UWE - Soil Mechanics PDF

Soil mechanics
Based on part of the GeotechniCAL reference package

by Prof. John Atkinson, City University, London
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Soil mechanics
Basic mechanics of soils

Description and classification
Effective stress
Volume change
Shear strength
Soil mechanics describes the mechanical behaviour of a granular material as it is compressed or sheared
and as water flows though it.
To design of structures in the ground we need to describe
soil strength
soil compressibility and stiffness
seepage
Basic theories
friction
logarithmic compression
plasticity
Darcy seepage
Volume change
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Soil mechanics
Compression and swelling

Consolidation
Compaction
Saturated soil contains only mineral grains and water. Both are relatively incompressible so the
volume can only change if water can drain out. In unsaturated soil volume changes can occur as
air compresses or bleeds out. In both cases loading will bring the grains closer together and the
specific volume will reduce.
1. Reduction in volume leads to
2. increase in strength
3. increase in stiffness
4. settlement of foundations
If soil is unloaded it will swell as the grains move apart. Swelling leads to reduction in strength
and stiffness and heave of excavations.
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Analysis of stress and strain

Strength
Stiffness
Material behaviour
Loads from foundations and walls apply stresses in the ground. Settlements are caused by strains in the
ground. To analyse the conditions within a material under loading, we must consider the stress-strain
behaviour. The relationship between a strain and stress is termed stiffness. The maximum value of stress
that may be sustained is termed strength.
Back to Basic mechanics of soils
Special stress and strain states

Mohr circle construction
Parameters for stress and strain
Stresses and strains occur in all directions and to do settlement and stability analyses it is often necessary
to relate the stresses in a particular direction to those in other directions.
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normal
stress
= Fn / A
shear stress
= Fs / A
normal strain
= z / zo
shear strain
= h / zo
Note that compressive stresses and strains are positive, counter-clockwise shear stress and strain are
positive, and that these are total stresses (see effective stress).
Special stress and strain states
In general, the stresses and strains in the three

dimensions will all be different.
There are three special cases which are important
in ground engineering:
General case
Axially symmetric or triaxial states

Stresses and strains in two dorections are equal.
'x = 'y and x = y
Relevant to conditions near relatively small
foundations, piles, anchors and other concentrated
loads.
princpal stresses
Plane strain:
Strain in one direction = 0
y = 0
Relevant to conditions near long foundations,
embankments, retaining walls and other long
structures.
One-dimensional compression:
Strain in two directions = 0
x = y = 0
Relevant to conditions below wide foundations or
relatively thin compressible soil layers.
Uniaxial compression
'x = 'y = 0
This is an artifical case which is only possible for
soil is there are negative pore water pressures.
Mohr circle construction
Back to Analysis of stress and strain Forward to Parameters
Values of normal stress and shear stress must relate to

a particular plane within an element of soil. In general,
the stresses on another plane will be different.
To visualise the stresses on all the possible planes, a
graph called the Mohr circle is drawn by plotting a
(normal stress, shear stress) point for a plane at every
possible angle.
There are special planes on which the shear stress

is zero (i.e. the circle crosses the normal stress
axis), and the state of stress (i.e. the circle) can be
described by the normal stresses acting on these
planes; these are called the principal stresses '1
and '3 .
Parameters for stress and strain
In common soil tests, cylindrical samples are used in which the axial and radial stresses and strains are
principal stresses and strains. For analysis of test data, and to develop soil mechanics theories, it is usual
to combine these into mean (or normal) components which influence volume changes, and deviator (or
shearing) components which influence shape changes.
stress
mean
deviator
strain
p' = ('a + 2'r) / 3 ev = V/V = (a + 2r)

s' = 'a + 'r) / 2
q' = ('a - 'r)
t' = ('a - 'r) / 2
n = (a + r)
es = 2 (a - r) / 3
= (a - r)
In the Mohr circle construction t' is the radius of the circle and s'
defines its centre.
Note: Total and effective stresses are related to pore pressure u:
p' = p - u
s' = s - u
q' = q
t' = t
Strength
Back to Basic mechanics of soils
Types of failure
Strength criteria
Typical values of shear strength
The shear strength of a material is most simply described as the maximum shear
stress it can sustain: When the shear stress is increased, the shear strain increases;
there will be a limiting condition at which the shear strain becomes very large and
the material fails; the shear stress f is then the shear strength of the material. The
simple type of failure shown here is associated with ductile or plastic materials. If
the material is brittle (like a piece of chalk), the failure may be sudden and
catastrophic with loss of strength after failure.
Types of failure
Back to Strength
Materials can fail under different loading conditions. In each case, however, failure is associated with
the limiting radius of the Mohr circle, i.e. the maximum shear stress. The following common examples
are shown in terms of total stresses:
Shearing
Shear strength = f
nf = normal stress at failure
Uniaxial extension
Tensile strength tf = 2f
Uniaxial compression
Compressive strength cf = 2f
Note:
Water has no strength f = 0.
Hence vertical and horizontal stresses are equal and the Mohr circle becomes a point.
Strength criteria
Back to Strength
A strength criterion is a formula which relates the strength of a material to some other parameters: these
are material parameters and may include other stresses.
For soils there are three important strength criteria: the correct criterion depends on the nature of the soil
and on whether the loading is drained or undrained.
In General, course grained soils will "drain" very quickly (in engineering terms) following loading.
Thefore development of excess pore pressure will not occur; volume change associated with increments
of effective stress will control the behaviour and the Mohr-Coulomb criteria will be valid.
Fine grained saturated soils will respond to loading initially by generating excess pore water pressures
and remaining at constant volume. At this stage the Tresca criteria, which uses total stress to represent
undrained behaviour, should be used. This is the short term or immediate loading response. Once the
pore pressure has dissapated, after a certain time, the effective stresses have incresed and the MohrCoulomb criterion will describe the strength mobilised. This is the long term loading response.
Tresca criterion
Mohr-Coulomb (c=0) criterion
Mohr-Coulomb (c>0) criterion
Tresca criterion
Back to Strength criteria Forward to Mohr-Coulomb (c=0)
The strength is independent of the normal stress

since the response to loading simple increases the
pore water pressure and not the effective stress.
The shear strength f is a material parameter which is
known as the undrained shear strength su.
f = (a - r) = constant
Mohr-Coulomb (c'=0) criterion
Back to Strength criteria Forward to Mohr-Coulomb

(c>0)
The strength increases linearly with increasing

normal stress and is zero when the normal stress is
zero.
'f = 'n tan'
' is the angle of friction
In the Mohr-Coulomb criterion the material
parameter is the angle of friction and materials
which meet this criterion are known as frictional. In
soils, the Mohr-Coulomb criterion applies when the
normal stress is an effective normal stress.
>Mohr-Coulomb (c'>0) criterion

The strength increases linearly with increasing
normal stress and is positive when the normal stress
is zero.
Back to Strength criteria
'f = c' + 'n tan'

' is the angle of friction
c' is the 'cohesion' intercept
In soils, the Mohr-Coulomb criterion applies when
the normal stress is an effective normal stress. In
soils, the cohesion in the effective stress Mohr-Coulomb criterion is not the same as the cohesion (or
undrained strength su) in the Tresca criterion.
Typical values of shear strength
Back to Strength
Undrained shear strength su (kPa)

Hard soil
su > 150 kPa
Stiff soil
su = 75 ~ 150 kPa
Firm soil
su = 40 ~ 75 kPa
Soft soil
su = 20 ~ 40kPa
Very soft soil
su < 20 kPa
Drained shear strength
c (kPa)
(deg)
Compact sands
35 - 45
Loose sands
30 - 35
Unweathered overconsolidated clay

critical state
18 ~
25
peak state
10 ~ 25 kPa
20 ~
28
residual
0 ~ 5 kPa
8 ~ 15
Often the value of c' deduced from laboratory test results (in the shear testing apperatus) may appear to
indicate some shar strength at ' = 0. i.e. the particles 'cohereing' together or are 'cemented' in some way.
Often this is due to fitting a c', ' line to the experimental data and an 'apparent' cohesion may be
deduced due to suction or dilatancy.
Produced by Dr. Leslie Davison, University of the West of England, Bristol, May 2000
in association with Prof. Sarah Springman, Swiss Federal Technical Institute, Zurich
Soil classification
Description & classification

Basic characteristics of soils
Soil as an engineering material

Size range of grains
Identification
Shape of grains
SAND grains
CLAY grains
Specific surface
Composition of grains
Structure or fabric
Back to home page

Soil description and classification
Origins, formation and mineralogy
Origins of soils from rocks

Weathering of rocks
Clay minerals
Transportation and deposition
Loading and drainage history
Grading and composition
Coarse soils
Particle size tests

Simulation
Typical grading curves
Grading characteristics
Sieve analysis example
Fine soils
Consistency
Simulation
Plasticity index
Plasticity chart
Activity
Specific gravity

Volume-weight properties
Current state of soil
British Standard system
It is necessary to adopt a formal system of soil description and classification in order to

describe the various materials found in ground investigation. Such a system must be
comprehensive (covering all but the rarest of deposits), meaningful in an engineering
context (so that engineers will be able to understand and interpret) and yet relatively
concise. It is important to distinguish between description and classification:
Description of soil is a statement describing the physical nature and state of the soil. It
can be a description of a sample, or a soil in situ. It is arrived at using visual
examination, simple tests, observation of site conditions, geological history, etc.
Soil classification is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar
characteristics and potentially similar behaviour. A classification for engineering
purposes should be based mainly on mechanical properties, e.g. permeability, stiffness,
strength. The class to which a soil belongs can be used in its description.
Volume: the soil model

Simulation
Degree of saturation
Air-voids content
Masses of solid and water
Densities and unit weights
Laboratory measurements
Water content
Unit weight
Field measurements
Deposition and erosion

Ageing
Density index
Liquidity index
Predicting stiffness and strength
BS system for description and classification
BS description system

Shape of grains
Structure or fabric
Soils consist of grains (mineral grains,

rock fragments, etc.) with water and air in
the voids between grains. The water and
air contents are readily changed by
changes in conditions and location: soils
can be perfectly dry (have no water
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Soil classification
Definitions of terms
British Soil Classification System
content) or be fully saturated (have no air

content) or be partly saturated (with both
air and water present). Although the size
and shape of the solid (granular) content
rarely changes at a given point, they can
vary considerably from point to point.
First of all, consider soil as a engineering

material - it is not a coherent solid
material like steel and concrete, but is a
particulate material. It is important to
understand the significance of particle size, shape and composition, and of a soil's
internal structure or fabric.

The term "soil" means different things to different people: To a geologist it represents
the products of past surface processes. To a pedologist it represents currently occurring
physical and chemical processes. To an engineer it is a material that can be:
built on: foundations to buildings, bridges.
built in: tunnels, culverts, basements.
built with: roads, runways, embankments, dams.
supported: retaining walls, quays.
Soils may be described in different ways by different people for their different
purposes. Engineers' descriptions give engineering terms that will convey some sense of
a soil's current state and probable susceptibility to future changes (e.g. in loading,
drainage, structure, surface level).
Engineers are primarily interested in a soil's mechanical properties: strength, stiffness,
permeability. These depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress,
the water content and unit weight.
Aids to size identification
Soil classification
The range of particle sizes encountered in soil is very large: from boulders with a
controlling dimension of over 200mm down to clay particles less than 0.002mm (2m).
Some clays contain particles less than 1 in size which behave as colloids, i.e. do not
settle in water due solely to gravity.
In theBritish Soil Classification System, soils are classified into named Basic Soil Type
groups according to size, and the groups further divided into coarse, medium and fine
sub-groups:
Very coarse BOULDERS

soils
COBBLES
Coarse
soils
60 - 200 mm
coarse 20 - 60 mm
G
medium 6 - 20 mm
GRAVEL
fine
2 - 6 mm
coarse
S
SAND
Fine
soils
> 200 mm
M
SILT
0.6 - 2.0 mm
medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm

fine
0.06 - 0.2 mm
coarse
0.02 - 0.06 mm
medium 0.006 - 0.02 mm

fine
C CLAY
0.002 - 0.006 mm
< 0.002 mm

Soils possess a number of physical characteristics which can be used as aids to size
identification in the field. A handful of soil rubbed through the fingers can yield the
following:
SAND (and coarser) particles are visible to the naked eye.
SILT particles become dusty when dry and are easily brushed off hands and boots.
CLAY particles are greasy and sticky when wet and hard when dry, and have to be
scraped or washed off hands and boots.
Soil classification
Shape of grains
Shape characteristics of SAND grains

Shape characteristics of CLAY grains
Specific surface
The majority of soils may be regarded as either SANDS or CLAYS:

SANDS include gravelly sands and gravel-sands. Sand grains are generally broken rock
particles that have been formed by physical weathering, or they are the resistant
components of rocks broken down by chemical weathering. Sand grains generally have
a rotund shape.
CLAYS include silty clays and clay-silts; there are few pure silts (e.g. areas formed by
windblown Less). Clay grains are usually the product of chemical weathering or rocks
and soils. Clay particles have a flaky shape.
There are major differences in engineering behaviour between SANDS and CLAYS (e.
g. in permeability, compressibility, shrinking/swelling potential). The shape and size of
the soil grains has an important bearing on these differences.
Shape of grains

SAND and larger-sized grains are rotund. Coarse soil grains (silt-sized, sand-sized and
larger) have different shape characteristics and surface roughness depending on the
amount of wear during transportation (by water, wind or ice), or after crushing in
manufactured aggregates. They have a relatively low specific surface (surface area).
Click on a link below to see the shape
Rounded: Water- or air-worn; transported sediments
Irregular: Irregular shape with round edges; glacial
sediments (sometimes sub-divided into 'sub-rounded' and
'sub-angular')
Angular: Flat faces and sharp edges; residual soils, grits
Flaky: Thickness small compared to length/breadth; clays
Elongated: Length larger than breadth/thickness; scree,
broken flagstone
Flaky & Elongated: Length>Breadth>Thickness; broken schists and slates
Soil classification
Shape of grains

CLAY particles are flaky. Their thickness is very small relative to their length &
breadth, in some cases as thin as 1/100th of the length. They therefore have high to very
high specific surface values. These surfaces carry a small negative electrical charge,
that will attract the positive end of water molecules. This charge depends on the soil
mineral and may be affected by an electrolite in the pore water. This causes some
additional forces between the soil grains which are proportional to the specific surface.
Thus a lot of water may be held asadsorbed water within a clay mass.
Shape of grains
Specific surface
Examples
Specific surface is the ratio of surface area per unit wight.

Surface forces are proportional to surface area (i.e. to d).
Self-weight forces are proportional to volume (i.e. to d).
Surface force
self weight forces

area
Also, specific surface =
* volume
Therefore
1
d
1
d
Hence, specific surface is a measure of the relative contributions of surface forces and
self-weight forces.
The specific surface of a 1mm cube of quartz ( = 2.65gm/cm) is 0.00023 m/N
Soil classification
SAND grains (size 2.0 - 0.06mm) are close to cubes or spheres in shape, and have
specific surfaces near the minimum value.
CLAY particles are flaky and have much greater specific surface values.
Examples of specific surface

The more elongated or flaky a particle is the greater will be
its specific surface.
Click on the following examples:
cubes, rods, sheets
Examples of mineral grain specific surfaces:
Mineral/Soil
Grain width
Specific Surface
Thickness
m/N
d (m)
Quartz grain
100
0.0023
Quartz sand
2.0 - 0.06
0.0001 - 0.004
Kaolinite
2.0 - 0.3
0.2d
Illite
2.0 - 0.2
0.1d
Montmorillonite
1.0 - 0.01
0.01d
80
See also clay minerals
Structure or fabric
Natural soils are rarely the same from one point in the ground to another. The content
and nature of grains varies, but more importantly, so does the arrangement of these.
The arrangement and organisation of particles and other features within a soil mass is
termed its structure or fabric. This includes bedding orientation, stratification, layer
thickness, the occurrence of joints and fissures, the occurrence of voids, artefacts, tree
roots and nodules, the presence of cementing or bonding agents between grains.
Structural features can have a major influence on in situ properties.
Vertical and horizontal permeabilities will be different in alternating layers of

fine and coarse soils.
The presence of fissures affects some aspects of strength.
The presence of layers or lenses of different stiffness can affect stability.
The presence of cementing or bonding influences strength and stiffness.
Soil classification

Weathering of rocks
Clay minerals
Soils are the results of geological events (except for the very small amount produced by
man). The nature and structure of a given soil depends on the geological processes that
formed it:
breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion.
transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind.
environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial moraine, lacustrine
or marine.
subsequent conditions of loading and drainage - little or no surcharge, heavy surcharge
due to ice or overlying deposits, change from saline to freshwater, leaching,
contamination.

All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from solid rocks in the Earth's crust:
igneous rocks
crystalline bodies of cooled magma
e.g. granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro, syenite, porphyry
sedimentary rocks
layers of consolidated and cemented sediments, mostly formed in bodies of water (seas,
lakes, etc.)
e.g. limestone, sandstones, mudstone, shale, conglomerate
metamorphic rocks
formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from igneous intrusions (e.g.
marble, quartzite, hornfels) or pressure due to crustal movement (e.g. slate, schist,
gneiss).
Weathering of rocks
Soil classification
Physical weathering
Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the Earth's surface, including the
actions of water, frost, temperature changes, wind and ice; cause disintegration and
wearing. The products are mainly coarse soils (silts, sands and gravels). Physical
weathering produces Very Coarse soils and Gravels consisting of broken rock particles,
but Sands and Silts will be mainly consists of mineral grains.
Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering occurs in wet and warm conditions and consists of degradation by
decomposition and/or alteration. The results of chemical weathering are generally fine
soils with separate mineral grains, such as Clays and Clay-Silts. The type of clay
mineral depends on the parent rock and on local drainage. Some minerals, such as
quartz, are resistant to the chemical weathering and remain unchanged.
quartz
A resistant and enduring mineral found in many rocks (e.g. granite, sandstone). It is the
principal constituent of sands and silts, and the most abundant soil mineral. It occurs as
equidimensional hard grains.
haematite
A red iron (ferric) oxide: resistant to change, results from extreme weathering. It is
responsible for the widespread red or pink colouration in rocks and soils. It can form a
cement in rocks, or a duricrust in soils in arid climates.
micas
Flaky minerals present in many igneous rocks. Some are resistant, e.g. muscovite; some
are broken down, e.g. biotite.
clay minerals
These result mainly from the breakdown of feldspar minerals. They are very flaky and
therefore have very large surface areas. They are major constituents of clay soils,
although clay soil also contains silt sized particles.
Clay minerals
Clay minerals are produced mainly from the chemical weathering and decomposition of
feldspars, such as orthoclase and plagioclase, and some micas. They are small in size
Soil classification
and very flaky in shape.

The key to some of the
properties of clay soils, e.g.
plasticity, compressibility,
swelling/shrinkage potential,
lies in the structure of clay
minerals.
There are three main groups of
clay minerals:
kaolinites
(include kaolinite, dickite and
nacrite) formed by the
decomposition of orthoclase
feldspar (e.g. in granite); kaolin
is the principal constituent in
china clay and ball clay.
illites
(include illite and glauconite) are the commonest clay minerals; formed by the
decomposition of some micas and feldspars; predominant in marine clays and shales (e.
g. London clay, Oxford clay).
montmorillonites
(also called smectites or fullers' earth minerals) (include calcium and sodium
momtmorillonites, bentonite and vermiculite) formed by the alteration of basic igneous
rocks containing silicates rich in Ca and Mg; weak linkage by cations (e.g. Na+, Ca++)
results in high swelling/shrinking potential
For more information on mineralogy see http://mineral.gly.bris.ac.uk/mineralogy/

The effects of weathering and transportation largely determine the basic nature of the
soil (i.e. the size, shape, composition and distribution of the grains). The environment
into which deposition takes place, and subsequent geological events that take place
there, largely determine the state of the soil, (i.e. density, moisture content) and the
structure or fabric of the soil (i.e. bedding, stratification, occurrence of joints or
fissures, tree roots, voids, etc.)
Transportation
Due to combinations of gravity, flowing water or air, and moving ice. In water or air:
grains become sub-rounded or rounded, grain sizes are sorted, producing poorly-graded
deposits. In moving ice: grinding and crushing occur, size distribution becomes wider,
deposits are well-graded, ranging from rock flour to boulders.
Deposition
In flowing water, larger particles are deposited as velocity drops, e.g. gravels in river
Soil classification
terraces, sands in floodplains and estuaries, silts and clays in lakes and seas. In still
water: horizontal layers of successive sediments are formed, which may change with
time, even seasonally or daily.
Deltaic & shelf deposits: often vary both horizontally and vertically.
From glaciers, deposition varies from well-graded basal tills and boulder clays to
poorly-graded deposits in moraines and outwash fans.
In arid conditions: scree material is usually poorly-graded and lies on slopes.
Wind-blown Less is generally uniformly-graded and false-bedded.

The current state (i.e. density and consistency) of a soil will have been profoundly
influenced by the history of loading and unloading since it was deposited. Changes in
drainage conditions may also have occurred which may have brought about changes in
water content.
Loading /unloading history
Initial loading
During deposition the load applied to a layer of soil increases as more layers are
deposited over it; thus, it is compressed and water is squeezed out; as deposition
continues, the soil becomes stiffer and stronger.
Unloading
The principal natural mechanism of unloading is erosion of overlying layers. Unloading
can also occur as overlying ice-sheets and glaciers retreat, or due to large excavations
made by man. Soil expands when it is unloaded, but not as much as it was initially
compressed; thus it stays compressed - and is said to be overconsolidated. The degree
of overconsolidation depends on the history of loading and unloading.
Drainage history
Chemical changes
Some soils initially deposited loosely in saline water and then inundated with fresh
water develop weak collapsing structure. In arid climates with intermittent rainy
periods, cycles of wetting and drying can bring minerals to the surface to form a
cemented soil.
Climate changes
Some clays (e.g. montmorillonite clays) are prone to large volume changes due to
wetting and drying; thus, seasonal changes in surface level occur, often causing
foundation damage, especially after exceptionally dry summers. Trees extract water
from soil in the process of evapotranspiration; The soil near to trees can therefore either
shrink as trees grow larger, or expand following the removal of large trees.
Soil classification
Coarse soils
Fine soils
Specific gravity
The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil Classification
System, and this is detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation.
Coarse soils
Particle size tests

Coarse soils are classified principally on the basis of particle size and grading.
soils
COBBLES
Coarse
soils
> 200 mm
60 - 200 mm
coarse 20 - 60 mm
G
medium 6 - 20 mm
GRAVEL
fine
2 - 6 mm
coarse
S
SAND
0.6 - 2.0 mm
medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm

fine
0.06 - 0.2 mm
Coarse soils
Particle size tests

The aim is to measure the distribution of particle sizes in
the sample. When a wide range of sizes is present, the
sample will be sub-divided, and separate tests carried out
on each sub-sample. Full details of tests are given in BS
1377: "Methods of test for soil for civil engineering
purposes".
Soil classification
Particle-size tests
Wet sieving to separate fine grains from coarse grains is
carried out by washing the soil specimen on a 60m sieve
mesh.
Dry sieving analyses can only be carried out on particles >
60 m. Samples (with fines removed) are dried and shaken
through a nest of sieves of descending size.
Sedimentation is used only for fine soils. Soil particles
are allowed to settle from a suspension. The decreasing
density of the suspension is measured at time intervals.
Sizes are determined from the settling velocity and times recorded. Percentages
between sizes are determined from density differences.
Particle-size analysis
The cumulative percentage quantities finer than certain sizes (e.g. passing a given size
sieve mesh) are determined by weighing. Points are then plotted of % finer (passing)
against log size. A smooth S-shaped curve drawn through these points is called a
grading curve. The position and shape of the grading curve determines the soil class.
Geometrical grading characteristics can be determined also from the grading curve.
Coarse soils
Both the position and the shape of the grading curve for a soil can aid its identity and
description.
Some typical grading curves are shown in the figure:
A - a poorly-graded medium SAND (probably estuarine or flood-plain alluvium)
Soil classification
B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. equal amounts of gravel and sand)

C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND
D - a sandy SILT (perhaps a deltaic or estuarine silt)
E - a typical silty CLAY (e.g. London clay, Oxford clay)
Coarse soils
A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. Grading curves are often included in
ground investigation reports. Results of grading tests can be tabulated using geometric
properties of the grading curve. These properties are called grading characteristics
First of all, three points are located on the grading curve:
d10 = the maximum size of the smallest 10% of the sample
From these the grading characteristics are calculated:
Effective size
d10
Uniformity coefficient
Cu = d60 / d10
Coefficient of gradation
Ck = d30 / d60 d10
Both Cu and Ck will be 1 for a single-sized soil
Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil
Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil
Ck between 0.5 and 2.0 indicates a well-graded soil
Ck < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded soil
Soil classification
Coarse soils

The results of a dry-sieving test are given below, together with the grading analysis and
grading curve. Note carefully how the tabulated results are set out and calculated. The
grading curve has been plotted on special semi-logarithmic paper; you can also do this
analysis using a spreadsheet.
Sieve mesh
Mass
Percentage Percentage
size (mm) retained (g) retained finer (passing)
14.0
100.0
10.0
3.5
1.2
98.8
6.3
7.6
2.6
86.2
5.0
7.0
2.4
93.8
3.35
14.3
4.9
88.9
2.0
21.1
7.2
81.7
1.18
56.7
19.4
62.3
0.600
73.4
25.1
37.2
0.425
22.2
7.6
29.6
0.300
26.9
9.2
20.4
0.212
18.4
6.3
14.1
0.150
15.2
5.2
8.9
0.063
17.5
6.0
2.9
Pan
8.5
2.9
TOTAL
292.3
100.0
The soil comprises: 18% gravel, 45% coarse sand, 24% medium sand, 10% fine sand,
3% silt, and is classified therefore as: a well-graded gravelly SAND
Soil classification
Fine soils
Consistency limits and plasticity

Plasticity index
The plasticity chart and classification
Activity
In the case of fine soils (e.g. CLAYS and SILTS), it is the shape of the particles rather
than their size that has the greater influence on engineering properties. Clay soils have
flaky particles to which water adheres, thus imparting the property of plasticity.
Fine soils
Consistency varies with the water content of the soil. The consistency of a soil can
range from (dry) solid to semi-solid to plastic to liquid (wet). The water contents at
which the consistency changes from one state to the next are called consistency limits
(or Atterberg limits).
Two of these are utilised in the classification of fine soils:
Liquid limit (wL) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid
Plastic limit (wP) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic
Measures of liquid and plastic limit values can be obtained from laboratory tests.
Fine soils
Plasticity index
Soil classification
The consistency of most soils in the ground will be plastic or semi-solid. Soil strength
and stiffness behaviour are related to the range of plastic consistency. The range of
water content over which a soil has a plastic consistency is termed the Plasticity Index
(IP or PI).
IP = liquid limit - plastic
limit
= wL - wP
Fine soils

In the BSCS fine soils are divided into ten classes based on their measured plasticity
index and liquid limit values: CLAYS are distinguished from SILTS, and five divisions
of plasticity are defined:
Low plasticity
wL = < 35%
Intermediate plasticity
wL = 35 - 50%
High plasticity
wL = 50 - 70%
Very high plasticity
wL = 70 - 90%
Extremely high plasticity wL = > 90%

A plasticity chart is provided to aid
classification.
Soil classification
Fine soils
Activity
So-called 'clay' soils are not 100% clay. The proportion of clay mineral flakes (< 2 m
size) in a fine soil affects its current state, particularly its tendency to swell and shrink
with changes in water content. The degree of plasticity related to the clay content is
called the activity of the soil.
Activity = P / (% clay particles)
Some typical values are:
Mineral
Activity Soil
Activity
Muscovite
0.25
Kaolin clay
0.4-0.5
Kaolinite
0.40
Glacial clay and loess 0.5-0.75
Illite
0.90
Most British clays
Montmorillonite > 1.25
0.75-1.25
Organic estuarine clay > 1.25
Specific gravity
Specific gravity (Gs) is a property of the mineral or rock material forming soil grains.
It is defined as
Method of measurement
For fine soils a 50 ml density bottle may be used; for coarse soils a 500 ml or 1000 ml
jar. The jar is weighed empty (M1). A quantity of dry soil is placed in the jar and the jar
weighed (M2). The jar is filled with water, air removed by stirring, and weighed again
(M3). The jar is emptied, cleaned and refilled with water - and weighed again (M4).
Soil classification
[The range of Gs for common soils is 2.64 to 2.72]
Volumes of solid, water and air: the soil model

Masses of solid and water: water content
Field measurements
The volume-weight properties of a soil define its state. Measures of the amount of void
space, amount of water and the weight of a unit volume of soil are required in
engineering analysis and design.
Soil comprises three constituent phases:
Solid: rock fragments, mineral grains or flakes, organic matter.
Liquid: water, with some dissolved compounds (e.g. salts).
Gas: air or water vapour.
In natural soils the three phases are intermixed. To aid analysis it is convenient to
consider a soil model in which the three phases are seen as separate, but still in their
correct proportions.

Soil classification
Air-voids content
The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid, water and air components:
Total volume,
V = Vs + Vw + Va
Since the amounts of both water and air are variable, the volume of solids present is
taken as the reference quantity. Thus, the following relational volumetric quantities may
be defined:
Note also that:

n = e / (1 + e)
e = n / (1 - n)
v = 1 / (1 - n)
Typical void ratios might be 0.3 (e.g. for a dense, well graded granular soil) or 1.5 (e.g.
for a soft clay).
Soil classification
The volume of water in a soil can only vary between zero (i.e. a dry soil) and the
volume of voids; this can be expressed as a ratio:
For a perfectly dry soil:

Sr = 0
For a saturated soil:
Sr = 1
Note: In clay soils as the amount water increases the volume and therefore the volume
of voids will also increase, and so the degree of saturation may remain at Sr = 1 while
the actual volume of water is increasing.
Air-voids content
The air-voids volume, Va , is that part of the void space not occupied by water.
Va = Vv - Vw
= e - e.Sr
= e.(1 - Sr)
Soil classification
Air-voids content, Av
Av = (air-voids volume) / (total volume)
= Va / V
= e.(1 - Sr) / (1+e)
= n.(1 - Sr)
Av = n
Av = 0
The mass of air may be ignored. The mass of solid particles is usually expressed in
terms of their particle density or grain specific gravity.
Grain specific gravity
Hence the mass of solid particles in a soil

Ms = Vs .Gs .w
(w = density of water = 1.00Mg/m)
[Range of Gs for common soils: 2.64-2.72]
Particle density
s = mass per unit volume of particles
= Gs .w
The ratio of the mass of water present to the mass of solid particles is called the water
content, or sometimes the moisture content.
Soil classification
From the soil model it can be seen that

w = (Sr .e .w) / (Gs .w)
Giving the useful relationship:
w .Gs = Sr .e
Density is a measure of the quantity of mass in a unit volume of material.

Unit weight is a measure of the weight of a unit volume of material.
There are two basic measures of density or unit weight applied to soils: Dry density is a
measure of the amount of solid particles per unit volume. Bulk density is a measure of
the amount of solid + water per unit volume.
The preferred units of density are:

Mg/m, kg/m or g/ml.
The corresponding unit weights are:
Soil classification
Also, it can be shown that

= d(1 + w) and
= gd(1 + w)
Water content
Unit weight
It is important to quantify the state of a soil immediately it is received in the testing

laboratory and just prior to commencing other tests (e.g. shear tests, compression tests,
etc.).
The water content and unit weight are particularly important, since these could change
during transportation and storage.
Some physical state properties are calculated following the practical measurement of
others; e.g. void ratio from porosity, dry unit weight from unit weight & water content.
Water content
The most usual method of determining the water content of soil is to weigh a small
representative specimen, drying it to constant weight and then weighing it again.
Drying can be carried out using an electric oven set at 104-105 Celsius or using a
microwave oven.
Example: A sample of soil was placed in a tin container and weighed, after which it
was dried in an oven and then weighed again. Calculate the water content of the soil.
Weight of tin empty
= 16.16 g
Weight of tin + moist soil = 37.82 g
Weight of tin + dry soil
= 34.68 g
Soil classification
= (mass of water) / (mass of dry

soil)
= (37.82 - 34.68) / (34.68 - 16.16)
= 0.169
Percentage water content = 16.9 %
Water content, w
Unit weight
Clay soils: Specimens are usually prepared in the form of regular geometric shapes, (e.
g. prisms, cylinders) of which the volume is easily computed.
Sands and gravels: Specimens have to be placed in a container to determine volume (e.
g. a cylindrical can).
Example
A soil specimen had a volume of 89.13 ml, a mass before drying of 174.45 g and after
drying of 158.73 g; the water content was 9.9 %. Determine the bulk and dry densities
and unit weights.
Bulk density
= (mass of specimen) / (volume of
specimen)
= 174.45 / 89.13 g/ml
= 1.957 Mg/m
[1 g/ml = 1 Mg/m]
Unit weight
= 9.81m/s x Mg/m
= 19.20 kN/m
Dry density
d = (mass after drying) / (volume)
= 158.73 / 89.13
= 1.781 Mg/m
d = / (1 + w)
= 1.957 / (1+0.099)
= 1.781 Mg/m
Dry unit weight
d = / (1 + w)
= 19.20 / (1+0.099)
= 17.47 kN/m
Soil classification
Field measurements
Measurements taken in the field are mostly to determine density/unit weight. The most
common application is the determination of the density of rolled and compacted fill, e.
g. in road bases, embankments, etc.
Note: These methods are covered in detail by BS1377. You should understand the
general principle that density is calculated from the mass and volume of a sample. How
a sample of known volume is obtained depends on the nature of the soil. You are not
expected to remember the details of each method.
The core cutter method
This method is suitable for soft fine grained soils.
A steel cylinder is driven into the ground, dug out and the
soil shaved off level. The mass of soil is found by
weighing and deducting the mass of the cylinder. Small
samples are taken from both ends and the water content
determined.
The sand-pouring cylinder method

This method is suitable for stony soils
Using a special tray with a hole in the centre, a hole is
formed in the soil and the mass of soil removed is weighed.
The volume of the hole is calculated from the mass of
clean dry running sand required to fill the hole.
The sand-pouring cylinder is used to fill the hole in a
controlled manner. The mass of sand required to fill the
hole is equal to the difference in the weight of the cylinder
before and after filling the hole, less an allowance for the
sand left in the cone above the hole.
Bulk density
= (mass of soil) / (volume of core cutter or hole)
Soil classification
Soil history: deposition and erosion

Soil history: ageing
Density index (relative density)
Liquidity index
Predicting stiffness and strength from index properties
The state of soil is essentially the closeness of packing of the grains in the range:
Closely packed
Loosely packed
Dense
Loose
Low water content High water content
Strong and stiff
Weak and soft
The important indicators of the current state of a soil are:
current stresses: vertical and horizontal effective stresses
current water content: effecting strength and stiffness in fine soils
liquidity index: indicates state in fine soils
density index: indicates state of compaction in coarse soils
history of loading and unloading: degree of overconsolidation
Engineering operations (e.g. excavation, loading, unloading, compaction, etc.) on soil
bring about changes in its state. Its initial state is the result of processes of erosion and
deposition. It is possible for the engineer to predict changes that could result from a
proposed engineering operation: changes from the soil's current state to a new future
state.

Original deposition
Most soils are formed in layers or lenses by deposition from moving water, ice or wind.
One-dimensional compression occurs as overlying layers are added. Vertical and
horizontal stresses increase with deposition.
Erosion
Erosion causes unloading; stresses decrease; some vertical expansion occurs.
Plastic strain has occurred; the soil remains compressed, i.e. overconsolidated.
Subsequent changes
Subsequent changes may occur in the depositional environment: further loading/
unloading due to glaciation, land movement, engineering; and ageing processes.
Soil classification

The term ageing includes processes that occur with time, except loading and unloading.
Ageing processes are independent of changes in loading.
Vibration and compaction
Coarse soils can be made more dense by vibration or compaction at essentially constant
effective stress
Creep
Fine soils creep and continue to compress and distort at constant effective stress after
primary consolidation is complete.
Cementing and bonding
Intergranular cementing and bonding occurs due to deposition of minerals from
groundwater, e.g. calcium carbonate; disturbance due to excavation fractures the
bonding and reduces strength.
Weathering
Physical and chemical changes take place in soils near the ground surface due to the
influence of changes in rainfall and temperature.
Changes in salinity
Changes in the salinity of groundwater are due to changes in relative sea and land
levels, thus soil originally deposited in sea water may later have fresh water in its pores,
such soils may be prone to sudden collapse.

The void ratio of coarse soils (sands and gravels) varies with the state of packing
between the loosest practical state in which it can exist and the densest. Some
engineering properties are affected by this, e.g.shear strength, compressibility,
permeability.
It is therefore useful to measure the in situ state and this can be done by comparing the
in situ void ratio (e) with the minimum and maximum practical values (emin and emax)
to give a density index D
Soil classification
emin is determined with soil compacted densely in a metal mould

emax is determined with soil poured loosely into a metal mould
Density index is also known as relative density
Relative states of compaction are defined:
Density index
State of compaction
0-15%
Very loose
15-35
Loose
35-65
Medium
65-85
Dense
85-100%
Very dense
Liquidity index
In fine soils, especially clays, the current state is dependent on the water content with
respect to the consistency limits (or Atterberg limits). The liquidity index (L or LI)
provides a quantitative measure of the current state:
where
wP = plastic limit and
wL = liquid limit
Significant values of IL indicating the consistency of the soil are:
Soil classification
IL < 0 semi-plastic solid or solid

0 < IL < 1 plastic
1 < IL liquid
Predicting stiffness and strength from index

properties
Preliminary estimates of strength and stiffness can provide a useful basis for early
design and feasibility studies, and also the planning of more detailed testing
programmes. The following suggestions have been made; they are simple, but not
necessarily reliable, and should be not be used in final design calculations.
Undrained shear strength
su = 170 exp(-4.6 L) kN/m

[Schofield and Wroth (1968)]
su = (0.11 + 0.37 P) 'vo kN/m
where 'vo = vertical effective stress in situ
[Skempton and Bjerrum (1957)]
Stiffness
The slope of the critical state line may be estimated from:
= P .Gs / 461
[After Skempton and Northey (1953)]
The compressibility index may be estimated from:
Cc = ln10 = P Gs / 200
(where P is in percentage units)

Soil classification
Definitions of terms used in description
British Soil Classification System (BSCS)
BS 5930 Site Investigation recommends the terminology and a system for describing
and classifying soils for engineering purposes. Without the use of a satisfactory system
of description and classification, the description of materials found on a site would be
meaningless or even misleading, and it would be difficult to apply experience to future
projects.
A recommended protocol for describing a soil deposit uses ninecharacteristics; these
should be written in the following order:
compactness
e.g. loose, dense, slightly cemented
bedding structure
e.g. homogeneous or stratified; dip, orientation
discontinuities
spacing of beds, joints, fissures
weathered state
degree of weathering
colour
main body colour, mottling
grading or consistency
e.g. well-graded, poorly-graded; soft, firm, hard
SOIL NAME
e.g. GRAVEL, SAND, SILT, CLAY; (upper case letters) plus silty-, gravelly-, withfines, etc. as appropriate
soil class
(BSCS) designation (for roads & airfields) e.g. SW = well-graded sand
geological stratigraphic name
(when known) e.g. London clay
Not all characteristics are necessarily applicable in every case.
Example:
(i) Loose homogeneous reddish-yellow poorly-graded medium SAND (SP), Flood plain
alluvium
(ii) Dense fissured unweathered greyish-blue firm CLAY. Oxford clay.
Soil classification

A table is given in BS 5930 Site Investigation setting out a recommended field
indentification and description system. The following are some of the terms listed for
use in soil descriptions:
Particle shape
angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded, flat, elongate
Compactness
loose, medium dense, dense (use a pick or driven peg, or density index )
Bedding structure
homogeneous, stratified, inter-stratified
Bedding spacing
massive(>2m), thickly bedded (2000-600 mm), medium bedded (600-200 mm), thinly
bedded (200-60 mm), very thinly bedded (60-20 mm), laminated (20-6 mm), thinly
laminated (<6 mm).
Discontinuities
i.e. spacing of joints and fissure: very widely spaced(>2m), widely spaced (2000-600
mm), medium spaced (600-200 mm), closely spaced (200-60 mm), very closely spaced
(60-20 mm), extremely closely spaced (<20 mm).
Colours
red, pink, yellow, brown, olive, green, blue, white, grey, black
Consistency
very soft (exudes between fingers), soft (easily mouldable), firm (strong finger pressure
required), stiff (can be indented with fingers, but not moulded) very stiff (indented by
sharp object), hard (difficult to indent).
Grading
well graded (wide size range), uniform (very narrow size range), poorly graded (narrow
or uneven size range).
Composite soils
In SANDS and GRAVELS: slightly clayey or silty (<5%), clayey or silty (5-15%), very
clayey or silty(>15%)
In CLAYS and SILTS: sandy or gravelly (35-65%)

The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil Classification
System, and this is detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation. Its essential structure is as
follows:
Soil group
Coarse soils
Symbol
Recommended name
Fines %
Soil classification
GW
0-5
Well-graded GRAVEL
GPu/GPg
0-5
Uniform/poorly-graded
GRAVEL
G-F GWM/GWC 5 - 15
GRAVEL
GPM/GPC
GF
SF
Fine soils
SILT
CLAY
Poorly graded silty/clayey

GRAVEL
GML, GMI... 15 - 35
Very silty GRAVEL [plasticity

sub-group...]
GCL, GCI...
15 - 35
Very clayey GRAVEL [..

symbols as below]
SW
0-5
Well-graded SAND
SPu/SPg
0-5
Uniform/poorly-graded SAND
5 - 15
Well-graded silty/clayey SAND
GPM/GPC
5 - 15
Poorly graded silty/clayey

SAND
SML, SMI...
15 - 35
Very silty SAND [plasticity subgroup...]
SCL, SCI...
15 - 35
Very clayey SAND [..symbols

as below]
>35% fines
Liquid limit%
S-F SWM/SWC
SAND
5 - 15
Well-graded silty/clayey
GRAVEL
MG
Gravelly SILT
MS
Sandy SILT
ML, MI...
[Plasticity subdivisions as for

CLAY]
CG
Gravelly CLAY
CS
Sandy CLAY
CL
<35
CLAY of low plasticity
CI
35 - 50
CLAY of intermediate plasticity
CH
50 - 70
CLAY of high plasticity
CV
70 - 90
CLAY of very high plasticity
CE
>90
CLAY of extremely high

plasticity
Organic soils O
[Add letter 'O' to group symbol]
Peat
[Soil predominantly fibrous and

organic]
Pt
Soil classification
Soil mechanics
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Soil description and classification

British Standard system
It is necessary to adopt a formal system of soil description and classification in order to describe the
various materials found in ground investigation. Such a system must be comprehensive (covering all but
the rarest of deposits), meaningful in an engineering context (so that engineers will be able to
understand and interpret) and yet relatively concise. It is important to distinguish between description
and classification:
Description of soil is a statement describing the physical nature and state of the soil. It can be a
description of a sample, or a soil in situ. It is arrived at using visual examination, simple tests,
observation of site conditions, geological history, etc.
Soil classification is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar characteristics and
potentially similar behaviour. A classification for engineering purposes should be based mainly on
mechanical properties, e.g. permeability, stiffness, strength. The class to which a soil belongs can be
used in its description.
http://fbe.uwe.ac.uk/public/geocal/SoilMech/classification/soilclas.htm (1 of 40)23/03/2005 2:09:56
Soil mechanics

Shape of grains
Structure or fabric
Soils consist of grains (mineral grains, rock fragments,

etc.) with water and air in the voids between grains. The
water and air contents are readily changed by changes in
conditions and location: soils can be perfectly dry (have no
water content) or be fully saturated (have no air content) or
be partly saturated (with both air and water present).
Although the size and shape of the solid (granular) content
rarely changes at a given point, they can vary considerably
from point to point.
First of all, consider soil as a engineering material - it is

not a coherent solid material like steel and concrete, but is
a particulate material. It is important to understand the
significance of particle size, shape and composition, and of
a soil's internal structure or fabric.

The term "soil" means different things to different people: To a geologist it represents the products of
past surface processes. To a pedologist it represents currently occurring physical and chemical
processes. To an engineer it is a material that can be:
built on: foundations to buildings, bridges.
built in: tunnels, culverts, basements.
built with: roads, runways, embankments, dams.
supported: retaining walls, quays.
Soils may be described in different ways by different people for their different purposes. Engineers'
descriptions give engineering terms that will convey some sense of a soil's current state and probable
Soil mechanics
susceptibility to future changes (e.g. in loading, drainage, structure, surface level).

Engineers are primarily interested in a soil's mechanical properties: strength, stiffness, permeability.
These depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the water content and unit
weight.
The range of particle sizes encountered in soil is very large: from boulders with a controlling dimension
of over 200mm down to clay particles less than 0.002mm (2m). Some clays contain particles less than
1 in size which behave as colloids, i.e. do not settle in water due solely to gravity.
In theBritish Soil Classification System, soils are classified into named Basic Soil Type groups
according to size, and the groups further divided into coarse, medium and fine sub-groups:

soils
COBBLES
Coarse
soils
> 200 mm
60 - 200 mm
coarse 20 - 60 mm
G
medium 6 - 20 mm
GRAVEL
fine
2 - 6 mm
coarse
S
SAND
0.6 - 2.0 mm
medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm

fine
0.06 - 0.2 mm
Soil mechanics
coarse
Fine
soils
M
SILT
0.02 - 0.06 mm
medium 0.006 - 0.02 mm

fine
C CLAY
0.002 - 0.006 mm
< 0.002 mm

Soils possess a number of physical characteristics which can be used as aids to size identification in the
field. A handful of soil rubbed through the fingers can yield the following:
SAND (and coarser) particles are visible to the naked eye.
SILT particles become dusty when dry and are easily brushed off hands and boots.
CLAY particles are greasy and sticky when wet and hard when dry, and have to be scraped or washed
off hands and boots.
Shape of grains

Specific surface
The majority of soils may be regarded as either SANDS or CLAYS:

SANDS include gravelly sands and gravel-sands. Sand grains are generally broken rock particles that
have been formed by physical weathering, or they are the resistant components of rocks broken down by
chemical weathering. Sand grains generally have a rotund shape.
Soil mechanics
CLAYS include silty clays and clay-silts; there are few pure silts (e.g. areas formed by windblown
Less). Clay grains are usually the product of chemical weathering or rocks and soils. Clay particles
have a flaky shape.
There are major differences in engineering behaviour between SANDS and CLAYS (e.g. in
permeability, compressibility, shrinking/swelling potential). The shape and size of the soil grains has an
important bearing on these differences.
Shape of grains

SAND and larger-sized grains are rotund. Coarse soil grains (silt-sized, sand-sized and larger) have
different shape characteristics and surface roughness depending on the amount of wear during
transportation (by water, wind or ice), or after crushing in manufactured aggregates. They have a
relatively low specific surface (surface area).
Click on a link below to see the shape
Rounded: Water- or air-worn; transported sediments
Irregular: Irregular shape with round edges; glacial sediments (sometimes
sub-divided into 'sub-rounded' and 'sub-angular')
Angular: Flat faces and sharp edges; residual soils, grits
Flaky: Thickness small compared to length/breadth; clays
Elongated: Length larger than breadth/thickness; scree, broken flagstone
Flaky & Elongated: Length>Breadth>Thickness; broken schists and slates
Shape of grains

CLAY particles are flaky. Their thickness is very small relative to their length & breadth, in some cases
as thin as 1/100th of the length. They therefore have high to very high specific surface values. These
Soil mechanics
surfaces carry a small negative electrical charge, that will attract the positive end of water molecules.
This charge depends on the soil mineral and may be affected by an electrolite in the pore water. This
causes some additional forces between the soil grains which are proportional to the specific surface.
Thus a lot of water may be held asadsorbed water within a clay mass.
Shape of grains
Specific surface
Examples
Specific surface is the ratio of surface area per unit wight.

Surface forces are proportional to surface area (i.e. to d).
Self-weight forces are proportional to volume (i.e. to d).
Surface force
self weight forces

area
Also, specific surface =
* volume
Therefore
1
d
1
d
Hence, specific surface is a measure of the relative contributions of surface forces and self-weight
Soil mechanics
forces.
The specific surface of a 1mm cube of quartz ( = 2.65gm/cm) is 0.00023 m/N
SAND grains (size 2.0 - 0.06mm) are close to cubes or spheres in shape, and have specific surfaces near
the minimum value.
CLAY particles are flaky and have much greater specific surface values.
Examples of specific surface

The more elongated or flaky a particle is the greater will be its specific
surface.
Click on the following examples:
cubes, rods, sheets
Examples of mineral grain specific surfaces:
Mineral/Soil
Grain width
Specific Surface
Thickness
m/N
d (m)
Quartz grain
100
0.0023
Quartz sand
2.0 - 0.06
0.0001 - 0.004
Kaolinite
2.0 - 0.3
0.2d
Illite
2.0 - 0.2
0.1d
Montmorillonite
1.0 - 0.01
0.01d
80
See also clay minerals
Structure or fabric
Natural soils are rarely the same from one point in the ground to another. The content and nature of
grains varies, but more importantly, so does the arrangement of these.
Soil mechanics
The arrangement and organisation of particles and other features within a soil mass is termed its
structure or fabric. This includes bedding orientation, stratification, layer thickness, the occurrence of
joints and fissures, the occurrence of voids, artefacts, tree roots and nodules, the presence of cementing
or bonding agents between grains.
Structural features can have a major influence on in situ properties.
Vertical and horizontal permeabilities will be different in alternating layers of fine and coarse
soils.
The presence of fissures affects some aspects of strength.
The presence of layers or lenses of different stiffness can affect stability.
The presence of cementing or bonding influences strength and stiffness.

Weathering of rocks
Clay minerals
Soils are the results of geological events (except for the very small amount produced by man). The
nature and structure of a given soil depends on the geological processes that formed it:
breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion.
transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind.
environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial moraine, lacustrine or marine.
subsequent conditions of loading and drainage - little or no surcharge, heavy surcharge due to ice or
overlying deposits, change from saline to freshwater, leaching, contamination.
Soil mechanics

All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from solid rocks in the Earth's crust:
igneous rocks
crystalline bodies of cooled magma
e.g. granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro, syenite, porphyry
sedimentary rocks
layers of consolidated and cemented sediments, mostly formed in bodies of water (seas, lakes, etc.)
e.g. limestone, sandstones, mudstone, shale, conglomerate
metamorphic rocks
formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from igneous intrusions (e.g. marble, quartzite,
hornfels) or pressure due to crustal movement (e.g. slate, schist, gneiss).
Weathering of rocks
Physical weathering
Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the Earth's surface, including the actions of water,
frost, temperature changes, wind and ice; cause disintegration and wearing. The products are mainly
coarse soils (silts, sands and gravels). Physical weathering produces Very Coarse soils and Gravels
consisting of broken rock particles, but Sands and Silts will be mainly consists of mineral grains.
Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering occurs in wet and warm conditions and consists of degradation by decomposition
and/or alteration. The results of chemical weathering are generally fine soils with separate mineral
grains, such as Clays and Clay-Silts. The type of clay mineral depends on the parent rock and on local
drainage. Some minerals, such as quartz, are resistant to the chemical weathering and remain unchanged.
quartz
A resistant and enduring mineral found in many rocks (e.g. granite, sandstone). It is the principal
constituent of sands and silts, and the most abundant soil mineral. It occurs as equidimensional hard
grains.
haematite
Soil mechanics
A red iron (ferric) oxide: resistant to change, results from extreme weathering. It is responsible for the
widespread red or pink colouration in rocks and soils. It can form a cement in rocks, or a duricrust in
soils in arid climates.
micas
Flaky minerals present in many igneous rocks. Some are resistant, e.g. muscovite; some are broken
down, e.g. biotite.
clay minerals
These result mainly from the breakdown of feldspar minerals. They are very flaky and therefore have
very large surface areas. They are major constituents of clay soils, although clay soil also contains silt
sized particles.
Clay minerals
Clay minerals are produced mainly from the chemical weathering and decomposition of feldspars, such
as orthoclase and plagioclase, and some micas. They are small in size and very flaky in shape.
The key to some of the properties of clay soils, e.
g. plasticity, compressibility, swelling/shrinkage
potential, lies in the structure of clay minerals.
There are three main groups of clay minerals:
kaolinites
(include kaolinite, dickite and nacrite) formed by
the decomposition of orthoclase feldspar (e.g. in
granite); kaolin is the principal constituent in
china clay and ball clay.
illites
(include illite and glauconite) are the commonest
clay minerals; formed by the decomposition of
some micas and feldspars; predominant in marine
clays and shales (e.g. London clay, Oxford clay).
montmorillonites
(also called smectites or fullers' earth minerals) (include calcium and sodium momtmorillonites,
bentonite and vermiculite) formed by the alteration of basic igneous rocks containing silicates rich in Ca
and Mg; weak linkage by cations (e.g. Na+, Ca++) results in high swelling/shrinking potential
Soil mechanics
For more information on mineralogy see http://mineral.gly.bris.ac.uk/mineralogy/

The effects of weathering and transportation largely determine the basic nature of the soil (i.e. the size,
shape, composition and distribution of the grains). The environment into which deposition takes place,
and subsequent geological events that take place there, largely determine the state of the soil, (i.e.
density, moisture content) and the structure or fabric of the soil (i.e. bedding, stratification, occurrence
of joints or fissures, tree roots, voids, etc.)
Transportation
Due to combinations of gravity, flowing water or air, and moving ice. In water or air: grains become subrounded or rounded, grain sizes are sorted, producing poorly-graded deposits. In moving ice: grinding
and crushing occur, size distribution becomes wider, deposits are well-graded, ranging from rock flour
to boulders.
Deposition
In flowing water, larger particles are deposited as velocity drops, e.g. gravels in river terraces, sands in
floodplains and estuaries, silts and clays in lakes and seas. In still water: horizontal layers of successive
sediments are formed, which may change with time, even seasonally or daily.
Deltaic & shelf deposits: often vary both horizontally and vertically.
From glaciers, deposition varies from well-graded basal tills and boulder clays to poorly-graded
deposits in moraines and outwash fans.
In arid conditions: scree material is usually poorly-graded and lies on slopes.
Wind-blown Less is generally uniformly-graded and false-bedded.

Soil mechanics
The current state (i.e. density and consistency) of a soil will have been profoundly influenced by the
history of loading and unloading since it was deposited. Changes in drainage conditions may also have
occurred which may have brought about changes in water content.
Loading /unloading history
Initial loading
During deposition the load applied to a layer of soil increases as more layers are deposited over it; thus,
it is compressed and water is squeezed out; as deposition continues, the soil becomes stiffer and
stronger.
Unloading
The principal natural mechanism of unloading is erosion of overlying layers. Unloading can also occur
as overlying ice-sheets and glaciers retreat, or due to large excavations made by man. Soil expands when
it is unloaded, but not as much as it was initially compressed; thus it stays compressed - and is said to be
overconsolidated. The degree of overconsolidation depends on the history of loading and unloading.
Drainage history
Chemical changes
Some soils initially deposited loosely in saline water and then inundated with fresh water develop weak
collapsing structure. In arid climates with intermittent rainy periods, cycles of wetting and drying can
bring minerals to the surface to form a cemented soil.
Climate changes
Some clays (e.g. montmorillonite clays) are prone to large volume changes due to wetting and drying;
thus, seasonal changes in surface level occur, often causing foundation damage, especially after
exceptionally dry summers. Trees extract water from soil in the process of evapotranspiration; The soil
near to trees can therefore either shrink as trees grow larger, or expand following the removal of large
trees.
Coarse soils
Fine soils
Soil mechanics
Specific gravity
The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil Classification System, and this is
detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation.
Coarse soils
Particle size tests

Coarse soils are classified principally on the basis of particle size and grading.
soils
COBBLES
coarse
Coarse
soils
> 200 mm
60 - 200 mm
20 - 60 mm
G
medium 6 - 20 mm
GRAVEL
fine
2 - 6 mm
coarse
S
SAND
0.6 - 2.0 mm
medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm

fine
0.06 - 0.2 mm
Coarse soils
Particle size tests

The aim is to measure the distribution of particle sizes in the sample. When
a wide range of sizes is present, the sample will be sub-divided, and
separate tests carried out on each sub-sample. Full details of tests are given
Soil mechanics
in BS 1377: "Methods of test for soil for civil engineering purposes".

Particle-size tests
Wet sieving to separate fine grains from coarse grains is carried out by
washing the soil specimen on a 60m sieve mesh.
Dry sieving analyses can only be carried out on particles > 60 m. Samples
(with fines removed) are dried and shaken through a nest of sieves of
descending size.
Sedimentation is used only for fine soils. Soil particles are allowed to
settle from a suspension. The decreasing density of the suspension is
measured at time intervals. Sizes are determined from the settling velocity
and times recorded. Percentages between sizes are determined from density
differences.
Particle-size analysis
The cumulative percentage quantities finer than certain sizes (e.g. passing a given size sieve mesh) are
determined by weighing. Points are then plotted of % finer (passing) against log size. A smooth Sshaped curve drawn through these points is called a grading curve. The position and shape of the
grading curve determines the soil class. Geometrical grading characteristics can be determined also
from the grading curve.
Coarse soils
Soil mechanics
Both the position and the shape of the grading curve for a soil can aid its identity and description.
Some typical grading curves are shown in the figure:
A - a poorly-graded medium SAND (probably estuarine or flood-plain alluvium)
B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. equal amounts of gravel and sand)
C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND
D - a sandy SILT (perhaps a deltaic or estuarine silt)
E - a typical silty CLAY (e.g. London clay, Oxford clay)
Coarse soils
A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. Grading curves are often included in ground
investigation reports. Results of grading tests can be tabulated using geometric properties of the grading
curve. These properties are called grading characteristics
First of all, three points are located on the grading curve:
Soil mechanics

From these the grading characteristics are calculated:
Effective size
d10
Uniformity coefficient
Cu = d60 / d10
Coefficient of gradation
Ck = d30 / d60 d10
Both Cu and Ck will be 1 for a single-sized soil
Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil
Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil
Ck between 0.5 and 2.0 indicates a well-graded soil
Ck < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded soil
Coarse soils

The results of a dry-sieving test are given below, together with the grading analysis and grading curve.
Note carefully how the tabulated results are set out and calculated. The grading curve has been plotted
on special semi-logarithmic paper; you can also do this analysis using a spreadsheet.
Sieve mesh
Mass
Percentage Percentage
size (mm) retained (g) retained finer (passing)
14.0
100.0
10.0
3.5
1.2
98.8
6.3
7.6
2.6
86.2
5.0
7.0
2.4
93.8
3.35
14.3
4.9
88.9
Soil mechanics
2.0
21.1
7.2
81.7
1.18
56.7
19.4
62.3
0.600
73.4
25.1
37.2
0.425
22.2
7.6
29.6
0.300
26.9
9.2
20.4
0.212
18.4
6.3
14.1
0.150
15.2
5.2
8.9
0.063
17.5
6.0
2.9
Pan
8.5
2.9
TOTAL
292.3
100.0
The soil comprises: 18% gravel, 45% coarse sand, 24% medium sand, 10% fine sand, 3% silt, and is
classified therefore as: a well-graded gravelly SAND
Fine soils
Soil mechanics
Plasticity index
Activity
In the case of fine soils (e.g. CLAYS and SILTS), it is the shape of the particles rather than their size
that has the greater influence on engineering properties. Clay soils have flaky particles to which water
adheres, thus imparting the property of plasticity.
Fine soils
Consistency varies with the water content of the soil. The consistency of a soil can range from (dry)
solid to semi-solid to plastic to liquid (wet). The water contents at which the consistency changes from
one state to the next are called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits).
Two of these are utilised in the classification of fine soils:
Liquid limit (wL) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid
Plastic limit (wP) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic
Measures of liquid and plastic limit values can be obtained from laboratory tests.
Soil mechanics
Fine soils
Plasticity index
The consistency of most soils in the ground will be plastic or semi-solid. Soil strength and stiffness
behaviour are related to the range of plastic consistency. The range of water content over which a soil
has a plastic consistency is termed the Plasticity Index (IP or PI).
IP = liquid limit - plastic
limit
= wL - wP
Fine soils

In the BSCS fine soils are divided into ten classes based on their measured plasticity index and liquid
limit values: CLAYS are distinguished from SILTS, and five divisions of plasticity are defined:
Low plasticity
wL = < 35%
Intermediate plasticity
wL = 35 - 50%
High plasticity
wL = 50 - 70%
Very high plasticity
wL = 70 - 90%
Soil mechanics
Extremely high plasticity wL = > 90%

A plasticity chart is provided to aid classification.
Fine soils
Activity
So-called 'clay' soils are not 100% clay. The proportion of clay mineral flakes (< 2 m size) in a fine soil
affects its current state, particularly its tendency to swell and shrink with changes in water content. The
degree of plasticity related to the clay content is called the activity of the soil.
Activity = P / (% clay particles)
Some typical values are:
Mineral
Activity Soil
Activity
Muscovite
0.25
Kaolin clay
0.4-0.5
Kaolinite
0.40
Glacial clay and loess 0.5-0.75
Illite
0.90
Most British clays
Montmorillonite > 1.25
0.75-1.25
Organic estuarine clay > 1.25
Soil mechanics
Specific gravity
Specific gravity (Gs) is a property of the mineral or rock material forming soil grains.
It is defined as
Method of measurement
For fine soils a 50 ml density bottle may be used; for coarse soils a 500 ml or 1000 ml jar. The jar is
weighed empty (M1). A quantity of dry soil is placed in the jar and the jar weighed (M2). The jar is filled
with water, air removed by stirring, and weighed again (M3). The jar is emptied, cleaned and refilled
with water - and weighed again (M4).
[The range of Gs for common soils is 2.64 to 2.72]
Soil mechanics

Field measurements
The volume-weight properties of a soil define its state. Measures of the amount of void space, amount of
water and the weight of a unit volume of soil are required in engineering analysis and design.
Soil comprises three constituent phases:
Solid: rock fragments, mineral grains or flakes, organic matter.
Liquid: water, with some dissolved compounds (e.g. salts).
Gas: air or water vapour.
In natural soils the three phases are intermixed. To aid analysis it is convenient to consider a soil model
in which the three phases are seen as separate, but still in their correct proportions.
Air-voids content
Soil mechanics
The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid, water and air components: Total volume,
V = Vs + Vw + Va
Since the amounts of both water and air are variable, the volume of solids present is taken as the
reference quantity. Thus, the following relational volumetric quantities may be defined:
Note also that:

n = e / (1 + e)
e = n / (1 - n)
v = 1 / (1 - n)
Typical void ratios might be 0.3 (e.g. for a dense, well graded granular soil) or 1.5 (e.g. for a soft clay).
Soil mechanics
The volume of water in a soil can only vary between zero (i.e. a dry soil) and the volume of voids; this
can be expressed as a ratio:

Sr = 0
Sr = 1
Note: In clay soils as the amount water increases the volume and therefore the volume of voids will also
increase, and so the degree of saturation may remain at Sr = 1 while the actual volume of water is
increasing.
Air-voids content
Soil mechanics
The air-voids volume, Va , is that part of the void space not occupied by water.
Va = Vv - Vw
= e - e.Sr
= e.(1 - Sr)
Air-voids content, Av
Av = (air-voids volume) / (total volume)
= Va / V
= e.(1 - Sr) / (1+e)
= n.(1 - Sr)
Av = n
Av = 0
Soil mechanics
The mass of air may be ignored. The mass of solid particles is usually expressed in terms of their
particle density or grain specific gravity.
Grain specific gravity
Hence the mass of solid particles in a soil

Ms = Vs .Gs .w
(w = density of water = 1.00Mg/m)
[Range of Gs for common soils: 2.64-2.72]
Particle density
s = mass per unit volume of particles
= Gs .w
The ratio of the mass of water present to the mass of solid particles is called the water content, or
sometimes the moisture content.
From the soil model it can be seen that

w = (Sr .e .w) / (Gs .w)
Giving the useful relationship:
Soil mechanics
w .Gs = Sr .e
Density is a measure of the quantity of mass in a unit volume of material.

Unit weight is a measure of the weight of a unit volume of material.
There are two basic measures of density or unit weight applied to soils: Dry density is a measure of the
amount of solid particles per unit volume. Bulk density is a measure of the amount of solid + water per
unit volume.
The preferred units of density are:

Mg/m, kg/m or g/ml.
The corresponding unit weights are:
Soil mechanics
Also, it can be shown that

= d(1 + w) and
= gd(1 + w)
Water content
Unit weight
It is important to quantify the state of a soil immediately it is received in the testing laboratory and just
prior to commencing other tests (e.g. shear tests, compression tests, etc.).
The water content and unit weight are particularly important, since these could change during
transportation and storage.
Some physical state properties are calculated following the practical measurement of others; e.g. void
ratio from porosity, dry unit weight from unit weight & water content.
Water content
The most usual method of determining the water content of soil is to weigh a small representative
Soil mechanics
specimen, drying it to constant weight and then weighing it again. Drying can be carried out using an
electric oven set at 104-105 Celsius or using a microwave oven.
Example: A sample of soil was placed in a tin container and weighed, after which it was dried in an
oven and then weighed again. Calculate the water content of the soil.
Weight of tin empty
= 16.16 g
Weight of tin + moist soil = 37.82 g
Weight of tin + dry soil
= 34.68 g
= (mass of water) / (mass of dry
Water content, w
soil)
= (37.82 - 34.68) / (34.68 - 16.16)
= 0.169
Percentage water content = 16.9 %
Unit weight
Clay soils: Specimens are usually prepared in the form of regular geometric shapes, (e.g. prisms,
cylinders) of which the volume is easily computed.
Sands and gravels: Specimens have to be placed in a container to determine volume (e.g. a cylindrical
can).
Example
A soil specimen had a volume of 89.13 ml, a mass before drying of 174.45 g and after drying of 158.73
g; the water content was 9.9 %. Determine the bulk and dry densities and unit weights.
Bulk density
= (mass of specimen) / (volume of
specimen)
= 174.45 / 89.13 g/ml
= 1.957 Mg/m
[1 g/ml = 1 Mg/m]
Unit weight
Soil mechanics
= 9.81m/s x Mg/m
= 19.20 kN/m
Dry density
d = (mass after drying) / (volume)
= 158.73 / 89.13
= 1.781 Mg/m
d = / (1 + w)
= 1.957 / (1+0.099)
= 1.781 Mg/m
Dry unit weight
d = / (1 + w)
= 19.20 / (1+0.099)
= 17.47 kN/m
Field measurements
Measurements taken in the field are mostly to determine density/unit weight. The most common
application is the determination of the density of rolled and compacted fill, e.g. in road bases,
embankments, etc.
Note: These methods are covered in detail by BS1377. You should understand the general principle that
density is calculated from the mass and volume of a sample. How a sample of known volume is obtained
depends on the nature of the soil. You are not expected to remember the details of each method.
Soil mechanics
The core cutter method

This method is suitable for soft fine grained soils.
A steel cylinder is driven into the ground, dug out and the soil shaved off
level. The mass of soil is found by weighing and deducting the mass of the
cylinder. Small samples are taken from both ends and the water content
determined.
The sand-pouring cylinder method

This method is suitable for stony soils
Using a special tray with a hole in the centre, a hole is formed in the soil
and the mass of soil removed is weighed.
The volume of the hole is calculated from the mass of clean dry running
sand required to fill the hole.
The sand-pouring cylinder is used to fill the hole in a controlled manner.
The mass of sand required to fill the hole is equal to the difference in the
weight of the cylinder before and after filling the hole, less an allowance for
the sand left in the cone above the hole.
Bulk density
= (mass of soil) / (volume of core cutter or hole)

Liquidity index
Soil mechanics
The state of soil is essentially the closeness of packing of the grains in the range:
Closely packed
Loosely packed
Dense
Loose
Low water content High water content
Strong and stiff
Weak and soft
The important indicators of the current state of a soil are:
current stresses: vertical and horizontal effective stresses
current water content: effecting strength and stiffness in fine soils
liquidity index: indicates state in fine soils
density index: indicates state of compaction in coarse soils
history of loading and unloading: degree of overconsolidation
Engineering operations (e.g. excavation, loading, unloading, compaction, etc.) on soil bring about
changes in its state. Its initial state is the result of processes of erosion and deposition. It is possible for
the engineer to predict changes that could result from a proposed engineering operation: changes from
the soil's current state to a new future state.

Original deposition
Most soils are formed in layers or lenses by deposition from moving water, ice or wind.
One-dimensional compression occurs as overlying layers are added. Vertical and horizontal stresses
increase with deposition.
Erosion
Erosion causes unloading; stresses decrease; some vertical expansion occurs.
Plastic strain has occurred; the soil remains compressed, i.e. overconsolidated.
Subsequent changes
Soil mechanics
Subsequent changes may occur in the depositional environment: further loading/unloading due to
glaciation, land movement, engineering; and ageing processes.

The term ageing includes processes that occur with time, except loading and unloading. Ageing
processes are independent of changes in loading.
Vibration and compaction
Coarse soils can be made more dense by vibration or compaction at essentially constant effective stress
Creep
Fine soils creep and continue to compress and distort at constant effective stress after primary
consolidation is complete.
Cementing and bonding
Intergranular cementing and bonding occurs due to deposition of minerals from groundwater, e.g.
calcium carbonate; disturbance due to excavation fractures the bonding and reduces strength.
Weathering
Physical and chemical changes take place in soils near the ground surface due to the influence of
changes in rainfall and temperature.
Changes in salinity
Changes in the salinity of groundwater are due to changes in relative sea and land levels, thus soil
originally deposited in sea water may later have fresh water in its pores, such soils may be prone to
sudden collapse.

Soil mechanics
The void ratio of coarse soils (sands and gravels) varies with the state of packing between the loosest
practical state in which it can exist and the densest. Some engineering properties are affected by this, e.g.
shear strength, compressibility, permeability.
It is therefore useful to measure the in situ state and this can be done by comparing the in situ void ratio
(e) with the minimum and maximum practical values (emin and emax) to give a density index D
emin is determined with soil compacted densely in a metal mould

emax is determined with soil poured loosely into a metal mould
Density index is also known as relative density
Relative states of compaction are defined:
Density index
State of compaction
0-15%
Very loose
15-35
Loose
35-65
Medium
65-85
Dense
85-100%
Very dense
Liquidity index
Soil mechanics
In fine soils, especially clays, the current state is dependent on the water content with respect to the
consistency limits (or Atterberg limits). The liquidity index (L or LI) provides a quantitative measure
of the current state:
where
wP = plastic limit and
wL = liquid limit
Significant values of IL indicating the consistency of the soil are:
IL < 0 semi-plastic solid or solid
0 < IL < 1 plastic
1 < IL liquid

Preliminary estimates of strength and stiffness can provide a useful basis for early design and feasibility
studies, and also the planning of more detailed testing programmes. The following suggestions have
been made; they are simple, but not necessarily reliable, and should be not be used in final design
Soil mechanics
calculations.
Undrained shear strength
su = 170 exp(-4.6 L) kN/m

[Schofield and Wroth (1968)]
su = (0.11 + 0.37 P) 'vo kN/m
where 'vo = vertical effective stress in situ
[Skempton and Bjerrum (1957)]
Stiffness
The slope of the critical state line may be estimated from:
= P .Gs / 461
[After Skempton and Northey (1953)]
The compressibility index may be estimated from:
Cc = ln10 = P Gs / 200
(where P is in percentage units)
Soil mechanics
British Soil Classification System (BSCS)
BS 5930 Site Investigation recommends the terminology and a system for describing and classifying
soils for engineering purposes. Without the use of a satisfactory system of description and classification,
the description of materials found on a site would be meaningless or even misleading, and it would be
difficult to apply experience to future projects.
A recommended protocol for describing a soil deposit uses ninecharacteristics; these should be written
in the following order:
compactness
e.g. loose, dense, slightly cemented
bedding structure
e.g. homogeneous or stratified; dip, orientation
discontinuities
spacing of beds, joints, fissures
weathered state
degree of weathering
colour
main body colour, mottling
grading or consistency
e.g. well-graded, poorly-graded; soft, firm, hard
SOIL NAME
e.g. GRAVEL, SAND, SILT, CLAY; (upper case letters) plus silty-, gravelly-, with-fines, etc. as
appropriate
soil class
(BSCS) designation (for roads & airfields) e.g. SW = well-graded sand
geological stratigraphic name
(when known) e.g. London clay
Not all characteristics are necessarily applicable in every case.
Example:
Soil mechanics
(i) Loose homogeneous reddish-yellow poorly-graded medium SAND (SP), Flood plain alluvium
(ii) Dense fissured unweathered greyish-blue firm CLAY. Oxford clay.

A table is given in BS 5930 Site Investigation setting out a recommended field indentification and
description system. The following are some of the terms listed for use in soil descriptions:
Particle shape
angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded, flat, elongate
Compactness
loose, medium dense, dense (use a pick or driven peg, or density index )
Bedding structure
homogeneous, stratified, inter-stratified
Bedding spacing
massive(>2m), thickly bedded (2000-600 mm), medium bedded (600-200 mm), thinly bedded (200-60
mm), very thinly bedded (60-20 mm), laminated (20-6 mm), thinly laminated (<6 mm).
Discontinuities
i.e. spacing of joints and fissure: very widely spaced(>2m), widely spaced (2000-600 mm), medium
spaced (600-200 mm), closely spaced (200-60 mm), very closely spaced (60-20 mm), extremely closely
spaced (<20 mm).
Colours
red, pink, yellow, brown, olive, green, blue, white, grey, black
Consistency
very soft (exudes between fingers), soft (easily mouldable), firm (strong finger pressure required), stiff
(can be indented with fingers, but not moulded) very stiff (indented by sharp object), hard (difficult to
indent).
Grading
well graded (wide size range), uniform (very narrow size range), poorly graded (narrow or uneven size
range).
Composite soils
In SANDS and GRAVELS: slightly clayey or silty (<5%), clayey or silty (5-15%), very clayey or silty
(>15%)
In CLAYS and SILTS: sandy or gravelly (35-65%)
Soil mechanics

The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil Classification System, and this is
detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation. Its essential structure is as follows:
Soil group
Symbol
Coarse soils
Fines %
G
GRAVEL
0-5
Well-graded GRAVEL
GPu/GPg
0-5
Uniform/poorly-graded GRAVEL
GPM/GPC
Fine soils
Poorly graded silty/clayey GRAVEL

Very silty GRAVEL [plasticity sub-group...]
GCL, GCI...
15 - 35
Very clayey GRAVEL [..symbols as below]
SW
0-5
Well-graded SAND
SPu/SPg
0-5
Uniform/poorly-graded SAND
5 - 15
Well-graded silty/clayey SAND
GPM/GPC
5 - 15
Poorly graded silty/clayey SAND
SML, SMI...
15 - 35
Very silty SAND [plasticity sub-group...]
SCL, SCI...
15 - 35
Very clayey SAND [..symbols as below]
>35% fines
Liquid limit%
MG
Gravelly SILT
MS
Sandy SILT
ML, MI...
[Plasticity subdivisions as for CLAY]
CG
Gravelly CLAY
CS
Sandy CLAY
CL
CLAY
5 - 15
Well-graded silty/clayey GRAVEL
GML, GMI... 15 - 35
S-F SWM/SWC
SF
SILT
GW
G-F GWM/GWC 5 - 15
GF
SAND
Recommended name
<35
CLAY of low plasticity
Soil mechanics
CI
35 - 50
CLAY of intermediate plasticity
CH
50 - 70
CLAY of high plasticity
CV
70 - 90
CLAY of very high plasticity
CE
>90
CLAY of extremely high plasticity
Organic soils O
[Add letter 'O' to group symbol]
Peat
[Soil predominantly fibrous and organic]
Pt
Stress in the ground
back to Soil Mechanics
Effective Stress
Introduction
Stress profile applet
Total stress
Effective Stress in the ground

When a load is applied to soil, it is carried by the water in the
pores as well as the solid grains. The increase in pressure within
the porewater causes drainage (flow out of the soil), and the load
is transferred to the solid grains.
The rate of drainage depends on the permeability of the soil.
In a homogeneous soil mass

In a soil mass below a river or lake
In a multi-layered soil mass
In a soil mass which is unsaturated
In a soil mass with a surface surcharge
load
Pore pressure
The strength and compressibility of the soil depend on the

stresses within the solid granular fabric. These are called effective
stresses.
Use the menu on the left to navigate throught the notes and
simple exercises on stress in the ground.
Groundwater and hydrostatic pressure

Water table, phreatic surface
Negative pore pressure (suction)
Pore water and pore air pressure
Effective stress
Terzaghi's principle and equation

Mohr circles for total and effective
stress
Importance of effective stress
Changes in effective stress
Changes in strength
Changes in volume
Drainage and volume change

Volume compressibility under load
Drainage under load
Permeability and time
Volume change under constant
effective stress
Drained and undrained loading
Drained loading conditions

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Stress in the ground
Undrained loading conditions

Consolidation
Rates of loading and seepage
Loading simulation
Calculating vertical stress
Simple total and effective stresses

Effect of changing water table
Stresses under foundations
Short-term and long-term stresses
Initially, before construction
Immediately after construction
Many years after construction
Steady-state seepage conditions
click on
section.
above to open / close a
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Soil classification
home page
Compression
and swelling
Mechanisms
Common cases
Back to Soil Mechanics

by Prof. John Atkinson , City University, London
Compression and swelling
Isotropic
Equations
Overconsolidation
State
One-dimensional
Equations
Overconsolidation
Horizontal stress
State
Mechanisms
Common cases
Isotropic
One-dimensional
Wet and dry states
The relationship between volume change and effective stress is

called compression and swelling. (Consolidation and compaction
are different.) The volume of soil grains remains constant, so
change in volume is due to change in volume of water.
Wet and dry states
State parameters
Compression and swelling results from drained loading and the

pore pressure remains constant. If saturated soil is loaded
undrained there will be no volume change.
Back to Compression and swelling
Mechanisms of compression
Compression of soil is due to a number of mechanisms:
rearrangement of grains
fracture and rearrangement of grains
distortion or bending of grains
On unloading, grains will not unfracture or un-rearrange, so
volume change on unloading and reloading (swelling and
recompression) will be much less than volume change on
first loading (compression).
In compression, soil behaviour is:
http://fbe.uwe.ac.uk/public/geocal/SoilMech/compression/default.htm (1 of 17)23/03/2005 2:12:08
Soil classification
non-linear
mostly irrecoverable
Common cases of compression and swelling

In practice, the state of stress in the ground will be complex. These are simple theories
for two special cases.
Isotropic:
Equal stress in all directions. Applicable to triaxial test before
shearing.
p' = ('a + 2'r) / 3

= mean stress
v = / Vo
= volumetric strain
One-dimensional:
Horizontal strains are zero. Applicable to oedometer
test and in the ground below wide foundations,
embankments and excavations.
'z = vertical stress

v = V / Vo
= / Ho
= / (1+eo)
= volumetric strain
Soil classification
Isotropic compression and swelling
Equations
Overconsolidation
State
Isotropic compression and swelling is applied at the start of

a triaxial test.
p' = ('a + 2'r) / 3
= mean stress
V = Vo - Vw
= volume
v = V / Vo = v / vo
= volumetric strain
v = V / Vs
= specific volume
As the mean stress p' is raised and

lowered there are volumetric strains
and the specific volume changes.
p'o = initial mean stress

vo = initial specific volume
Note the paths of compression, swelling and re-loading.
Back to Isotropic compression and swelling
Soil classification
Equations
Bulk modulus
Typical values for compression parameters
For isotropic compression and swelling there are simple

relationships
between specific volume v and (the natural logarithm of) the
mean stress p'.
First loading
normal compression line
OAD on the graph
v = N - ln p'
Unloading and reloading
swelling line
BC on the graph
v = vk - ln p'
N, and are soil parameters.
vk and p'y locate the particular swelling line.
p'y is referred to as the yield stress.
If the current stress and the history of loading/unloading are known, the current specific
volume can be calculated.
Back to Equations for isotropic compression
Bulk modulus
Isotropic compression can
be represented by a bulk
modulus K' or by the slope
of the normal compression
line (or the slope of a
swelling line ): these are
related.
Soil classification
K' = dp' / dv
v = N - ln p'
dv / v = - dp' / vp'
Hence K' = vp' / (or vp' / )
Bulk modulus K' depends on v and p'. Both of these will change during compression or
swelling and so K' is not a soil constant.
Back to Equations for isotropic compression
Typical values for isotropic compression parameters

The compression and swelling parameters and are soil properties and the values
depend on the nature of the soil.
Typical values
w L Ip l
very high plasticity clay
high plasticity clay
intermediate plasticity clay
low plasticity clay
quartz sand
carbonate sand
80
60
42
30
50
34
23
12
0.29
0.20
0.14
0.07
0.15
0.34
For clays Ip / 170.

/ is relatively large (e.g. 0.25 - 0.35) because clay particles can bend and distort.
For sands is relatively large due to particles crushing (but states only reach NCL at
high pressure).
/ is relatively small (e.g. 0.1) because sand particles crush and rearrange during first
compression.
Overconsolidation
Soil classification
If the current state of soil is on the normal compression

line it is said to be normally consolidated. If the soil is
unloaded it becomes overconsolidated.
(Soil cannot usually be at a state outside the normal
compression line unless it is bonded or structured).
At a state A the overconsolidation ratio is
Rp = p'y / p'a
(on NCL Rp = 1.0 and soil is normally consolidated).
Note: p'y is the point of intersection of the swelling line
through A and the NCL. This is usually close to the
maximum past stress.
State
Change of state
Critical state
Normalising parameters
The current state of a soil is described by the stress p', the

specific volume v and the overconsolidation ratio Rp (for a
complete description the shear stress q' is required).
The state at A is given by any two of
va , p'a , Rp = p'y / p'a
All states with the same Rp fall on the lines parallel with
the NCL.
ln Rp = ln ( p'y / p'a )
= ln p'y - ln p'a
Many features of soil behaviour, especially shear modulus
Soil classification
and peak strength, increase with increasing overconsolidation.
Back to Isotropic compression: state
Change of state
Loading and unloading
(relevant to all soils)
Change of state A to B can only be achieved by normal
compression along CD followed by swelling along DB.
Note that the yield stress corresponding to B is larger than
the yield stress corresponding to A.
Vibration or compaction
(relevant to sands)
or creep
(relevant to clays)
Change of state can occur
directly from A to B. Note
that the yield stress
corresponding to B is larger
than the yield stress
corresponding to A.
Critical state
There is a critical overconsolidation ratio which separates states in which the soil will
either compress or dilate during shear. This corresponds to the critical state line CSL.
Look at the possible specific volumes (v) that can occur at a mean effective stress p'.
wet side of critical
(W on the graph)
vw > vc at stress p'
water content ww is larger than critical wc
loose
Soil classification
normally consolidated
or lightly overconsolidated
compress during drained shear
dry side of critical
(D on the graph)
vd < vc at stress p'
water content wd is smaller than critical wc
dense
heavily overconsolidated
dilate during drained shear
Normalising parameters change the current state to a
normalised state so that all states with the same
overconsolidation ratio have the same value.
Equivalent specific volume
vl = va + ln p'a
Equivalent pressure
ln p'e = ( N - va ) /
Critical pressure
ln p'c = ( - va ) /
If A is on the wet side of critical
ve >
p'a / p'c > 1
If A is on the dry side of critical
ve <
p'a / p'c < 1
Soil classification
One-dimensional compression and swelling
Equations
Overconsolidation
Horizontal stress
State
One-dimensional loading is
applied in an oedometer and
occurs in the ground beneath
wide foundations,
embankments or excavations.
'z = vertical effective stress
H = height or thickness
vertical strain = volumetric strain
v = / Ho = / (1+eo)
where Ho, eo and 'o are initial values.
As the vertical stress 'z is raised and lowered the top of the sample settles or heaves, or
the layer contracts or expands.
Note that the compression-swelling-recompression curve is similar to that for isotropic
compression, but the axes used are ('z, e) rather than (p', v).
Back to One-dimensional compression and swelling
Equations
One-dimensional modulus and compressibility
For one-dimensional compression and swelling there are

simple relationships between the void ratio and the logarithm
of the vertical effective stress 'z.
Soil classification
First loading:
normal compression line (NCL)
OAD on the graph
e = eN - Cc log 'z
Unloading and reloading:
swelling-recompression line (SRL)
BC on the graph
e = ek - Cs log 'z
eN, Cc and Cs are soil parameters
ek and 'y locate a particular swelling line
If the current stress 'o and the history of loading and unloading are known, the current
void ratio can be calculated. e.g.
eo = eN - Cc log 'y + Cs ('y - 'o )
Back to One-dimensional compression: equations
One-dimensional modulus and compressibility

The one-dimensional stiffness modulus is the slope of the
stress/strain curve:
M' = 'z / v or
E'o = 'z / z (since h = 0)
The reciprocal of stiffness is compressibility. The onedimensional coefficient of compressibility is the slope of the
strain/stress curve:
mv = / ('z (1+e))
= 1 / E'o
E'o and mv apply for the normal compression line and for swelling and recompression
lines, and depend on the current state, on the history and on the increment of loading, so
Soil classification
they are not soil constants.

Since mv varies with 'z, its value is often quoted for 'z = 100kPa.
Overconsolidation
If the current state of soil is on the normal compression
line it is said to be normally consolidated. If the soil is
unloaded it becomes overconsolidated.
Soil cannot usually be at a state outside the normal
compression line unless it is bonded or structured.
At a state A the overconsolidation ratio is
Ro = 'y / 'a
(on NCL Ro = 1.0 and soil is normally consolidated).
Note: 'y is the point of intersection of the swelling line
through A and the NCL. This is usually, but not always,
close to the maximum past stress (see change of state).
Horizontal stress in one-dimensional loading

During one-dimensional loading and unloading the
horizontal effective stress 'h will change since the
condition of zero horizontal strain (h = 0) is imposed.
Soil classification
The ratio Ko = 'h / 'z is known as the coefficient of earth

pressure at rest.
Ko depends on
the type of soil
the overconsolidation ratio (Ro)
the loading or unloading cycle
Approximations
normally consolidated soils:
Konc 1 - sin'c
overconsolidated soils:
Ko Konc Ro
State
Change of state
Critical state
The current state of a soil is described by the stress ', the

void ratio e and the overconsolidation ratio Ro (for a
complete description the shear stress ' is required).
The state at A is given by any two of
ea , 'a , Ro = 'y / 'a
All states with the same Ro fall on the lines parallel with
the NCL.
Soil classification
log Ro = log ( 'y / 'a )

= log 'y - log 'a
Many features of soil behaviour, especially shear modulus
and peak strength, increase with increasing overconsolidation.
Back to One-dimensional compression: state
Change of state
Loading and unloading
(relevant to all soils)
Change of state A to B can only be achieved by normal
compression along CD followed by swelling along DB.
Note that the yield stress corresponding to B is larger than
the yield stress corresponding to A.
Vibration or compaction
(relevant to sands)
or creep:
(relevant to clays)
Change of state can occur
directly from A to B. Note
that the yield stress
corresponding to B is larger
than the yield stress
corresponding to A.
Critical state
There is a critical overconsolidation ratio which
separates states in which the soil will either compress
or dilate during shear. This corresponds to the critical
Soil classification
state line CSL. Look at the possible voids ratios (e) that
can occur at an effective stress 'a.
wet side of critical
(W on the graph)
ew > ec at stress '
water content ww is larger than critical wc
loose
normally consolidated
or lightly overconsolidated
compress during drained shear
dry side of critical
(D on the graph)
ed < ec at stress '
water content wd is smaller than critical wc
dense
heavily overconsolidated
dilate during drained shear
Normalising parameters change the current state to a
normalised state so that all states with the same
overconsolidation ratio have the same value.
Equivalent void ratio
el = ea + Cc log 'a
Equivalent stress
log 'e = ( eN - ea ) / Cc
Critical stress
log 'c = ( eG - ea ) / Cc
If A is on the wet side of critical
el > eG
'a / 'c > 1
Soil classification
If A is on the dry side of critical

el < eG
'a / 'c < 1
Wet and dry states
State parameters
Soils whose states lie on the normal compression

line (NCL) are normally consolidated. There is a
critical overconsolidation ratio that corresponds
with the critical state line (CSL).
A lightly overconsolidated soil has a state which
lies above the CSL.
A heavily overconsolidated soil has a state which
lies below the CSL.
States lying above the CSL are said to be on the
wet side of critical.
States lying below the CSL are said to be on the
dry side of critical.
In the diagrams: va > vb, and yet since the stress at
B is greater, state B is on the wet side of critical, while state A is on the dry side of
critical.
Wet and dry states
State parameters
Soil classification
Soils whose states lie on the normal compression

line (NCL) are normally consolidated. There is a
critical overconsolidation ratio that corresponds
with the critical state line (CSL).
A lightly overconsolidated soil has a state which
lies above the CSL.
A heavily overconsolidated soil has a state which
lies below the CSL.
States lying above the CSL are said to be on the
wet side of critical.
States lying below the CSL are said to be on the
dry side of critical.
In the diagrams: va > vb, and yet since the stress at
B is greater, state B is on the wet side of critical, while state A is on the dry side of
critical.
Back to Wet and dry states
State parameters
A measure of the initial state of a soil are the
distances it lies at from the CSL, in terms of either
volume or stress. These distances are expressed as
state parameters:
Stress state parameter
Ss = pa' / pc'
ln Ss = ln pa' - ln pc'
Volume state parameter
Sv = va - vc
The state parameters are related:
Sv = ln Ss
Normally consolidated state:
Sv = ln Ss = 0
Soil classification
States on the wet side of critical:

Sv and ln Ss are positive
States on the dry side of critical:
Sv and ln Ss are negative
Produced by Dr. Leslie Davison, University of the West of England, Bristol, 2001
GeotechniCAL
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Soil mechanics

Based on part of the GeotechniCAL reference package

Basic mechanics of soils

http://fbe.uwe.ac.uk/public/geocal/SoilMech/index.htm (1 of 2)11/22/2004 7:49:38 PM

Back to Soil mechanics

Compression and swelling

http://fbe.uwe.ac.uk/public/geocal/SoilMech/index.htm (2 of 2)11/22/2004 7:49:38 PM

Basic mechanics of soils

Back to Soil Mechanics

Based on part of the GeotechniCAL reference package

Basic mechanics of soils

Analysis of stress and strain

Analysis of stress and strain

Back to Basic mechanics of soils

Special stress and strain states

http://fbe.uwe.ac.uk/public/geocal/SoilMech/basic/soilbasi.htm (1 of 10)23/03/2005 2:06:14

Basic mechanics of soils

Analysis of stress and strain

Special stress and strain states

In general, the stresses and strains in the three

Axially symmetric or triaxial states

http://fbe.uwe.ac.uk/public/geocal/SoilMech/basic/soilbasi.htm (2 of 10)23/03/2005 2:06:14

Basic mechanics of soils

Mohr circle construction

Back to Analysis of stress and strain Forward to Parameters

Values of normal stress and shear stress must relate to

http://fbe.uwe.ac.uk/public/geocal/SoilMech/basic/soilbasi.htm (3 of 10)23/03/2005 2:06:14

Basic mechanics of soils

There are special planes on which the shear stress

Parameters for stress and strain

Analysis of stress and strain

p' = ('a + 2'r) / 3 ev = V/V = (a + 2r)

http://fbe.uwe.ac.uk/public/geocal/SoilMech/basic/soilbasi.htm (4 of 10)23/03/2005 2:06:14

Basic mechanics of soils

Back to Basic mechanics of soils

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Basic mechanics of soils

http://fbe.uwe.ac.uk/public/geocal/SoilMech/basic/soilbasi.htm (6 of 10)23/03/2005 2:06:14

Basic mechanics of soils

http://fbe.uwe.ac.uk/public/geocal/SoilMech/basic/soilbasi.htm (7 of 10)23/03/2005 2:06:14

Basic mechanics of soils

Back to Strength criteria Forward to Mohr-Coulomb (c=0)

The strength is independent of the normal stress

Mohr-Coulomb (c'=0) criterion

Back to Strength criteria Forward to Mohr-Coulomb

The strength increases linearly with increasing

>Mohr-Coulomb (c'>0) criterion

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Back to Strength criteria

Basic mechanics of soils

'f = c' + 'n tan'

Typical values of shear strength

Undrained shear strength su (kPa)

su > 150 kPa

Very soft soil

Drained shear strength

Unweathered overconsolidated clay

http://fbe.uwe.ac.uk/public/geocal/SoilMech/basic/soilbasi.htm (9 of 10)23/03/2005 2:06:14

Basic mechanics of soils

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Description & classification

Soil as an engineering material

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