 The 3D viewing process is more complex than 2D

viewing process.
 In 2D, we simply specify a window on the 2D world
and a viewport on the 2D view surface.
 Conceptually, objects in the world are clipped against
the window and are then transformed into the viewport
for display.
 The extra complexity of the 3D viewing is caused in
part by the added dimension and in part by the fact that
display devices are only 2D.

2
 Objects in the 3D world are clipped against the 3D
view volume and are then projected.
 The contents of the projection of the view volume onto
the projection plane, called the window, are then
mapped into the viewport for display.

3
 The solution to mismatch between 3D objects and 2D
displays is accomplished by including projections,
which transform 3D objects onto a 2D projection plane
called plane geometry projection.
Or
 A projection creates 2D images of 3D objects by
projecting lines from a centre of projection through a
image plane until they meet the objects. The
intersections of the projection lines with the image
plane form the 2D images of the 3D objects

4
 PROJECTIONS

PARALLEL
PERSPECTIVE
(parallel projectors)
(converging projectors)

One point
Orthographic Oblique
(one principal
(projectors perpendicular (projectors not perpendicular to vanishing point)
to view plane) view plane)

Two point
General (Two principal
Multiview Axonometric vanishing point)

(view plane parallel (view plane not parallel to Cavalier

to principal planes) principal planes)
Three point
(Three principal
vanishing point)
Cabinet
Isometric Dimetric Trimetric
 The projection matrix from three space to two space
always contains a column of zeros, determinant of
projective transformation is always zero.
 Plane geometric projections of objects are formed by
the intersection of lines called projectors with a plane
called the projection plane.
 Projectors are line from an arbitrary point called center
of projection, through each point in an object.
 If the center of projection is located at a finite point in
three space, the result is a perspective projection.
 If the center of projection is located at a infinity then
all the projectors are parallel and the result is a
perspective projection.
 In developing the various transformations two
approaches can be used.
 The first assumes that the center of projection or eye
point is fixed and that the plane of projection is
perpendicular to the viewing direction.
 The second assumes that the object is fixed and center
of projection is free to move anywhere in three space
and that the plane of projection is not necessarily
perpendicular to the viewing direction.
 Both approaches are mathematically equivalent.
 We can define a parallel projection with a projection vector that
defines the direction for the projection lines.
2 types:
 Orthographic : when the projectors are perpendicular to the
plane of projection. In short,
◦ direction of projection = normal to the projection plane.
◦ the projection is perpendicular to the view plane.
 Oblique : when the projection is not perpendicular to the view
plane. In short,
◦ direction of projection  normal to the projection plane.
◦ Not perpendicular.
 Orthographic Oblique
projection projection

when the projection is when the projection is

perpendicular to the not perpendicular to the
view plane view plane

13
 They accurately show correct or true size and shape of
a single plane face of an object.
 Orthographic projections are projections onto one of
the coordinate planes x=0, y=0, z=0.
 Matrix for projection onto the z=0 plane is
1 0 0 0
[Pz] = 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
[Px]= 0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
[PY]= 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
 Orthographic projection of the object in fig onto the
x=0, y=0 and z=0 planes from center of projection at
infinity on the +x, +y and +z axes are shown in fig.
 A single orthographic projection does not provide
sufficient information to visually and practically
reconstruct the shape of an object
 Multiple orthographic projections are necessary.
 The front, right side and top views are obtained by
projection onto the z=0, x=0 and y=0 planes from
centers of projection at infinity on the +x, +y and +z
axes .
 The rear, left side and bottom view projections are
obtained by projection onto the z=0, x=0, y=0 planes
from center of projection at infinity on the –z, -x and -y
axes.
 All six views are normally not required to convey the
shape of an object. The front, top and right side views
are most frequently used.
 For objects with planes that are not parallel to one of
the coordinate planes, the standard orthographic views
do not show the correct or true shape of these planes.
 Auxiliary views are used for this purpose.
 An auxiliary view is formed by rotating and translating
the object so that the normal to the auxiliary plane is
coincident with one of the coordinate axes.
 The result is then projected onto the coordinate plane
perpendicular to that axis.
 An axonometric projection is constructed by
manipulating the object, using rotations and
translations, such that at least three adjacent faces are
shown.
 The result is then projected from center of projection at
infinity onto one of the coordinate planes, usually the
z=0 plane.
 Unless a face is parallel to the plane of projection, an
axonometric projection does not show its true shape.
 However, the relative lengths of originally parallel line
remain constant i.e. parallel lines are equally
foreshortened.
 The foreshortened factor is the ratio of the projected
length of a line to its true length.
 There are three axonometric projections:
• Trimetric
• Dimetric
• Isometric
 A trimetric projection is formed by arbitrary rotations,
in arbitrary order, about any or all of the coordinate
axes, followed by parallel projection onto the z=0
plane.
 A dimetric projection is a trimetric projection with two
of the three foreshortening factors equal; the third is
arbitrary.
 In isometric projection all three foreshortening factors
are equal.
 An oblique projection is formed by parallel projectors from a
center of projection at infinite that intersect the plane of
projection at an oblique angle.
 Only faces of the object parallel to the plane of projection are
shown at their true size and shape i.e. angles and lengths are
preserved for these faces only.
 Faces not parallel to the plane of projection are distorted.
 2 common oblique parallel projections:
◦ Cavalier and Cabinet
 Cavalier projection:
All lines perpendicular to the projection plane are
projected with no change in length.
Cabinet projection:
 Lines which are perpendicular to the projection plane
(viewing surface) are projected at 1 / 2 the length .
 This results in foreshortening of the z axis, and provides a
more “realistic” view.
 Perspective:
◦ Perspective projection is a form of pictorial drawing that gives the
illusion of depth onto a flat surface, very similar to that of viewing of
the object through the human eye.
◦ visual effect is similar to human visual system...
◦ has 'perspective foreshortening'
 size of object varies inversely with distance from the center of
projection. Projection of a distant object are smaller than the
projection of objects of the same size that are closer to the
projection plane.
 When a 3D object is projected onto view plane using
perspective transformation equations, any set of parallel lines
in the object that are not parallel to the projection plane,
converge at a vanishing point.
◦ There are an infinite number of vanishing points,
depending on how many set of parallel lines there are in the
scene.
 If a set of lines are parallel to one of the three principle axes,
the vanishing point is called an principal vanishing point.
◦ There are at most 3 such points, corresponding to the
number of axes cut by the projection plane.
• Certain set of parallel lines appear to meet at a different point
– The Vanishing point for this direction
• Principal vanishing points are formed by the apparent
intersection of lines parallel to one of the three principal x, y, z
axes.
• The number of principal vanishing points is determined by the
number of principal axes intersected by the view plane.
 One-Point Perspective
 Two-Point Perspective
 Three-Point Perspective
◦ This is often used in architectural, engineering and industrial
design drawings.
 Three-point perspective projection is used less
frequently as it adds little extra realism to that offered
by two-point perspective projection