Thalamus Hypothalamus aatet Pineal plan! Corpus Midbrain: callosum ‘Pituitar Pons Pray Cerebellum Medulla oblongata ‘A major part of learning how to perform physical activities seems to be related to training the cerebellum to coordinate the proper muscles. When you practice throwing a football, performing a pirouette, or executing a difficult dive, you are helping to develop connections in the cerebellum that will make the activity easier to do the next time, Because the func- tioning’of the cerebellum is involuntary (not under conscious control), learning a completely new physical activity can be very difficult. The Brainstem The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord. The brainstem not only coordinates and integrates all incoming in- formation, it also serves as the place of entry or exit for ten of the twelve cranial nerves. The lowest part of the brainstem is the medulla oblongata (Sometimes just called the medulla). It contains white matter that conducts impulses between the spinal cord and brain. The medulla controls involuntary functions that include Breathing, blood pressure, héart rate, swallowing, and coughing. * The medulla also contains some of the cells of the’ reticular activating system. The reticular activating system actually helps to alert, or awaken, the upper parts of the brain, includ ing the cerebral cortex. Such action keeps the brain alert and conscious. Just above the medulla oblongata, the brainstem enlarges to form the pons. Pons means bridge, and this area of the brainstem contains mostly white matter that provides'a link be- tween the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum. . Above the pons and continuous with it is the midbrain, the smallest division of the brainstem. Areas in the midbrain are involved in hearing and vision. Figure 37-13 The human brain consists of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. Figure 87-14 The brainstem, which consists of the midbrain, pons, and ‘medulla oblongata, links the brain to the spinal cord and lies next to the cerebellum. 819Cerebrum Corpus callosum Thalamis=— 8 Figure 37-15 The thalamus, located within the cerebrum, is the main relay center between ~ the brainstem and-the-cerebrum: Lying below the thalamus is the hypothalamus, which coordinates the activities associated with hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger, and body temperature. __ parts of the body that they control, Some, regions of.the cer The Thalamus and Hypothalamus ‘The thalamus and hypothalamus are found in the part of the brain between the brainstem and the cerebrum. See Figure 37-15. The thalamus, which is composed of gray matter, serves ' as a switching station for sensory input. With the exception of smell, each sense channels its sensory nerves through the thal- amus. The thalamus seems to pass information to the proper region of the cerebrum for further processing. Immediately : below the thalamus is the hypothalamus, which is the control : center for hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger, and body temperature. Functions of the Brain Many of the functions that we associate with the brain are’ performed in the gray matter of the cerebral cortex. Figure 37- 16 shows the various regions of the cerebral cortex and the bral cortex are associated with sensory input; others, wit motor output. Still other regions in the cerebral cortex sponsible for specific skills, such as the complex series of movements necessary for speech and the understanding .0} speech itself. d For some time, scientists believed that many functions. of.“ the body were controlled by specific regions of the cerebral cortex. They had good reasons for their belief. In the 1940s ae Figure 37-16 This cutaway view of the cerebrum shows the vie motor cortex of one hemisphere and the sensory cortex of the yi35) other. The large areas devoted to the face and hands explain i: why these body parts are so sensitive. Shoulder Neck Motor Cortex Sensory Cortex1950s, the Canadian neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield, along with other scientists, began to perform delicate experiments in which the brain of a patient was surgically exposed and difler- ent regions of the cerebral cortex were stimulated with weak electric currents. Experiments such as Penfield’s are possible because of an interesting reason: Although the brain is packed with neurons, it does not have any pain receptors on its sur- face. Thus the brain cannot sense pain! Using local anesthetics (pain killers), Penfield was able to perform surgery on his patients while they were awake. Stimu- lating one part of the cortex at a time, Penfield asked his pa- tients to describe the sensations they experienced. In some places, stimulations caused muscles to contract. These areas, Penfield concluded, form a motor. cortex that controls move- ment. In_other places, stimulations caused the sensations of Figure 37-17 During one of his- taste, touch, and sound. These regions of the brain form the operations, Doctor Penfield used sensory cortex. In still other places, stimulations caused his numbered tags to mark the different wide-awake patients to have vivid memories of past events, areas of the cerebral cortex that scenes, people, and places. These were the physical locations —_ were being electrically stimulated. of memory, he concluded. When the area marked 13 was In recent years, the actual story has turned out to be quite a_ stimulated, the person recalled a bit more complex. You might think from this brief discussion "CUS. that sensory neurons are connected directly to the appropriate part of-the sensory cortex. Unfortunately, this is not the case. There is no direct connection. Instead, sensory neurons syn- apse in the spinal cord, and neurons located in the spinal cord carry the impulses to the thalamus. The thalamus then relays the impulses to the sensory cortex. This is not the whole story, however. If it were, then in cases where parts of the spinal cord have been destroyed diié to injury or surgery, sensation to cer- tain parts of the body would be lost as well. But sometimes sensation is not affected—even though there seem to be no A cells to carry the impulses to the cortex. As you might imagine, the picture of the brain that is emerging is not a simple one. Scientists argue that information and control may be shared between different regions of the cerebral cortex in a complex way, but many more experiments will be required to understand more fully the workings of this vital part of the brain. . BRAIN WAVES Because the brain contains so many neurons, each one capable of maintaining an action potential, it is a source of electrical activity. If voltage-sensitiye electrodes are placed on the scalp, a weak electrical signal can be recorded. When a recording of electrical activity is made at a number of places on the scalp, the result is a record called an electro: encephalogram (EEG). Although EEGs show the average activi ties of thousands of neurons, they cannot provide the specifics about any one cell. The EEGs can, however, give a general idea Of the activity of the brain. 821Figure 37-18 The electrical activity of the brain is recorded as'an electroencephalogram, or EEG. Notice the differences in the waves during excitement through coma. Figure 37-19 Because the Egyptians thought the brain was an unimportant organ, they discarded it during the embalming process. Brain-wave recordings, as EEGs are sometimes called, ate =. shown in Figure 37-18. As you can see, brain waves vary during sleep and consciousness. SLEEP When the activity of the cerebral cortex falls to the lowest possible level, a person becomes unconscious. Forms.of unconsciousness can range from a deep, unresponsive state to a light sleep. Sleep is a state of unconsciousness in which"a “¢ person can be awakened by normal sensory stimulation, such-i=¢ as a gentle nudge. q ‘As you read earlier in this chapter, the network of neurons... in the brainstem, known as the |reticular activating system)" helps to control consciousness. When sleep begins, the level of 2 activity in the reticular activating system drops off. A special: > group of neurons in the brainstem seems to activate light sleep, ‘as when we first close our eyes and lose consciousness. During ise deep sleep, other groups of neurons cause a decline in heart © rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and use of energy. Dui: ing|rapid eye movement (REM) s\eep, active dreaming occurs34 pens in the brain. Interestingly, the answer is both yes and nos Scientists now believe that there are at least two differen spelling words just before a test, you are making use of short, term memory. Short-term memory, as its name implies, is not, permanent—you can easily forget some of the details of youl last class or a story you read yesterday. There is some evi. dence that short-term memory is stored as a pattern of nerve; impulses in the cerebral cortex. Generally, short-term memo ries vanish within a few days, except for the interesting oné we make an effort to remember. Long-term memories are more permanent memories. Some. may last for a lifetime. Some may fade with time and requilé,"J considerable effort to recall. And some seem to be part of & person's consciousness, such as one's name. Is there a speci place in the brain where long-term memories are stored? Prob: ably not. Many patients with severe brain injuries suffer no los of long-term memory, even when parts of the cerebral cortet have been destroyed. Some scientists have proposed that loni term meinories are stored in the structure of the brain itsel! not in any one place at any one time. This is an unusual PF posal, but-one that makes the following fact all too obviou The human brain has, as yet, failed to figure itself completely. .Pia mater i igure 37-20 The spinal cord, The Spinal Cord Be provides the ortical link The spinal cord’acts as a communications link between the _befween the brain and the rest brain and the peripheral nervous system. In addition to carry- of the body, is ond by the ing impulses to and from the brain, the spinal cord regulates 70"eprei column heed one ee reflexes. A reflex is the simplest response to a stimulus. Sneez-Tithin the spinal cord is composed ing and blinking are two examples of reflexes. Thirty-one pairs mainly of interneurons. of spinal nerves originate in the spinal cord and branch out to both sides of the body. These nerves carry messages to and from the spinal cord. Figure 37-20 shows a cross section of the spinal cord. No- tice that it consists of two types of nerve tissue. The central 7 portion of the cord is H-shaped and is made up of gray matter. Gray matter, as you may recall, consists of nerve cell bodies : and unmyelinated axons. The outer portion of the cord consists * of white matter, which is made up of myelinated axons. Sen- sory neurons carry impulses from receptors to the spinal cord, and motor neurons carry impulses from the spinal cord to the! effectors. Within the spinal cord, motor and sensory neurons: are connected by interneurons. SECTH Su REVIEW. andthe sonal 53. Critical Thiniking---Applying Concepts uae cerebrum is more developed in humans than it 8235-4 The Peripheral Nervous Guide For Reading & What is the function and structure : System ofthe peripheral nervous system? ‘The peripheral nervous system, the link between the cen- tval nervous system and the rest of the body, consists of the cranial and spinal nerves and ganglia. The peripheral nervous ’ system can be divided into two divisions: the sensory division P ‘and the motor division. The sensory division of the periph- “eral nervous system transmits impulses from sense organs —such as the ears and taste buds—to the central nervous system. The motor division transmits impulses from the cen- "tral nervous system to the muscles or glands (effectors). The motor division is further divided into the somatic nervous |. system and the autonomic nervous system. The Somatic Nérvous System™ ~ ae The somatic nervous system regulates activities that are © under conscious control, such as the movement of the skeletal > muscles. Every time you lift your finger or wiggle your toes, you |}, are using the motor neurons of the somatic nervous system, However, many nerves within this system are parts of reflexes and as such can act automatically. If you accidentally step on a tack with your bare foot, your © leg may recoil before you are aware of the pain. This rapid re- | flex is possible because receptors in the skin stimulate the sen- Figure 37-21 Axons of the fee Sory neurons to carry the impulse to the spinal cord. Even peripheral nervous system form © before the information is relayed to your brain, a group of cables that bring information to [neurons in the spinal cord automatically activates motor and from the brain, * Neurons. These motor neurons cause the muscles (effectors) in -< Your leg to contract, pulling your foot away. The receptor, sen- sory neuron, motor neuron, and effector that are involved in this quick response are together known as a reflex arc, j Figure 37-22 In a reflex arc, sensory receptors stimulate a sensory neuron, which relays the signal to an interneuron within the ‘Spinal cord. The signal is then sent to a motor neuron, which in turn ae stimulates an effector. Nerve fiber , of sensory neuron Receptors . in skin 825Figure 37-23 The autonomic nervous system consists of the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems, which usually have complementary functions. In general, the sympathetic nervous system is involved in fight-or-flight reactions and the parasympathetic nervous system stimulates calmer functions, such as digestion The Autonomic Nervous System ‘The autonomic nervous: system regulates activities that aré automatic, or involuntary. The nerves of the autonomic ner vous system control functions of the body that are not under. conscious control, such as the contractions in the heart and the: movement of smooth muscles surrounding the blood vessel and the digestive system. ‘The two parts are known as the sympathetic nervous syste and the parasympathetic nervous system. Most organs cont, trolled by the autonomic nervous system are under the control: +9) of both sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons. For exai ple, heart rate is speeded up by the sympathetic nervoi system, whereas it is slowed down by the parasympathélt. nervous system, =e ‘Wy is it important to have two systems that have opposite: = which a single system could increase the rate of activity o organ by releasing a single type of neurotransmitter. This tem would be much like a car that had an accelerator pedal bi no brake pedal. Getting the car to move would be easy, bul; stopping it would present a problem! The same would be t of an organ regulated by a single nervous system. The du control system puts an on-off switch on every organ and hs ensures precise control of a dozen organs or more. '2, What are the paits of the| bevipheral nervous sy 3 Crit ical Thinking—Relating Concepts: Tsarel ex 3 completely within t i Explain your answer:5-5 The Senses There are millions of neurons in the body that do not re- ceive impulses from other neurons. Instead, these neurons, ‘which are called sensory receptors, react directly to stimula- tion from the environment. Examples of stimulation include light, sound, motion, chemicals, pressure, or changes in tem- perature. Once these sensory receptors are stimulated, they “transform one form of energy from the environment (light, =. Sound) into another form of energy (action potential) that can be transmitted to other neurons. Eventually these action po- tentials (impulses) reach the central nervous system. "The sensory receptors are contained in the sense organs. ‘ Each of the five senses (sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch) has a specific sense organ associated with it. Special- ized cells within each sense organ enable it to respond to par- ticular stimuli. Vision ‘The world around us is bathed in light. The. sense organs © that we use to sense light are the eyes. Each eye is composed of ~~ three layers, The outer layer consists of the sclera and the cor- nea. The middle layer contains the choroid, ciliary body, and iris. The inner layer consists of the retina. ‘The sclera, or white of the eye, consists of tough white con- nective tissue. The sclera helps maintain the shape of the eye and also provides a means of attachment for the muscles that move the eye. In the front of the eye, the sclera forms a trans- \ parent layer called the cornea. The cornea is the part of the eye ; through which light enters. Guide For Reading E What are the major parts of the eye? What is the function of each part? E What parts of the ear are responsible for hearing and balance? 1 How do the senses of smell and taste compare? B What are the various sense receptors found in the skin? Figure 37-24 The eye is a complicated sense organ composed of three layers of tissue: sclera, choroid, and retina (left). As light enters the eye, it passes through the thin transparent cornea (right).