Design of Unlined and Lined Pressure Tunnels R.P. Benson Abstract—The per coves the eninering requires for digi suet ond none poses tenet Deighton od iciosd tft y Terao ole carincson fed we Thing equrenens: wlecton of tsoray ond fal lng ang ‘el htran, or cons ego th sel orbs or lng edsherng, nal war presse, buclng. nadie ond roca Ag of sep ops nd ees frag po Résumé Las tunnels puissance doivent de aren lus fonctiver sons es pesans de plus en pus grandes. Dans certain cs, speilement pour es projets aca pression, des defilances sso prods dors ut ns les tbres nadionnels de conection qveient Ab respec, et des mehedet ‘onllioiesfaronl alo ntenairer 'esearconedive dis esvvenn ert: ‘2 conception pour reciemest deta, con portion ola cases ‘ate presi Les erieres nats sma prion ei agrees Sutene, Us protections conte les Posies hdroubqus es outa serials, Lb ection det reitenente nance, la conerpion dela sichion iedtonent tn atl ks spt ploabowrle Introduction ewer tunnek are required 10 convey water rom the power inte wo a powerhoase, which tnay be" on the turface. or under. ground. Such tunnels may begin in Soll or rock, and often passthrough a sariety cfmateialsand geologic condi ‘ons before reaching the powerhouse. ‘Their prime responsibilty to convey the water safely tiroughout the life of the projec, without cetrimentaleffecss fn thesuereundings Such effect may indude excessive Ieakage from the Connel. instability of surface soil or rock resulting from seepage sturaton and softening of agriceltaral land, and pollution of groundwater and surface Freame duet organie content of dhe tonal tere These effet cin controlled by careful positioning of the tinsel, and by scecing the Appropriate ning and treatment for the various parte ofthe tunnel. Te is csental wo understand the seclogic concitons along the tunnel Signment, relative othe hydraulic forces that will be applied” dunng operation of the tunnel, Adequate trretgaostdhnigucs ud tes no exit cha wil define the geologic and geotechnical conditions Therese also Sppropriate materials with which to line the necessary pare of the tunnel, and to treat the material sarrounding the tunnel. However, it i necessary {at the conditions ‘be invesugated and chat the designs be establahed by rologits and engineers experienced Presentaddress Dr, Benson, Freslen, Kiohn Leonot 14, 10180 Shelleidge Way Rechmond, Britsh’ Colamtes, VBS 20%, Gera The paper spre wat per tmstion from Canadian Temneling 198088 ‘with some modifications. « Isp Teds, YO 4 No.8. pp BS, 1989 in engineering geology and applied rookmetanig OP Power tunnels ae being called upon to perform under lneeatingly higher Hedds. Numerous exising hydroclec tre plants have heads beyond 1000 s, tnd projctsarcnow aching upwards of 1500. although bighfead tan: elt have been’ built in the. past Sich tunnels eaenially have been eeined throughout the high-head portion. Modern practice for such pro- Jets sto provide shorter ste lines, Ebjectinglong unlined portions ofthe tunnels 1 bigh hydrosace presures ‘The behavior of Fock and the tunnel Tininge under these. high hydraulic preatres is diffieat to ates, and the Fecesary design techniques and safety fictore met be judged carefully, Tin sone caves, spell [or high- head projets flare hat occurred, even though wadidonal criteria for design have been met. Ic is appar. tne, therefore that these traditional criteria arenot uly adequate ae that Improved design methods are neces sary. What hat constated safe prac Gee in the past for relatively Iow-head projec—pracce based on simplified Seempical deoge crteria—can ne Tanger be consiéeredaccepabie Positioning and Alignment of the Tunnel Although selection of the wianel alignment 1s governed primarily by leconomics, 2 number of other factors must be taken into account in estab- lishing the optimum alignment. Such factors may be divided into two cat cegories: primary and secondary. The primary factors that are likely to have 3 dominant rele in overall economics include: ‘© Schedule for project completion 73099 $3.00 + 030, anu tegamen Semin pe © Availabe contractors and equip: © Difficult geological conditions. Many tunnels are etgned without Sppropriste consdcration and rate ing of these primary facors, which ‘ronglyaffectthefnal cont Whenthey dis during he course ofconstoveien, the result conly overruns projet delays. my ‘Many power tunnels are short. less chan U kin; however lange percent ‘pecan upiot0 tin tong Many are Snifcantly longer, p03) oF 40 km adeney take «Ser long tine co com plete. However, ihe schedule can be Improvee, for example, by providing sitonalsccst adit, by specfing teriin manner of construction (mele we dian bas) or by ensvring that 1 majrigy of che tunnel i deen in found rock va 3 longer rovte where progress wil be rapid and reduced oppor and lining wil be requires ‘Therefore, the projec schedvie rust tecrcfulycoubdered and an under Sanding dbsined oF potenl costs oF fSvinge if the echedule tr delayed, or tchited. ahead of dime With such ‘nformation m han the designer can then consider the corre options ‘The avalaliy of experienced con- tracorsand mocermequipmen can Finajor concer eqpecaly in wader developed countriex Owners may be Constrained to require local or rational Snowe or cay ce oe llng © Slow or rk the wee of highspeed tan. telling machines Inthelater cs, the tor olbaiord ell-and-tan echo gy san esa alonger costrvetion sthedule, Appropriate access adits, 2 ionger schedule, pedal higheopecd Grland-bas working methaes must then be specie The purl of cocourcring di fcuk geologeal conditions muse be‘carefully assessed, and avoided if for various types of linings. These must be compared before the most possible, by solecting an aliernate coefficients cover a wide range and economical arrangement is selected. A Toute, even ifitappears more costly at are taken from examples provided number of key areas thatoften are N01 first glance, These conditions can often in literature (SoWk 1984) and from givenadequate consideration are’ be determined through preliminary experience with a variety of tunncls, | Construction Acezx. The number of evaluations by engineering geologists In selecting the precise Coefficient 19 access adits to the power wane] for engineers experienced in difficult be used, 2 wide range of variables for required to meet the overall schedule tunnelling, In some cases, such an the actual tunnel must be considered, _ soften misjudged, especially if driving evaluation may require drilling or Positioning of the tunnel to ensure _Fatesarenotas assumed. Adding extre ‘other field investigations before even submergence beneath the hydraulic adits during construction may disrupt preliminary geologic assessment can grade line should be made with con- the basic design, and may compound be propery undertalen. Nevertheless, Sevatively selected low-frcton contracval problems and cosis. In fan asessment is mandatory if cients to ensure against the possiblity addition, extra adits must be suiably alternative alignmentsareto be ranked of entrapping air in the tusincl arch. plugged Tor operation. appropriately and rationally. However. for determination of head "Intermediate access adits also may There are many secondary factors losees for caleulation of energy loste:, be provided tohandlesuspected delays that affect the selection of the tunnel more realistic values must be used. resulting from poor geology, where no afiprent Some of he mestcommen Gen the primary requirement of amwun! of explrain ci eaoraly and most important of these include linking the intake to the powerhouse, _be done in advance. the folowng: innumerable alignments may be cho- Acces for Steel Liner Insallation. This sea, Technical and economic analyses requirement may be overlooked espe, : requirements. ‘must choose aruong factors, e-g. high- iy for underground powerhouse Jacking level vs low-level alignments, the use arrangements. Installing steel liners i of shafts vs inclined sections, al predi-_is best done ae a separate operation, Position of water table. ‘cated on the primary requirement of with as much independent access as ‘Temporary 2 Inaintaning cotainment of hydraulic posible. expecially if the see! ner folie presures wihout failure. Fagure 1 extends upward into the shaft Venslaicn. Enows 2 number of commonly used Preumiion of Hydraulic Jacking. The Drainage. Sariations Eachof these arrangements entire tinnel, including the sha‘t and ‘The tunnel must be maintained below has advantages and disadvantages thatthe surge tank, must be sct deeply the hydraulic grade line forall modes ‘of power plant operation, including hydraulic transients, t0 prevent nega- ve pressures in the tinnel. This requires assessment of head losses by friction along the tunnel. The degree of fiction, of course, varis with the ‘fining or, inthe case of an unlined tunnel, with the roughness of rock walls Head losses may be determined bythe Darey-Weisbach formula or the empirical Manning equation. “The appropriate roughness coefi- dent must be selected. The Manning formula, developed for the open chan nel flow and subsequently adapted for pipe flow, ie generally applicable for Conduits with diameters greater han ‘2mm, whereas the Darcy-Weisbach for- ‘ulsis theoretically sitablefora wider range of roughness values. Selecting $2 appropriate coefficients requires reful judgment. Table | provides a summary of roughness coefficients Figure {. Various power amit schemes. Table 1. Comparable roughness coefficients for Manning and Darcy Weisbach. Comparable Dercy-Woisbach“f"forvarying diameters Lining Manning's'’ 2.5m sm 75m 10m Unlined (ceil and blast) 0.026-0.040 0.057-0.147 .046-0.1170.040-0.102 ——_0.086-0.098 Unlined (tunnel boring machine) 0.016-0.022 0.023-0.044 0.018-0.035 0.016-0.051_0.015-0.028 ‘Shoterete (drill and blast) 0.018-0.025 0.090-0.057 0,.024-0.0860.021-0.040 _0.049-0.096 Conerete 0.012-0.016 —0.013-0.0230.010-0.019 0.0082-0.015_0.0085-0.015 steal. 0.010-0.014 __0.0092-0.018 _0.0079-9.014 0.0064-0.012 _0.0056-0.011 ‘Note: Higher values should be used when overbreak areas are used to calcuiate velocites. 156 TUNNELING AND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY Volume 4, Number 2, 1989(Giese wihin thareckimaae wo noore that adequate fests compressive eres is avaiable to prevent hydraulic Jac ing. Overlooking this denign problem Can lead to disastrous and very costly consequences, A detailed discussion of how to aveid this problem igen below. In Addition to the items above, the selecion of temporary support and finallining, andthe handling veal tion and drainage during constraction are important elements establishing the porton and alignment of the tans nel These aspects sre dacussed more fully below. Protection Against Hydraulic Jacking and Uplift General Concepis ‘The concept of hydraulic jacking, co uplif is well known. This effect can develop if water pressuresimposed ‘within a rocc mass are greater than the in-sta compressive stress. Depending upon the deformability of the rock ass and the area over which the hydraulic pressures 2c, existing joins ¢ cain be opened. This action may result © in jacking of a large mass of rock away | from the tunnel, Fesaling in excessive © leakage and large scale landlides or £ instablity. This effect_has occurred © many times in the history of civil cengincering, and has had disastrous consequences for both surface and underground hydroelectric facilities Hycraubic jacking will occur ia any direstion where movement of rock masics can develop due to a lack of adequate compressive in-situ stress. ‘Thus, vertical biting of horizontally bedded rock, jackingor hoisting of rock masses towards valley walls, jacking of rockblocks into adjacent underground ‘openings, or opening of fractures in a omprestibiereck mass can occur Many authors have reported on cases of rock lifting and failure of & the tunnel, with resultant seepages, & landslides and even flooding of under: ground powerhouses. Brekke and") Ripley (1087) recently completed. an intensive review of the subject, and % have sted « number of falures a long 2g0 as 1920. When such fellares occur, ‘often akes many months to diagnose the problem and complece repairs. The turing by routing andor drainage ‘howl only be sed where potent failure can be tolerated, or where. | problem has arisen that cannot rea- 2 | Sonabiy be solved by a more direc) {ppraach. Homever, such measures | mist always be taken in conjunction th sound geologial interprestion, | \toensure sat te Gesign messes are (compatible with the behavior of the Various geological materials when sub- \q r-cont Jected to high pressure seepage water Material boundaries, probable stresses, permeabilities and deformability must bedletermined by appropriate geologic and esting metbiods Measurement of In-Sitts Stress Tress rock stresses ray be measured ty 2 variety of methods Using over: coring techniques toabiain dats onthe Ghreesdimensionalstes eld. Hydra le Fraruaring tests condvcted in dri holes are used prindally to obeain 2 measure of the minimum prindpal ues in the rock mau however, they avo can be uscd to. menue the three-dimensional eld (Cornet 1086). Thee teste must be performed and interpreted carefully ensurethat insta stress of the rock mast being tietsured, rather than some charse tensuc of the pumping sysem. Thus, the equipment must have pomping capacky that will ensure response of « Teasonable mass of rock, such that ts Inherent permestlliy does not affect the res. Te appears also that the shutin pressure o too unreliable a citerion to dope, sd asessment of fa stress thowld be bated on the reopening pressures measured. by_repeaable fess If the tess are” done. trem tn underground opening, they must be ata clsance 1.5 to 20 dmes the Slameter ofthe opening toensure that the hate sree has not been affected by the presence ofthe open Both methods of messing inate seressareimportant, depending onthe ‘ype of problem faced bythe designe Mowever, che hydraulle jacking tex should. alvays Be performed, 8 i Simulates the actual effece that will beimposed on the cock by the tanec! water, Irs ako a direct measure ofthe Ininitnre principal stress and requires feither mathematical calcalaton nor 2ppliaion of theoretical formulae. T Siiporancthatehedril hots used for nydeaulicfackingextscrossalljintsye stress rougher ‘ovalley walls e ‘Where the minimom principal siress is not the vertical stress, and. where Geformable rock or sheat zones exit posiioning a tunnel ee meet only vert stress criteria may not be adequate Figure 2 shows a power tunnel post tioned beneath abrizontal surface ct cransversely by a major fault with low intra strel, and a low deformation modulus TGteral ydrauic jacking can open verdcal frature, allowing excetave Seepage tthe. surface. For this fruition, sting of the tunnel based only on cover eeteria could be unsafe Knowledge ofthe complete sires: Bele, the rock thodulus and the postion of the water ble fs necessary. or deformed rock masses that have “draanant keel, cv ruywettine AND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY 187Se ae (om = vowenoust? TUNNEL PROFILE CONTAINING LOW MODULUS ZONE 152.000; th 3 ( vero 8 Assuuco conmone aT © Te + 05 Tv i Soom ELASTIC COMPRESSION OF LOW MODULUS ZONE ~ em Figure 2. Hydraulic aching in a vertical plane. ones or bedi of stiff and flexible Iatrial, she stress Geld maybe highly ‘arabe’ Ths, i i possible for the water presture co dite fractures in the low-sess ceformable Tock sur- rounding the tunnel, and to force an open pathway (oa nearby powerhouse of access aditevenif the overall rock covers adequate, This effecthas been noted in deformed granite masses, and saditonesitstonesequencerwhere sceses measured by hyaraie jacking {ests were very lw inthe so deform aie vandsiones, but were higher Jo aie more bile slstone. Care mus. be talen to abiain representative tests of those rocks where hydraule jacking incompressole rock can occur uring operation. sich aeshort seepage path tonearby underground openings or 4 highly pervious Zone extng from the rock mate, Siniary, it argues for sound understanding of the geology and the material properies of he Tnateriale to be penetrated Design Guidelines In the event that data on in-situ rock stress are not available, simple design rules canbe followed. that will ensure safety. However, if the project proceeds to final design and construction, iti prudent to measure the insiusucssan soon as praceabe In addition to checking the safety of the final design, meacuring the sm Stress will allow optimization of various design elomente such 38 the precse lotion of the wane), marge tank, sloping. penstock, elbows, length of Sed lnerand, thas optimization of he design. For a pressure tunnel postionee tpencath a near horizontal fae, ditional criteria general are adequate Itisnecesary tcatedatethe overfing treight of soll and rock separately, due toeilferences in the cenatr ofthe ove traterals This factor canbe significant in areas of Jeep Uopica weathering “The folowing equations govern these caleulcons |, = height of the rock above the upnel (a) ‘y, = density of rock (um): height of soil above the tunnel (m) 4, = density of soil (Uin?): and “ii, = maximum static head (m) " 158 “TUNNELLING aND UNDERGROUND Space TECHNOLOGY Wherethereisnoscileover, orwhere the scilcould be removed by landsbdes, Sg eC Sg abr 13H, % H, = ‘The above equations provide a facor of salety of 13 against uplift on hori zontal planes, such as bedding planes ‘rit combinations. In theevent that the lateral streases are lower than the ‘erdcal streses, consideration mustbe Given to hydrauiijacking gana: vert: Gil planes Goints or faults), particularly where deformable rock ext (Fig. 2) Tt is necessary to be cautious in designing projects tobe buil on valley _ pe. where seepage from the tunad) althecnd ofthestel ines could induce lendstides, even when special drainage is provided. In thie instance, Bis pro- \, dent wo assume that the cover must be provided by the rock porto ony. Pressure’ tunnels posidoned near slopes or valley walls Gemand dewiled Sousorbon of the sess caro tment, Particularly in idges, noses, oF near valley walls stress reliefof herock ‘mass ocaurs. This phenomenon can be ‘Seen in the existence of open jointing ear valley or cif; thi jomang may xtond tert tobuncreds of mecersback ‘fort High elf. ‘The loss of sess is) fhognifed in the tipper portions of the valley wall or cif in contrast the base of the valley, wheve stress intencifcation commonly exists ‘Broch (1984) recommends that the topography be diagrammatically cor- Fetied fo match the overall topo- fraphic contours of the surrounding Rndscape "This procedure must be done both longitudinally and laterally to acount for irregular topozraphy beside he tonne fig 3) This methee i ensure safe positoning of theslop- ing portion of the pressure cone ard ofthe surge shate fone ie required Nevertheless, even when theve appar- nip conservative rales are adepied, fydaulic jacking txts should be con ‘Ructed atthe crite points along the tunnel: The eial pointe are the end of the sted liner, the upper elbow, the ‘ipper portion ofthe surge shaft, and tiger slope changes ofthe valley wall, as shown in Fig. 3. ‘An apprepriite equation follows for oteairingasuitable portion fora press tre tunnel where the rock conditions re favorable, Le. generally hard with high stifiness (modules of deforma. tion), and. where the topography 1s Seiform with near horizontal OF gen de slopes. This equation wil provide « factor safety of 13 agsnst uplit or hydraulicjacking. Forareasof complex geology or topography, where fealy Ee cteases may eccur, and especially for high head’ plants) the probable ftress patterns Showld be evaluated ‘Volume 4, Number 2, 1989determine te minor principal stresses STaeTaespa tae’ eneees o Cacao alee eS i ae The’ portion of the Tactor ef safety Bore uray will normally provide pre fog actor, As noted above the ea ereees thonld be caer ak fey pola by hyerauli aching teas, at thy cares opportuni aay ope oe resale or et ing the water to te powerhouse. For ‘ral of india! erie, inidual 7 prac cay Ve ee Tyo ove SESE in tunnels maf serve a number of amis ty wiliceg bilurctions, or 3 Sogle power uiniel may feed a db ‘ih separate tunnels leading tothe porctioie Each of there Mf poses cifferent ydraulc presures cibe various trench and be baie fie tie eats Operscal omaiag ‘Guidelines for sting the pressure ie) ae be seoe fot Gad trea Doverhouscs and surface powetiutes TRealopig porsan of ea ual a concseee bd tunnel et be peat rece Sore Sed prope relate 1 he ay Salle Heetrer for a undergo SAC Wear powerhouse ic is also necessary 10 ne SFT USAF PON onder the effec of the tunnelon the tublityof tre underground open The length of the ste! liner required tenant high-pressive wars exe daa bse he ober pan Becomes an important considefaton Tdiadal pressure conncls rust be separaedby anadequatedisance,nor mally 13 to2 tmes ther diameter, cavurepilee sabi Inthe event that tne or more tannes remain operaion- Figure 3. Broch correction for topography. al while others are unwatered, full static herd must beconasdered (act on the ther tunnels For the powerhouse or in more deta by a method such as ommended design line, shown on the ether giles, stablty, of the eck finke cements woecheck the vali of igure, can be ulized for vale slopes Surrounding the openings must be ACTUAL CONTOURS cOMRECTED CONTOURS pooner Sunce swar Sire Seanow reson Tame? the equation. Lup to 60". For slopes steper than 60", maintained. as seepage water can Special anaas of the probable imsice cause hydraulic jacking i the insite = 13 Hy siress would be required, especially to rock siress is too low (Fig. 5). In this %Cos 6 1H, = required rock cover (rs 4 ° a = saichead ny a y= density of rock (tim); and ° OFS LINE FOR peas aie ele “4 asst eons LSS EE Note thatthe surge shaft must owe 8 receive special consideration because —— 6 8 the upper portion may extend above mms i the line established by the Broch cor- > . + rection (Fig. 3). Thus, anless itis steel hed, de surge shat shouldbe se far enough back into the slope to ensure that the insitu rock stress at the top of the shaft is adequate. Brekke and Ripley (1987) have com. piled a number of case histories where excessive seepage has resulted from hydraulie Fracturing or lifing. These ceises are compared with a number of similar cases where embediment af the tunnelis deeper, and where no trouble ‘occurred, as shown on Fig. 4. A rec- Figure 4. Recommended design line to prevent hydraulic jacking. Volume 4, Number 2, 1989 “TUNNELING ANO UNDERGROUND Space TeCINOLOGY 159 cuswg ROR ee heme 0 in olay fae speedos ee is required, Recommended factor of Boe ate moourae! io eee ieee unis jatey oa, ‘CONCRETE. LINED Fequices that the steel liner be carried Ce ONLINED ‘an adequate distance to ensure that rigye Penstock imu srecreriaaremet Inspeciie\ 2 ses, 2 reinforced concrete liner can betted where the liner caries the fal IOC internal pressure without contibution fromtbe rock. In this ese the concrete contributes no tenale capac. Wheat is considered necessary to design for hydraulic peking, : fetal 10 Limit the aves round GROSEISECTION Pe aieeeh coher en pect a and drainage induced by drill holes or nearby openings. This technique preva PRESSURE RELIEF hae been used to limie the growth of gears / RUE hydraulic jacking in rock masses and err tocloiecracks in concrete gravity dams. ee Alternatively, grouting a zone arcund FewstocK the tunnel to limit the amount of seep- lageinto the rork mast and prevent the build-up of pore pressures beyond the grouted zone is conceptually vabd. However, cs exeential 0 ensure that the Tock outside dhe grouted zone is permeable or drained. and that large ‘areas are not subjected to the jacking Forces of high-pressure water. Tecan alio be argued that the), ()) hydraulic pressure causing hydraulic, *%**) eligi the presore on he ier eit tdge of the concrete liner, decreased Sx 9 due w the head loss that develops ag) PS the water seeps through cracks in the liner. This notconsidered tobe asafe [0 VECTOR ANALYSIS OF SUMMARY OF isa sale eS typ aa eens a oh is impossible to predict accurately the Huo POTENTIAL BLOCK STABILITY ANALYSIS sree pee ae ead i iia pcg: i Concrete liner. Cracks may be highly HeRiasairence OEE cans varable, depending upon concrete v ‘ placement and curing, variable mixes, vent, the steel liner may have to be prevent hydraulic jacking For this and the variable deformability of rock lengthened, and special drainage gal: reason, water hamacr transients are under pressure, Thus, the hydraulic fenesandtil holes instaled 6 Feleve not required t met anova factor presi that must be rested by the high pressure water . in addition 10 the consideration of Table 2. Recommended factor: of safety against hyraute jacking or uplift. snes rock siresees and the imposed Iydeaulic loads, a safe design requires FACTOR OF SAFETY uonn-COULONB FAILURE ANGLE OF PLANE Wik one 7 HORIZONTAL that the hydraulic gradients towards Normal operating é openings be contrclled, expecially if ater todible zones intersect both openings. Design condition Static Surge hammer Appropriate filtering of erodible zones jesign cones | intersected by drainage holes may be iting of rock above 13 1 NA Cnet of the tee nes and the opening ofizontal unined ‘must maintain hydraulic gradients ai Concrete lined tunnel, acceplable leveis. Guidelines are given Along sloping portion 13 uw NA ftom, under Stcel-Lined Sector Aer Sie Po of steel liner, with Garantie otindrauchekinge, fener allowance ior beconsidered as amply ensuring wat SOP, topography, anc the hydraulic pressure within dhe tun. BosSibe landsces removing nel is always less than the rock stress, Soil cover. Or that ihe time of application ‘oF the hydraulic strese is too short to" May be raduced to 1.2 if geological conditions are well-known. 160 TUNNELLING AND UNDERGROUND Space TECHNOLOGY Volume 4, Number 2, 1989‘Ock to prevent hydraulicjacking must a smaller but smoother lined tunnel there are aumerous methods that can, becqual tothe internal pressurein the may be the least costly. For cunnels be considered, and the possibility of ‘unacl, including surge conditions, in exces of approximately in, the mijudgment inseases actor dingy Limiting hydraulic jacking by using schedule often canbe controlled bythe Some seepage lost may be allowed, pressure relief or grouting should noi excavation and lining requirements of depending upon the quantity and be used as a general design approach. the power tunnel. Thus, selection ofa value of available water and. the However, if such measures are nec- smallerlined tunnel vsalarger unlined probable effect of seepage on the essary because of special conditions, tunnel may bean important decision. stability of the terrain and its effect they shouldbe performed with greai_ Head oss hrough = conduits prin the environment, Therefore, the caution. For success, it is necessary cipally2 functionof thewalloughness, long-term value of the water v the Dives lUcgumcocion MG GAaancctod mau Geer cemagie xqegiec tan ind te varatonsn permeability of yelocty. Asa esc hydrauequner compared: If fouile. Stour te J] Gero were durhughepresire Icncreen Ueabained Gemeen ger. tented Sheu be placed ia eck sway [lL tccyage pas do now devcop at diameter unlined nee or smlcr that dn hydraulé grade line & blow bras wl presure relef or pouting Sscdimmacsefgreacriydrabcels. thewaer able: Bechasedetrnaton ‘yhemeinealed. In general sted! Geney: When seal tunnels @ Simin oftne permanent groundwater ble Alqwe shouldbe viewed asalacresor, Glacier) ae used, mere ba greter ery portant, experienced geologists miburer and or as rccomaicnded . need fora smooth'ining to meiniun snl greandwsier bpalogies shou practice. acceptable head losses. However, as be involved in this task. Mapping of ll the funnel diameter increases the wall springs and points of period seepage. ibclion roughness has less effect on , as well 3 drillhole piezomesric data, eee ae ind equivalence is achieved through are essental in such an evaluation. If Selection of the final lining for 2 Small dametral changes this information i not obtained, 3 con- yessure tunnel is a process that "These factors must be assessed in servative design approach is necessary. Kegs in he desig stagebut doesnot erm of cremation and support ons Eactove lakage from the unlined nd unt construction is complete and for "both the temporary and. final tunneleanoceur ifthe natural ground- the geological conditions are knownin ningg, and the schedule advantages water surface i lower than the head deca, During he cendering sages the of ined tunnels where the hest_ developed by the intemal pressure liner design must be considered to be Fock permits an unlined tunnel. The and ifthe eck is pervious, Of course, preliminary. Then, ae construction jgvantagesofatunnelboringmachine, a low water table may exist even Proceeds and the geological condi- whichean achieve smoothness almost relatively impervious rocks, which are —/ Hons become known, the iningmay be Cquivalem te concrete, alo must be found in many very dry areas of the modifed to aut the actual conditions. considered Selecting the mos table world, The various Cases are shown in ‘This procedure requires well struc. ning forthe aspect of head low isa Fig. 6 tured and flexible specifications and complex butstandard mater of project Leakage for unlined cunaels can contract docurnenis that alow design Scoreamiee be estimated by standard fow nets if ‘modifications without unfair penalty to itvenigations have provided sppropr- the contractor or the owner Leakage Controi atedata along the length of te tunnel. ‘There is wide divergence on the" “Execwive leakage from pressure Sach data normally are obtained. by use of Tinings by various designers qyanels can occur in two ways: fist, geclogic mapping, drilling and in-hole trough he work Some for Og OE OL oe arc Renebey lag aleuve ae Jacking completely lined tunnelsonthebassof the rock is pervious and the inter. ment is almos: the only guide for ensuring long-term performance with~ pal pressure exceeds the external determining how much investigative gutthe need for any maintenance work groundwater pressure. Methods of work is necessary, and this judgment during operation. Others have cham Caling with lydraubc jacking have mustrestwithan experienced engineer Pioned the advantages of unlined or been discussed above. The problem and/or hydrogeologis. partlylined tunnels, with acceptance of gf pervious rock is more difficult, ar There-are three basic types of li koea falouts provided that they do not pice operations, Beeween dese imils are many options thatattempt to optimize costand performance. There ate nocommon guidelines for selection ofthe ‘Thee basic factors influence the selection ofthe lining: (1) Achieving acceptable head loss inthe conduit (2) Preventing excessive kakage either by seepage or bydraube fracturing (9) Ensuring long-term stability Gur- ing watering up. operation and. un- Each Of these factors is discussed in decal below (CASE A~ No LEAKAGE case LUmTED OR NO LEAKAGE Head Loss ‘Acceptable head loss along the press- ture tunnel is a matter of overall project, economies, which, in some cases, may CASE G- POSSIBLE HGH LEAKAOE CASE 0 - involve using an unlined tannel and achieving an earlier on-line schedule Alternatively, where the schedule is controlled by other project elements, Figure 6. Asessment of leakage conditions (unlined, shoterete, or unreinforced comertt) Volume 4, Number 2, 1989 ‘TUNNELLING aND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY 161ings: impervious, pervious and semi- pervious In praca terms, the mos Exmmon impervious lining is ste Paced with concrete or concrete frou surround. "A composite liner Ein be ted, in, which he. ses thin and an inside layer of concrete provides buckling reaisiance against External presure. a recent years avis types of inperviou lining have been used, including bitumen coated copper. sprayed rubber, and. plate normaly wiv a concrete Rner placed inside to prevent buckling. However, ‘ery litle performance data exist for Such Minings, and thelr design and Construction are complicated. they tmusthandle both inernal snd external pressure ‘Concrete and shotcrete applied with- coat reinforcement must be considered to be perous Because they are char- Suterited by locally pervius somes due to placement imperfections, or shrink: Sgt cracks that have occurred dung tring, They also sre easly cracked Under internal presture in deformable tock zoner. Unfortunately, there ie = ‘inmon misconception that concrete ad shoterte linings are impervious Both concrete and. shotcrete can be reinforced to act 38 semi-pervious Things utliing enough reinforcing wo davibute and coetsol cracks to 2 specie with, Ifa sempervious Tiner is required, ie necereary t0 prot fSforng bts vay and longitudinally and to control concrete mbes and placement carcfuly Leakage Fates through merous, cracked concrete linings canbe eeason- bly eaimated using equation for low between plats. Figure 7 shows the relation (or laminar Aw and torbu- Tent ow, which allows calculaion of leakage from a cracked ‘concrete or shoterete Hiner (Sawatsky 1986). Note that seepage is basically 4 function of the crack width ithe third power, the Thea, ad the permeability Uf he sat rounding material. The relations also vow that if the permeability of the -arrounding materials relaively 10%, ihe leakage s almost the same for ene crack as for many “The graph indicates that ifthe sur- rounding rock & pervious, sigrifcane Seepage can occur urls: the crack vdihs are: very small General. 3 ‘eek permeable than 10S mie ‘would allow very minor losses. Etfec: Uve.comprehentivlyapplied grating of pervious rockean reduce pormeabit iiytobetween 10- and 10-Fcmisec TP the" host material ie seltvely permeable leakage control depends Gn reinforcement andlor grovting Ahough standard structural mee fos are avalable for design of the Feinforcing steel, appropriate deter. tninaion of the deforiaion inode Its is required forthe rock in order to calculate the deformation of the 162 TUNNELING AND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY - 1 RE NOTES: y f j j Yy)od] g dl o¢ £4 H Hi d| é » é xz E fle 2 y PO sal a unl tl DISCHARGE - nsec per 106m Hngth Figure 7. Leahage from cracked concrete liner. lining. Various mechods are available erally should reach at least 75% of the for this determination (see discussion internal pressure, although 2 maxi under “Stability,” below). The numt- mum 15. bars normally. would be fer of cracks that will occur in an adequate. Stage grouting, as shown on lastic, homogeneous, circular liner Fig 8, has been successful where grout principally depends on the diame josshasiobe controlled and wherehigh and liner thickness, and generally is pressuresare necessary. New chemical in the range of 10-20. Reinforcement routs that can penetrate joints and ‘ensures that the cracks willbe eistib- focks with 2 semipervious atric also tuted, and the rack width can then be have been utized calculated with confidence Gracking of the concrete ining also Stability develops for other reasons including The fal lining selected must ensure placement conditions, cold joins, cere adequate stably of te tunnel through erature effecs, excessively rich or wet out the life of the project. For many mixes, and shrinkage Longitudinal designers this means that no rockfalls shrinkage often resus in regularly or falls of shotcrete or concrete should paced transverse cracke separated by occur Such an approach requires. 2 GH10m, depending on the diameter _continuousconcreteliner,orveryhigh- of the tunnel. Such cracking can be quality rock with extensive rock boling hairline or up to3-4mm, depending 2nd shoterete for an unlined tunnel. oon the concrete mix and curing prop: However, other designers acept con- erties Siderably les support and lining with Grouting to reduce permeability some minor falls in the tunnel, pro around a concrete liner can be suc. vided they do not hamper operation Cessful, provided that carefully con. or cause 2 significant energy loss. The wold dings and presures ate dierences fy coxt and cosacion luted. Generally cemen! grouts with schedule between these two design various additives to contiol penctra: approaches can be very great and sig- tion, thixotropy, seltng ume, and nificant economic benefits are possible strengthareavailsble Sikes fame, sed by selecting the approach that allows inshoterete,abohasbeen usedin grout for minor rockfalls, in combination to increase strength and cree the with periodic inspection and mainte- ‘Grouting should be done in rings, ©) To ensure stability, the lining desiga- normally with six to eight holes per er must consi ing, after the concrete or ahotcretes | * Erosion of rock or pint fling placed to allow higher pressures tbe pressurized water sed. Pecruree mn be somtoted 26 Rock support. temporary and pssrent daage the ing, bur mast Final high enough co ensure penetration, Hydraulic pressures during water- \Consolidation grouting pressures gen: ing, operation, and unvalering. Lgeon = 0 Semls \ | Volume, Number 2, 1989 (>| ort‘coNsoUDATION covered with showrete oF concrete GROUT HOLES Tf shoterete is used, must adhere properly, a= hydraulic gradients can Se very high ducing unwatering. Con: rolled unwatering. where pressures L are reduced over a period of days, contact desirable to reduce seepage pressures Rout HOEY, and eeternal forces on the lining concrers | NER ‘Temporary and final rock support Rock reinforcement is required on a , 4 temporary basis during tunnel driving, \ and. for permanent Support during ‘operation of the power toonel. ‘The | Segeee and Gipes ot/sepeoes fore J (WO conditions can be. very similar, especially for hard, massive rock where fo nal lining is reqeired, and where only rock bolts and shotcrete are required for both temporary and final support. In contrast, the temporary support required for tunnel ériving in weak, strongly Fractured, or highly crodible rock, may be modest, where- a5 exiensive support or lining may be ‘necessary for operation. Thus, it may bbe necessary to follow excavation and temporary support with subsequent extensive additional support, Le. up toa complete concrete lining ‘The temporary and final support requirements invanably are estblish- Gdlby experienced tuned engineers 3 STAGE 3 ~ HIGH PRESSURE TO REDUCE PERMEABILITY thegcneral support requirements must LMT TO 75% OF bbe determined during design 20 that appropriate specifications and con- struction methodology can be adopted toensurean economical projectand the ‘minimum construction schedule Erosion with erise-cressed, short, grouted rock Various classification systems exist The velocity of water in unlined bolts is adequate unless the feature for assessing temporary support. In pressure tunnels normally does not requires covering with aconcreteliner. 1946, ‘Terzaghi developed a. rock Exceed 4 msec, and often is in the Such decisions can only be made by classification system for estimating the ange of 2-3 mise. Such velocities experienced personnel. Toads to be supported by steel sets in ‘can cause a progressive erosion of Italsos wise to makconefinal,thor- the tunnels. Since then, a number of weak rock, resulting in rockfals that ough walk-through inspection’ with clasification systems have been deve ‘can reduce the capacity of the tunnel design” and construction personnel oped on the basis of numerous case Or, in the extreme, entirely block the just as the tunnel is being completed, histories. Some of the more common flow. The eresion may occur in soft to ensure that no zones have been cusilication systems include: HIGH PRESSURE GROUTING SEQUENCE : 1, STAGE 1- GONTAGT GROUTING LOW PRESSURE 2. STAGE 2 ~ LOW PRESSURE GROUTING TO PROVIDE GONTAINMENT OF STAGE 3 GROUT Figure 8. Liner growing. rocks, shear or fault zones, or in missed ‘© Terzaghi’s Rock Load Classif- Diocky rock containing thin, clayey Installation of reinforced shorerete cation for Steel Arch Supported fr silty seams and veins. Although or concrete can be done either a the “Tunnels, (949. Such erosion may be slow initially, it time of drwving or when excavation is @ Deere's RQD and Merritt's Meth- can progress to involve large blocks complete. Excavation of seams \oallow 3, 1972, ‘of rock and falls measuring thousands treatment may enecessary. Although @ Wickham’ Rock Structure Rat- of cubic meters. However, such zones shoxcrete normally can be used, it must ing, 1972. can be treated during construction tobe reinforced and anchored to the” © Barton's Norwegian Geotech- ‘ensure trouble-free operation. rock because the fine-grained materi- nical Institute (NGI) Index Clas. “The project locations requiring pro- als can prevent adhesion of the sification, 1976, tection must be identified during exca-.Shotcrete. Where adhesion is poor, _@ _Bicnawski's CSIR Method, 1976. sonnel. After these features have cr it witha concrete liner. Uypes of rock and various conditions ven identified, the necessary treat. Weak, erodible rock or fine-grained of rock quality. They must be applied Volume 4, Number 2, 1989 "TUNNELING aD UNDERGROUND Srace TECHNOLOGY 163,Tobie 3. Evaluation of rock mass elasification systems Goclogic Conettions. ‘Orientation Discontinutties sheared of one ormore Mainfactors ‘Sound Discontiities _laselv spaced orcrushod rock sianificant attecting stabilty __massherock __moeratelyspaced _orweak planes otherwise rehenled discontinuity Rockrelaxation x x x x ° (Time dependent) In-situstress = Rockpopping x x x x o Conditions ~ Squeezing i % x ° ‘conditions time ‘cependent) z ~ Slaking (due to ° loss of moisture) = Sweling ° ° Groundwater = Inflow volume x x x x x ~ Erosion ° ° ° ° ° susceptibility = Solutioning ° ° ° ° ° = Hydrostatic ° ° o ° 0 pressure Gas = Pressure ° ° ° ° ° = Potential ° ° ° explosion X~Adaquately addressed. (O- Inadequately addressed or not addressed. Selecting the type and amount of lutioning, the tunel can. remain i design points for unlined shorerete support for the final ning i largely or fll unlined, Spedal zones lined, and coneretelned tunnels complex problem. However, based or arest of weakened rock can be fon the rebtvely simple casefcation treated with grovted rock bolt and Shoterete lining Syotems acombinaton ofsupportmay shou: An cotinate ofthe rckboks Shoterete i an effective way of e employed, subject to individual and shotrete required can ule the improving. the stability of wunnes, preferences Nevertelesy, the support casifcaton sysieme ducawed shove. Used in conjunction with rock bolts or Fequirements in all the cawifcadon ‘The underlying design philosophy is passive routed anchors, as inthe New Sjstems are related fundamentally to that minor ecealscan occur butihat_ Austrian Tunnelling Method (NAT), thestrengh ofthe roc, the av of thee fall vil notledtolrger major 3. highly adapabie support ste the tunnel, and the specie geologic fallsthat could reduce tamneleapacly. can be Geveloped io meet condiions ‘conditions Pe CE The minor fale wil cher he on the observed sn the eld uring cunnel Figure 9 and Table 4 summarize invertor be moved by floy toa driving. With the newer addons such these facorsand dently the probable rocktrapsctnear the endafthetunnel, 2s fber-reinforoement and siicatuinc, type of support chat is appropriate for upstream, of the sel lining. the strength and deformal various ypes of rock. The information _"Roekbolts are used either sporaci- varied co mect special requirements, shown is intended for use in pressure cally, o pin individual loose blocks, or ~ _Shotcrete canbe used to improve the tunnels with diameters ranging from ona pattern basis to providean interac- smoothness of tunnels; a Mannings “n” 2 co 7m, which is the normal range _xesupport for unlined tunnels. Many value between 0.018 and 0.025 can be for most'projects. It must be empha- types of bolts are available and various achieved, depending on the thickness sized that the information is given as theories forrockbolidesignshavebeen and contouring achieved. Generally, a guideline only, and that any specific developed. Although both active and shotcrete 2-5 cm thick has no effective tunnel could haveconditions for which _pactive anchorage rockbolts systems strength; however, when itisapplied in the measures shown may be inappro- have been used for tunnel support, in thickneatcs of 10 em or greater, design, priate. Nonetheless, the dataare based recent years the tendency for modest-_methods similar to those for concrete fon a number of cases and, used asa sized tunnels has been to use pastive can be utilized. guideline, hve been helpful for booh System of qrouted but uniemoncd "Shourete can be used. effective design and construction Shihors In bard rock, where plucking ly inmost rock conditions. How- orsolutining wil act occur betwee every for caywtones or weak: poorly Unined unmet Sots, tis meinod is economia! and cemented rook, shoterte_ ay not Provided that the rock is hard effective, Shere property or. may fall easy and durable ad ‘not secepuible to“ Folwingaresomeaionalspect> Si the contac. For such conditons, 164 Tuwwst.ive ax UNotncRouN Spact TrcHNoLOoY Volume 4, Number 2, 19892 3 3 3 40 san 1 10— saiyror 1 ene °$ © = ¥% SPAN (nd CLUSSMCATION ABE MRAL UNG OOO SupPoRT MEASLES vo sero ume = rensioueo OUTED ANCHE LOELL. sanon sureont owen =U TENSONED GAOUTED Roce ANCHOR 28 Necessary = UnTEwsiowen cRouTeD parTeRN Rccx = Cheat Suorene re ~ Aoemiowss. neimranceD srorenert TENSIONED GROUTEE BOLTS OF TENOONS = CONSOLIDATION GROUTING aS NECESSARY. Heavy SuemoRT —coneRETE HORSESHOE oR INVERTED U very sew ‘OCULAR concneTE Sreor > ReIroReES 25 NEcESEIRY + PATTERN CONSCLIDETION CROUTING. = CIRCULAR miBS avo Feu CONCRETE LINING. Spins. enrotene. se MEceeSiRT Figure 9. Rock support guideline, interaction with the rock, achieved vith meahreinforced Sbotcrte ond pins, not necesinly achieved wath Fber-einfored shoteret. Therefore, the mos elfecive shotcrete method mst he selected Shotereteisa very adaptable material shen the tunnels subjected tointernal bressures Although shoterete must be Trened 3.8 pervious raters, crack istibuion die to dametrical expan. fon aceurs without conentravon oF cracls. 1 appeats that adhesion (0 individual rack blocks is greater than the adhesion of concrete fo rock. The rockblocks actin pendent allow cracking of the shoseret ta occur a Bleck Boundaries. ‘Thusy when cracks concentrate in concrete ners they ate Ustaly welldvaribuied in ahoterete This factor modifies the appranch to reinforcement design Showrete aso performs very well Volume 4, Number 2, 1989 Asti’ waiving’ a alana pedo of cotenel water pressures fathout serious spaling, eventhough the sength a2 meirane may be eirely inadequate: theoretically. It Sppenrs that external presore. are lleved through the mumerous ut invisible cracks tat have developed Bt joints and seams. Shoterete has teem obuerved to perform very well tinder al conditions where adhesion ie good, even pen repented apd Citstering has boo performed Tt, pressure ret ic wt necenny, and at Keng as good shotrcang pracocrs are mmainained, resaing in wel-bonded Shoterete, good, performance during Unwatering canbe expected Heinforcement of shoterete varies from aber teinforcement oF welled srre Grice ayers of heay Tein foreing sel Wik careful appheaton dediidual layer of reinforcing ena be placed, shoteted, snd folowed by subsequent layers. As many as four layers have been used in situations where concrete placement could mot be done effectively. Single or double bars can he shotereted, and tnangular, tied bundles slo have been effectively placed. As reinforcing Is increased, reducing the maximum particle site of the shotcrete is advantageous. Concrete inings CCovcreie lings represent ihe mat effective method of ensuring sabliy hike chicring a hydraulealy cf Gent tunnel Because placement is formally done behind mech see! form, Mannings "a" values on the order of €.012-0.016 are acheved. Corarection methods have, been developed. that can provide homo. nea concrete, with minor iar Kins such 19 cold join, thera cracking 2nd honeyeombing. Natura if good mis desiges and cfearcon tCdfntques ar esenual, Nevertheless, tecauseof theineviable imperfections. dnd because of te variable Geformabil iyot most rock linings cannotbecon- Seer impervons Coneve ‘Allneevdonce shows hatte lining Age mf dces not preventiransler of pare press tiezinw the surreunding rock Sock 27 cadence lode: cracls observedtobe filed wih leaves and fragmens upon Geatcing sansa he Goumtwniee table, with development of surface iestezandinsimmented tunnels where iceometer have been installed sve strock. In addition cracking ofboth ronloreed ad nonrreinforoed liner, Caused by shrinkage during curing fcrurs to vome dogece with al brings Concrete liners mast be considered by the designer to be pervious oF temic. p pemioar membranet. However, con: FENUE Erte can be reinforced wiapeREMOT coy permestity of e-controlled io specif ke neareund atupnel Dhmcanceaelasaey Je been discussed further above, un: Sea Goa te Hee ee ocined cons and OE increased construction schedule, selec- tion of concrete as a support medium fa a last resort. Nevertheless, in cases where other support measures will not be effective, eg. in squeering ground, where extensive overbreak hhas occurred, or in very deformable rock under internal hydraulic laading, concrete is an excellent solution, The lining must be designed for three conditions: (1) To support che external rock and water load that will be imposed during operation. In specific cases, swelling rocks may induce loading, {2} To ensure integrity of the Hiner under internal pressure, eg. when Seepage autilow i not of concern and Concrete cracking without dislodging pieces is acceptabie. “TUNNELING AND UNDERGROUND SPACE TECHNOLOGY 165“Table 4. Factors for selection of fnal lning. Shotcrete Unlined with Concrete Factor i rook bolts Tined fined Deformation modulus >20 000Kg/em? 7900-20 000 <7000 Geological favorabilty Favorable Favorable to Unfavorabie (faults, discontinuities, unfavorable joint fling, criontatior) Unoonfined compressive >70kg/em? 300 ~ 700 <300 ‘strength, Tunnel ciameter Intensity of suppor increases with increasing diameter Flock load on support” . <0.4kg/ome 04-09 >09 Flock mass permeability ixt04 Rock mass quality (a)* >20 4-20 isdone very sowly, allowing drainage tnd cqualizaon of external presures To combat thi potenual ‘problems, special treatment Of the end secion, Eerste! liner, may be necessary, ao shown in Fig. IL. The combinaion Of reinforcement, embedded collars tndloranchor rings and high presaure Foss nerd oft ces of meh-pressure water behind the steel lines or high-head schemes where such, problems can cceur, it may be more appropriate to design the sect ner forthe full sade head dan 10 brorde acomplex craage stern Iovn Somme designers have used cranageyedy pipes placed behind the sted Une, Gor on fonmedted to the gap to remove high of presure water on unwaterng. Ts aia feheme should act be ued: IU not fe the long term, as the pipes 34 become clogged wi precip Grouting Tie folowing types of grouting ae required over various portons of the Contact Growting—To fill arge voids behind the steel and concrete liners that occur duc to inadequate concreting, Volume 4, Number 2, 1989cedent experience (Lysne 1971), rock {taps may be sized tocontain those rock pieces that can be transferred along the Bele Wel ltcseenrams Sannor Se ees anelentiones Invere of the tunnel by the prevating ppscollseeery ‘eioely and invert roughness. In gen RADIAL ano eral itis good practice to concrete the (overrun eee tunnel invert for ease of inspection, REIFORCEMENT, /| (SEEPAGE BARRIERS) ‘The improved hydraulic efficiency of the tunnel allows easier transport of Fee eet ted endo Recteraore che ine aera denned fon meet fly unlined cuntele-eoener foarte Vey ieemecaupie cma \ jPoerible, darn BYE Plugs bh erecg bhing Ta, Fags must eis side sitar and pe oreven xe seepage aun the Plug Differing design crtcria are by "Various individuals and agencies. Many pluguare zed simply tobe about twice the tunnel diameter, independ: tntof head and rock conditions. Allow: ttle shear stresses of 9-10 kyle? arc sed, depending on the quality of the reek ge tu oe design uh ha their lengths satisly criteria for accept Figure 11. Seepage control at end of steel liner. able shear strength and hydraulic ee dents around the plug” These ‘r= tere ave Sind tor theee vaed or GSablishing the Fength of sec! line or due tw air wapped during the by spraying cold water concreting operations. encourage the gap to fr ex. However, because the openin ‘Enbedment Grouting —Toseal the gap Thelaststep consolidation grouting, where high-pressure water normally between the steel liner and concrete is done by ihe ting method, mov exits are simaller, hydraulic gradients that forms due to conerete shrinkage, ing upstream and grouting through may be greater. Special grouting and plastic set in the rock during load: the same holes as the embedment downstream pressure relief can be inglunloading, and the temperature grouting. With the packer atached installed to control seepage and allow differential between the liner and the © the steel liner. the gap, as well a reduction in length. mass rock 3 the fracured rock, grouted 2” Both contactand consolidation grout Consolidation Grouting—To consoli- second time, It is advantageous to ing ate required. Contact grouting of date blast damaged or relaxed rock grovt to the highest pressure possible short plugs can often be done by and to reduce leakage. Although some without bucking the liner. Pressures fanning holes from the tear end. investigators have claimed improve- of up t0 75% of buckling pressure However. for long. plugs. embedded ‘ment of the medulus of the rock asa are advisable vo prevent buckling due pipes with appropriate exit points for result of consolidation grouting, this ist localized overloading, because the the grout, placed near the arch and a debatable point {routing cannot be counted on to carried t6 the downstream end, are Sonat growing, te first grouting provide uniform, allarouné presre, _effeve for contact grouting, Com process perlormed. is required only in Such grouting not only consolidates solidation grouting is often done by the arch of the tunnel. In tunnels less the rock, but alio tends to induce a long incined holes. However, long Gian 6m in diameter, a single line compressive aressintheconcrevesteel__ plugs may have a hollow downseream of grout spaced at 3-4™m normally liners. Such prestress, though desit- section, allowing access to a manway is adequate. Stable mixes having a able, cannot be counted upon to be or hinged door. This arrangement cement/water ratio of 1:1 (or thicker) maintained, because of rock creep. permits ring grouting to be done by volume, with 0.5-1% bentonite, General criteria for consoldation from inside the hollow section, and are appropriate. Modest pressures of and contact grouting of a tunnel ined improves the grouting seal. uch plugs 2-3 kglem® are adequate, although only in concrete are the same as the may have 10 be reinforced along the higher pressures are not detrimental. criteria fora steeVconcrete section. ~ hollow section. Plugs of this type can Embedment grouting of the gap casily be extended oF the grout curtain between the steel and conerete liners , enhanced if excessive seepage occurs normally is the second step. Grout OPerational Aspects round the plug after watering of the mixes must be thinner, with about Debris Traps tunnel 2% bentonite to improve Muidity and Traprtocolecsoilandrockarenec- "Large plugs require careful con- fensmion, Growing shouldbe done esarffor unlined or sucrsned| ce anole proven exave hen Inrings(ypicaly.sxtocdghtholes per tunnels and in areatwheve debrie can of hydration and cracking. Ths pro- Ting), moving upslope, with forward cater from the ine or surge shal. cedure may invelve cooling, especially holes open to alow’ crainage. Pres: The tape should be oeated upsteam ifthe schedule dictates rapid comple- tet off up 10 50% cf the buckling ofthe concree or ueesined portions. don. Alhough 9 curing peried of 28 Pressure are appropriate to ensure Toreduce ie rtiling, tbadvoable days is adwable price to grouting, agains localized loading and buckling: to pressure-wash the tunnel wall can be shortened if necessary. hhowever, the main requirement is to Traps can be designed to remove Rings of drainage holes drilled into easure gap-fling, If operation water most Of the unsuspended soil load; the rock atthe downstream end of the issignificantly colder than therack.the~ however, he hydraulic aspects mustbe plug are advisable to ensure stability of liner can be cooled prior to grout carefully studied. On the basis of pre- the tunnel Ye mato concharction Volume 4, Number 2, 1989 “TUNNELLING AND UNDERGROUND SFACE TECHNOLOGY 169 youpuokine fo \n-gennce teunperahurt,In the absence of general design In addition 1 groundwater moni. References Tier for the sing of plage, the toring, mapping of exiting springs, Angur. E10. Backing of oresure values listed in Table 7 are suggested. seepages and landslides should ‘afl apd tunnel linings Water Power Gone before watering. Changes in November 1970. Watering/ Unwatering these condigons should be noted by Bigtawsi 2.71874. Geomechanics cass ‘The initial flling of the pressure tunnel should be carefully controlled a regular inspection program. ‘A survey of cracks in the concrete featon of reck masses ang is application intunaelling. In Pro. Third Int Congr. on to limit cracking of the concrete liner. grouidbe/done prior t0 frst fling, Reet Medien, Vel. 114. Denver: Inter Such cracking is intensified duc t “These cracks should he mapped and, the difference in pressure between the groundwater and tunnel water. Normally the wnnel has been open for several years due to constraction, and drainage of the rock has oceurred. national Society of Rock Mechanics Bretke, T. Land Ripley, 5. D. 1987, ifunwateringisplanned,spray-painted "Be, eutianes BF presre onset so thatextensions or new crackscan be and shails EPRI Document REUA5 17, Hlenifed upon usatering. Unwvatering of pressure tnnels gual in arcs of complex topography should ato be‘done carefully ata WolDurDonContuen 6G o1218 Brock, E. 1984. Unlined high pressure Filling the tannel slowly allows press Patz between 2 to 10 m/ar, ullizing Deerey D. U. 1988. Urigue, geotchaical ture equalization to occur, and thereby limits deformation of the rock and lin- Slower ath for hignead planar folem tans deer, pos Ground “water” changes shoul Mike im Sevensh Pan Am Prec, Vancouver, 5 Asrecommended by Deere (983), Saved as the unweterng takes place, 2, BOS-BH Canachan Grech Soct % leas to to tree weeks generally E’petaty for very high'iead procs, pe, p, U, ch, R By asker should be allowed for this process; significant reservoir can be buik up SP" Mentcs, fete. an seats however, this time fence may be in che rock mass. If drawdown is too 1900. Design of tunnel suppor syems. sacessive forreatvelylow head plants. Farid, igh pressures will be exerted HighaeyRacrch Record 99 A fling rate of 51019 mfa normally sy the tunnel linings. Depending on ~pllenirny Ai), Fernandes C-ond Lenin, adequate If possible, monitoring water lev- mmaicof leakage Such leakage usually is high uri blelere-coablel hhyeraulicjaduing oF piping’ may be Tiesomcier should be placed in areas, where sigrfcantconsnacton steegetbelnneetd | LA aane ee tite hg mage eats Bev denen ir upstream gate will allow a geod e%ti- the tunnel should be done immediately isanecor ” P.A. 1987. Design of pressure tunnels, is ae "f Gaashaual Engmening, Va Ps TEagleveod Ce Nj specs rat tats 86 168 Lio sla de after unvatering is complete: Records eee ee ing, asthe groundwater of inflow, local fallures of the ock or Sachhet™ ewe eapagesccel ningacrekingorother dares should Lyne, D. it 1971, Sand craspont and crates at 2 specific internal pressure, poinEs TRON" ’ (et ‘ard trpe in hydro power tonnele Im Pre, Pope Strege Beeepmen and s ‘Eminent Effet ow ‘ani, Sepende, 1911. Miavkee, WI: ‘merian Water Resnirees Sesoistion. Fee ers Sagan conssucton Acknowledgements gry STH LE Sg con read a8 filing takes place. Such piez The writer thanks Dr A. Merrit, {9 stslrground exeavaon. In Pre, ometers are Best insiled in explora. Dr Ls fory, Mr ts Binkeron andl oy Fast Ne neon Rape! Exaot ond Tunneling Conf. pp. 115-182. New Vork: tory heles used for pre-design investi: GC. Hi, Maaruman for their review of [unr gations so that the history of ground- this paper. and their very conscructive tty, 1. Personal commankation, ‘water changes ie known. comments. ‘Ocober ise Singh, B., Nayak, C. Cand Kumar, &. O48. Design recommendations for plain Tale 7. Accepaile hydric gradients for plug length caret itingin power hI Pr “Tinnding for Wote Reoures ‘Maximum Maximum indteae ros Noll Newel Com Goneral rock type sheer stress (kg/em”) hydraulic gradient, va Roar of gat seein “ard Rot Engineering. Oi Massive, hard, widely 5 18-20 “Tera Rng en Lud Tune jointed “Sgpor Ruch Tunneling wth Se Sup pore ORV. Proctor and. White, ede) Hard to moderately hard, 3 10-14 ouoysiown, OH. Commercial Seating )) moderately cited ws and Stamping Co = Moderate to weak, 2 7-3 a a moderately jointed Brunderground srvctres Paper pres nied a Tunnelling Astcaton of ana Weak closely jointed 1 5-6 Se Coaieeee Annacties. oF sheared Wiektam GE Tiedemann, H.R ard inner, Support deter Seek rst 0s os Seeman erodible Pree FistNerh Amarone Excavation and Tunneling Conf. Vol. bpp. 8-64 Notes: Erocible features downstream of plug to be treated locally. Nov ¥orks AINE 170 TUNNFL,ING AND UNDERcROUND Spact TECHNOLOGY Volume 4, Number 2, 1989