Turning Circles and Stopping Distances

The advance of a ship for a given alteration of course is the distance that her compass platform
moves in the direction of her original line of advance, measured from the point where the rudder
is put over.
The transfer of a ship for a given alteration of course is the distance that her compass platform
moves at right-angles to her original line of advance, measured from the point where the rudder
is put over

Drift angle

Consider the paths described by various parts of a ship turning under rudder when steaming
ahead, see figure above. Each point in the ship must follow a path approximately concentric
with that described by the centre of gravity. The angle made by the tangent to the curved path of
any point with the fore-and-aft line is known as the drift angle at that point at any given instant.
The drift angle has its highest value at the stern and it diminishes gradually along the Fore-andaft line in the forward direction until a point is reached, usually nearer the bow than the stern,
where it is zero. Forward from this point the drift angle gradually increases in the opposite
direction. When drift angle is quoted the value given is normally that measured at the centre of
gravity.

The tactical diameter is the amount that the compass platform has moved at right-angles to the
ships original line of advance when she has turned through 180 degrees. In other words, it is the
transfer for an alteration of course of 180 degrees.
The following factors determine the acceleration powers of a ship.
The momentum of the ship depends upon the mass of the ship and the speed of the ship. Thus a
lighter ship will gain or lose speed faster than a deeply loaded ship. If a large tanker is taken as
an example then at the same speed it will travel longer after the engine is stopped when the
tanker is in full load condition. The reverse will happen when the tanker is on ballast that is it
will travel a lesser distance. For starting up also after the first movement is given a loaded tanker
will come to the designed speed slower than the same tanker when it ballast.
The shape of the underwater part of the hull also plays an important part. Two tankers of the
same displacement would have entirely different accelerating and decelerating speeds. The
tanker which has finer lines than the other would be able to travel further after the engines are
stopped as well as start and reach the designed speed faster.
Another factor is the condition of the ships bottom and the underwater part of the hull. If the
undersides are fouled with marine growth then there would be a drag and the effect on the start
up would not be that affected but the travel distance after the engines are stopped would be
shorter.
If the under keel clearance is low then the effect is both ways that is the ship will take longer to
reach her designed speed from stop as well as she travel longer when the engines are stopped.
Rates of gaining and losing speed
Knowledge of the rate at which a ship gains or loses speed in different circumstances is
invaluable when manoeuvring in congested waters. These rates depend chiefly on the
displacement of the ship, her condition of loading, her draught, the power of her engines, the size
of her propellers and the depth of water. The corresponding rates for one ship will differ largely
from those of another, and the rates for a particular ship may change considerably with her
condition of loading.
When increasing or decreasing speed by changing the ahead revolutions, the rate of acceleration
or deceleration is affected by so many factors and varies so much in different parts of the total

speed range that it is difficult to recommend any practical method of allowing for accurately
when manoeuvring. It is common practice to use a standard figure for the ship under all
conditions (e.g. 100 metres per knot for a heavy ship). It must be realized that this method may
prove extremely inaccurate in certain circumstances, and the ship handier should be prepared to
make bold and rapid adjustments of speed during a manoeuvre if it appears that the estimate is
wrong.
FACTORS AFFECTING SPEED
Foul bottom
If a ship lies for long in harbour, particularly in a tropical harbour, her bottom becomes fouled by
weeds, barnacles and other marine parasites or growths, and the speed attainable with a given
number of revolutions is reduced.
The growth accumulated during 6 months would cause a reduction of about 10 per cent. Thus
normal revolutions for 15 knots would give only 13 knots through the water.
Shallow water
When a ship is moving in shallow water the gap between the ships hull and the bottom is
restricted, the streamline flow of water past the hull is altered and the result is seen as a greatly
increased transverse wave formation at the bows and again at the stern. In fact, the increased
size of the stern wave is a sure indication of the presence of shallow water. The energy expended
in the waves formed by the ship is a loss from the power available to drive her, and therefore in
shallow water her speed is reduced.
Furthermore, the restricted flow of water past the stern reduces propeller efficiency, which also
tends to reduce her speed. Usually, the higher the speed the more pronounced is the reduction of
speed.

FACTORS AFFECTING A SHIPS HANDLING QUALITIES

Draught, trim and loading
On a general cargo ship or tanker the difference between the turning qualities when lightly laden
and when fully laden is very marked. When deeply laden a cargo ship has a much larger turning
circle than when lightly laden, and she is more sluggish in answering her rudder.
Trim by the stern usually increases the tactical diameter, but helps a ship to keep her course more
easily when on a steady course. When trimmed by the bows her turning circle is likely to be
decreased; she does not answer her wheel as readily as usual, and once she has started to swing it
is more difficult to check her. The effect of trimming is to move the ships pivoting point
towards the deeper end.
List
The effect of a list is to hinder a turn in the direction of the list and assist a turn away from it. A
list to port decreases the tactical diameter of a ship turning to starboard, and vice versa.
Speed
The effect of speed on tactical diameter will vary from one type of ship to another. Often higher
speed may lead to a greater tactical diameter because the rudder may stall. Modern rudders, on
smaller ships, however, are able to operate satisfactorily at higher water speeds and greater
angles, and hence the tactical diameter may not vary much with speed. Indeed, on some ships
there is a best speed giving the minimum tactical diameter and at higher or lower speeds the
tactical diameter is greater. Watchkeeping officers should be fully aware of the,effect of speed
on the turning qualities of their ship.
Shallow water
These effects may become excessive if the depth of water is less than one-and-a-half times the
draught, particularly if the ship enters such water at high speed. She may become directionally
unstable and fail to answer her rudder at all, and the draught aft may increase so greatly as to
cause the propellers to touch bottom.
The effects are likely to be particularly pronounced in ships where the propeller slipstream does
not play directly on to the rudder. The effects of shallow water on steering in restricted waters

such as canals or rivers are usually worse than in the open sea, and are more likely to have
dangerous results. The only way to regain control is to reduce speed drastically at once.
When manoeuvring at slow speed or turning at rest in a confined space in shallow water, the
expected effects from the rudder and the propellers may not appear. Water cannot flow easily
from one side of the ship to the other, so that the sideways force from the propellers may in fact
be opposite to what usually occurs. Eddies may build up that counteract the propeller forces and
the expected action of the rudder. Stopping the engines to allow the eddies to subside, and then
starting again with reduced revolutions, is more likely to be successful.
Effect of hull form on turning circle
A ship of fine underwater form (container ship) will turn in a larger circle than a ship of similar
length and draught but of fuller form (tanker). Modern container ships are generally of great
length in proportion to beam and thus tend to have large turning circles. The shape of the
underwater part of the hull aft, particularly the cut-up area, as shown in Figure, has a most
important effect on the size of the turning circle.

Effect of cut-up area on turning qualities

The ship with the larger cut-up area ABC will have a smaller turning circle than the one with the
smaller cut-up area ADX
Effect of single screw on turning circle
In a ship fitted with a single right-handed fixed-pitch screw (most of the ships) the sideways
force exerted by the propeller creates a tendency for the ship to turn to port when going ahead.
With a left-handed controllable-pitch propeller the effect is reversed, the ship turning more easily

to starboard, hence the turning circle with this type of propeller is usually of smaller diameter
when turning to starboard than when turning to port.
TURNING
Effect of a turn on speed
The effect of the drag of the rudder and the sideways drift of the ship will result in a progressive
loss of speed while turning, even though the engine revolutions are maintained at a constant
figure. For alterations of course of up to 20 degrees the reduction of speed may not be very
great, but for those between 20 degrees and 90 degrees the speed usually falls off rapidly. For
alterations exceeding 90 degrees the speed may continue to fall slightly, but it usually remains
more or less steady. The rate of deceleration depends upon the initial speed of the ship and the
angle of rudder applied, and it varies greatly between different types of ship.
Roughly, most medium sized ships when under full wheel will have lost about one-third of their
original speed after turning through 90 degrees, and their speed will then remain steady as the
turn continues.
The time taken to turn through a given angle depends on the initial speed and the angle of rudder
applied; usually the faster the speed and the greater the rudder angle the sooner will the turn be
completed.
Heel when turning
The initial heel when the wheel is put over is inwards, because the rudder force is acting at a
point below the centre of gravity of the ship. As the ship begins to turn, the centripetal force on
the hull (which is greater than the rudder force), acting through water pressure at a point below
the centre of gravity, overcomes the tendency to heel inwards and causes her to heel outwards.
This outward heel is very noticeable when turning at good speed. If the wheel is eased quickly
the angle of outward heel will increase, because the counteractive rudder force is removed while
the centripetal force remains, until the rate of turning decreases. Should an alarming heel
develop, speed should be reduced instantly.