Satellite Communication

SATELLITE ORBITS
.1. INTRODUCTION
Satellite communication plays a vital role in day today activities of our
life. Nowadays in many homes, antennas or dishes are used for reception
of satellite television.
Satellites are having unique features than other communication means,
because they can cover the entire earth and able to link many users
simultaneously.
Satellites also provide communications to remote areas, which are very
difficult to access by other means.
The satellite communication system is effective only where the system is
in continuous use.
Satellites are used for many other purposes apart from communication,
they are meteorological remote sensing, military and domestic purposes.
To provide a general overview of satellite systems, three different types
of applications are briefly described in this chapter.
1. The largest international system (Intelsat)
2. The domestic satellite system (Dom sat) in U.S.
Satellite Orbits
3. U.S. National oceanographic and atmospheric administrations

(NOAA)
.1.1. FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS FOR SATELLITE SERVICES

Frequency allocations to satellite services require International coordination and planning.It is done by an international union called
International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
To allocate the frequency the entire world is divided into 3 regions.
1. Region 1 It covers Europe, Africa and Mangolia
2. Region 2 It covers North & South America and Greenland
3. Region 3 It covers Asia, Australia and South West Pacific.
Table .1 shows the frequency allocation and band designation.
Types of Satellite Services
The following are the broad classifications of the satellite services.
1.
Fixed satellite service
2.
Broadcasting satellite service
3.
Mobile satellite service
4.
Navigational satellite services
Satellite Orbits
5.
Meteorological satellite services
Fixed Satellite Service

Table .1. Frequency range and band designations
Frequency Range
(GHz)
Band
Designation
0.1 0.3
0.3 1.0
1.0 2.0
2.0 4.0
4.0 8.0
8.0 12.0
12.0 18.0
18.0 24.0
24.0 40.0
40.0 100.0
VHF
UHF
L
S
C
X
Ku
K
Ka
mm
It provides link for existing telephone networks and also used for
transmitting television signals.
The C band is used for fixed satellite service. Direct broadcasting is not
allowed in this band.
The most widely used sub range is 46 GHZ and the C band denoted by
6/4 GHz (uplink/downlink).
1.4
Satellite Communication
Broadcasting Satellites (BSS)

These satellites are mainly used for direct broadcast to the home.
The Ku band is used for the direct broadcasting (under the K band).
The most widely used range in Ku band is 1214 GHz and is denoted by
14/12 GHz (uplink/downlink).
Mobile Satellite Services
It includes the services like, land mobile, maritime mobile and
aeronautical mobile.
The VHF and L band are used by the mobile satellites.

Navigational & Meteorological Satellite Services
Navigational satellite includes global positioning and the meteorological
satellites are used for search and rescue and weather forecasting
purposes.
These satellites also use the same VHF and L band for their data transfer
purpose.
.1.2. INTEL SAT
Intelsat means International telecommunication satellite.
It was established in 1984 to handle the problems in telecommunication
system worldwide.
Table .2 shows the evolution of Intelsat.
Satellite Orbits
From the Table .2, it is observed that, upto VI series there is a

progressive increase in the size and capacity.
The Intelsat VII is smaller than the predecessor and its life time is 15
years.
Table .2. Evolution of satellites

Designation
II
III
IV
VI
Year of first launch
1965
1966
1968
1971
1980
1987
Width
0.7
1.4
1.4
2.4
3.6
Height
0.6
0.7
1.0
5.3
6.4
6.4
68
182
293
1385
1946
12100/3720
13
36
56
186
235
800
40
75
134
480
1270
2200
1.5
10
Voice channels
480
480
2400
8000
25000
80000
Bandwidth
50
130
300
500
2137
3520
Space craft mass in

transfer orbit (kg)
Comm. payload
mass (kg)
End of Life
Design life time
(years)
Intelsat VII is planned to provide service in Pacific ocean region and in

some of the Atlantic ocean region.
1.6
The Intelsat are used for transoceanic routes and also for some domestic
purposes.
.1.3. U.S. DOMSATS

Domsat means Domestic satellites.
These are used for voice, data and video transmissions within the
country.
These are used for home entertainment also. U.S. Domsat are situated in
geostationary orbit.
U.S. Domsats which provide a direct to home television service can be
classified broadly as,
(i)
High power
(ii)
Medium power
(iii) Low power

In the high power category, the EIRP (Equivalent Isotropic Radiated
Power) is 60 dbW and 37 dbW for the low power category. It will
increase the received power, so that we can use any smaller antennas in
the receiver.
The direct broadcasting service (DBS) is possible in high power
category.
Satellite Orbits
The medium power category is used for point point communication

links.
Fig.1.1 shows the broadcasting satellite system (DBS).
Fig. .1. Components of Direct Broadcasting Satellite System

The television signal is relayed over a terrestrial link to the uplink
station.
The uplink station transmits very narrow band signal of 14 GHz to the
satellite.
The satellite retransmits the signals in 12 GHz frequency, the users

within the beam coverage will receive the satellite signal.
1.8
To avoid interference between the satellite services, the (FCC) Federal

Communication Commission adopted a policy.
As per the policy, 2 spacing for 6/4 GHz band and 1.5 for 14/12 GHz
band satellite.
.1.4. POLAR ORBITING SATELLITES
Polar orbiting satellites are used to cover the north and south polar
regions.
These are placed in polar orbit which is ranging from 800-900 km. The
main purpose of these satellites for weather forecasting.
In addition to this, it is also used to help to locate the ships and aircraft in
distress. This type of satellite is called SARSAT (search and rescue sat).
The combined system is known as COSPAS-SARSAT, it was started on
1980 and it contains 23 participating countries.
The polar orbit covers the north and south polar regins.
We know that,there is only one geostationary orbit but there are number
of polar orbits.It is shown below.
Satellite Orbits
f
The polar orbits are the low earth orbits having the distance between
800-900 km.Because of these characteristics, it can be used to monitor
the weather conditions which is not possible in geostationary orbits as it
has 36,000 km distance from the earth
The polar orbits are almost circular orbits
They also have ultraviolet sensors that are used to measure the ozone
levels.
Apart from weather forecasting,they are also used for search and rescue
purposes.
The polar orbits are the sun synchronous orbits.That is,it will cross the
equator at same local time each day.
1.10
The orbital period for these orbits is 102 min.

One day
= 1440 min
No of bits per day =
1440
102
Operation of a COSPOS-SARSAT System

The satellite receives a signal from an emergency beacon, the beacon
transmits in VHF/UHF range.
The satellite moves at some velocity relative to the beacon, and this
results in a Doppler shift in frequency received at the satellite.
From this, the distance of the beacon relative to the orbit on the earth can
be determined.
The satellite get the information back to an earth station.
The sarsat communicates on the frequency of 1544.5 MHz to several
local user terminals (LUT) [There are 23 LUT operating at present].
The LUT determines the distress location and passes the information to
Mission Control Center (MCC) [at present there are 13 MCCs].
The MCC alerts the Rescue Coordination Centre (RCC) nearest to the
location where the distress signal originated. The RCC takes necessary
actions to effect a rescue.
The beacon transmitters are known as the emergency locator transmitter.
1.2 KELPLERS LAWS
Satellite Orbits
1.2.1. INTRODUCTION
To govern the motion of the satellites, some laws should be followed.
Satellites follow the law as the planets around the sun.
During 15711630, Jonnes Kepler derived three laws describing
planetary motion.
These laws are generally applied to any two bodies in space.
1.2.2. KEPLERS FIRST LAW
The path followed by the satellite around the primary will be an ellipse.
Fig.1.2.
The ellipse has two focal points namely F 1 and F 2.
The centre of the mass of the two body systems termed as bary centre, is
always centred on one of the foci.
1.12
The semi-major axis is given as a and the semi-minor axis is given by b.

The eccentricity is given by,
e =
For an elliptical orbit 0 < e < 1, when e = 0 the orbit becomes circular.
1..2. KEPLERS SECOND LAW
It states that, for
equal time intervals,
the satellite sweeps
out equal areas in
orbital
plane,
focused at the bary

centre.
Assume a satellite
travels a distance S1
and S 2 meters in
once. Then the areas
A1 and A 2 will be
equal.
The
average
velocity in each case

is S 1 and S 2 meters
Satellite Orbits
per
second.
Fig. 1.3.
A satellite takes longer time to travel when it is farther away from earth.
1..3. KEPLERS THIRD LAW
It states that, the square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to
the cube of mean distance between the two bodies.
The mean distance equal to the semi-major axis a.
Keplers third law can be written as,
a3 =
where,
n = mean motion of the satellite in rad/sec.

= earths geocentric gravitational constant(3.986005 x 1014 m3/s2)
With the n in radians per sec. the orbital period in second is given by,
P=
1.3 NEWTONS LAW
Newton's Laws of Motion and Gravitation
These are the basis for classical mechanics
Laws of motion:
1.14
(1) Everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight

line unless it is compelled to change that state by a force impressed upon it.
(2) The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the impressed force and
is in the same direction as that force.
Momentum = mass velocity,
So Law (2) becomes
d ( m v )
d v
F=
=m
=a
dt
dt
For constant mass
(3) For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Law of gravitation:
The force of attraction between any two particles is
Proportional to their masses
Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
i.e.
F=
Gm 1 m 2
r2
(treating the masses as points)
where
G = gravitational constant = 6.673 10-11 Nm2 /kg2
Satellite Orbits
These laws explain how a satellite stays in orbit.

Law (1):
A satellite would tend to go off in a straight line if no force were
applied to it.
Law (2):
An attractive force makes the satellite deviate from a straight line and
orbit Earth.
Law of Gravitation:
This attractive force is the gravitational force between Earth and the
satellite. Gravity provides the inward pull that keeps the satellite in orbit.
Assuming a circular orbit, the gravitational force must equal the
centripetal force.
mv2 Gmm E
= 2
r
r
where
v
= Tangential velocity
= Orbit radius = RE + h
RE
= Radius of Earth
1.16
= Altitude of orbit = height above Earths surface
= Mass of satellite
mE
= Mass of Earth
v=
G mE
r
Hence v depends only on the altitude of the orbit (not on the satellites mass).
The period of the satellites orbit is
T=
2 r
r
r3
=2 r
=2 r
v
Gm E
Gm E
Again, this is only dependent on the altitude, increasing as the orbits
altitude increases.
The acceleration of the satellite is determined using
v v t
v
r
So
a= lim
t0
v v2
=
t r
Satellite Orbits
1.4 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS FOR EARTH ORBITING SATELLITES

For the particular use of earth orbiting satellites, certain terms are used to
describe the position of the orbit with respect to earth.
Apogee The point farthest from the earth.
Perigee The point closest to the earth.
Line of Apsides
The line joining the perigee and apogee through the center of the earth.
Ascending Node
The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from south
to north.
Descending Node
The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from north
to south.
1.18
Line of Nodes
The line joining the ascending and the descending through centre of the
earth.
Inclination
The angle between the orbital plane and the earths equatorial plane.
Pro Grade Orbit
An orbit in which the satellite moves in the same direction as the earths
rotation. Its also known as the direct orbit.
Retro Grade
An orbit in which the satellite moves in counter to direction of earths
rotation.
Right Ascension of the Ascending Node
For the absolute measurement of the orbit in space, a fixed reference is
required.
The reference chosen is the first point of aries or vernal or spring.

The vernal equinox occurs when the sun crosses the equator going from
south to north, a imaginary line is drawn from this equatorial crossing
toward first point of axis. This is line of axis. The angle measured
eastward in the equatorial plane, from the line to the ascending node.
Mean Anomaly
Average value of angular position of satellite with reference to the perigee.
Satellite Orbits
True Anomaly
Angle from the perigee to the satellite position measured at the earths
centre.
1.5. ORBITAL ELEMENTS

In general the artificial satellites are defined by six orbital elements. These
elements are referred to as the Keplerian element set.
These are given below,
1. Semi-major axis (a)
2. Eccentricity (e)
3. Mean anomaly (M o)
4. Perigee (w)
5. Inclination (i)
6. Right ascension of the ascending node ()
NASA provides a two-line elements to the users, one of these is specified here.
Table 1.3. NASA prediction bulletin
Line 1 1
Line 2
2 1 2 6 3 U
9 3 2 2 1 . 0 7 0 1 9 1 0 0
9 8 . 6 4 0
2 5 0 . 1 9 4 9
0 0 1 4 0 5 3
0 . 0 0 0 0 0 1 8 7
6 2 . 4 9 9 5
1.20
Here the semi major axis is not specified, but this can be calculated from
the data given.
E.g. Calculate the semi major axis for the satellite parameters given in Table
1.3
The mean motion in table

NN: = 14.22296917 day1
This can be converted into rad/sec as,
n 0 = NN (2 )
= 3.986005 1014 m3 sec2
Satellite Orbits
By Keplers third law,

a3 =
Semi major axis
a =
= 7195.7 km
Table 1.4. Details from NASA bulletins
Line No.
Column
3 7
Description
Sat. No: 21263
19 20
Epoch year: 93
21 32
Epoch day: 221.07019100

(day & fraction day of the year)
34 43
First time derivative of mean motion (rev/day2) :

0.00000187
9 16
18 25
Inclination (deg) : 98.6540

Right ascention of the ascending node : 250.1949
(deg)
27 33
Eccentricity : 0014053
35 42
Argument of perigee : 62.4995
44 51
Mean anomaly : 297.7604
53 63
Mean motion : 14.22296917
1.22
64 68
Revolution no. at epoch : 11616
1.6. APOGEE AND PERIGEE HEIGHTS

The length of the radius vector at apogee and perigee can be obtained from
the geometry of the ellipse.
r a = a (1 + e)
r p = a (1 e)
The apogee and perigee heights can be calculated by subtracting the radius
of the earth from the radii lengths.
For example, Calculate the apogee and perigee heights for the orbital
parameters given in Table 1Error: Reference source not found3. The earths
polar radius may be taken as 6356.755 km.
From the table, a = 7195.7 km
e = 0.0014053
Earths polar radius, R p = 6356.755 km
Apogee length,
r a = a (1 + e) = 7205.8 km
Perigee length,
r p = a (1 e) = 7185.6 km
Apogee height, h a = r a R p = 849.1 km
Satellite Orbits
Perigee height, h p = r p R p = 828.8 km
1.7. ORBITAL PERTURBATIONS

In the Keplerian orbit, it is assumed that the earth is a uniform
spherical mass, and the only force acting is the centrifugal force.
Centrifugal force is nothing but the force resulting from satellite
motion balancing the gravitational pull of the earth.
But in practice, other form of forces are also significant like,
i.
Gravitational pulls of sun and the moon
ii.
Atmospheric drag.
The gravitational pulls of sun and moon does not affect the low
orbiting satellites, but they affect the geostationary satellites.
Atmospheric drag has negligible effect on geostationary orbit, but it
affects the low-orbiting satellites.
The earth is not a perfect sphere, it is a oblate spheroid. This shape
will also cause some variations in the orbit.
1.7.0. Effects of a Non-Spherical Earth
The mean motion (n 0) = is given for the perfect spherical earth.
1.24
But it is known that the earth is not perfectly spherical, and it is

described as an oblate spheroid.
If we take the oblateness, then the mean motion is modified as,
n = n0 1 +
Where,
K = 66,063.1704 km 2 (constant)
The orbital period of the earths oblateness is given by, anomalistic

period, and it is reciprocal of the mean motion.
PA = S
If the known quantity is n, then the equation can be solved for a,
a =
Example 1.1
A satellite is orbiting in the equatorial plane with a period
from perigee to perigee of 12 hr.

Given that, Eccentricity = 0.002, Equatorial radius = 6378.1414 km .
Calculate the semi-major axis.
Given Data:
e = 0.002,
i = 0 deg,
p = 12 hr,
a E = 6378.1414 km,
= 398005 1014 m3 sec2,
K 1 = 66063.1704 km2.
Satellite Orbits
The mean motion is n =

Keplers 3rd law gives, a =
=
= 26597 km
The oblateness of the earth produces two rotations of the orbital plane.
(i) Regression of the nodes
(ii) Rotation of apsides in the orbital plane.
Regression of the Nodes
The nodes appear slide along the equator. The line of nodes in equatorial
plane rotates about the center of the earth.
Thus (the right ascension of the ascending node) shifts its position.
The orbit may be prograde or retrogrades
Prograde
Moves or slides east ward (along with earth)
Retrograde Moves or slides westward (opp against to earth)

For a polar orbit (i = 90) the regression is zero.
The regression of nodes depends on mean motion (n), semi major axis
(a) and eccentricity (e).
All these things may be given by a single factor, K.
1.26
K =
K has same unit as n.
The rate of change of with respect to time is,
= K cos
where,
= Inclination angle
If this equation is negative, then the movement is in retrograde otherwise

it is in prograde.
If we choose the values of a, e and to give the rate of rotation

K = 0.9856/day, then such an orbit is said to be Sun synchronous.
Rotation of the Line of Apsides
This effect occurs because the argument of perigee changes with time, in
effect the rate of change is given by,
= K (2 2 5 sin2 i)
Units are same as those for n.
By denoting the epoch time by t0, the right ascention of the ascending
node by 0 and the argument of perigee by 0 gives the new values for
= 0 + (t t 0)
Satellite Orbits
0 = Argument of perigee
= 0 + (t t 0)
t 0 = epoch time
0 = right ascension of the ascending node
PA is the time required to go around the orbital path from perigee to
perigee.
In addition to equatorial bulge, the earth exhibits small eccentricity in the
equatorial plane of the order of 105. This is referred as equatorial
ellipticity.
This effect generally affects the satellites in the geostationary orbit.
This equatorial ellipticity is set up a gravitational gradient, which
tends the satellites to drift from its original path to two stable points.
These points are at approximately 75E longitude and 105W longitude
separated by 180 on the equator.
The satellites are prevented from drifting to these points through station
keeping mechanisms.
Note: The equatorial ellipticity is negligible on most other satellites.
1.7.2. Atmospheric Drag
1.28
The atmospheric drag is significant for near earth satellites, below about
1000 km.
This drag reduces the velocity at the perigee, because of this, the satellite
does not reach the same apogee height on successive revolutions.
So that, the semi major axis and the eccentricity are both reduced.
The approximate expression for the change of major axis is,
a = a0
The expression for change in mean anomaly is given by,
(t t 0 )2
1.8. INCLINED ORBITS
The determination of orbit is needed, to calculate the future orbit of the
satellite, hence it is possible to keep the satellite within the orbit.
The measurement is to be made to determine the orbital elements with
reference to the angular positions, (i.e.,) plane of the orbit, the position
of which is fixed in space and the location of earth station is usually
given in terms of geographic co-ordinate systems.
In the calculation of inclined elliptical orbits, complication occurs
because, different parameters are referred to different reference frames.
In the calculation of inclined elliptical orbits, transformation between the
Satellite Orbits
co-ordinate systems are required, specifically during the calculation of

look angles and range.
It is also to be noted that, with inclined elliptical, the satellites are not
geostationary, and look angles may change with time.
Determination of look angles and range involves the following quantities.
1.
The orbital elements
2.
Various measures of time
3.
Perifocal co-ordinate system (based on orbital plane)
4.
The geocentric equatorial co-ordinate system. (based on earths

equatorial plane).
5.
The topocentric horizon co-ordinate system (based on observers

horizon plane)
The co-ordinate transformation needed are,

The satellite position measured in the perifocal system is transformed to
the geocentric horizon system (To co-ordinate the satellite position &
earth station location).
The satellite earth station position vector is transformed to topocentric
horizon system (To calculate look angles and range).
1.8.0. Calendars
1.30
It is a time keeping device in which the year is divided into months,

weeks and days.
The days are based on the earths motion relative to the sun.
It is also convenient to think of the sun moving relative to the earth and
is referred as mean sun
The time taken by the mean sun to complete one orbit of the earth is
being the tropical year.
A day measured relative to the mean sun is referred as mean solar

day.
A tropical year consists of 365.42422 days, normally divided into 365
days.
The remaining 0.2422 is added as one day in the month of February

when the year is divisible by 4. This is called as leap year, and it gives
the Julian calendar.
An addition constrained is added to the leap year that the years ending
with two zeros must be divisible by 400.
This was used to miss out 3 days for every four hundred years. The
resulting calendar is known as Gregorian calender, Which is in use
nowadays.
In calculations which require satellite predictions, it is necessary to
determine whether a year is a leap year or not.
1.8.1. Universal Time
Satellite Orbits
Universal time co-ordinated is the time used for all civil time keeping
purposes.
This reference time is broadcast by National Bureau of Standards and
it is based on atomic timefrequency standards, this is the standard for
setting clocks.
The fundamental unit of UTC is the mean solar day. The mean solar day
is divided into 24 hours, an hour into 60 minutes, and a minute into 60
seconds.
Satellite orbit epoch time is given interms of UTC.
The universal time (UT) is required in two forms, (i) as fraction of day
(ii) degrees.
(i) UT day =
(ii) UT = 360 UT day
1.8.2. Julian Dates
The calendar time is always expressed in UT. To complete the timings of
many events, we are in need of a reference time.
That reference time is provided by Julian zero time. The ordinary
calendar time is easily converted to Julian dates.
Steps to convert from ordinary time to Julian time.
Step 1: Determine the day of the year.
1.32
Step 2: Convert the universal time to a fractional day.

UT day =
Step 3: From the table, determine the Julian day for Jan 0.0 of the
corresponding year.
Step 4: J D = J D 0.0 + day number + UT day
Following table will help to determine the Julian day and the day number
for all the last day of month.
Jan 0 is Dec. 31 (i.e.,) noon on Dec. 31 is denoted by 0.5 and noon on
Jan 1 is denoted by Jan 1.5.
The reference day is Jan 1, 12 noon of the year 4713 BC.
Satellite Orbits
Table 1.5. Julian dates at beginning of each year (Jun 0 OUT) 1986-2000
Year
Julian date (days)
1986
2,400,000
+
1987
46,460.5
1988
46,795.5
1989
47,160.5
1990
47,526.5
1991
47,891.5
1992
48,256.5
1993
48,621.5
1994
48,987.5
1995
49,352.5
1996
49,717.5
1997
50,082.5
1998
50,448.5
1999
50,813.5
2000
51,178.5
2001
51,543.5
2002
51,908.5
.
.
.
1.34
Table 1.6. Day number for noon on the last day of the month
Date
Day number
January 31
31.5
February 28
59.5 (60.5)
March 31
90.5 (91.5)
April 30
120.5 (121.5)
May 31
151.5 (152.5)
June 30
181.5 (182.5)
July 31
212.5 (231.5)
August 31
243.5 (244.5)
September 30
273.5 (274.5)
October 31
304.5 (305.5)
November 30
334.5 (335.5)
December 31
365.5 (366.5)
Number in parenthesis is for leap year.

Example 1.2
Find the Julian date corresponding to 3h UT on

October 10, 1987.
Step 1: Determine the day of the year.

September 30 = 273.5
(Noon of) October 10 = 273.5 + 10 = 283.5
(Start of) October 10 = 283
Step 2: Convert the universal time to a fractional day
Satellite Orbits
UT day = (3 h + 0 + 0) =
= 0.125
Step 3: Determine the Julian day for Jan 0.0 of the year 1987.
240000 + 46795.5
J D0.0 = 2,86,795.5
Step 4:
J D = J D0.0 + UT day + Day number

J D = 286795.5 + 0.125 + 283
J D = 287078.625
1.8.4. Sidereal Time

Rotation of earth relative to fixed stars.
Fig. 1.4.
1.36
Sidereal time is measured relative to the fixed stars. Sidereal day is

defined as one complete rotation of earth relative to the fixed stars.
The difference between the solar day and sidereal day is given below.
One mean solar day
1.0027379093 mean sidereal days

24 n / 03 m / 565.55536 sidereal time
86636.55536 mean sidereal sec.
One mean sidereal day 0.9972695664 mean solar days

23 h / 56 m / 0.4090543 mean solar time
86164.09054 mean solar sec.
These values are used to determine the height of the geostationary orbit.
1.8.5. The Orbital Plane
The motion of satellite may be expressed in vector form in the perifocal
co-ordinate system.
Fig. 1.5 shows the perifocal co-ordinate system.
Satellite Orbits
Fig. 1.5. Perifocal co-ordinate system

The orbital plane is the fundamental plane and is the centre of the
earth.
The positive x-axis passes through the perigee and lies in the orbital
plane.
Unit vector p points along the +ve xaxis.
The +ve y-axis is rotated 90 from the x-axis in the direction of satellite
motion and the unit vector is Q.
The positive z-axis is normal to the orbital plane and the unit vector W.
This can be referred as PQW frame.
The position vector r and velocity vector v specify the motion of the
satellite.
From the geometry of ellipse,
1.38
r =
To determine true anomoly v, the mean anamoly M at time t is found,
M = n(t T)
where,
n = Mean motion
From the NASA elements 0 = n (t 0 T)
T = t0
Substituting equation (1.4) in equation (1.3)

M = n t t0
= t t0 +
n t
M = 0 + n (t t 0)
Next is to solve the Keplerian equation to find the eccentric anamoly E.

M = E e sin E
M (E e sin E) = 0
v can be found by,
tan = tan
r, in terms of E can be written as,

r = a (1 e cos E)
For near circular orbits, E is very small and the v can be approximated by,
v M + 2 e sin M + e 2 sin 2 M
In perifocal co-ordinate system, the r value is given by,
Satellite Orbits
r = (r cos v) P + (r sin v) Q
This perifocal is convenient only when the earth is a perfect sphere.
But the earth is not a perfect sphere so the satellite position is transferred
from perifocal to geocentric equatorial co-ordinate system.
1.8.6. Geocentric Equatorial Co-ordinate System
In the geocentric equatorial co-ordinate system, the reference line is the
line of axis.
The fundamental plane is the earths equatorial plane.
, are the orbital angles, they are varying slowly with time.
I, J, K are the unit vectors in this system. So it is referred as IJK frame.
1.40
Fig. 1.6.
The transformation of vector r from PQW frame to IJK frame is most
easily expressed by,
= R
R =
1.8.7. Earth Station Referred to the IJK Frame

Generally, the position of the earth station is given by the geographical
co-ordinate system of latitude and longitude.
For these co-ordinates, different sign conversions are used depending on
the application. Here we take the north latitude as +ve numbers and
south latitude as ve numbers.
R is the position vector of the earth station and it is expressed in IJK
frame as shown in Fig.1.7.
Angle between the R and the equatorial plane is denoted by E.
Satellite Orbits
Fig. 1.7 Position vector R relative to IJK frame

R is the function of rotation of the earth. So, we have to find the position
of the Greenwich meridian relative to the I axis as a function of time.
It may be measured directly as Greenwich sidereal time (GST)
The formula to find the GST is,

GST = 99.6910 + 36000.7689 T + 0.0004 T2 +
UT.
The symbol T stands for time in Julian days. It may be calculated as,
T =
The reference time can be easily changed,
1.42
For example, if we want to use reference time Jan 0.0 1983,

then,
let JD 1983 becomes

T = JD 1986 + 2446,430.5 2415,020.0
T =
The local sidereal time is found by adding the east longitude of the station
in degrees.
For east longitude EL=
For west longitudes EL = 360 + E
E.g. For an earth station at east longitude 60 then,
EL = 60
For an earth station at west longitude 60 then,
EL = 360 + ( 60) = 300
LST = GST + EL
From the LST value, the position vector R can be calculated.

By taking the earth as oblate spheroid for the reference ellipse, the a E and
b E values are given as,
Satellite Orbits
a E (semi-major axis) = 6378.1414 km

and
b E (semi-minor axis) = 6356.755 km
From the a E and b E, the eccentricity e E can be given by,

eE =
= 0.08182
From the Fig 1.8, E is the geocentric latitude.

The imaginary line makes an angle E i.e., geodetic latitude.
H denotes the height of earth station above mean sea level.
Then the geodetic co-ordinates are given
by,
N=
R I = (N + H) cos E cos LST = l cos LST
R J = (N + H) cos E sin LST = l sin LST
R K = [N (1 ) + H] sin E = Z
The range can be calculated as = r R
Fig. 1.8.
1.44
1.8.8. The Topocentric Horizon Co-ordinate System

The satellite position from the earth station, is usually given in terms of
the azimuth and elevation angles and the range
Fig. 1.9. Topocentric horizon co-ordinate system (SEZ) frame

From the Fig.1.9,
The +ve x-axis is taken as south, the unit vector is denoted as S
The +ve y-axis points east, the unit vector is taken as E.
The +ve z-axis points up, the unit vector for this is Z
The range vector is transformed from IJK frame to SEZ frame.
The transformation procedure is given by,
Satellite Orbits
=
The angle E is given by,
E = arc tan
where,
l = Earth station height

Z = Latitude
For O height angle E is given by,

tan E (H = 0) = (1 e) tan E
where,
e E = Earths eccentricity = 0.08182

S
degree
180
180 +
360
The magnitude of range and the antenna look angles are obtained from,
=
EL = arc sin
The angle arc tan
1.46
1.8.9. The Sub-Satellite Point

It is denoted as the point on the earth vertically under the satellite.
The height of the terrain above the reference ellipsoid at the sub-satellite
point is denoted by H SS. The height of the satellite above this is denoted
by h SS .
Fig. 1.10 Determining sub-satellite point

Thus the total height is,
h = H SS + h SS
The latitude, longitude and height of the sub-satellite point can be
determined from a knowledge of the radius vector r.
The components of r in IJK frame are given by,
r I = (N + h) cos SS cos LST
Satellite Orbits
r J = (N + h) cos SS sin LST

r K = (N (1 e) + h) sin SS
N =
SS = Sub-satellite latitude.
The east longitude (EL) = LST GST
Where,
GST = Greenwich sidereal time
1.9. PREDICTING THE SATELLITE POSITION
For the optimum use of a satellite, its position must be located in space.
It is usually predetermined by the design of the satellite and is achieved
through some minor adjustments.
After identifying the position of the satellite, the antenna can be pointed
towards it for its proper transmission and reception.
For geosynchronous satellites, the earth station antenna will be adjusted
once and remains in that position.
But for other type of satellites, the satellite position will vary depending
on the time and its orbital characteristics.
To use these satellites, special tracking antennas must be used.
1.48
In general, the satellite location is specified by a point on the surface of

the earth below the satellite. This is termed as Sub-Satellite Point (SSP).
The SSP may be denoted by the earths longitude and latitude.
By using this longitude and latitude, we can able to point any point or
place on the earth.
Longitudes:
These are the lines drawn on the surface of the earth from North
poles to the south pole (meridian).
Latitudes:
Lines drawn on the surface of the earth from east to west. The centre
of the latitude is equator.
Angle of latitude is the angle between the line drawn from SSP to
geocenter and the line joining the geocentre and the equator.
Angle of longitude is the angle between the line joining the geocentre
and the intersection of equator and prime meridian and the line joining
the geocentre and the intersection of meridian containing SSP and
equator.
The location of the SSP may be given by using these angle of latitude
and angle of longitude. By considering the SSP, angle of elevation and
azimuth angle must be calculated for the ground station antenna.
Satellite Orbits
The geo-synchronous satellite has a fixed SSP on the earth, whereas SSP
of other satellites move with respect to a given reference point on the
earth.
To position the satellite other than geosynchronous satellite, the satellite
path or ground track is used.
The line trace of the SSP is the ground track, this ground track crosses
the equator twice per orbit.
If the SSP crosses the equator in northerly direction, then it is called
ascending node. If it is in southerly direction, then it is called
descending node.
By using these two points, the path of satellite can be traced across the
earth.
The location of the satellite at any given time is specified by the SSP in
terms of latitude and longitude.
The position of the satellite other than
geosynchronous satellites are designated
by an orbit calendar.
This calendar consists of the list of orbit
number and time of occurrence of
ascending node.
Fig.1.11
1.50
By using various formulas involving, height, speed and elliptical

characteristics of the orbit, the time of occurrence of ascending node for
each orbit is calculated. By using all the above values, the ground track
can be formulated.
After finding the location of the satellite, the elevation and azimuth angle
should be calculated.
These angles are used to point the earth station antenna towards the
satellite, then only the proper transmission and reception of information
is possible.
Example 1.3
Find the LST for thunder bay, longitude 92.36 W for 20 h
UT September 21, 1983.

Solution: Given is west longitude.
EL = 360 E = 360 92.36
EL = 267.64
LST = GST + EL
= 300.278 + 267.64
LST = 567.918
The modulo 360 of the above is 207.918
Example 1.4
Find the GST for 20h UT on September 21, 1983.
Satellite Orbits
GST = 99.6910 + (36,000.7689 T) + 0.0004 T 2 +
Solution:
UT
T =
We know that,
JD 1986 = Day No. + UT day
Day No. : The noon of Sep. and Aug. 31 is day No.243.5 (1983 is not a
leap year)
Sep 21 (noon) = 243.5 + 21
= 264.5
UT = 0.833
J Day No. : The start of the Sep. 21 is 264 + 0.833 is 264.833
T =
= 0.867223353
GST = 99.6910 + 36000.7689 0.867223353 + 0.0004
(0.867223353)2
+ 299.88 (0.833 360)
GST = 31620.27882
Modulo 360 of the above value is 300.278.
1.52
GST = 300.278
Example 1.5
Find the components of the radius vector to the earth
station of thunder bay latitude is 50.43 deg and height above the sea level is
300 m. Given that LST = 178.376 deg.
Solution: Given,
LST = 178.376 deg;
E = 50.43 deg
H = 200 m
a E = 6378.1414 km
e E = 0.08182
R =
l = cos E
= cos (50.43)
= cos (50.43)
= (6395296.231) cos 50.43
= 4073.93 km
z = sin E
Satellite Orbits
+ 300 sin 50.43
+ 300 sin 50.43
z = 4896.79 km
R =
km
R =
Example 1.6 Calculate the semi-major axis for the satellite parameters n0
= 89.36555.
Solution: Semi-major axis,
=3.986005 1014 n 3 sec3
a=
n 0 = 89.36555
n = 7986.381
= 4.99111496 1010
a =
= 3678.826 km
Example 1.7 Calculate the time in days, hours, minutes and seconds for
the epoch day 286.82629718.
Solution: It represents 286 day of the year +
1.54
0.82629718 24 = 19.83113232
0.8311322 60 = 49.8679392
0.8679392 60 = 52.076352
The epoch is at 19 hrs, 49 min and 52 sec on the 286th day of the year.
1.10. THE GEO STATIONARY ORBIT AN INTRODUCTION

In the geostationary orbit, a satellite appears stationary relative to the
earth.
i.e., the satellite follows the same speed as the earth, so it seems to
appear stationary from the earth.
The main advantage of this orbit is, there is no necessity for tracking
antennas to find the satellite positions.
The orbit of geostationary satellite is circular as per the Keplers second
law.
To find the attitude, Keplers third law may be used.
The geostationary orbit, follows the same periodic time (p) as the earth
taken to complete one revolution, and it is given by 23 h, 56 min. mean
solar time.
The mean sidereal day is given by 0.9972695664 mean solar days.
Satellite Orbits
Fig. 1.12. The circular geostationary orbit lies above h = 35,786 km from the
equator.
a = b = aE + h
orbit is circular a = b
Mean motion is n = 2/p
By applying Keplers third law,
a =
1.56
a GSO = ( / n 2)1/3
= 42,164 km
The geostationary height (h)
a GSO = a E + h
Radius of earth a E = 6378,
h = a GSO a E
= 42,164 6378
h = 35,786 km
In general, the height of geostationary orbit is rounded up as 36000 km.
Since this is only the possible height, there is only one geostationary
orbit.
The effects of earths equatorial bulge and some forces in space will
affect the geostationary orbit.
The gravitational fields of sun and moon causes drift of 0.85 per year in
inclination.
In general, the satellites are maintained in the geostationary orbit by the
station keeping maneuvers.
Satellite Orbits
The satellite is maintained within 0.1 in both latitude and longitude.
1.11 NON GEO STATIONARY ORBIT

GROUND TRACES
Ground trace is the path of the sub-satellite point on the earth surface,
due to earth rotation, it can take various unused forms.
It is very important to learn about ground traces when we plan for
remote sensing navigation and communication via 0o.
It is very important to satellite mission analysis because they are used
to describe the satellite visibility and geographic areas covered by
satellite.
General procedure is to calculate as a function of time the satellite
position in its own orbit which is fixed in inertial space and then to
transform these coordinates to non-rotating geocentric coordinates.
Then the earth rotation is considered and longitude and latitude of the
sub-satellite point on the earths surface is considered.
1.58
Fig 1.13. Orbital plane coordinates and earth centered inertial coordinates x,y,z.
The tracking of a satellite via an arbitrary orbit from an earth station

needs slant range, azimuth, elevation, to find these parameters, we have
to convert geocentric to topocentric coordinates.
Satellite Orbits
Fig.1.14. Position Of Satellite On The Celestial Sphere Specified By The

Night Ascensional And Declination
Fig.1.15. Constellation size vs altitude
1.60
1.12. ANTENNA LOOK ANGLE

The azimuth and elevation angles of the ground station antenna are
termed as look angles.
For large commercially operated stations, the look angles setting will be
controlled by a computer, but for home systems they will made
manually.
Fig. 1.16.
The radius of earth station is given by,
l =
where,
E = Geodetic latitude
z =
From this,
cos E
R =
sin E
Satellite Orbits
The geocentric angle E is given by

E = arc tan
The earth station is denoted by ES.
S denotes the satellite, d is the
distance between the earth station
and the satellite.
The north latitudes are taken as +ve
numbers and south latitude are
ve numbers. East longitude by +ve
and west longitude by ve.
FFig. 1.17.
To find the azimuth and elevation angle, consider the earth as a sphere of
radius R.
The equatorial great circle is denoted as 11, the great circle contains
ES and SS, which is denoted as 22. The meridian great circle is
denoted as 33.
The spherical triangle shown here are, ABC and a, b, c.
where,
1.62
a = Angle between radius to point 3 and radius to SS =

90.
b = Angle between radius to earth station and radius to SS,
this has to be found.
c = Angle between radius to earth station and radius to
point 3
= 90 E
A = Angle between the meridional plate and plane (ES) of
great circle 22 (antenna azimuth)
B = Angle between the two meridional planes.
C = Angle between great circle plane 22 and the
meridional plane (SS).
The known information are,
a = 90
c = 90 E
B = E SS
Angles to be determined are, A and b.
Satellite Orbits
The shown triangle is termed as quadrantal triangle because one of its

side is 90.
By applying Napiers rule, angle A is given by
A = arc tan
Once the angle A is determined, azimuth angle Az can be found.
For that four situations must be considered.
Az
a
b
c
d
<0
<0
>0
>0
<0
>0
<0
>0
Az
360 A
180 + A
180 A
In order to find the range and elevation, it is

necessary to find angle b, and use this in
the plane triangle.
Angle b is obtained by,
Fig. 1.18
cos b = cos B cos E

b = cos1 (cos B cos E)
1.64
If the antenna is rotated with the azimuth, then it will point along the
horizontal towards satellite.
Then, it must be elevated by angle El, in order to point satellite.
Applying the cosine rule,
d =
a GSO = 42,164 km
Elevation El can be found by applying sine rule,
El = arc cos
For home installation, practical adjustments will be made to align the
antenna towards the satellite.
Satellite Orbits
Fig. 1.19.
1.66
1.13 POLAR MOUNT ANTENNA

The polar mount antenna
has a single actuator,
which moves the antenna
in a circular arc, instead
of
using
actuators
separate
for
azimuth
and elevation.
In
the
polar
mount
antenna, the dish axis is

mounted on the axis
termed as polar axis.
In the polar axis, the
antenna bore sight is
normal to this axis.
The
polar
mount
is
always aligned along the

true north line, with the
bore sight pointing due
south.
Fig. 1.20
The angle between the polar mount and the local horizontal plane is the
earth station latitude E), and this makes the bore sight lie parallel to the
equatorial plane.
Satellite Orbits
Next the dish is tilted at an angle relative to the polar mount until the
bore sight is pointing at the satellite position.
Note
This position is not needed to an actual satellite.
Fig. 1.21
Then the required angle of tilt can be found by using the geometry,
1.68
Fig. 1.22.
= 90 El 0 E
In this, due to south, the angle B = 0.

cos b = cos B cos E
b = E
E E
We know that,
cos E l = sin b
= sin E
E l = arc cos sin E
Substituting equation (1.10) in (1.7),

= 90 arc cos sin E E
Satellite Orbits
The value obtained for will be accurate for initial alignment.

1.14. LIMITS OF VISIBILITY
The satellites over a geostationary arc are having visible limits in east
and west direction from any earth station.
The geographic co-ordinates of the earth station and the antenna
elevation will set the visible limits.
Consider an earth station at equator, with the antenna pointing either east
or west along the horizontal, then the limiting angles are given by,
Fig. 1.23. Limits of Visibility

= arc cos
= arc cos
= 81.3
From the above, it is clear that the earth station could see the satellite by
81.3 about the earth station.
A finite minimum value of elevation is used to avoid reception of
excessive noise from the earth and is denoted by El min .
1.70
The limits of visibility will also depend on the earth station latitude.
Let S represents the subtended angle at the satellite when the angle
min = 90 + El min
S = arc sin sin min
We know that R
, but here we are assuming a spherical earth of
mean radius 6371 km.

If S is known, then angle b is found by
b = 180 min S
From
cos b = cos B cos E

B = arc cos
If B is known, the satellite longitude can be determined from,

B = E SS
SS = E + B
East limit
SS = E B
West limit
1.15. EARTH ECLIPSE OF SATELLITE

When the sun is crossing the equator, the satellite does pass into the
earths shadow at certain periods, these being the period of eclipse.
Satellite Orbits
Generally, the geostationary satellite would be eclipsed by the earth once

each day.
The equatorial plane is tilted at an angle of 23.4 to the eclipse plane and
this will keep the satellite in view of sun for most of the days in year.
The eclipse begin 23 days before equinox and end 23 days after equinox.
This will last for 10 minutes at the beginning and end of the eclipse
period, and increases to a maximum duration of about 72 minutes at full
eclipse.
The solar cells do not function during the eclipse and the power must be
supplied from batteries.
If the satellite longitude is east, then the satellite enters the eclipse during
day light hours of the earth station.
If the satellite longitude is west of the earth station, then eclipse does not
occur until the earth station is in darkness.
The west longitude of the satellite are desirable than the east.
1.72
Fig. 1.24.
1.16. SUN TRANSIT OUTAGE
The sun transit is nothing but the sun comes within the beam width of
the earth station antenna.
During this period the sun behaves like an extremely noisy source and it
blanks out all the signal from the satellite.
This effect is termed as sun transit outage.
The duration of the sun transit outage depends on the latitude of the earth
station, generally maximum of 10 min per day.
1.17. LAUNCHING ORBITS
Satellite Orbits
To achieve geosynchronous orbit, the satellite must be accelerated to a

velocity of 3070 m/s in a zero-inclination orbit and raised to a distance
of 42,242 km from the center of the earth.
This may be achieved by using the launch vehicles. The launch vehicles
may be classified into two types as
Expandable launch vehicles (ELV)
Space transportation system (STS) (Space shuttle)
Examples of such ELVs are,
1. US Atlas centaur and Delta rockets
2. European Ariene rocket
The launching of a satellite from earth to space undergoes two to three
steps. Because direct injection of the satellite consumes more launch
vehicles power.
(i) Generally, the launch vehicle put the satellite in an inclined
elliptical orbit called transfer orbit, having apogee at
geosynchronous altitude and
180-370 km perigee.
(ii) At the transfer orbit, a rocket engine called Apogee kick motor
(AKM) puts the satellite into a circular geosynchronous orbit with
zero inclination.
1.74
The transfer orbit is used to minimize the energy required for transfer
and that orbit is termed as Hohmann transfer orbit.
From the Fig. 1.25, it is observed that, the transfer is required from low
earth orbit to high altitude orbit.
The transfer orbit acts as a tangent between these two orbits. i.e., from
the low earth orbit perigee to high earth orbit apogee.
The satellite must carry a perigee kick motor, which is used to provide
the required thrust at perigee.
At apogee the apogee kick motor changes the velocity of the satellite, to
be placed in the circular orbit.
These are steps for launching a satellite in geosynchronous orbit. For a
satellite to be fully operational it will take 1 to 2 months.
Satellite Orbits
Fig. 1.25.
During this launching process the earth stations are required to perform
the tracking, telemetry and command function.
1.76
Fig. 1.26. Hohmann transfer orbit

During the launching period, the velocity changes in same plane, change
the geometry of the orbit but not its inclination.
To change the inclination the velocity must be changed normal to the
orbital plane.
Changes in inclination can be made at either one of the nodes.
The smallest inclination obtainable at initial launch is equal to the
latitude of the launch site.
This may be proved by considering the following things.
Fig. 1.27.
Consider a launch site A at altitude and azimuth angle of A z , the
resulting inclination is i. (Fig.1.27).
As per the Nepiers rule for this right spherical triangle
cos i=
For a prograde orbit,
cos sin A z
Satellite Orbits
0 i 90 hence cos i is positive

90 90 hence cos is also positive
0 A z 180 hence cos A z is also positive
To minimize the inclination i, cos i should be maximum, so that sin A z
to be maximum or 90 which gives,
cos i min = cos
or
i min =
Thus the lowest inclination possible on initial launch is equal to the

latitude of the launch site.
1.18 LAUNCH VEHICLES AND PROPULSION
Introduction
Satellite launching is very complex operation. It is very costly also.
Launch vehicle means a system which includes the structure, engine,
propellant, storage, pumps and control.
1.18.1 Principles of Rocket Propulsion
1.18.1.1 Rocket Equation
1.78
Fig.1.28. basic liquid rocket engine
- Thrust
Ve
- Exhaust velocity relative to the vehicle
Propellant
- This term is used for fuel/oxidizer
The thrust F has been developed by the rocket engine by expelling gas at
the high Ve. The gas is produced by the combustion of a propellant. Fig
1.28 shows the block diagram of basic liquid rocket engine. Here fuel
and oxidizer are burned in a combustion chamber and high exhaust has
been produced. In satellite propulsion system, cold gases are stored
under high pressure.
rocket
- Instantaneous mass of the rocket and propellant
- Velocity of the rocket in an internal coordinate system
dm1
- Mass of the propellant expelled during the period the
Satellite Orbits
velocity changes from V to V+dV.

V1
- Velocity of exhaust in the inertial system.
The total momentum must be remained as a constant one.

(m- dm1)(V+dV) + V1 dm1 = mV
Where
V1dm1
- Momentum of exhaust
(m- dm1)(V+dV) - Momentum of the rocket and remaining propellant.

The right side term is the initial momentum of the rocket and propellant
dm1 = -dm
&
V1 = V - Ve
...
(1.11)
Where
Ve
- exhaust velocity related to the rocket
Eqn (1.11) can be written as,
dV V e
=
dm
m
(1.12)
If Ve is constant, then eqn 1.12 is subjected to initial condition m=m o &
V=Vo.
Then the increase in velocity V=V-Vo.
1.80
V = Ve.ln
m0
m
(1.13)
Eqn (1.13) is known as rocket equation
Mass ratio is given as
=
m0
m
Propellant mass
m = m 0 - m
Divide by m0 ,
m m0 m
=
m0 m0 m0
m
m
=1
m0
m0
m
m
=1
m0
m0
We can write the eqn 1.13 as
V= Ve.ln
We can write it as
m0
m
Satellite Orbits
V = Ve ln (m/ m 0 )
V = V e ln(1
m
)
m0
Propellant mass fraction is given as

I=
m
1
=1
m0
v
m
=ln 1
Ve
m0
Exp
v
( Ve
)=1 m
m
0
m=m0 1exp
( Vv )]
e
(1.14)
It gives propellant mass needed to attain a given V.
For a given Ve
m
- sum of the masses of the rocket structure and payload.
Ve
- measure of efficiency of the ropellant.
1.18.1.2. Thrust:
dV V e
=
dm
m
Multiply this eqn by
dm
dt
1.82
dV dm V e dm
=
dm dt
m dt
dV
dm
=V e
dt
dt
It gives equation of motion .

The term which is In right side is known as momentum thrust. Usually
dm
dt
is negative , so this term is positive
According to the principle of momentum for a system particle the time

rate of change of the linear momentum P of the system is equal to the net
external force.
We can write
dp
= F
dt k=1 k
(1.15)
This principle can be applied where the total no of particles
remains constant
Satellite Orbits
dp d (mV ) d( m1 V 1)
=
+
dt
dt
dt
(1.16)
V
- Velocity of the rocket
V1
- Velocity of the exhaust
We can write
dp
dt
At t=e
d m1 dm
)
=
dt
dt
(therefore V1=V-Ve; m1=0,

Put it in eqn 1.15
d (mV )
=
dt
d (mV ) dm
=
( V V e )= F k
dt
dt
k=1
(1.17)
md(V ) dm
=
( V e ) + F k
dt
dt
k=1
Where is arbitrary .
This equation is valid for all times.
d (mV )
dt
dm
(V- V e )
dt
1.84
This equation can be applied to a variable system of particles that is

defined by the geometrical boundary of the rocket.
It can be applied to a variable system which gains or losses particles.
If we consider measurement of thrust rocket on a static test stand

generally Pe at exit plane is not equal to the Pa of atmosphere .
we can get,
F=
dm
V e +(P eP a) A e
dt
Pa - ambient pressure
Pe - exhaust pressure
A e - exit area
threat area
Fig1.29. Nozzle expansion
At -
Satellite Orbits
It states that the total thrust of the rocket is composed of the

momentum thrust and the pressure thrust.
The thrust is increased when atmospheric pressure is decresed. The
thrust is maximum in a vaccum.
Expansion ratio
=
Ae
At
where,
A e exit area
A t thrust area
is used to determine the pressure of the exhaust at the exit plane of the
nozzle.
Case 1:
If is too small .
Pe > Pa , the nozzle is under expanding.
Case 2:
If is too large.
Pe < Pa , the nozzle is over expanding.
In these two situation reduction of exhaust velocity occur.
Optimum expansion:If
Pe = Pa , the thrust is maximum, this condition
is known as optimum expansion.
1.86
The initial altitude at which the rocket is to be operational is to be

considered at the time of designing rocket nozzle.
If
Pe = Pa =0, the absolute maximum thrust will be obtained. But
it is not possible practically.

It is not possible to use single value for for an entire flight so,
different values are used for different stages to approximate the
optimum condition.
I stage value is from 6 to 15
II stage value is from 20 to 30
III stage value is from 30 to 65.
F=
dm
Ve+(Pe Pa ) A e In this equation, it is assumed that the momentum
dt
flux was assigned.

But, practically, there is some radial component of momentum due to
divergence of the nozzle.
For a conical nozzle,
P V e dA
m=
A
apex angle=2 ,
base radius=R ,
side r =R/sin
is the total mass flow rate.
dA = 2r2sin d
Satellite Orbits
A- total area of a spherical cap of radius r over the nozzle exit.

The momentum flux in the axial direction across the spherical cap is
given as
= V e Cosd m
P
V e P Cos dA
A
V e P cos sin
Ve
= m
=(1+cos)/2
This is known as correction factor.
If is small,then performance is maximized. If is large,nozzle size is
minimum and complexity is minimized. Optimum value of is 15
(degrees)
=15
(degrees) for =0.9830
If we consider exit pressure mismatch and non axial flow then, we can
write F equation as
1.88
Ve + ( Pe - Pa ) A e mc
F= m
Where
m
- Propellant mass flow rate
Ve
- Actual exhaust velocity.
- Effective exhaust velocity.

m
= |dm/dt|= -dm/dt
We can write
c = Ve +( ( Pe Pa ) A e )/ m
thrust coefficient is given by
CF=
F
A thrust PChamber
Athrust
- Thrust area.
Pchamber
- chamber pressure.
Characteristic exhaust velocity is

Cc =
A thrust pchamber
F
F= mC
F=m
dV
dt
V = c ln
C
CF
CC
=
m0
m
dm
dt
Satellite Orbits
1.18.1.3 Specific Impulse

If is one of the characteristic to used to describe the propellant
performance
Ispecific =
thrust
rate of propellant flow
=F/ W
g
=F/ m
Where
- Weight flow rate of propellant.
m
- Mass flow rate of propellant.
g - acceleration due to gravity
g = 9.80665 m/.
Ispecific =C/g = CCCF/g
We can write rocket equation as
V=Ispecific g ln
m0
m
Where
m0
- Initial mass.
- Final mass.
m = m0 m = propellant mass.
1.90
V = -Ispecific ln
(1 mm )
0
Practically we have to consider the density of the propellant whether

they are cryogenic or not.
For an ideal rocket, following assumptions are made
(i) Ideal gas
(ii) Perfect fluid (No viscosity)
(iii) Steady, one dimensional flow
(iv) Incompressible flow (constant density, no shock waver)
(v) Adiabatic flow (No heat transfer)
(vi) Frozen flow
Generally chemical rocket performance calculations are based on the
following consideration
(i) Mass balance
(ii) Enthalpy balance
(iii) Pressure balance
(iv) Chemical equilibrium
1.18.1.4. ION ENGINES
By using ion engines , high exhaust velocity can be achieved . mercury
and cesium are ionized and accelerated to high velocities by an electric
field
Satellite Orbits
1 2
mv = qV
2 e
m- Ion mass
V- Accelerating Voltage
q- Charge
It is very important to note that, the velocity achieved with normal
accelerating voltages are higher than the velocity achieved with
chemical propulsion.
Chemical rockets (high thrust achieved ) can be used in powered flight
and orbital maneuvers. Ion engines are used in low thrust maneuvers in
free space.
1.18.2 Powered flight
1.18.2.1 Forces in a rocket
The launching process of rocket from earth to orbit is similar to the
process of ordinary powered flight. Vehicles depends on the thrust of the
engine aerodynamics force of the lift, drag, and gravitational force of the earth.
These are not constant,
Thrust F increases with decrement in atmospheric pressure.
Gravitational force (weight) W changes rapidly as the rocket mass m
diminish.
Gravitational acceleration g decreases with increment in altitude
1.92
Drag d, Lift L are proportional to atmospheric density.

1.18.2.2 Equation of motion
Case1: Sounding rocket following a vertical trajectory
Assume that rocket effective exhaust velocity is constant, acceleration
of gravity is constant, aerodynamic drag is negligible.
The equation of motion is
m
dV
dt
= F- W= m C-mg
m
- the propellant mass flow rate
Case 2: The rocket follows a trajectory in a vertical plane.
The equation of the motion is
m
dV
=FcosDmg sin
dt
V2
=Fsin + Lmg cos
R
where
- the angle of attack
- Flight path angle
R - Instantaneous radius of curvature of the flight path
Satellite Orbits
Fig.1.30. Simple force diagram
Gravity turns trajectory

The trajectory for which =0 is known as gravity turn trajectory.
Vertical Rise Time
The launch vehicle takes off vertically and after some period it is
programmed to initiate the gravity turn . this period is known as
vertical rise time.
The force on the rocket for a given trajectory is shown below.
1.94
Fig.1.31 . Forces on a launch vechile
1.18.2.3 Earths rotation

Earths rotation velocity is one of the important factor which can affect
rocket performance during the launch into parking orbit.
Satellite Orbits
Sling Effect
If earths rotation velocity is in the correct direction , it is considered as
free to launch vehicle. It is known as sling effect.
1.96
1.18.3 Injection In to Final Orbit

Parking orbit
When the launched vehicle and satellite reached a convenient altitude
to orbit the earth, then we can say that, they are in the parking orbit.
Generally they are at altitudes between 150-300 Km
When the launch vehicle is in parking orbit, this orbit is considered as
constant in inertial space. It is independent of the earths rotation. It is
slowly affected by earths gravitational anomalies, sun and moon.
Transfer Orbit
After reaching parking orbit the next operation is the service of the
maneuvers into the final operational orbit.
In geostationary satellite mission, the final stage of the launch vehicle
and its payload are allowed to coast until they cross the equatorial
plane.
Then the launch vehicle inserts the satellite into geostationary transfer
orbit. Usually it is a hohmann transfer orbit.
1.18.4 Launch vehicle for commercial satellites

ARIANE
Ariane 1 program was initiated in 1973.
First launch in the year 1979.
Satellite Orbits
Ariane 1 payload capability of 1850kg into geostationary transfer

orbit(GTO).
Ariane -1 and ariane -2 and ariane 3 in the year 1980.
ATLAS :
Atlas began in 1957.
First launch was in 1962
If the satellite mass with fully loaded propellant takes exceeds the launch
vehicle GT0 capability. There is a chance to increase the available
propellant for station keeping by launching into a sub-synchronous
elliptical transfer orbit and using space craft orbit insertion thruster to
provide the required additional energy to reach GEO. This type of
trajectory design is known as perigee velocity augmentation (PVA).
1.98
Fig.1.32. perigee velocity augmentation mission design
Satellite Orbits
Fig.1.33. Delta II multiple mission configuration
1.18.4.1 PSLV(Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle)

It is an expandable launch system, which is developed and operated by
ISRO, India.
It was developed to allow india to launch its indian remote sensing
satellite into sun synchronous orbit.
1.100
It can also launch small size satellite into geostationary transfer

orbit(GTO).
In the year 2015, India launched 17 foreign satellite (belongs to
Singapore , UK, Indonesia, US) countries.
Chandrayan 1 is the payload launced by PSLV.
PSLV was designed and developed at vikram sarabai space centre.
ISROs PSLV has launched six Singaporean satellites to help to disaster
monitoring and urban planning. The satellites put into a 550kms circular
orbit inclined at 150 to the equator.
During 1994 2015, PSLV has launched a total of 84 Satellites.
PSLV was designed to launch Indian remote sensing satellites into polar
sun synchronous orbit, the vehicle has repeatedly proved its reliability
and versatility by launching satellites into a variety of orbits including
polar sun synchronous, geo synchronous transfer and low earth orbits of
small inclination
ISRO entered the commercial launch services market by launching
KITSAT 3 of republic of korea and DLR TUBSAT od Germany
along with IRS-P4, on board PSLV-C2 on 1999.
Table No. 1.7 List of foreign satellites launched by PSLV
SL
NO.
1
2
3
SATELLITE
KITSAT 3
DLR-TUBSAT
PROBA
LAUNCH
LAUNCH
VEHICLE
DATE
PSLVC2
26.5.1999
PSLVC3
22.10.2001
COUNTRY
KOREA
GERMANY
BELGIUM
Satellite Orbits
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
BIRD
LAPAN-TUBSAT
PEHUENSAT 1
AGILE
TECSAR
NLS 4 (CUTE 1.7)
NLS 4 (SEED)
NLS 4 (CAN X2)
NLS 4 (AAUSAT -II)
NLS 4 (COMPASS-1)
NLS 4 (DELFI-C3)
NLS 5
RUBIN - 8
CUBESAT 1
CUBESAT 2
RUBIN 9.1
RUBIN 9.2
CUBESAT 3
CUBESAT 4
ALSAT-2A
NLS-6.1(AISSAT-1)
NLS-6.2 (TISAT-1)
X-SAT
VesselSat-1
SPOT 6
PROITERES
SAPPHIRE
NEOSSAT
NLS-8.1 (UNIBRITE)
NLS-8.2 (BRITE)
NLS-8.3 (AAUSAT-3)
35
36
37
38
39
STRAND-1
SPOT-7
AISAT
NLS-7.1(CAN-X4)
NLS-7.2(CAN-X5)
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
VELOX-1
DMC3-1
DMC3-2
DMC3-3
CBNT-1
De-OrbitSail
LAPAN-A2
NLS-14(Ev9)
LEMUR
PSLVC7
10.1.2007
PSLVC8
PSLVC10
23.4.2007
21.1.2008
GERMANY
INDONESIA
ARGENTINA
ITALY
ISRAEL
JAPAN
PSLVC9
28.4.2008
PSLVC14
23.9.2009
CANADA
DENMARK
GERMANY
NETHERLANDS
THE CANADA
GERMANY
GERMANY
PSLV-C15
12.7.2010
PSLV-C16
PSLV-C18
20.4.2011
12.10.2011
PSLV-C21
09.09.2012
TURKEY
SWITZERLAND
ALGERIA
CANADA
SWITZERLAND
SINGAPORE
LUXEMBOURG
FRANCE
JAPAN
CANADA
PSLVC20
25.02.2013
AUSTRIA
DENMARK
UK
FRANCE
GERMANY
PSLVC23
30.06.2014
CANADA
SINGAPORE
PSLVC28
10.07.2015
UK
PSLVC30
28.09.2015
INDONESIA
CANADA
USA
1.102
49
50
51
LEMUR
LEMUR
LEMUR
Satellite Orbits
1.18.4.2. GSLV
Geo synchronous satellite Launch Vehicle(GSLV)

It was
developed to launch INSAT class of satellites into
geosynchronous transfer orbits.

GSLV is a 3-stage launcher that uses one solid rocket motor stage, one
earth storable liquid stage and one cryogenic stage.
GSLV-d5 is the most recent flight of GSLV.
GSLV launched various communication satellites.
EDU SAT is very important among these satellites. It is the first satellite
exclusively used to serve the educational sector.
1.104
Fig. 1.34.GSLV
Satellite Orbits
Table 1.8.
Launcher
Title
Launch Date
GSLV-D6
Aug 27, 2015
GSLV
GSLV-D5
Jan 05, 2014
GSLV-MK-II
GSAT-14
GSLV-F06
Dec 25, 2010
GSLV-MK-II
GSAT-5P
GSLV-D3
Apr 15, 2010
GSLV-MK-II
GSAT-4
GSLV-F04
Sep 02, 2007
GSLV-MK-II
INSAT-4CR
GSLV-F02
Jul 10, 2006
GSLV-MK-II
GSLV-F01
Sep 20, 2004
GSLV-MK-II
EDUSAT
GSLV-D2
May 08, 2003
GSLV-MK-II
GSAT-2
GSLV-D1
Apr 18, 2001
GSLV-MK-II
GSAT-1
Type
Orbit
Payload
GTO
GSAT-6
GTO
INSAT-4C
1.106
TWO MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

0.
What are the different applications of satellite systems?

Largest International System (Intel sat).
Domestic sat system in United States (Dom sat)
U.S. National Oceanography Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
1.
Mention the different services of satellite systems.

Fixed satellite services.
Broadcasting satellite services.
Mobile satellite services.
Navigational satellite services.
Meteorological satellite services.
2.
Define polar-orbiting satellites.

Polar orbiting satellites orbit the earth in such a way as to cover the north
and south polar regions.
3.
State Keplers first law.

It states that the path followed by the satellite around the primary will
be an ellipse.
An ellipse has two focal points F1 and F2. The center of mass of the
two body system, termed the barycenter is always centered on one of
the foci.
Satellite Orbits
e =
4.
State Keplers second law.

It states that for equal time intervals, the satellite will sweep out equal
areas in its orbital plane, focused at the barycenter.
5.
State Keplers third law.

It states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is perpendicular to the
cube of the mean distance between the two bodies.
a3 =
where,
n = Mean motion of the satellite in rad/sec.

= Earths geocentric gravitational constant.
With the n in radians per sec. the orbital period in second is given by,
P =
6.
Define apogee and perigee.

The point farthest from the earth is known as apogee.
The point closest from the earth is known as perigee.
7.
What is line of apsides?

The line joining the perigee and apogee through the center of the earth is
known as line of apsides.
8.
Define ascending and descending node.
1.108
Ascending node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane
going from south to north.
Descending node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane
going from north to south.
9.
Define inclination.
The angle between the orbital plane and the earths equatorial plane. It is
measured at the ascending node from the equator to the orbit going from
east to north.
10. Define mean anomaly and true anomaly.

Mean anomaly: It gives an average value of the angular position of the
satellite with reference to the perigee.
True anomaly: It is the angle from perigee to the satellite position,
measured at the earths center.
11. Mention the apogee and perigee height.
r a = a (1 + e)
r p = a (1 + e)
ha = r a R p
hp = r p R p
12. Define universal time.
Satellite Orbits
It is the time used for all civil time keeping purposes and it is the time
reference which is broadcast by the national bureau of standards as a
standard for setting clocks.
UT day = Hours + +
UT = 360 UT day
13. Mention the julian dates.
JD = JD010 + Day number + UT day
14. What is Sidereal time?
Sidereal time is time measured relative to the fixed stars. It will be seen
that one complete rotation sidereal time relative to the sun. This is because
the earth moves in its orbit around the sun.
15. Define Sidereal day.
It is defined as one complete rotation of earth relative to the fixed stars.
One mean sidereal day 0.9972695664 mean solar days
23 h / 56 m / 0.4090543 mean solar time
86164.09054 mean solar sec.
16. Define Greenwich hour angle (GHA).
The angular distance from the I axis to the Greenwich meridian is
measured
1.110
directly as Greenwich sidereal time, also known as the Greenwich hour

angle.
17. Write the formula for GST.
GST = 99.6910 + 36000.7689 t + 0.0004 t + UT deg
18. What is the difference between the geodetic and geocentric latitudes?
The latitudes reaches a maximum at a geocentric latitude of 45 deg, when
the geodetic latitude is 45.192 deg.
19. What is meant by azimuth angle?
It is defined as the angle produced by intersection of local horizontal plane
and the plane passing through the earth station, the satellite and center of
earth.
20. What are the conditions of location of the earth station and sub-satellite
point of the Azimuth angle?
Ans. Refer Page No. 1.49
22. What is the main advantage of geostationary orbit?
The main advantage of this orbit is, there is no necessity for tracking
antennas to find the satellite positions.
23. Define look angles.
The azimuth and elevation angles of the ground station antenna are
termed as look angles.
Satellite Orbits
For large commercially operated stations, the look angles setting will be
controlled by a computer, but for home systems they will made
manually.
24. Define geostationary satellite and geostationary orbit?
The satellites present in the geostationary orbit are called geostationary
satellites.
The geostationary orbit is the orbit which is present a height of 35,786
kms above the earth in which a satellite appears stationary relative to the
earth.
i.e., the satellite follows the same speed as the earth, so it seems to
appear stationary from the earth.
25. What is sun transit outage?
The sun transit is nothing but the sun comes within the beam width of
the earth
station antenna.
During this period the sun behaves like an extremely noisy source and it
blanks out all the signal from the satellite.
This effect is termed as sun transit outage.
26. What is meant by Sling Effect?
If earths rotation velocity is in the correct direction , it is considered as
free to launch vehicle. It is known as sling effect.
27. What is meant by limits of visibility?
1.112
The satellites over a geostationary arc are having visible limits in east
and west direction from any earth station.
The geographic co-ordinates of the earth station and the antenna
elevation will set the visible limits.
28. The limits of visibility depends on what factors? Considering an earth
station at the equator, with the antenna pointing either west or east
along the horizontal calculate the limiting angle.
The limits of visibility depend on the earth station latitude.
Consider an earth station at equator, with the antenna pointing either east
or west along the horizontal, then the limiting angles are given by,
=
arc cos
= arc cos
= 81.3
From the above, it is clear that the

earth station could see the satellite
by 81.3 about the earth station.
29. Identify the basic factors affecting satellite position.
Gravitational forces of moon and earth.
Atmospheric drag
30. Mention various types of satellite orbits.
Low earth orbit (LEO)
Satellite Orbits
Medium earth orbit (MEO)

High earth orbit (HEO)
Geo-stationary Orbit
Geo-synchronous Orbit
Polar Orbit
Sun-synchronous Orbit
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Part - B
1.
Describe the terms of earth orbiting satellites.
2.
Explain the orbital plane. Draw it neat sketch.
3.
Explain the orbital perturbations.
4.
Explain the sub-satellite point.
5.
(a) Explain about frequency allocations for satellite services.

(b) Explain about U.S Domsats.
6.
State Keplers three laws of planetary motion. Illustrate in each case their
relevance to artificial satellites orbiting the earth.
7.
Explain in detail about geocentric-equatorial coordinate system which is

based on the earths equatorial plane.
1.114
8.
Explain in detail about topocentric-horizon co-ordinate system which is

based on the observers horizon plane.
9.
Explain in detail about various measure of time.
10. Explain Look angle determination.

11. Explain about geostationary and non-geostationary orbits.
12. Explain the launching procedures
13.Explain and derive rocket equaion.
14.Explain about newtons laws
15.Explain about GSLV and PSLV.

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SATELLITE ORBITS

3. U.S. National oceanographic and atmospheric administrations

.1.1. FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS FOR SATELLITE SERVICES

Fixed satellite service

Broadcasting satellite service

Mobile satellite service

Navigational satellite services

Meteorological satellite services

Fixed Satellite Service

Broadcasting Satellites (BSS)

The VHF and L band are used by the mobile satellites.

From the Table .2, it is observed that, upto VI series there is a

Table .2. Evolution of satellites

Year of first launch

Space craft mass in

Intelsat VII is planned to provide service in Pacific ocean region and in

.1.3. U.S. DOMSATS

(iii) Low power

The medium power category is used for point point communication

Fig. .1. Components of Direct Broadcasting Satellite System

The satellite retransmits the signals in 12 GHz frequency, the users

To avoid interference between the satellite services, the (FCC) Federal

The orbital period for these orbits is 102 min.

No of bits per day =

Operation of a COSPOS-SARSAT System

The semi-major axis is given as a and the semi-minor axis is given by b.

focused at the bary

velocity in each case

n = mean motion of the satellite in rad/sec.

(1) Everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight

(treating the masses as points)

These laws explain how a satellite stays in orbit.

= Altitude of orbit = height above Earths surface

1.4 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS FOR EARTH ORBITING SATELLITES

The reference chosen is the first point of aries or vernal or spring.

1.5. ORBITAL ELEMENTS

The mean motion in table

By Keplers third law,

Epoch day: 221.07019100

First time derivative of mean motion (rev/day2) :

Inclination (deg) : 98.6540

Argument of perigee : 62.4995

Mean anomaly : 297.7604

Mean motion : 14.22296917

Revolution no. at epoch : 11616

1.6. APOGEE AND PERIGEE HEIGHTS

Apogee height, h a = r a R p = 849.1 km

Perigee height, h p = r p R p = 828.8 km

1.7. ORBITAL PERTURBATIONS

Gravitational pulls of sun and the moon

But it is known that the earth is not perfectly spherical, and it is

The orbital period of the earths oblateness is given by, anomalistic

A satellite is orbiting in the equatorial plane with a period

from perigee to perigee of 12 hr.

The mean motion is n =

Moves or slides east ward (along with earth)

Retrograde Moves or slides westward (opp against to earth)

If this equation is negative, then the movement is in retrograde otherwise

If we choose the values of a, e and to give the rate of rotation

co-ordinate systems are required, specifically during the calculation of

The orbital elements

Various measures of time

Perifocal co-ordinate system (based on orbital plane)