1.

Degrees of freedom
Six degrees of freedom (6dof) refers to the freedom of movement of a rigid body in
three-dimensional space.

2. Mechanical joints

3. Different Types of Welding Joints

The 5 basic welding joints are

a. Butt joint
b. Corner joint
c. Lap joint
d. Tee joint and
e. Edge joint

4. Different types of threads

5. Limits
Two extreme permissible dimension of a part, between which the actual size should
lie. The largest permissible size for a dimension is called upper or high or maximum
limit, whereas the smallest size is called lower or minimum limit.

6. What are engineering tolerances?

Engineering Tolerances are allowable variation from given dimensions. In other
words, it is the total amount by which a given dimension may vary without affecting
product function.

Tolerance (for hole) = Hole (MMC) – Hole (LMC)

7. Why is Tolerance Required?

The production of closely mating parts, without tolerances is economically
unfeasible. This will increase the rejection rate and manufacturing cost. Therefore,
tolerances are used with part dimensions to facilitate manufacturer and reduce cost.

8. What is tolerance Stack up Analysis?

Tolerance Stack up analysis is a design tool used to analyze and optimize product
assembly. It calculates the cumulative effects of part tolerances in an assembly.

9. Types of tolerance?

The term tolerance refers to the difference between the upper (maximum) limit and
lower (minimum) limit of a dimension. In other words, tolerance is the maximum
permissible variation in a dimension. The tolerance may be of two types i.e.
unilateral or bilateral.

When the tolerance is allowed on one side of the nominal size, e.g., , then it is said to
be unilateral system of tolerance. ‘When the tolerance is allowed on both sides of
the nominal size, e.g., then it is said to be bilateral system of tolerance.
 The unilateral system is widely used in practice as it permits changing the tolerance
value while still retaining the same allowance or type of fit.

10. Different types of fits?

a. Clearance fit: Clearance fit is arises at the Diameter of the shaft is smaller
then the hole. The minimum diameter of hole is grater then large diameter of
the shaft. Clearance value is positive when in this type of fit.

b. Transition fit: The transition fit is obtained when the diameter of the largest
hole is grater then the diameter of the smallest hole

c. Interference fit: The interference type of fit the minimum allowable diameter
of the shaft is larger then the maximum permissible diameter of the hole. As
the diameter of the shaft is larger then the diameter of hole. The hole and
shaft is intended to be attached permanently.
11. Generalizes Hooke's law?

Says that the strain (deformation) of an elastic object or material is proportional to

the stress applied to it.

12. What is the factor of safety and how it is calculated?

FOS describes the load carrying capacity of a system beyond the expected or actual
loads. In other words, FOS represents: how much stronger the system is compared to
intended load.

FOS is calculated considering design load maximum value. Value of FOS is always
greater than one.
13. Ferrous metals vs. Non-ferrous metals?

a. Ferrous metals and alloys contain iron non-ferrous materials do not .Ferrous
metals include mild steel, carbon steel, stainless steel, cast iron, and wrought
iron.

b. Non-ferrous metals include aluminum, brass, copper, nickel, tin, lead, and
zinc, as well as precious metals like gold and silver. While non-ferrous metals
can provide strength, they are primarily used where their differences from
ferrous metals can provide an advantage. For instance; non-ferrous metals
are much more malleable than ferrous metals. Non-ferrous metals are also
much lighter, making them well-suited for use where strength is needed, but
weight is a factor, such as in the aircraft or canning industries. Because they
contain no iron, non-ferrous metals have a higher resistance to rust and
corrosion, which is why you’ll find these materials in use for gutters, water
pipes, roofing, and road signs. Finally, they are also non-magnetic, which
makes them perfect for use in small electronics and as electrical wiring.

14. Drilling, Milling, Reaming, Boring and tapping?

a. Drilling refers to creating a smooth hole in a material with a drill and motor.
In drilling operations, the force is applied in axial direction (along the shaft). In
drill bit, the cutting edge is the tip of the tip,

b. Milling it is radial (perpendicular to the shaft) .In milling the cutting edge is

the side of the end mill.

c. Boring if your work piece already has a hole in it then you can make it larger
by boring that hole. Usually boring is done after drilling
 d. Reaming is a cutting operation with a multiple-edge tool which is constantly
in action. Bores of high dimensional accuracy and surface finish can be
produced.

e. Tapping is a cutting operation with a multiple-edge tool (tap). Tapping

provides a hole with a thread as non-permanent join

15. What is the least count and how it is calculated?

It is the smallest value measured with the measuring instrument. For example, the
least count for a normal scale is 1 mm whereas for vernier scale it is 0.01 mm. Read
this article for more details on Least Count.
Least Count= Value of one main scale Division – Total Number of Vernier scale
division

16. What is the least count for Vernier Scale, Micrometer and normal scale?

Vernier Caliper Least Count = 0.01 mm (Digital) , 0.02 mm (manual)

Micrometer Least Count = 0.01 mm
Normal scale Least Count = 1 mm

17. What are types of screws?

Screws can be classified based on following parameters:

a. Based on Screw Head

• Countersunk Screw

• Raised or oval head screw

 • Pan Head Screw

• Flat Head Screw

• Flange Head Screw

b. Based on Screw Drive Type

• Sloted

• Phillip

• Pozi Drive

• Torx Head

• Hex Socket

• Trangular head

• Security Head Socket

c. Based on Screw Thread Type

• Machine Screw

• Thread Forming

• Thread Cutting Screw

18. Types of Manufacturing Process

1. Casting
i. In casting process the solid is converted to the liquid by applying
appropriate
ii. temperature (maybe change its chemical formula).Property of the
liquid to take up the
iii. shape of the vessel contains it is the fundamental of the casting. Molten
metal poured
iv. into mound flows into corners and fill the voids. When metal solidifies
it takes shape of
v. the mold but don’t take exact shape because solid being denser and that
cause a
vi. reduction in volume (2 to 4 %)For obtaining the correct dimension
factor comes in play
vii. which is called shrinkage.
 Types of castings
a. Sand casting
b. Die Casting
c. Investment Casting
d. Continuous Casting
e. Centrifugal Casting
f. Pressure Dies Casting
g. Ceramic Mold Casting
h. Plaster Mould Casting

2. Forming

a. Forming converts metallic components to other shapes without changing mass

or material composition and maintain cohesion within partials by deforming.
(Not by removing, cutting, shredding or braking any component or portion)
b. Bending, spinning, drawing, and stretching are the example of the forming
process.

3. Material removing processes

In this category the products are made by removing unwanted material from the row or
stock material. Different types of machine tools and machine attachments are used in
this process. Machine tools are considered the foundation of the advance industry.
Machining process has some import subcategory.
4. Metal Joining

Some complex and critical parts are economically not viable to manufacture as single
part, there joining comes in to play. Joining is also implemented to fulfilling some
design needs.
In joining simpler shape parts are brought to gather to produce complex assemblies.
a. Bolting
b. Welding
c. Shouldering
d. Adhesive joining

5. Sheet Metal Is something between 0.4 mm ( 1/64 inches) to 6mm (1/4 inches) thick.
Above 6 mm thickness is plate and below 0.4 mm thickness is called foil. 
 Advantages
o High strength,
o good dimensional accuracy,
o good surface finish,
o economical mass production (low cost)
 Sheet Metalworking Terminology
a. “Punch-and-die” – Tooling to perform cutting, bending, and drawing
b. “Stamping press” – Machine tool that performs most sheet metal
operations
c. “Stampings” – Sheet metal products
 Sheet-Metal

19. What is recommended inside bending radius in sheet metal fabrication?

For hard materials (CRCA and stainless steel), Minimum inside radius is 0.7 times of
sheet thickness. For softer materials (for example Aluminum) minimum inside radius
is equal to sheet thickness.

20. What is the minimum required Flange Length in Sheet metal Bending?
Minimum flange length shall be equal to 4 times of sheet thickness plus inside radius.
Minimum Flange length = 4 X T (sheet thickness) + R (Inside Bend Radius)

21. What is the minimum recommended Hole/Slot distance from Edge?

Minimum Distance = 3 X Sheet Thickness + R (Inside Bend Radius)

22. What are the general Tolerance followed during sheet-metal Design?
ISO 2768-m can be used as default tolerance.

23. What is a bending allowance?

After bending total length (Length + Height) of sheet metal part is not equal to Flat
Length. This increase in overall length is known as bending allowance.

Flat Length = Length + Height – Bend Deduction

24. What is K-factor in sheet metal fabrication?

K-Factor is a constant, used to calculate the Sheet metal flat length. Value of the k-
factor depends on material, Bend radius, sheet thickness and machines used.
Mathematically K-Factor is a ratio of position of neutral axis and sheet thickness.
Value of K-factor is always less than 0.5.
25. What is Y-Factor in Sheet metal?
Y-factor is similar to K factor. It is used to calculate sheet metal parts flat length.
26. What are various surface finish operations done on sheet metal parts?
Following are commonly used sheet metal surface finish operations:

a. Pre-Treatment : Phosphate Conversion Coating, Chromate Conversion

Coating, Derusting, Descaling
b. Powder Coating
c. Anodising
d. Plating: Zn Plating/Galvanising, Tin plating, Silver plating

27. What Factors affect selection of sheet metal materials?

a. Product IP-Rating
b. Working Temperature
c. Corrosion Resistance
d. Required Part Strength
e. Part Weight constraints
f. Final Finish operation
g. Part joining Methods (Riveting/Welding/Screw)

28. What is the reinforcement techniques used to improve sheet metal parts
strength?

a. Reinforcement techniques improve part strength in a localized section.

b. Bending: Bending in direction 90 degree to load applied, hem bend
c. Forming tools: sheet-metal rib, louver, lance & Tab
29. What is the application of a press tool in sheet metal?
Press tools are used in hydraulic, pneumatic & mechanical presses to produce
stamped sheet-metal parts. Press tools can be classified based on operation: blanking,
piercing, bending and forming.
30. What is the difference between progressive, compound & combination tools?

31. What is stamping operation?

Stamping is a process of shaping sheet-metal parts using a press tool. Blanking,
punching, pressing, piercing, bending and forming operations are done with stamping
dies.
32. What are various sheet metal manufacturing operations?
Various types of sheetmetal operation includes cutting, forming, joining and final
finish operations:
 Sheet metal Cutting operations: Punching, Piercing,Perforation, Cutting off,
Parting off, Dinking, Trimming, Shaving, Shearing, Notching etc
 Material Removal Operations: Deburring, Grinding
 Sheetmetal Forming: Straight bend, Angle bend, Hem bend
 Material Joining Operations: Welding (Tig, MIG, GAS Welding), Riveting,
Folding, Screws
 Final Finish Operations: Passivation, Chromate Conversion Coating, Plating,
powder Coating
33. What are various sheet metal assembly operations?
Following techniques can be used to join sheetmetal parts.

 Screws: self tapping screws, machine screws

 Welding : arc welding, TIG welding, MIG Welding
 Folding Techniques: Lap Joint, Hem Joint
 Riveting
 Press Fitting: PEM Inserts
 Check out in detail about sheet metal assembly operations here

34. What is the application of dowel pins ?

Dowel Pins are used to align two or more sheet metal parts during assembly.

35. What is the effect of grain direction in sheet metal during bending?
Grain structure of sheet metal is aligned in a rolling direction during the cold rolling
process. Bending in rolling direction in softer materials result in cracks. Therefore
bending in the direction perpendicular to rolling direction is always preferred.

36. What is the difference between sheetmetal blanking, punching & piercing
operation?
 Blanking is a process in which the punch operation removes a final product from a
larger piece of sheet metal.

 Punching is a material removal process in which the punch operation removes

material from a final piece of sheet metal.

 Piercing is a process in which punch operation cuts a hole / material by tearing

operation from a final piece of sheet metal. Piercing is a blanking operation

 Read this article to know in detail about the difference between blanking, punching
and piercing.

37. What are the various steps to manufacture sheet metal parts?
Following operations are performed during sheet metal part manufacturing:

a. Step-1 : Flat pattern calculations. Check sheet metal flat pattern calculator
here.

b. Step-2 : CNC Punching Process Programming

c. Step-3 : Cutting operations. It includes CNC Punching, laser or water cutting

e.t.c

d. Step-4: Deburring

e. Step-5: Hardware assembly ( PEM Hardware, Weld Nut, Rivet hardware)

f. Step-6 : Press Bending

g. Step-7 : Joining operations (welding/riveting)

h. Step-8 : Grinding
 i. Step-9 ; Finish operations such as anodizing, plating, powder coating

j. Step-10 : Packing

38. What are various sheet metal materials ?

a. CRCA
b. HRCA
c. Aluminium
d. Galvanised Iron (GI)
e. Stainless Steel
f.

39. What is the difference between hot rolled & cold rolled steel sheets?
Hot rolling process involves steel rolling above re-crystallisation temp. During the
cooling process steel will shrink. Therefore the size and shape of the steel will be less
predictable.

Whereas cold rolling involves steel rolling below re-crystallisation temp (at room
temp).

40. What are Sheet Metal Joining Operations ?

Sheet metal Joining Operations can be classified in two categories.

a) Permanent Joints:
i) Welding
ii) Adhesive Bonding
iii) Riveting
iv) Clinching

b) Reusable Joints:
i) Metric Screws
ii) Self Cutting Screws
iii) Sheet metal tabs
iv) Hemming

41. What are various sheetmetal cutting operations?

a. Shearing
b. Punching
c. Blanking
d. Nibbling
e. Perforation
f. Trimming
g. Deburring
42. Why punching is preferred over laser cutting process?
Sheet metal forming operations such as extruded hole, lancing, cut and bend are not
feasible with laser cutting.
43. What is minimum possible hole diameter using sheet metal turret punching
press?
Minimum diameter of hole that can be punched in sheet metal should be equal to
sheet thickness.

44. What are various press bending operations on sheet metal parts?
a. 90 degree bend
b. Z bend
c. Hem bend
d. Tab Bend
45. What are various welding operations done on sheet metal parts ?
a. TIG welding
b. MIG Welding
c. Gas Welding
d. Spot welding
e. Seam welding
46. What is Sheet metal gauge thickness?
Sheet Metal gauge represents standard sheet thickness for specified material.
Different material with same gauge number has different sheet thickness. Gauges are
defined based on material weight and rolling mills. Check out sheet metal gauge chart
here.

47. What is neutral axis in sheet metal?

When metal is bent the top section is going to undergo compression and the bottom
section will be stretched. The line where the transition from compression to
stretching occurs is called the neutral axis.
 GD&T

48. What is GD&T?

a. Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing. It is a system of symbols, rules and

b. Definitions used to define the geometry of mechanical parts.
c. Gd&t is one of the most powerful tools available that can improve quality,
reduce cost and
d. Shorten delivery time.

In short

• Symbols
• Rules
• Vocabulary
• Mathematical definition (asme y14.5.1)
• A national standard (asme y14.5m-1994)
• An international standard (iso 1101)

49. Types of GD&T Tolerance

Five types of Geometric Dimension and Tolerance are used to define a part design
intent accurately. GD&T includes 14 symbols that control the features and geometry
of a part.

a. Form Control
b. Profile Control
c. Orientation Control
d. Location
e. Runout 
a. Form Control

 Foam control geometric tolerance controls the form of the feature of a part.
Location and Orientation tolerances can also be used to control the foam of a
feature. 
 Datum reference is not used with form control geometric dimension and tolerance.
Form tolerance is further classified into four types.

1. Straightness
2. Flatness
3. Circularity
4. Cylindricity

1. Straightness - Straightness is a type of form control geometric dimension

control tolerance. It controls a condition where all elements of a surface or an axis of
a feature lies in a straight line.

 Datum planes are not required to define straightness tolerance. 

 LMC and MMC modifiers can be used to define straightness of an axis. 
 Straightness tolerance is defined to control the line on a surface or feature or
an axis
2. Flatness - Flatness is a type of form control GD&T tolerance. It controls the
variations in flat surface, regardless of any datum feature. 

 Flatness geometric tolerance value is always less than the dimensional

tolerance associated with a part feature.
 LMC and MMC modifiers can be used to define flatness of a surface

3. Circularity / Roundness – Circularity controls the roundness of a circular

feature in two dimensional tolerance zone. 

 It’s value is independent of any datum feature.

 Circularity tolerance value is always less than the diameter dimensional
tolerance.
4. Cylindricity - Cylindricity tolerance in gd&t controls the roundness of a
circular feature in a 3-dimensional tolerance zone. 

 It is independent of any datum feature.

  Cylindricity tolerance ensures the feature of a part is round and straight
enough along its axis.

b. Proflie
1. Profile of a Line Profile of a Line Control” GD&T tolerance creates a 2-
dimensional tolerance zone around any line of a feature.

 It controls size, orientation, location and form of a feature simultaneously.

 MMC and LMC are not applicable with the profile of line control GD&T
tolerance.
 It can be used with or without a datum plane.
2. Profile of a Surface - Profile of a Surface Control Tolerance creates a uniform
3D boundary tolerance zone along full length and width of the surface.

 It controls size, orientation, location and form of a feature simultaneously.

 MMC and LMC are not applicable with profile of surface control GD&T tolerance.
 It can be used with or without a datum plane.
c. Orientation Control

Orientation Control GD&T tolerance controls the orientation of the part feature with
respect to another feature or datum. They can be classified in three categories.

a) Parallelism
b) Perpendicularity
c) Angularity

a) Angularity Angularity tolerance in GD&T controls the orientation of one

feature with respect to datum at specified angle.

 Tolerance zone will be two parallel planes /surfaces in 3D.

 Angularity tolerance can also be used to control the axis of any feature w.r.t
datum plane.
 Datum Plane is required to define angularity tolerance.

b) Perpendicularity tolerance in GD&T is used to control perpendicularity of a

surface feature or an axis with respect to the datum plane. 

 When perpendicularity is applied over surface, Tolerance zone will be two parallel

surfaces/planes/lines perpendicular to datum plane. 
 Whereas when applied to an axis. Tolerance zone will be a cylinder boundary around
a true axis. Axis of referenced feature must lie in this cylinder boundary.

c) Parallelism - Parallelism is a type of orientation control tolerance in GD&T.

It controls the parallelism between two lines, surfaces or an axis.

 Parallelism tolerance does not control the angle of the referenced feature. But it
creates a tolerance zone where all points of the feature must lie. 
 Datum plane is required to control Parallelism Tolerance

d. Location Control

Location control in “Geometric Dimension and Control Tolerance” defines the

deviation of a feature from the actual location. It is further classified into three
types.

a) Position Tolerance
b) Concentricity
c) Symmetry
d) Concentricity and symmetry controls the center distance of
feature whereas position tolerance controls coaxiality of a
features.
a) Position Tolerance
 Position tolerance in gd&t controls the variation in the location of a feature from
exact true position. It is the total permissible variation in feature location from its
exact true position. MMC, LMC, projected tolerance, tangent planes can be used
along with position tolerance.

b) Concentricity Concentricity tolerance controls the central axis of a cylinder or

sphere with respect to datum plane/axis. In other words, it controls the median
points on high precision cylindrical parts such as transmission gears. 

c) Symmetry Symmetry tolerance creates a 3-dimensional geometric tolerance

zone with respect to the datum plane. It controls how much the points between two
features may deviate from a specified center plane or axis. It can only be applied to
non circular features.

Symmetry tolerance is similar to concentricity. But it controls rectangular features and

involves two imaginary flat planes.

e. Runout

Runout in “geometric dimension and control tolerance” controls the variation in a

feature when the part is rotated 360° around the datum axis. It also measures the
wobbling of a part. Runout can be controlled with two symbols : 

a) Circular Runout
b) Total Runout
a) Runout - Circular runout creates a 2-Dimensional circular tolerance zone defined
by a datum axis.

f.
 It controls the total variation in controlled surface, when the part is rotated
around the datum true axis.
 Runout is used to control features of a rotating part such as drill, gears, shafts,
axles and machine tool parts.

b) Total Runout Total runout creates a 3-dimensional cylindrical tolerance zone

defined by datum axis.

It controls the total variation in the reference surface, when the part is rotated around
the datum’s true axis.

50. Characteristics & symbols

1. Maximum Material Condition (MMC) – is that condition of a part

feature wherein it contains the maximum amount of material within the
stated limits of size. That is: minimum hole size and maximum shaft size.

2. Least Material Condition (LMC) – implies that condition of a part

feature of sizewherein it contains the least (minimum) amount of material,
examples, largest hole size and smallest shaft size. It is opposite to maximum
material condition.
3. Regardless Of Feature Size (RFS) – the condition where the tolerance of
form,runout or location must be met irrespective of where the feature lies
within its size tolerance.

4. All Around Symbol – indicating that a tolerance applies to surfaces

all around thepart.
5. Projected Tolerance Zone – applies to a hole in which a pin, stud,
screw, etc., is to be inserted. It controls the perpendicularity of the hole to
the extent of the projection from the hole and as it relates to the mating part
clearance. The projected tolerance zone extends above the surface of the
part to the functional length of the pin, stud,and screw relative to its
assembly with the mating part.

6. Tangent Plane –indicating a tangent plane is shown. The symbol is

placed in the feature control frame following the stated tolerance.

7. Free State Variations –is a term used to describe distortion of a part

after removal of forces applied during manufacture.

8. Diameter – indicates a circular feature when used on the field of a

drawing or indicates that the tolerance is diametrical when used in a feature
control frame.

9. Basic Dimension – used to describe the exact size, profile,

orientation or location of a feature. A basic dimension is always associated
with a feature control frame or datum target. (Theoretically exact dimension
in ISO)

10. Reference Dimension – a dimension usually without tolerance, used

for information purposes only. It does not govern production or inspection
operations. (Auxiliary dimension in ISO)

11. Datum Feature –is the actual component feature used to

establish a datum.
12. Dimension Origin – Signifies that the dimension originates from
the plane established by the shorter surface and dimensional limits apply to
the other surface.

13. Conical Taper – is used to indicate taper for conical tapers. This
symbol is always shown with the vertical leg to the left.

14. Slope – is used to indicate slope for flat tapers. This symbol is
always shown with the vertical leg to the left.

15. Counterbore/Spotface – is used to indicate a counterbore or a

spotface. The symbol precedes the dimension of the counterbore or spotface,
with no space

16. Countersink – is used to indicate a countersink. The symbol

precedes the dimensions of the countersink with no space.

17. Depth/Deep – is used to indicate that a dimension applies to the depth

of a feature.This symbol precedes the depth value with no space in between.

18. Square –is used to indicate that a single dimension applies to a square
shape. The symbol precedes the dimension with no space between.
19. Number of Places – the X is used along with a value to indicate the
number of times a dimension or feature is repeated on the drawing.

20. Arc Length – indicating that a dimension is an arc length measured

on a curved outline. The symbol is placed above the dimension.

21. Radius –creates a zone defined by two arcs (the minimum and maximum
radii). The part surface must lie within this zone.

22. Spherical Radius – precedes the value of a dimension or tolerance.

23. Spherical Diameter – shall precede the tolerance value where the
specified tolerance value represents spherical zone. Also, a positional
tolerance may be used to control the location of a spherical feature relative
to other features of a part. The symbol for spherical diameter precedes the
size dimension of the feature and the positional tolerance value, to indicate a
spherical tolerance zone.
24. Controlled Radius –creates a tolerance zone defined by two arcs (the
minimum and maximum radii) that are tangent to the adjacent surfaces.
Where a controlled radius is specified, the part contour within the crescent-
shaped tolerance zone must be a fair curve without flats or reversals.
Additionally, radii taken at all points on the part contour shall neither be
smaller than the specified minimum limit nor larger than the maximum limit.

25. Between – to indicate that a profile tolerance applies to several

contiguous features,letters may designate where the profile tolerance begins
and ends. These letters are referenced using the between symbol (since
1994) or the word between on drawings made to earlier versions of the
Standard.

26. Statistical Tolerance – is the assigning of tolerances to related

components of an assembly on the basis of sound statistics (such as the
assembly tolerance is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of
the individual tolerances). B applying statistical tolerancing, tolerances of
individual components may be increased or clearances between mating parts
may be reduced. The increased tolerance or improved fit may reduce
manufacturing cost or improve the product's performance, but shall only be
employed where the appropriate statistical process control will be used.
Therefore, consideration should be given to specifying the required Cp and
/or Cpk or other process performance indices.

27. Datum Target – is a specified point, line, or area

on a part that is used to establish the Datum Reference Plane for
manufacturing and inspection operations.
28. Target Point –indicates where the datum target point is
dimensionally located on the direct view of the surface.
29. Feature control frame- uses feature control frames to indicate tolerance The
position of the feature must be within a .003 diametrical tolerance zone at
maximum material condition relative to datums a, b, and c.
51. Surface roughness symbols
52. What is a datum plane?

A datum is a theoretical exact plane, axis or point location that GD&T or dimensional
tolerances are referenced to.

Engineering Drawing

53. Engineering drawing

A type of technical drawing is used to fully and clearly define requirements for
engineered items. A graphical language that communicates ideas and information
from one mind to another.
54. Different types of projection in engineering drawing

a) Orthographic Projection
Orthographic projection is the most common parallel projection due to its
simplicity. It is represented using three views; front view, side view and top
view. In graphical terms, you need to draw the object in XY plane, YZ plane,
and ZX plane, separately

b) Axonometric Projection
Axonometric projection is a type of orthographic projection. Drawing the
object in this method is somewhat complex because it requires only one image
to draw the 3-D structure of the object onto a plane paper. Suppose you are
using a projector and an object is placed in front of projector lines. Now, you
can see the image of 3-D object onto a 2-D plane just behind the object. This
projection is nothing but an axonometric projection.
c) Isometric
In this type of projection, angles between the three axes are equal. As the
diagram says, if we project a cube onto a 2-D surface, you see all the three
sides AB, AC, and AD are equal.

d) Diametric projection
in which only two angles between the axes are equal. You can see the
diagram in which only two sides AB and AC are equal.
e) Trimetric projection
that can be drawn using three axes having different angles between them.
It’s the most common type of axonometric projection and the object can be
placed anywhere with respect to the observer.
f) Oblique Projection
It requires only one image and traditional equipment to draw any object. In
this method, first you need to draw the front view or side view and
then draw rest of the object with respect to it.

g) Perspective Projection
This is much like the working of our eyes in respect to depth perception. For
example, when we see a railway line, it appears converging towards a single
point called the vanishing point. View of the object feels more realistic using
this projection.
55. Different types of views
a. Base View
b. Projected View
c. Auxiliary View
d. Section View
e. Detail View
f. Broken view

56. first and third angle projection

57. What is scaling and scaling Factor in drawing?
A drawing that shows a real object with accurate sizes reduced or enlarged by a
certain amount (called the scale).
There are three types of scales depending upon the proportion it indicates as

a) Reducing scale: When the dimensions on the drawing are smaller than the
actual dimensions of the object. It is represented by the scale and RF as

Scale: - 1cm=100cm or 1:100 and by RF=1/100 (less than one).

b) Full scale: Some times the actual dimensions of the object will be adopted on
the drawing then in that case it is represented by the scale and RF as
 Scale: - 1cm = 1cm or 1:1 and by R.F=1/1 (equal to one).

c) Enlarging scale: In some cases when the objects are very small like inside
parts of a wrist watch, the dimensions adopted on the drawing will be bigger
than the actual dimensions of the objects then in that case it is represented by
scale and RF as

Scale: - 10cm=1cm or 10:1 and by R.F= 10/1 (greater than one).

58. Standard sheet sizes

59. Unit Conversions

 1 Inch = 25.4 mm
 1feet = 12 inches
 1 meter = 3.28 feet
 1meter = 1000 mm
 1 cm = 10 mm

60. What is Section, Projection, Isometric & Detailed View?

 Projection View : Projection view represents a 3 dimensional objects in 2 dimensions

while looking from one side.

 Section View: It is used to show the interior construction of a part in engineering

drawing.
 Isometric View: Isometric projection represents a 3D objects into 2D in an
engineering drawings. In this three coordinate axes appear equally foreshortened
and the angle between any two axes is 120 degrees.

 Detailed View: It represents the larger view of any section of engineering drawing.

Tool Related

61. Parametric CAD Modelling

Parametric modelling involves the building or design of 3D geometrical models piece by piece.
The process usually starts with a 2D sketch followed by the integration of constraints,
dimensions, and entities to form a defined 3D model
These constraints, dimensions, and other entities are known as parameters. Therefore,
modelling techniques that make use of parameters are known as parametric modelling. Many of
the CAD applications currently in circulation today, employ the parametric approach to 3D
modelling.

Ex: Solidworks, Creo, unigraphics, Autodesk inventor, catia etc

62. Non-parametric Modelling

Nonparametric modelling involves a direct approach to building 3D models without

having to work with provided parameters. Therefore, you will not be required to start
with a 2D draft and produce a 3D model by adding different entities. This means you
directly model your ideas without working with pre-set constraints. That is also why
nonparametric modelling is also known as direct modelling.
EX: Autocad

63. BOM: Bill of material (BOM) providing complete list of parts, sub-component,
intermediate and sub assemblies representing the quantity of each item required to
produce an assembly. It is providing the detail information regarding the number of
components of final assembly.
64. The FeatureManager design tree on the left side of the window provides an outline
view of the active part, assembly, or drawing. In part documents, you can set the
Feature Manager Design tree to show features in the order they were created,
instead of hierarchically.
65. Common tools in 3d cad Software’s in modeling
a. Extrude/boss
b. Revolve
c. Sweep
d. Loft
e. Hole
f. Fillet
g. Chamfer
h. Pattern
66. Types of display style in cad software
a. Wireframe
b. Conceptual
c. Hidden
d. Realistic
e. Shaded
f. Shaded with Edges

67. Constraints
a. Dimensional Constraints
b. Sketch Constraints
c. Fixed
d. Horizontal
 e. Vertical
f. Collinear
g. Parallel
h. Perpendicular
i. Tangent
j. Concentric
k. Symmetric
l. On edge
m. On midpoint
n. equal
68. Dimensional styles
a. Liner Dimensions
b. Aligned Dimensions
c. Angular dimensions
d. Ordinate dimensions
e. Diameter
f. Radius
69. Hide As just that…part NOT VISIBLE.
70. Suppress A suppressed part as a deleted part that is very easy to UNDO.