisphere ._ hemisphere Occipital lobe _ cerebrum. The increased surface area _pen Figure 37-12: The cerebrum is divided into the left and right hemispheres. Each hemisphere contains four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital The Cerebrum ‘The largest and most prominent part of the human brain i ct the cerebrum. The cerebrum is responsible for all of the volun. « tary (conscious) activities of the body. In addition, it is the site of intelligence, learning, and judgment. The cerebrum takes up" = most of the space in the cavity that houses the brain. The cere: 7 brum is divided into two hemispheres—the left hemispher and the right hemisphere—by a deep groove. The hemispheres are connected in a region known as the corpus callosum (Ko puhs kuh-LOH-suhm). i The most obvious feature on the surface of each hemi sphere are the numerous folds. These folds and the grooves as- sociated with them greatly increase the surface area of the. pits the large number of neurons contained in the cerebrum to fit easil within the confines of the skull. Each hemisphere of the cere: brum is divided into regions called lobes. These lobes are named for the skull bones that cover them. * Remarkably, each half of the cerebrum deals with the oppio. site side of the body. Sensations from the left side of the body. go to the right hemisphere of the cerebrum, and those from the: right side of the body go to the left hemisphere. Commands move muscles are generated in the same way—the left hemi: sphere controls the body's right side and the right hemispheré, controls the body's left side. There may be more than a simple left-right division of labor: between the hemispheres. Some studies have suggested that the right hemisphere is associated with creativity and artisti¢; ability, whereas the left hemisphere is associated with anal cal and mathematical ability. The Cerebral Cortex The cerebrum consists of two surfaces. The outer surface ig: called the cerebral cortex and consists of gray matter. ThE gray matter, is composed of densely packed nerve cell bodies that make it gray in appearance. The cerebral cortex is an tremely important part of the brain. Its functions will be di cussed in more detail later in the section. The inner surface i called the cerebral medulla. The cerebral medulla consists white matter, which is made up of bundles of myelinated axon: The myelin gives the white matter its white color. The Cerebellum ‘The cexebellum, the second largest part of the brain, is | cated at the back of the skull. Although the commands to move: muscles come from the cerebral cortex, the cerebellum coord! nates and balances the actions of the muscles so that the body. can move gracefully and efficiently. People with a damaged cel te ebellum suffer muscle weakness, lack of coordination, and diff culty in performing simple tasks such as walking and running ef