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TABLE 7.1 General Characteristics of Sheet-Metal Forming Processes
TABLE 7.1 General Characteristics of Sheet-Metal Forming Processes
Process
Roll forming
Stretch forming
Drawing
Stamping
Rubber-pad
forming
Spinning
Superplastic
forming
Peen forming
Explosive
forming
Magnetic-pulse
forming
Characteristics
Long parts with constant complex cross-sections; good surface finish; high
production rates; high tooling costs.
Large parts with shallow contours; suitable for low-quantity production; high
labor costs; tooling and equipment costs depend on part size.
Shallow or deep parts with relatively simple shapes; high production rates;
high tooling and equipment costs.
Includes a variety of operations, such as punching, blanking, embossing,
bending, flanging, and coining; simple or complex shapes formed at high
production rates; tooling and equipment costs can be high, but labor costs
are low.
Drawing and embossing of simple or complex shapes; sheet surface protected
by rubber membranes; flexibility of operation; low tooling costs.
Small or large axisymmetric parts; good surface finish; low tooling costs, but
labor costs can be high unless operations are automated.
Complex shapes, fine detail, and close tolerances; forming times are long,
and hence production rates are low; parts not suitable for high-temperature
use.
Shallow contours on large sheets; flexibility of operation; equipment costs
can be high; process is also used for straightening parts.
Very large sheets with relatively complex shapes, although usually axisymmetric; low tooling costs, but high labor costs; suitable for low-quantity
production; long cycle times.
Shallow forming, bulging, and embossing operations on relatively lowstrength sheets; most suitable for tubular shapes; high production rates;
requires special tooling.
Localized Necking
E1
G/2
E2 F
E2 = E3
E1
2F~110
Diffuse neck
(a)
(b)
Localized neck
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 7.1 (a) Localized necking in a sheet-metal specimen under tension. (b) Determination of the
angle of neck from the Mohr's circle for strain. (c) Schematic illustrations for diffuse and localized
necking, respectively. (d) Localized necking in an aluminum strip in tension; note the double neck.
Source: S. Kalpakjian.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Lueders Bands
Yupper
Yield-point
elongation
Ylower
Stress
Yielded metal
Lueder!s band
Unyielded metal
Strain
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 7.2 (a) Yield-point elongation and Lueders bands in tensile testing. (b) Lueder's bands in annealed
low-carbon steel sheet. (c) Stretcher strains at the bottom of a steel can for common household products.
Source: (b) Courtesy of Caterpillar Inc.
Stress-Corrosion Cracking
Shearing Process
F
Fracture
surface
Punch
A
Punch
C
T
Sheet
Die
Penetration
Slug
Sheet
Die
c
Clearance
FIGURE 7.4 Schematic illustration of the shearing process with a punch and die, indicating important process variables.
Burnish
dimension
Rollover depth
Burnish depth
Fracture
depth
Sheet
thickness
Fracture
angle
Burr height
Breakout
dimension
(a)
Burr
Flattened portion
under the punch
Dishing
Burr height
C
Rough surface
D
B
Ideal slug
(b)
Smooth surface
(burnished)
2.
3.
(a)
200
180
160
140
160
180
200
Clearance, c
1.
120
Die
140
Force
120
120
140
200 180
160
220
180
200
120
Punch
160
140 (HV)
Shearing Mechanics
Penetration
(b)
Shearing Operations
Discarded
Parting
Perforating
Slitting
Notching
Punching
Blanking
(a)
Lancing
(b)
FIGURE 7.8 (a) Punching and blanking. (b) Examples of shearing operations on sheet metal.
Fine Blanking
(a)
Blanking punch
Upper
pressure
pad
Sheet
Sheet metal
Slug
Blanking die
Lower pressure cushion
Die
Support
Fracture
surface
Lower
pressure
cushion
Clearance
(b)
FIGURE 7.9 (a) Comparison of sheared edges by conventional (left) and fine-blanking
(right) techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of a setup for fine blanking. Source: Feintool
International Holding.
Rotary Shearing
Driven
cutter
Workpiece
Ilding
cutter
Clearance
FIGURE 7.10 Slitting with rotary blades, a process similar to opening cans.
Sheared
edge
Sheet
Sheet
Die
Die
(a)
Clearance
(b)
Punch
Punch
Die
Blank
thickness
Shear angle
Die
(a)
Bevel shear
Double-bevel shear
Convex shear
(b)
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 7.12 Examples of the use of shear angles on punches and dies.
Compare these designs with that for a common paper punch.
Progressive Die
Ram
Blanking
punch
Pilot
Piercing
punch
Stripper
Scrap
Die
Stop
Strip
Slug
Part
Strip
Finished
washer
Scrap
First
operation
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 7.13 (a) Schematic illustration of producing a washer in a progressive die. (b) Forming of the top
piece of a common aerosol spray can in a progressive die. Note that the part is attached to the strip until
the last operation is completed.
Blanking;
laser cutting
Laser welding
Tailor-Welded
Blanks
m 20/20
1 mm
1 mm
g 45/45
1 mm
g 45/45
Stamping
0.8 mm
g 45/45
g 60/60
1 mm
Legend
g 60/60 (45/45) Hot-galvanized alloy steel sheet. Zinc amount: 60/60 (45/45) g/m2.
Double-layered iron-zinc alloy electroplated steel sheet. Zinc amount 20/20 g/m2.
m 20/20
(a)
1.5 mm
0.8 mm
2.0 mm
2.0 mm
0.7 mm
1.5 mm
Motor-compartment
side rail
2.5 mm
0.7 mm
Shock-absorber
support
1.5 mm
1.5 mm
1.25 mm
0.7 mm
Girder
Fender with
integrated reinforcement
(b)
0.7 mm
Floor plate
20
Bend radius (R )
Thickness (t )
Bend
allowance, Lb
Setback
T
A Bend radius, R
Bend
angle, A
15
10
5
0
Bevel angle
R = (60/r ) - 1
t
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Tensile reduction of area (%)
(a)
Material
Aluminum alloys
Beryllium copper
Brass, low leaded
Magnesium
Steels
austenitic stainless
low carbon, low alloy, and HSLA
Titanium
Titanium alloys
(b)
Material Condition
Soft
Hard
0
6t
0
4t
0
2t
5t
13t
0.5t
0.5t
0.7t
2.6t
6t
4t
3t
4t
TABLE 7.2
Minimum bend radii for
various materials at room temperature.
Bending Mechanics
Plane
strain
Plane
stress
4
Rolling
direction
No cracks
Cracks
Rough
edge
Bend radius
Thickness
3
2
Smooth
edge
Rolling
direction
1
(a)
4
8
Length of bend
Thickness
Elongated
inclusions
(stringers)
(b)
(c)
16
FIGURE 7.17 (a) and (b) The effect of elongated inclusions (stringers) on
cracking in sheets as a function of the direction of bending with respect to
the original rolling direction. This example shows the importance of
orienting parts cut from sheet to maximize bendability. (c) Cracks on the
outer radius of an aluminum strip bent to an angle of 90; compare this
part with that shown in (a).
Springback
T
After
Af
Ri
Rf
Ai
A
Af
Before
1.0
Springback factor (Ks )
No springback
a
b
c
0.9
Increasing springback
0.8
d
0.7
0.6
0.5
5 10
R/T
20
Springback factor:
f
(2Ri/t) + 1
Ks =
=
i (2R f /t) + 1
Springback estimation:
!
Ri
RiY
=4
Rf
Et
"3
RiY
3
Et
"
+1
Negative Springback
Punch
Wire specimen
Die
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 7.20 Schematic illustration of the stages in bending round wire in a Vdie. This type of bending can lead to negative springback, which does not
occur in air bending (shown in Fig. 7.24a). Source: After K.S. Turke and S.
Kalpakjian.
(d)
Springback Compensation
, 90
, 90
90
90
Wb
Pcounter
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Sheet
Die
Rocker
1.
2.
3.
(e)
Die-Bending Operations
Punch
Die
W
W
(a) V die
FIGURE 7.22 Common die-bending operations, showing the die-opening dimension W, used in
calculating bending forces, as shown in Eq. (7.11).
Bending force:
(UTS)Lt 2
Fmax = k
W
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Channel
forming
Joggle
Hemming
(flattening)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Main
gear
Flywheel
Crown
Motor
Main gear
Clutch and
brake unit
Connections
Ram
Side
housing
Die holder
Bed
Floor line
Two-stage lock seam
Offset forming
(d)
(e)
(f)
FIGURE 7.23 (a) through (e) Schematic illustrations of various bending operations in a press
brake. (f) Schematic illustration of a press brake. Source: Courtesy of Verson Allsteel Company.
Bending Operations
Punch
Die
Air bending
(a)
(b)
Sheet
Adjustable
roll
Driven
rolls
Polyurethane
roll
Roll bending
(c)
(d)
Die
Formed bead
1.
2.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Flanging Operations
Piercing punch
Spring-loaded stripper
Straight flange
Sheet
Joggled flange
Stretch flange
Reverse flange
Shrink flange
Slug
(a)
(b)
Piercing punch
(retracted)
Stripper
plate
Before
Sheet
Flange
After
Tube
Die
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 7.26
Illustrations of various
flanging operations. (a) Flanges formed on
flat sheet. (b) Dimpling. (c) Piercing sheet
metal with a punch to form a circular
flange. In this operation, a hole does not
have to be prepunched; note, however, the
rough edges along the circumference of the
flange. (d) Flanging of a tube; note the
thinning of the periphery of the flange, due
to its diametral expansion.
Roll-Forming
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 7.27 (a) The roll-forming operation, showing the stages in roll forming of a structural shape.
(b) Examples of roll-formed cross-sections. Source: Courtesy of Sharon Custom Metal Forming, Inc.
Chuck
Mandrels for
tube bending
Compression
bending
Draw
bending
Stretch
bending
Clamp
Form block
(fixed)
Wiper
shoe
Form
block
(fixed)
Plug
Balls
Laminated
Workpiece
Pressure bar
Chuck
(a)
Die
Cable
Clamp
(c)
(b)
(d)
Punch
Tube
Rubber or fluid
Stops
Die
Punch
1.
2.
Stretch-Forming
Workpiece
Tool
Stretch gripper
Hydraulic
stretching
unit
Turntable
Adjustable
slide
Table-mounted
gripper
(a)
Crosshead
Ram
Upper tool
Stretching
Clamping fixture
Workpiece
Lower tool
1.
2.
3.
Bed
(b)
FIGURE 7.30 (a) Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming operation. Aluminum skins for aircraft
can be made by this process. Source: Cyril Bath Co. (b) Stretch forming in a hydraulic press.
Bulging
Before
After
Die
Fluid
Fluid
Workpiece
(b)
Ring
Punch
Knockout
rod
Rubber plug
Die insert
Two-piece die
(hinged)
Bulged tube
Compressed tube
(c)
(a)
FIGURE 7.32 (a) Bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug. Water pitchers can be made by this method. (b)
Production of fittings for plumbing by expanding tubular blanks with internal pressure; the bottom of the piece is
then punched out to produce a T section. Source: After J.A. Schey. (c) Sequence involved in manufacturing of a metal
bellows.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Metal punch
Blank
Polyurethane pad
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 7.33 Examples of bending and embossing sheet metal with a metal punch and a
flexible pad serving as the female die. Source: Polyurethane Products Corporation.
Sheet Hydroforming
Pressure-control valve
Forming cavity (oil filled)
Blank
Draw ring
Rubber diaphragam
Punch
1.
Part
2.
3.
4.
FIGURE 7.34 The principle of the hydroform process, also called fluid forming.
Tube Hydroforming
Slide plate
Centering
Die holder
plate
Top die
Horizontal
cylinder
Seal
punch
Cylinder
holder
bracket
Bottom
die
Die holder
plate
Bed plate
Hydroformed part
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 7.35 (a) Schematic illustration of the tube hydroforming process. (b) Example of tube hydroformed parts.
Automotive exhaust and structural components, bicycle frames, and hydraulic and pneumatic fittings can be
produced through tube hydroforming. Source: Schuler GmBH.
Spinning
Blank
to
Blank
t
A
Mandrel
Mandrel
f
Tool
Roller
Cone
(a)
(b)
Shear Spinning
to
to
Blank
!
Spun
piece
tf
Mandrel
Flange
Roller
Maximum spinning
reduction per pass (%)
100
80
80
60
Tube spinning
Shear spinning
40
20
0
Tube Spinning
Forward
External
Backward
f
Roller
to
Ft
Mandrel
Workpiece
(a)
Internal
Die
(b)
FIGURE 7.40 Examples of (a) external and (b) internal tube spinning, and the process variables involved.
Blank
Rotating
tool
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 7.41 (a) Illustration of an incremental forming operation. Note that no mandrel is used, and
that the final part shape depends on the path of the rotating tool. (b) An automotive headlight
reflector produced through CNC incremental forming. Note that the part does not have to be
axisymmetric. Source: After J. Jesweit.
Explosive
Water level
Ground level
Explosive Forming
Workpiece
Standoff
Hold-down
ring
Die
Vacuum line
Tank
Pressure generated:
! "a
3
W
p=K
R
60
0.5
1.5
400
50
300
40
30
Water
20
10
0
Air
0
2 3 4 5
Standoff (ft)
200
100
0
MPa
Switch
Charger
Electrodes
Water
Clamp
Sheet
Capacitor bank
Die
Before
FIGURE 7.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the magneticpulse forming process. The part is formed without
physical contact with any object, and (b) aluminum tube
collapsed over a hexagonal plug by the magnetic-pulse
forming process.
After forming
Coil
Mandrel
Coil current
Eddy current
Tube
C
L
(a)
(b)
Superplastic Forming
Stop-off
Clamp
Before
Mold
After
Mold
Product
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 7.46 Two types of structures made by combining diffusion bonding and
superplastic forming of sheet metal. Such structures have a high stiffness-to-weight ratio.
Source: Rockwell Automation, Inc.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Peen-Forming
Traversing gantry machine
Stationary workpiece
Track
Track
FIGURE 7.47 Schematic illustration of a peen forming machine to shape a large sheet-metal part, such as
an aircraft-skin panel. Note that the sheet is stationary and the peening head travels along its length.
Source: Metal Improvement Company.
Honeycomb Structures
Corrugated
block
Adhesive
Slice
Corrugated
sheet
Roll Corrugating
rolls
Sheet
Block
Roll
Corrugated
panel
Expanded
panel
(a)
(b)
Face sheet
Adhesive
impregnated
scrim cloth
(optional)
Expanded
honeycomb
core
Face sheet
(c)
FIGURE 7.48 Methods of making honeycomb structures: (a) expansion process, and (b) corrugation
process; (c) assembling a honeycomb structure into a laminate.
Deep-Drawing
Before
After
Punch
Pressure
plate
F
Punch
Do
Blankholder
force
Dp
Blank holder
Blank
Die
Spring
stripper ring
Blankholder
Rp
T
Rd
Blank
Die
(draw ring)
Drawn cup
Blank
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 7.49 (a) Schematic illustration of the deep drawing process on a circular sheet-metal blank. The
stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the punch. (b) Variables in deep drawing of a
cylindrical cup. Note that only the punch force in this illustration is a dependent variable; all others are
independent variables, including the blankholder force.
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 7.50 Deformation of elements in (a) the flange and (b) the cup wall in deep drawing of a cylindrical cup.
Die
Unsupported
wall
Blankholder
force
Punch
Die
Die
A!
Failure
Deforming
area
Failure
Deforming
area
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 7.51 Examples of (a) pure drawing and (b) pure stretching; the bead prevents the sheet
metal from flowing freely into the die cavity. (c) Unsupported wall and possibility of wrinkling of
a sheet in drawing. Source: After W.F. Hosford and R.M. Caddell.
Bead
Original
blank
edge
Punch
Blankholder
Draw bead
Bend-andstraighten
Deep
draw
Bead
C
L
Die
Zero minor
strain
Bead
(a)
C
L
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 7.52 (a) Schematic illustration of a draw bead. (b) Metal flow during drawing of a
box-shaped part, using beads to control the movement of the material. (c) Deformation of
circular grids in drawing. (See Section 7.7.)
Ironing
Punch
Die
Cup
FIGURE 7.53 Schematic illustration of the ironing process. Note that the cup wall is thinner
than its bottom. All beverage cans without seams (known as two-piece cans) are ironed,
generally in three steps, after being deep drawn into a cup. Cans with separate tops and bottoms
are known as three-piece cans.
Ew
R= E
t
Ew
Anisotropy
Et
El
FIGURE 7.54
Definition of the normal
anisotropy, R, in terms of width and thickness
strains in a tensile-test specimen cut from a
rolled sheet. Note that the specimen can be
cut in different directions with respect to the
length, or rolling direction, of the sheet.
Material
Zinc alloys
Hot-rolled steel
Cold-rolled rimmed steel
Cold-rolled aluminum-killed steel
Aluminum alloys
Copper and brass
Titanium alloys ()
Stainless steels
High-strength low-alloy steels
R
0.4-0.6
0.8-1.0
1.0-1.4
1.4-1.8
0.6-0.8
0.6-0.9
3.0-5.0
0.9-1.2
0.9-1.2
Normal anisotropy:
! "
wo
ln
wf
w
!
"
R= =
to
t
ln
tf
Average anisotropy:
R0 + 2R45 + R90
R=
4
Planar anisotropy:
R0 2R45 + R90
R =
2
titia
ers
ed
m
led
kil
minu
um
Al
1.8
ee
l-fr
2.2
1.4
1.0
Int
2.6
m
Ri
3.0
6
8
10
ASTM grain number
12
4.0
Copper,
brass,
Steel
aluminum
3.0
Titanium
2.0
Zinc
1.0
0.2
Punch Force
Punch force (F )
Ironing
Increasing
clearance
Stroke
Die corner
radius
Punch
corner radius
(a)
(b)
Punch
Blankholder
Drawn cup
Die
Punch
Sheet
Die
Die
Cup partially
redrawn
Cup partially
redrawn
Cup
1.
2.
3.
Punch-Stretch Test
Sheet width
Bead
Sheet
Bead
Punch
FIGURE 7.62 Schematic illustration of the punch-stretch test on sheet specimens with different
widths, clamped along the narrower edges. Note that the narrower the specimen, the more
uniaxial is the stretching. (See also Fig. 7.65.)
Plane strain
120
Equal (balanced)
biaxial
100
80
60
Failure
zone
Pure
shear
0
260
After
stretching
Low-carbon
steel
Brass
High-strength
steel
40
20
Major strain
220
Minor
strain,
positive
Aluminum alloy
Safe zone
Simple
tension
(for R = 1)
240
Minor
strain,
negative
Before
stretching
Minor
strain
Major strain,
positive
0
20
40
Minor strain (%)
60
(a)
80
(b)
FIGURE 7.63 (a) Forming-limit diagram (FLD) for various sheet metals. Note that the major strain is always positive. The region
above the curves is the failure zone; hence, the state of strain in forming must be such that it falls below the curve for a
particular material; R is the normal anisotropy. (b) Illustrations of the definition of positive and negative minor strains. If the area
of the deformed circle is larger than the area of the original circle, the sheet is thinner than the original thickness because the
volume remains constant during plastic deformation. Source: After S.S. Hecker and A.K. Ghosh.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Formability Testing
Strains in an Automobile
8
1
53
7
6
4
2
0
24
22
0
2
4
Minor strain (%)
10
Roof
8
6
4
59
2
0
24
10
Trunk lid
Major strain (%)
10
8
6
4
10
Major strain (%)
1
3
75
2
0
22
0
2
4
Minor strain (%)
Front door
24
22
0
2
4
Minor strain (%)
Front fender
8
6
1
2
0
24
22
0
2
4
Minor strain (%)
FIGURE 7.66 Major and minor strains in various regions of an automobile body.
Design Considerations
Poor
Better
Poor
Better
Best
39.6 mm
43.2 mm
13.2 mm
11.4 mm
Closed
corner
3 x sheet
thickness
Relief
notch
(a)
Closed corner
3 x sheet
thickness
Relief notch
(b)
Poor
Good
Notch
Poor
Good
Poor
Good
Notch
Poor
Bend line
Bend line
(a)
Good
(b)
(c)
(a)
Better
(b)
Before
Sharp
radius
(a)
Sharp
radius
After
(b)
8
7
0.19 m
6
5
4
0.3 m
diameter
3
2
Spinning
Drawing
1
0
2
3
4
5
Number of parts (x 103)
(a)
(b)
1. As-cast
FIGURE 7.74
(a) Manufacturing
sequence for production of cymbals.
Source: Courtesy W. Blanchard,
Sabian Ltd.
5. Stretch formed
3. Stretch formed
and trimmed
6. Hammered
7. Lathe-turned
and polished
Cymbal Hammering
(a)
(b)