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Algebra Formulas
1. Set identities
Definitions:
I: Universal set
A: Complement
Empty set:

Union of sets
A B = { x | x A or x B}

Identity

A = A
A I = A
Set identities involving union, intersection and
complement
complement of intersection and union

A A = I
A A =
De Morgans laws

Intersection of sets
A B = { x | x A and x B}

Complement
A = { x I | x A}

Difference of sets
B \ A = { x | x B and x A}

Cartesian product
A B = {( x, y ) | x A and y B}

( A B ) = A B
( A B ) = A B
Set identities involving difference
B \ A = B ( A B)

B \ A = B A
A\ A=

( A \ B) C = ( A C) \ (B C)
A = I \ A

Set identities involving union

Commutativity

A B = B A
Associativity

A (B C ) = ( A B) C
Idempotency

A A = A
Set identities involving intersection
commutativity

A B = B A
Associativity

A (B C) = ( A B) C
Idempotency

A A = A
Set identities involving union and intersection
Distributivity

A (B C) = ( A B) ( A C)
A (B C) = ( A B) ( A C)
Domination

A =
A I = I

2. Sets of Numbers
Definitions:
N: Natural numbers
No: Whole numbers
Z: Integers
+
Z : Positive integers
Z : Negative integers
Q: Rational numbers
C: Complex numbers

Natural numbers (counting numbers )

N = {1, 2, 3,... }

Whole numbers ( counting numbers + zero )

N o = {0, 1, 2, 3,... }

Integers

Z + = N = {1, 2, 3,... }
Z = {..., 3, 2, 1 }
Z = Z {0} Z = .{ .., 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,... }

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Roots of complex numbers
Irrational numbers:

Nonerepeating and nonterminating integers

Real numbers:
Union of rational and irrational numbers

1
+ 2k
+ 2k

r ( cos + sin ) n = r n cos

+ sin

n
n

From this the n nth roots can be obtained by putting k = 0,

1, 2, . . ., n - 1

Complex numbers:
C = { x + iy | x R and y R}

4. Factoring and product

N Z QRC

Factoring Formulas
a 2 b 2 = ( a b )( a + b )

(
= (a + b)(a

)
ab + b )

3. Complex numbers

a 3 b3 = ( a b ) a 2 + ab + b 2

Definitions:

a3 + b3

A complex nuber is written as a + bi where a and b are

real numbers an i, called the imaginary unit, has the
2
property that i =-1.
The complex numbers a+bi and a-bi are called complex
conjugate of each other.

Equality of complex numbers

a + bi = c + di if and only if a = c and b = d

Addition of complex numbers

a 4 b 4 = ( a b)( a + b)( a 2 + b 2 )

a 5 b5 = ( a b ) a 4 + a 3b + a 2 b 2 + ab3 + b 4

Product Formulas
( a + b) 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
( a b) 2 = a 2 2ab + b 2

(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i

(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a 2b + 3ab2 + b3

Subtraction of complex numbers

(a b)3 = a3 3a 2b + 3ab 2 b3

(a + bi) - (c + di) = (a - c) + (b - d)i

Multiplication of complex numbers

(a + bi)(c + di) = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i

Division of complex numbers

a + bi a + bi c di ac + bd bc ad
=

=
+
i
c + di c + di c di c 2 + d 2 c 2 + d 2

(a + b)

= a 4 + 4a 3 b + 6 a 2 b 2 + 4ab3 + b 4

( a b )4 = a 4 4a3b + 6a 2 b2 4ab3 + b4
(a + b + c)2 = a 2 + b2 + c 2 + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc
(a + b + c + ...) 2 = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + ...2(ab + ac + bc + ...)

Polar form of complex numbers

x + iy = r ( cos + i sin )

r modulus, amplitude

Multiplication and division in polar form

r1 ( cos 1 + i sin 1 ) r2 ( cos 2 + i sin 2 ) =
= r1r2 cos (1 + 2 ) + i sin (1 + 2 )

r1 ( cos1 + sin1 )

r
= 1 cos (1 2 ) + sin (1 2 )
r2 ( cos2 + sin 2 ) r2
De Moivres theorem
n

r ( cos + sin ) = r n ( cos n + sin n )

5. Algebric equations
Quadric Eqation: ax2 + bx + c = 0
Solutions (roots):

x1,2

b b2 4ac
=
2a
2

if D=b -4ac is the discriminant, then the roots are

(i) real and unique if D > 0
(ii) real and equal if D = 0
(iii) complex conjugate if D < 0

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Cubic Eqation: x3 + a1 x 2 + a2 x + a3 = 0
Let

3a2 a12
Q=
,
9

9a1a2 27a3 2a13

R=
54

S = 3 R + Q3 + R2 ,

T = 3 R Q3 + R2

then solutions are:

1
x1 = S + T a1
3
1
1
1
x2 = ( S + T ) a1 + i 3 ( S T )
2
3
2
1
1
1
x3 = ( S + T ) a1 i 3 ( S T )
2
3
2
3

if D = Q + R is the discriminant, then:

(i) one root is real and two complex conjugate if D > 0
(ii) all roots are real and at last two are equal if D = 0
(iii) all roots are real and unequal if D < 0

Cuadric Eqation: x4 + a1x3 + a2 x2 + a3x + a4 = 0

Let y1 be a real root of the cubic equation

y3 a2 y2 + ( a1a3 4a4 ) y + 4a2 a4 a32 a12 a4 = 0

Solution are the 4 roots of

z2 +

1
1
a1 a12 4a2 + 4y1 z + y1 y12 4a4 = 0
2
2

) (