CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Background of the study

Extreme sports boomed in the 1990s, capturing a new generation of exciting young
athletes in innovative new takes on classic sports (Browne, 2004). Participation in sport
has been a trendy pursuit for centuries. Many reasons have been given to enlighten why
individuals decided on to participate in organized activities of this type, and indeed, some
formal theories have been postulated. Participation in extreme sports gave individuals an
enjoying incredible growth while traditional recreational activities such as golf was more
focused on struggling to maintain their numbers in the top ranking (Pain & Pain, 2005).
Over the past two decades, participation rates in extreme sports have grown exponentially
far outstripping the growth rates of any other sporting activity (American Sports Data,
2002; Pain & Pain, 2005).

According to Puchan (2004) the involvements have been shown not to be just a
flash in the pain but a sign of the times. An extreme sport was not easily defined nor it was
easily delimited, but it may be defined as a recreational physical activity that carries a risk
of serious physical injury or even death (Willig, 2008).

The term extreme sport has become a well-known label for relatively new
activities like paintball, climbing, bungee jumping, free ride skiing and snowboarding,
surfing, hang gliding and paragliding, kayaking, rafting, small plane aerobatics, full contact
martial art, skydiving and BASE-jumping (Slanger & Rudestam, 1997; Soreide, et al.,
2007; Willig,2008). These new activities are becoming more and more popular.

Extreme sports involved natural element and risk taking that include participation in
extreme locations and using extreme skills (Tomlinson, Ravenscroft, Wheaton, & Glichrist,
2005). According to Jessica (2012) paintball is recognized as one of the world's most
exciting outdoor participation sports. Paintball is played in over 104 countries by millions
of men and women of all ages and lifestyles. Whether it is high-school students,
professionals or retirees, all paintball players share in common feel affection for escapade
and a strong competitive bravery.

According to Muhlestein (2012) paintball was a sport which can be played in any
indoor and outdoor environment. Games are normally played outside on specially prepared
fields with usual or non-natural topography or obstacles which player use for cover and
suppression. When we participate in paintball, we can produce a sweat and burn our
calories that help us to lose weight. Studies have publicized that when we did some
exercise programs, we will become more active and being healthier compare to the people
who did not did the exercise programs.

Paintball can be played by group with more focused on satisfaction rather than
winning a game. Paintball is one type of exercise that can help prevent people from any

high risk diseases. Additionally, paintball sport also was created to encouraging a healthy
daily lifestyle for those who participate in this sport. As believed by Goldbecker (2013),
paintball now has global appeal, and used for corporate team building, professional
sporting, also general recreation and leisure.

However, the exact nature of what constitutes an extreme sport is still unclear
(Olivier, 2006).

There are many motives and challenges in extreme sports including

paintball. Previous research has highlighted out several challenges that scored high on
scales across studies, including lack of time, distance to recreation resources, crowding,
lack of information, costs, and family commitments (Walker & Virden, 2005). Therefore,
this research will concentrate on finding the motives and challenges in participating among
paintball sports.

1.2

Statement of the problem

Through the Tomlinson et al (2005) report, the main sources of information

regarding participation in lifestyle sports was found in the market research conducted by
Mintel in 2003. This results signified around 10% of the adult population was concerned in
participating in lifestyle sports, but found that the majority of these 10% were drawn from a
narrow age and socio-demographic group which is 15-24 year old males from higher
socioeconomic classifications. However, most of those surveyed in this research was an
individual who did not participate and had no interest in lifestyle sports. This finding was
supported by Bennett et al (2003).

Another report by Yin (2001) shows that participation in group sports is on the
decline as challenge or extreme sports have been gaining momentum among the
population. They reported that according to American Sports Data, snowboarding has
increased to 7 million participants, an increase of 51% between 1999 and 2000. Young
people, Generation Y males are the most likely to participate in the extreme sports such as
paintball.

Specifically, there were some motives underlying for participating sport and
physical activities. Either male or female, every person has their own motive for
participation. For example, body-related and social factors were stronger motives for
female, and competition and competence motives were more treasured by male (Koivula,
1999). However, there were still less supporting details about the motive for participation
in paintball among female. In fact, most female are often much more motivated to
participate in another sport that less risk instead of playing paintball.

Leisure constraints are defined as factors perceived by an individual that inhibit or

prohibit their participation or enjoyment in leisure (Jackson, 1991). These constraints are
often categorized in the field of leisure studies as intrapersonal, interpersonal, or structural
(Jackson & Rucks, 1995). Existing leisure constraints to physical activity do not always
lead to non-participation (Jackson & Rucks). Much of leisure research had originally stated
that constraints to leisure were insurmountable obstacles which prevented participation
(Jackson & Rucks). However, Kay and Jackson (1991) found that even in extreme
situations constraints did not always prevent leisure activities. As a result, it has been
proposed that individuals will employ negotiation strategies when faced with constraints.
Negotiation strategies can be considered strategies that allow an individual to continue to
participate despite the presence of constraints and they may be behavioral or cognitive
(Jackson & Rucks). Social support from parents, peers and siblings may play a key role in
helping adolescents negotiate within or through a variety of constraints.

Intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural constraints are often divided into five
universal ranges of categories; cost of participating, time and other commitments, problems
with facilities, isolation (both physical and social), and lack of skills (Jackson, 2005).
Specific example of these constraints for youth can consist of having too much homework,

lacking experience, not being good enough to participate, having asthma or joint problems,
lacking transportation, feeling shy or self conscious, or not having enough money (Duncan
et al., 2005). Furthermore, since females often face more constraints than males, Robbins,
Pender, and Kazanis (2003) examined constraints to physical activity reported by girls
themselves. These constraints consisted of feeling self-conscious about appearances,
feeling unmotivated, being afraid to fail, lacking someone to participate
with, wanting to do other things with their time, or lacking interest (Robbins et al., 2003).

Speaking about motive, challenge will exist when people want to participate in
some sport and physical activities. Today, there are still many people actively participate in
sport either as professional athletes or not. In order to participate in sport and activities, for
sure there were also many challenges that people need to overcome. Nevertheless, little
were known about the challenges to participate in paintball among female.

In some

Muslim countries, female faces various problems and barriers for participation in sports
(Dagkas & Benn, 2006)

1.3

Research questions
The rationale of this study was to identify the motives and challenges factors that
influences on participation among paintball participants in MAPAAC

1.3.1

What are the demographic profiles of paintball participants to participate in

paintball sport in MAPAAC?

1.3.2

What is the most motives factor that influence paintball participants to

participate in paintball sports in MAPAAC?

1.3.3

What is the most challenges factor that influence paintball participants to

participate in paintball sports in MAPAAC?

1.3.4

Is there has any relationship between motives and paintball factor that

influence participants to participate in physical activity in MAPAAC?

1.3.5

Is there has any relationship between challenges factor and paintball factor

that influence participants to participate in physical activity in MAPAAC?

1.4

Research objectives
The rationale of this study was to identify the motives and challenges factors that
influences on participation among paintball participants in MAPAAC

1.4.1

To investigate the demographic profile of paintball participants to participate

in paintball sports in MAPAAC.

1.4.2

To identify the most motives factor that influence paintball participants to

participate in paintball sports in MAPAAC.

1.4.3

To identify the most challenges factor that influence paintball participants to

participate in paintball sports in MAPAAC.

1.4.4

To investigate the relationship between motives and paintball factor that

influence participants to participate in physical activity in MAPAAC.

1.4.5

To investigate the relationship between challenges and paintball factor that

influence participants to participate in physical activity in MAPAAC.

1.6

Significance of study
The purpose of this study is because lack of information about motives and

challenges influences on participation among paintball participants from range 18 until 52

year old.

From this study the extreme sports association or outdoor company can

understand and be used to control the motive and challenges participating in paintball in
future. It is important for the sports association to recognize and understand the motivation
and challenges faced by paintball participants to participate in extreme sports such as
paintball. Participate in paintball sports can provide enjoyments and satisfaction that can
attract people to join.

The extreme sports association should be alert the factors that motivate the paintball
participants to participate in paintball. For example, if the motives factor the paintball
participants participate in paintball is because of family, so the sport organization should be
creative to create the surrounding that can attract whole family to participate it. So from
that, it can attract more people to participate in paintball. Sport organization should make a
campaign to give awareness the benefit of participate in paintball even it is simple activity
such as running.

In addition, the extreme sports association should be need focused on the challenges
factor that can make paintball participants are less participate in paintball. There are many
challenges factor that paintball participants face every time that they participation in
paintball. According to (Dagkas & Benn, 2006) in some Muslim countries, Muslim female
face various barriers for participation in sports due to religious and cultural reasons, mixedgender sports, dress codes, attitude towards sports and limited resources.

In a nut shell, this study can give much opportunity to the extreme sports
association to solving a problem by giving more and complete facilities that can attract the

10

paintball participants to participate in paintball. From these activities, it can help to reduce
the number of adult population playing a games and sleep.

1.7

Delimitations
Delimitation is referring to the scope of the study (Baumgartner & Hensley, 2006).

That entire thing that the researcher can control, including the population and study period

11

are called delimitation. The delimitations of this research are the scope of the study is 170
of respondent from three MAPAAC but only 118 respondents will return the questionnaire.
It involves many different sectors. The age is of respondents from 18 to 52 years old.
Time and duration to finish all answer of the question would be given 10 to 15 minutes.
After finish answering the question they need to pass up to the researcher for data
collection.

1.8

Limitations
Limitation is the weak point of the study. It was unmanageable by the researcher
and may affect the result of the study.
1.8.1

The honesty of participants

There is several restraint faces during this study which is where the

researcher was incapable to control the way the respondent are answering the
questionnaire.
1.8.2

Lack of experience and knowledge

There was a little tough to complete this study because of requiring of

knowledge about the research field and had a lack of skill in conducting a research.
The guidance from the expert was important in order to complete the study.

1.9

Definition of terms
1.9.1

Extreme sport

12

Extreme sports are defined as activities where there is a high degree of risk
to the participant who requires a certain set of skills (Caribbean Tourism
Organisation, 2013).

1.9.2

Paintball
Paintball is a sport in which players compete individually or in teams to get

rid of their opponents by marking them with breakable capsule (0.68 caliber)
containing water soluble dye (called a paintball) which is propelled (300ft\sec) by a
device called a paintball marker (Venter, 2014).

1.9.3

Motivation
The reasons underlying behavior (Guay, Chanal, Ratelle, Marsh, Larose, &

Boivin, 2010)
1.9.4

Challenge
Factors that may inhibit activity participation or limit

satisfaction (Jackson, 1988, as cited in White 2008).

1.9.5

Participation
That is voluntary or non-voluntary participation in physical activity such as

recreational activities, physical and exercise, without any forces among teenagers.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

13

2.1

Introduction

The rationale of this study was to identify the motives and challenges factor in
paintball sport among paintball participants. This chapter reviews the previous literature on
the factor that motivates paintball participants to participate in paintball and the challenges
that paintball participants face during participate in paintball sport. In this chapter, it has
been divided into two sections which is motivation factors and challenges factors.

Gill, Gross, and Huddleston (1983) attempted to measure the sport participants
motivations for youth. They formed eight motivation factors of sport participation to
measure the level of motivation factor that make paintball participants participate in
paintball. The initial study showed that the most important reasons for participating were
to improve skills, have fun, learn new skills, be challenged, and be physically fit (Gill,
2000).
For many years it has been reported that able-bodied individuals participate in
further reproduction prohibited without permission. For many years it has been reported
that able-bodied individuals participate in sport to improve physical fitness, decrease
anxiety, increase self-confidence, improve mood, increase self-esteem, enjoyment, enhance
physical and psychological well being, and opportunities to interact socially with others
(Caruso & GDI, 1992; Grove & Dodder, 1982; Wankel & Berger, 1992).
2.2

To investigate the demographic profile of participants among paintball sports

in MAPAAC.

14

2.2.1

Age
The biggest differences in participation relate to age which is closely linked

with Health. Generally physical activity participation will decline with age (for both
males and females), and that males in almost all age groups are more likely to
participate than females. According to Australian Bureau of Statistics (2002), for
both males and females there is less likelihood of participation when aged over 45.

Womens participation drops fairly slowly but steadily with age, whereas the
proportion of men exercising several times a week appears to peak and trough
before falling off dramatically in the 75 plus age group. Indeed, within this oldest
age group, more women than men are exercising several times a week (Murray &
MORI, 2006).

2.2.2

Gender
The 2009 International Labour Organization (ILO) report on Global

Employment Trends for Women warned that, with the deepening of the recession in
2009, the global job crisis is expected to worsen, exacerbating gender inequality.
According to Cecelia (2012), Malaysia labor force participation rates by sex in year
2009 were dominated by male (78.9%) and female (46.4%).

Besides dominated in labor force, men also attend in physical activity more
than women. According to World Health Survey WHO (2008), the prevalence of
physical inactivity was found to be higher among women (23.2%) compared with
men (16.0%). Besides that, in work situation 22 percent of the men and 30 percent

15

of the women who held desk jobs were less active than those in more active
positions (Zanjani, Schaie, & Willis, 2006).

2.3.3

Race

2.3.4

Religion

2.2.5

Marital status

With regards to marital status, local government has the largest proportion of
married workers (72.5 percent), while the proportions in semi government (66.8

16

percent) are nearly identical (Bender, 2003). Besides that, marital status is a one
factor to viewing the level of physical activity participation among Feldas
employees. Normally both male and female who get married tend to be drop down
their frequency to play some sport.

According to Australian Bureau of Statistic (2002), females whose registered

marital status is never married showed the highest participation rates (66.2%) and
those who are widowed had the lowest (38.3%). Whereas, males also showed same
trend who were never married had the highest participation rates (73.2%) and those
who are widowed had the lowest (45.8%).

2.2.6

Highest level of Education level

Semi government workers have more education than private sector workers,
then it is neither surprising nor objectionable that they earn higher wages (Bender,
2003). On average, semi government are same with government employees at all
levels have more education than private sector employees, which gives some
credence to the notion that the compensation differentials might be due to
differences in human capital.

Education level also shows a stronger independent association with the level
of physical activity participation. The results from the model show that those with a
degree or diploma were significantly more likely to participate than the others level
of education (Finger, Tylleskr, Lampert, & Mensink, 2013).

17

2.2.7

Occupation

There is some relationship between participation in sport and recreational

physical activity and occupation groupings with professionals and services workers
having the highest rate of participation. This ranged down to for managers and
administrators, labor and those not working at the low level ((Burton & Turrell,
2000).

2.2.8

Monthly Income

In this study researcher were examine relationships between income levels

toward physical activity. The level of employee income shows some relationship
with participation, especially for those on very low and very high incomes. Those
with a income of less than $300 (RM 1500) per month had a participation rate of
46.2% compared to 72.3% for high income earners earning more than $1,000 (RM
3500) per month (Taylor, Franzini, Olvera, Carlos Poston, & Lin, 2012).

2.3

To identify the most motive factor that influence participants among paintball
sports in MAPAAC.

In psychology, the study of extreme, risk or adventure sports example like

paintball, bungee jumping, skydiving, mountain biking, downhill skiing,

18

mountaineering and rock climbing have generally concentrated on the excitementor thrill-seeking associated with risk taking during these activities. Castanier, Le
Scanff, and Woodman (2010) have argued that taking risks in high-risk sport can
serve many different goals beyond the simple management of physiological arousal.
Furthermore, Brown and Fraser (2009) re-examined the centrality of risk as
the main motivator in educational adventure activities. They concluded that risk
need not be central to adventure activities and that by taking the emphasis away
from risk, teaching and learning opportunities in adventure settings could be
enhanced and extended.
Self-determination

theory

(SDT)

presents

layered

method

for

understanding motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000a; see model on
page 37). This theoretical model suggests that motivation can be examined based on
the achievement or fulfillment of the basic, intrapersonal needs of autonomy,
relatedness, and competence. But what are also important to this theory are the
social and environmental factors that, in turn, facilitate or hinder the satisfaction of
an individuals needs. SDT suggests that motivation occurs on a continuum,
beginning with a motivation, with a middle point of extrinsic motivation, and finally
ending with intrinsic motivation. An individual is usually considered intrinsically
motivated if he or she engages in a behavior for enjoyment or satisfaction. On the
other hand, an individual is considered extrinsically motivated if he or she engages
in a behavior for some other outcome - a continuum from tangible rewards to
personal values that are consciously identified. This continuum of extrinsic
motivation is described in the organismic integration theory (OIT), which is another
sub theory of SDT. When considering the application of SDT in the sport domain,

19

research has generally found that individuals are motivated to participate in sport
for a variety of reasons, both intrinsic and extrinsic. Moreover, those who stay
involved tend to be more intrinsically motivated (Chantal, Guay, DobrevaMartinova, & Vallerand, 1996; Frederick & Ryan, 1993; 1995; Frederick-Recascino
& Schuster-Smith, 2003; Lemyre, Treasure, & Roberts, 2006; Sarrazin, Vallerand,
Guillet, Pelletier, & Cury, 2002).
Gill (2000) attempted to measure the sport participants motivations for
youth. Eight motivation factors of sport contribution were recognized. The initial
study showed that the most important reasons for participation were to improve
skills, have fun, learn new skills, be challenged and be physically fit (Gill,2000).
Dwyer (1992) sampled university students using a 5-point response format
to examine the measures internal structure. His resulting 6-factor structure (team
orientation, achievement/status, fitness, friendship, skill development and
fun/excitement/challenge) was similar to the results with youth samples. Important
motives for participating was to maintain fitness; experience fun, excitement and
challenge; and acquire and improve skills-findings consistent with the youth
literature (Gill, 2000; Klint and Weiss, 1986).

Similarly, Gould, Feltz, and Weiss (1985) considered athletes reasons for
participating, including: fun, skill development, excitement and personal challenge,
achievement and status, fitness, energy or tension release, and friendship (Feltz &
Ewing, 1987; Kirkby, Kolt, & Liu, 1999; Klint & Weiss, 1986; Sallis, SimonsMorton, Stone, Corbin, Epstein, Faucette, Iannotti, Killen, Klesges, Petray,
Rowland, & Taylor, 1992). While the relative priority of these themes or factors

20

varies for different age groups and competitive/ability levels (e.g. fun considered
more or less important than skill development, etc.), the reasons themselves that
athletes participate in sport are consistent across sport domains.

Achievement

Braathen and Svebak (1992), examining motivational differences among

talented teenage Norwegian athletes, found important differences in sensation
seeking in terms of gender and types of sports. Specifically, males were found to
score significantly higher than females on sensation seeking, as well as,
competitiveness, win and goal orientation, and reactive negativism, but lower than
females on the importance of friendship.

Achievement motivation theory uses a social cognitive perspective to

describe motivation (Nicholls, 1984). This model draws upon early work in the field
that suggested that individuals are motivated to engage in activities in order to
successfully demonstrate competence (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell,
1953; McFarland & Ross, 1982). Achievement motivation is often studied through

21

goal perspective theory, which is focused around two goal orientations - task and
ego orientation. When an individual is task-oriented, his or her perceptions of
ability are self-referenced, and that individual is interested in learning and
improving his or her skills. An individual who is task oriented understands his or
her success as it is based on perceptions of ability, effort, and an internal locus of
control. Conversely, an ego-oriented individual is one whose perceptions of ability
are made in comparison to others. The ego-oriented individual is also most
interested in outcomes that demonstrate that he or she has superior skills than his or
her peers. Avoiding failure is of prime importance to such an individual; he or she
will look to external factors like luck, equipment, or poor judging to explain any
failures (Duda & Nicholls, 1992).

Fitness

Friendship
There was increasing evidence that peers play important roles in influencing
motivation (Keegan, Harwood, Spray, & Lavallee, 2009).

22

Improve skill

Most of the activities participants talked about necessary a degree of

technical knowledge and skill, which could only be acquired through training and
experience. In advance about the experience and getting better at performing the
sport can be generated a sense of mastery, and this was experienced as rewarding.
Some participants were very much sensitive of their level of expertise and how their
current abilities compared with those that not take serious into it. References to the
importance of mastery and skill suggest that the experience of taking part in
extreme sport requires discipline and structured learning. This is because it need
full commitment for considerable investment of resources such as time and energy
and also money on the part of the participant.

Enjoyment

Enjoyment has been recognized as a key factor for motivated behavior and
sustained involvement in youth sport (Scanlan, Carpenter, Schmidt, Simons, &
Keeler, 1993a; Scanlan & Simons, 1992; Weiss, Kimmel, & Smith, 2001).
Enjoyment is also a component of most major sport motivation theories such as

23

achievement goal theory (Nicholls, 1989), competence motivation theory (Harter,

1978, 1981) and the sport commitment model (Scanlan et al., 1993a). Enjoyment
can be described as a positive affective state that reflects feelings such as pleasure,
liking, and fun.

Furthermore, youth sport researchers have reported sport

enjoyment as a key predictor of sport commitment (Scanlan et al., 1993a; Weiss et

al., 2001). As sequential age increases, however, research has verified that socio
environmental influences may force the enjoyment knowledgeable in the sport
arena.

Motivation exists when individuals participate because of an inborn

enjoyment or interest in the activity (Lonsdale, Sabiston, Raedeke, Ha, & Sum,
2009). Fun can come together with enjoyment and interest.

People who are

intrinsically motivated work on tasks because they find them enjoyable (Mustafa
Tuysuz, Demet Yildiran, & Demirci, 2010) to do any work.

2.4

To identify the most challenge factor that influence participants among

paintball sports in MAPAAC

A small number of studies have concerned themselves with the interpersonal

and intrapersonal processes that enable and define participation in extreme sport
(e.g. Celsi et al., 1993; Larkin & Griffiths, 2004). The challenge of taking part in
extreme sports allowed participants to discover what they were capable of, and,

24

having identified their current limits, to push themselves yet advance and to
challenge to extend the remit of what they were capable of.

Engaging in a

challenge of ones mental and physical limits occupied overcoming fear, fighting
exhaustion and acquiring new skills.
Rising to challenges was accompanied by a sense of achievement. To
accomplishment over ones limitations generated feelings of pleasure and pride, and
these were experienced as enjoyable. The close relationship between challenge and
achievement in participants accounts of their experiences suggests that, on the
whole, they only took up challenges that they could meet successfully.
Thus, although taking part in extreme sport involved pushing boundaries, it
seems that participants took care to make sure that the goals they set themselves,
though challenging, were reachable. This indicates that the practice of extreme
sport involves careful judgment of ones own abilities and the recognition of targets
which lie just away from and yet within reach of, ones current capabilities.

Jackson (1994) compared constraints between outdoor and other forms of

leisure activities, and among outdoor recreation activities. Fifteen specific
constraints items were grouped into six dimensions of constraints: costs of
participating, family and work commitments, facilities, social isolation, geographic
isolation, and lack of skills.
Decisions to engage, or not to engage, in physical activity can be based on a
variety of interpersonal, intrapersonal or structural factors (Jackson & Rucks, 1995).

25

For example, girls reasons for not engaging in physical activity can include
disliking physical education (PE) classes or teachers, being self-conscious about
appearances, and lacking opportunities and resources to be active. A significant
development in leisure constraints research is the three categories which is
intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural model of leisure constraints proposed by
Crawford et aI. (1991).
These authors proposed that constraints are categorized into three levels
which is intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural, which are encountered
hierarchically. Firstly, intrapersonal constraints are encountered. These include the
individual psychological states and attributes that interact with leisure preferences,
such as stress, depression, anxiety, religiosity, kin and non-kin reference group
attitudes, prior socialization into specific activities, perceived self-skill, and
subjective evaluation of the appropriateness and availability of various leisure
activities (Crawford & Godbey, 1987, p.122).

Since intrapersonal constraints are confronted initially, these are viewed as

the most proximal and powerful constraints (Crawford et al., 1991). When
intrapersonal constraints are absent or negotiated, and the activity requires at least
one partner, interpersonal constraints are confronted. These include lack of friends
and family members to participate in a leisure activity (Crawford & Godbey, 1987).
If interpersonal constraints are absent or negotiated, structural constraints
occur (Crawford et al., 1991). These include family-cycle stage, family financial
resources, season, climate, the schedule of work time, availability of opportunity,

26

and reference group attitudes concerning the appropriateness of certain activities

(Crawford & Godbey, 1987,
Participants have identified three types of challenges that impacted their
physical activity which is real challenges, perceived challenges and specific
challenges that influenced their enjoyment and ability to participate physical
activity.

These challenges were of exacting distress since they significantly

interfered with physical activity levels. In addition, participants appeared to come

upon both real and perceived constraints.
Real challenges were challenges actually experienced by the participants
like no transportation neither any companion.

For the moment perceived

constraints were not necessarily encountered, but simply anticipated like fear of
being hurt. Specific constraints that emerged throughout the interviews included of
time, social, skill challenges. Skill challenges were essential given that participants
seemed to be particularly afraid of failing or letting others down. As a conclusion,
fears of unsatisfactory others made it harder for participants to take part and it can
cause they do not feel the fully enjoyment when participate in paintball.
For illustration if a participant was hurt in one activity, they seemed to be
afraid of being hurt in other activities. They will no longer join any activity due to
impact of being hurt in the past.
As a result of the developments, researchers recognized that constraints
affect the entire leisure preference participation process. Crawford and Godbey
(1987) argued for three categories of constraints: intrapersonal, interpersonal, and
structural.

27

2.5

To investigate the relationship between motives and paintball factor

that influence participants to participate in physical activity in MAPAAC

As well as increase in motivation, there will be a huge opportunity in order

to overcome the challenges (Balaska & Kouthouris, 2014). Either way their motive
will more encourage them to participate in paintball then the challenge will easily
diminish or the big challenge will make them not to participate in paintball without
the higher level of motivation. In the study by Chiu, et al., (2011), people feel
motivated to participate in activities and attempt to overcome challenges only when

28

their perceptions of obstacles and desires for participation reach a balanced state.
Moreover, the results of previous studies have indicated that, in common, the
significant behavioral determinants of sport participation are motives such as
fitnesshealth, enjoymentinterest, and ability (Wilson, Rodgers, & Fraser, 2002).

2.6

To investigate the relationship between challenges and paintball factor

that influence participants to participate in physical activity in MAPAAC

The hierarchical model of leisure constraints further proposed that

intrapersonal constraints were the most powerful predictors of participation, while
the structural ones are the least powerful (Alexandris & Stodolska, 2004;
Alexandris, Tsorbatzoudis, & Grouios, 2002; Jackson, 1991; Mannell & LoucksAtkinson, 2005)

29

Motivations factor

2.7

I.
Achievement / Status
II.
Fitness
III.
Friendship
IV.
Skill development
Conceptual
Frameworks
V. Fun / Excitement / Challenge
Motivation factors (Dwyer, 1992)
Independent variable

Dependent variable

Challenges factor
I.
II.
III.

Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Structural

Challenge factors (Crawford, Jackson,

& Godbey, 1991)

Participation in
Physical Activity

30

2.8

Summary

To summarize, there were several motives and challenges for female

participants

to

achievement/status,

participate
fitness,

in

paintball.
friendship,

Motivation
skill

factors

development

include
and

fun/excitement/challenge. These kinds of factors have motivated female players to

involve in paintball sport. While challenge factors were divided into three
categories, which were intrapersonal constraints, interpersonal constraints and
structural constraints. There were several reasons for female who do not participate

31

in paintball such as lack of money, do not have skills or physical activity, lack of
companions and so on.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY
3.1

Introductions
The rationale of this study was to identify the motives and challenges factors that
influences on participation among paintball participants in MAPAAC

3.1.1

To investigate the demographic profile of paintball participants to participate

in paintball sports in MAPAAC.

3.1.2

To identify the most motives factor that influence paintball participants to

participate in paintball sports in MAPAAC.

3.1.3

To identify the most challenges factor that influence paintball participants to

participate in paintball sports in MAPAAC.

3.1.4

To investigate the relationship between motives and paintball factor that

influence participants to participate in physical activity in MAPAAC.

32

3.1.5

To investigate the relationship between challenges and paintball factor that

influence participants to participate in physical activity in MAPAAC.

This chapter were discussing on methods and procedures that were adhered for in
conducting this study and the details are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

3.2

Research Design
Sampling
Instrumentation
Pilot Study
Data Collection Procedure
Data Analysis

Research Design
This research used a correlation design which is to seek to investigate the
extent of relationship between two or more variables.

It also uses a quantitative

and descriptive design where the survey conducted under the method using
questionnaire to understand the problems. Based on result we were analyzing the
common factor whether motivations or challenges are giving huge impact to
paintball participants to participate in paintball sports. By analyzing the result we
can see the strong relationship between two variables either it is motivation factor
and physical activity or challenges factor and physical activity.

33

3.3

Sampling
A group of 118 paintball participants aged 18-52 years old volunteered to
join the study. The samples for this study are paintball participants who are usually
participate in paintball sports at MAPAAC in Petaling Jaya.

The estimation

populations in MAPAAC are 170 populations approximately give 118 samples.

Then 20% of respondents were adding up to avoid rate of return. So, total sample
size was 142 respondent needs to do the questionnaire but in return only 118
samples size were analyzed. Therefore, an age range of 18 to 52 was chosen to
describe the participants.

The rationales we choose paintball participants in

MAPAAC because they are have matured to answer the questionnaire with using a
logical thinking.

The sampling techniques that were used for this study is

convenience sampling that is a specific type of non-probability sampling method

that relies on data collection from population members who are conveniently
available to participate in study. Convenience sampling is a type of sampling where
the first available primary data source will be used for the research without
additional requirements. Many researchers prefer this sampling technique because
it is fast, inexpensive, easy and the subjects are readily available.

34

3.4

Instrumentation
The researcher adopted and adapted the self-administrated questionnaire
from previous study. The questionnaires were divided into four sections which
were the demographics data of the respondents, physical activity pattern, challenges
factor and motivation factor.
The respondents were answer the questionnaire and all data were scored
based on a five-point Likert Scale, ranging from Strongly Agree (5) to Strongly
Disagree (1). Total of 118 sets of questionnaires were distributed. The bilingual
questionnaire of both in Bahasa Malaysia and English language were back to back
translated by language expert from the university. The questionnaires were divided
into four sections.

3.4.1

Section A Demographic profile

In this section A, the respondents are required to complete each question

about demographic profile based on eight items which is age, gender, race, religion,
marital status, highest level of education level, occupation and monthly income.

35

3.4.2

Section B - Physical Activity Pattern

In this section B are consist of 5 items which focused on the physical

activity pattern that participant participated whether it is light exercise, moderate

exercise, and vigorous exercise. The section for the level of physical activity
participation was adapted from the Short International Physical Activity
Questionnaire (IPAQ).

According to Kurtze, Rangul, & Hustvedt (2008) the

validity and reliability of this scale is Chronbachs alpha is r = 0.41 (p 0.01).

3.4.3

Section C Challenges factors to participate in paintball sports

In this section C, the respondents are required to answer the question about

the challenges factors which is Leisure Constraint Questionnaire by (Crawford &

Godbey, 1987, as cited in White 2008)). The original questionnaires were consisted
of 12 items. The challenges factor to participate in paintball sports consist of 3
factors that are intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural challenges.

3.4.4

Section D Motivation factors to participate in paintball sports

In this section D, the respondents were required to answer the question that

consist of items about motives for participate in paintball that are adapted from the
Participation Motivation Questionnaire by Gill, Gross and Huddleston (1983, as
cited in Jones, et al. 2006). The motivations factor to participate in paintball sports
consist of 5 factors that were for achievement, fitness, friendship, skill development
and fun/excitement/challenge.

36

3.5

Pilot Study
Table 3.1
Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's Alpha

.826

( )

Number of items

30

Before the actual data collections were analyzed, a pilot study was
conducted to access the validity of the research instrument. Pilot studies are very
essential for researchers before distributing the questionnaire to their respondents.
The rationales of this pilot study were to ensure the validity and reliability of the
instrumentation before we can distribute all the questions to paintball participants.
We choose 30 respondents from the similar background but different places which
is Kelab sukan paintball mad bunnies to answer the question. The reliability of the
questionnaire is .826 Cronbachs Alpha and is considered as reliable.
.

37

3.6

Data Collection Procedure

In order to collect the data systematically, there was a procedure that must
be followed by the researcher in order to collect data systematically. There are step
in data collection procedure where every student need to follow before can start to
do a surveying. Firstly the process in data collection procedure is ethical approval
will be obtained before the actual research would be conducted. Secondly is
sending a permission letter to faculty of sport science and recreation. Then after
have been approved questionnaire, we provide the questionnaire to the 30 similar
respondent for pilot study. The purpose for pilot study is to test the reliability and
validity the question that contain in the questionnaire. We need to make sure that
respondent is clear and understand the meaning of question in the questionnaire
before we provide to the actual respondent. Thirdly is once permission was
obtained, the researcher was distributed questionnaire to the respondent. The
researcher met the respondent to fill the questionnaire and then conducted briefing
session to all of respondents about the study. Lastly is distribution set of
questionnaires and questionnaire collected upon data completion

38

3.7

Data Analysis
This study was analyses using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science)
version 22.0. The statistical significant was set at an alpha level p<0.05. The
descriptive statistic which is (frequency (n) and percentages (%) will be used to
describe the categorical and demographic variable of respondent. The following is
demographic variables such as gender, age, race and academic background. This is
important to determine the normality of data collection. Pearson correlation will be
used to analyze the relationships between challenges factor and motivation factors
among paintball participation. Pearson correlation is used to measure the linear
correlation between two variables.

39

CHAPTER 4
METHODOLOGY

3.1

Introductions
The rationale of this study were to identify the motives and challenges factors that
influences on participation among paintball participants in MAPAAC

3.1.1

To investigate the demographic profile of paintball participants to participate

in paintball sports in MAPAAC.

3.1.2

To identify the most motives factor that influence paintball participants to

participate in paintball sports in MAPAAC.

3.1.3

To identify the most challenges factor that influence paintball participants to

participate in paintball sports in MAPAAC.

3.1.4

To investigate the relationship between motives and paintball factor that

influence participants to participate in physical activity in MAPAAC.

3.1.5

To investigate the relationship between challenges and paintball factor that

influence participants to participate in physical activity in MAPAAC.

40

This chapter were discuss on the finding of this study and data collected
from questionnaires that have been distributed to respondents were analyzed and
interpreted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22.0
program. The data were presented using tables that explain in detail the findings of
the study. To evaluate this study, a total of 118 questionnaires were distributed to all
paintball participants that participate in paintball sports at MAPAAC.
3.2

Demographic profile of participants

Table 3.2.1
Age
Items

Frequency (n)

Percent (%)

18-22
23-27
28-32
33-37
38-42
43-47
48-52

43
24
21
10
11
6
3

36.5
20.3
17.8
8.4
9.3
5.1
2.4

Total

118

100

The table 3.2.1 showed the age groups of paintball participants that
participate in paintball sports were categorized into 7. Study found the highest
percentage is 36.5 % (n=43) which is range 18-22 years. This is because youth are
more likely have a leisure time compare to working man or woman. The lowest
percentage is 2.4 % (n=3) for age among respondents are range from 48-52 years.

41

Table 3.2.2
Gender
Items

Frequency (n)

Percent (%)

Male
Female

106
12

89.8
10.2

Total

118

100

Table 3.2.2 showed the percentages of gender and the common of

participants were male. This is because female always faced many constraints to
participate due to work commitment, family commitment and others. The
percentage for male is 89.8 % (n=106) compared for female is 10.2 % (n-12) only.
Table 3.2.3
Race
Items

Frequency (n)

Percent (%)

Malay
Chinese
Indian
Others

81
26
11

68.6
22.0
9.3

Total

118

100

Table 3.2.3 showed the percentages of race and mostly majority of

participants were Malays. This is because those participants that participate in
paintball sports in MAPAAC are student area Petaling Jaya. The higher percentage
is Malay were 68.6 % (n=81), the second higher percentage is Chinese were 22.0 %
(n=26) and lastly the lowest percentage is Indian were 9.3% (n=11).

42

Table 3.2.4
Religion
Items

Frequency (n)

Percent (%)

Muslim
Christian
Buddhist
Others

82
8
22
6

69.5
6.8
18.6
5.1

Total

118

100

Table 3.2.4 showed the percentage on religion of participants that participate

in paintball sports. The result indicated the highest percentage is 69.5 % (n=82) for
Muslim. Whereas the lowest percentage were from others religion that is 5.1 %
(n=6)

Table 3.2.5
Marital Status
Items

Frequency (n)

Percent (%)

Single
Married
Divorced
Single parent
Others

80
32
4
2

67.8
27.1
3.4
1.7

Total

118

100

Table 3.2.5 showed the percentage on marital status of participants that

participate in paintball sports. The outcome indicated the highest percentage is 67.8
% (n=80) for single participants because they dont have any commitment compare
to married participants while the lowest percentage were single parent that is 1.7 %
(n=2).

43

Table 3.2.6
Highest Level of education level
Items

Frequency (n)

Percent (%)

PMR
SPM
STPM
Certificate
Diploma
Bachelor Degree
Master

13
14
6
43
37
5

11.0
11.9
5.1
36.4
31.4
4.2

Total

118

100

Table 3.2.6 showed the percentage of highest level of education level

among participants. The outcome indicated the highest percentage of highest level
of education level is 36.4 % (n=43) which is participants from diploma education
level. The lowly percentage is 31.4 % (n=37) which is from bachelor degree
education level.
Table 3.2.7
Occupation
Items

Frequency (n)

Percent (%)

Student
Professional
Self employed
Business owner
Unemployed
Retired

43
32
27
12
3
1

36.4
27.1
22.9
10.2
2.5
0.8

Total

118

100

Table 3.2.7 showed the percentage of occupation of participants. The result

indicated that the top percentage of occupation is 36.4 % (n=43) for student because
the facilities is nearby by their university and it allow good access for them to

44

participate in paintball sports. Whereas the lowest percentage is 0.8 % (n=1) only
for retired participants who participate in this study.
Table 3.2.8
Income Level
Items

Frequency (n)

Percent (%)

Less than RM500

RM501-RM1000
RM1001-RM3000
RM3001-RM5000
More than RM5001
No earning

18
5
29
27
15
24

15.3
4.2
24.6
22.9
12.7
20.3

Total

130

100

Table 3.2.8 showed the percentage on the income level of participants. The
result indicated the highest percentage of income level is 24.6 % (n=29) of which
the participants income range from RM1001-RM3000 monthly.

Majority of

participants are in middle of income level where they still affordable to pay the fee.
The lowest percentage is 54.2 % (n=5) with income of RM501-RM1000.

3.3

Physical activity pattern

45

Table 3.3.1
Items
How often to you take part in an organized
physical activity, i.e. a group class, a planned
walk, sport or go to the gym?(for a minimum time
of 30 minutes)
How many days per week do you normally spend
at least 30 minutes for the vigorous physical
activity?
I cannot walk 4 miles briskly without fatigue
I cannot jog 3 miles continuously at a moderate
pace without discomfort
I cannot do light physical activities like carrying
light loads and walking leisurely

x )

Rank

1.54

Standard Deviation
(SD)
.902

2.73

.958

2.34
2.30

1.031
1.024

2
3

1.56

.593

Mean (

The physical activity pattern section consisted of 5 items. In this section we

can summarize how often the paintball participants participate in a physical activity
in a one week. The first ranking is How many days per week do you normally
spend at least 30 minutes for the vigorous physical activity where score the higher

mean that are

x
= 2.73, SD = .958). The second ranking is I cannot walk 4 miles

briskly without fatigue where the score are (

x = 2.34, SD = 1.031). The third

ranking is I cannot jog 3 miles continuously at a moderate pace without discomfort

activity where score the higher mean that are

x
= 2.30, SD = 1.024). Next

ranking is I cannot do light physical activities like carrying light loads and walking
leisurely where the score are (

x = 1.56, SD = .593) and the last ranking is How

often to you take part in an organized physical activity, i.e. a group class, a planned

46

walk, sport or go to the gym?(for a minimum time of 30 minutes) where the score
are (

3.4

x = 1.54, SD = .902).

Challenges factor to participate in paintball sports

Table 3.4.1
Items
Occasionally I am afraid of getting hurt by other
people
At times I do not have the skills or physical
ability to finish the game
My friends are not interested to do this activity
Occasionally this activity requires critical thinking
Sometimes this activity requires quick reaction
Sometimes this activity take a long time to do it
No one is interested to do the physical activity
with me
Occasionally this activity is very tiring
Sometimes this activities have negative perception
from the community
Sometimes Im worried about injuring myself if I
do this activity
The cost of this program is expensive
At times wearing Hijab can disturb my movement
when I do this activity

x )

Rank

3.34

Standard Deviation
(SD)
.917

3.37

.875

3.15
3.52
3.95
3.66
2.97

.957
.792
.714
.936
.991

9
4
1
3
11

3.52
3.10

.792
.955

4
10

3.19

.896

3.80
3.27

.769
.893

2
7

Mean (

In this section consist of 3 factors that challenge the paintball participants to

participate in paintball sports. The challenge factors are intrapersonal, interpersonal
and structural challenge. The higher challenges for intrapersonal were Sometimes

this activity requires quick reaction that is

x
= 3.95, SD = .714) while the lowest

challenges factor were Sometimes this activities have negative perception from the

47

community

x
= 3.10, SD = .955). The higher challenges factor for interpersonal

were My friends are not interested to do this activity that is

x
= 3.15, SD = .957)

while the lowest challenges factor were No one is interested to do the physical

activity with me that is

x
= 2.97, SD = .991). The higher challenges factor for

structural were The cost of this program is expensive that is

x
= 3.80, SD = .769)

whereas the lowest challenges factor were Sometimes this activity take a long time

to do it that is

3.6

x
= 3.66, SD = .936).

Motivation factor to participate in paintball sports

Table 3.6.1
Items
I like to try new things just for excitement and
experience
The natural environment is the reason I play
paintball
I felt satisfied when I managed to complete this
activity without any injuries
I participate in this activity just to fill my leisure
time
I like being part of the group in this activity
I participate in this activity because it challenge
my mind to think
I involve myself in this activity to show others that
I can
This activity make me feel more confident with
myself

x )

Rank

4.03

Standard Deviation
(SD)
.750

4.02

.795

4.14

.691

3.92

.723

3.95
4.10

.783
.659

7
4

3.88

.859

4.17

.645

Mean (

48
I participate in this activity to get the feeling of
new sports
I participate in this activity to relieve stress
I can meet new friend when involve in this activity
I participate in this activity because of the
facilities provided
I participate in this activity because it challenge
me to react fast

3.87

.790

10

3.87
3.79
3.80

.757
.749
.939

11
13
12

4.21

.726

In this section consist of 5 factors that motive the paintball participants to

participate in paintball sports. The motivations factors were achievement, fitness,
friendship,

skill

development

and

fun/excitement/challenges.

The

higher

motivations for achievement were I felt satisfied when I managed to complete this

activity without any injuries that is

x
= 4.14, SD = .691) while the lowest

motivations factor were I involve myself in this activity to show others that I can

that is

x
= 3.88, SD = .859).

The higher motivations for fitness were I participate in this activity because

it challenge my mind to think that is

x
= 4.10, SD = .659) while the lowest

motivations factor were I participate in this activity to get the feeling of new sports

that is

x
= 3.87, SD = .790).

49

CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

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