(For Private Circulation Only)

FLOW INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN GUIDE

SR.NOPROPERTIES

1 Working

ROTAMETER

As the flowing fluid passes through

the orifice plate, the restricted cross
section are causes an increase in
velocity & decrease in pressure.
The pressure difference before &
after the orifice plate is used to
calculte the f,ow velocity.

2 Flowrate

Medium

3 Pressure Drop

Changes

4 Application

VENTURI

ORIFICE PLATE

PITOT TUBE

Similar to pitot tubes but with

multiple openings, averaging Pitot
tubes take flow profile into
consideration to provide better
overall accuracy in pipe flows.

High Flow

Permanent Pressure drop & good

recovery.
Not handles viscous slurries only
Suitable for most of gases & liquids
solids fluids.

Low Flow rate

Wide range of flows

Constant Pressure drop

Negligible pressure drop

Handle almost corrosive services

Utility services where accuracy is

not necessary.

MAG. FLOWMETER

Electric conductivity greater than 5 Measurement with flow velocities

mS/cm.
( Re < 4000) not possible.

1.Measures the acceleration caused

by vibration by moving fluids towards
centers. 2.Amount of twist is
proportional to the massflowrate of
fluid passing through tubes.

Confirm allowable pressure drop

loss while selecting meter size.
1.Conductive liquids such as
water,acids, caustic and slurries
2.Custody transfer application.
Bi-directional flow and large size
available.
10:1, 30:1
0.5% typically

Accurate over long range.

Accurate over small or short range Wide range flows & pipe sizes.

6 Rangeability
7 Accuracy

3.5:1
2% ~ 4% of full scale

3.5 : 1
1% of Full scale

10:01
2%

1.Low Cost

1.Low differential
press.compensation.

1.Relatively low in cost.

2.Can 1.Available from 1/2 to 150 inches
1.Large pipe sizes & capacities.
handles wide variety of corrosives. of pipe size.

8 Advantages
3.No moving parts

3.Can be welded into pipe lines.

3.Especially suited for low flow

metereing. 4.Linear output

2.Long term measurement stability.

5.Can be easily equipped with

3. Can be placed in service under
magnetic,electronic,induction or
pressure.
mercury switch alarms, or
transmitting devices.
6.Glass tube version capable of
4.Negligible permanent pressure
measuring low flow rates.
7. drop.
Can be installed immediately
5.Minimum lengths of straight
downstream of control valve.
piping runs.

ULTRASONIC

1.An obstruction (Bluff body or

strut) located in the flow stream.
Operates on Faraday's low of
Low-low : Fluid flow around
Electromagnetic
obstruction.
Induction.Conducting material
High-Flow: Alternating vortices are
passes through the magnetic field
formed.(No. of vortices formed are
produces avolatge perpendicular to
proportional to fluid velocity.
magnetic field & velocity of fluids.
2.These vibrations senses by
E=BLV where E = EMF,
B=
piezoelectric crystals which convert
Magnetic Field, L = Length of
it into elctric pulses.
Conductor, V= Velocity of
3.Vortex meter can not measure
Conductor . Therefore
zero since it works on fluid velocity
E=4.B.L.Q/Pie d
principle.It required some flow to
work.

Predictable

2.Available in wide range of sizes & 2. Can be used for slurries & dirty
construction.
fluids.

MASS FLOWMETER

Doppler Type : 1. Under no flow

condition, the frenquencies of the
ultrasonic beams and its reflrction
Coriolis mass flowmeters measure are the same.
the force resulting from the
2.With the flow in the pipe
acceleration caused by mass moving difference between the frequencies
towards ( oe away from) a center
of the Ultrasonic beam and its
rotation..This effect can be
reflection increses propotional to
experienced when ridinga merry-go- flow velocity.
round,where moving toward the
Transit Time : 1.Transit time
center will cause aperson to have to " ultrasonic flowmeter alternately
lean into" the rotation so as to
transmit ultrasonic energy into the
fluid in the direction and against the
maintain balance. As related to
flowmeters, the effect can be
direction of flow.
demonstrated by flowing water in
2.The time difference between
aloop of flexible hose that is "swung" ultrasonic energy moving upstream
back & forth in front of the body with to downstream in the fluid is used
both hands.Becasue the water is
to determine the fluid velocity.
flowing toward & away from the
3.Undergo flow condition time for
hands oppsite forces are generated ultrasonic energy to travel upstream
and cause the hose to twist.
& downstream are same. 4.With
flow in pipe time for ultrasonic
energy to travel upstream will be
greater than the downstream time.

5 Characteristics

3:01
0.5 % to 1.5 %

VORTEX

2.Can handles slurries & greasy

materials
3.Very small erros in flow
measurement.Measurement in both
directions. 4.No pressure drop. 5.No
obstruction in pipe.
6.Good Linearity over widerange.
7.Unaffeceted by fluid properties
such as density,viscosity &
temperature.

Much higher for gases/vapors.

10:01
1% of measurement

Accuracy degraded during low range

flow application.
20:01
0.2 typically
2% typically

1.Low installtion cost & calibration

not required.

1.Direct mass flow measurement of

any liquid flow.

2.Good accuracy of fluids can be as

good as 0.75% of rate for gases &
1% of rate for liquids.
3.Wide 2.Wide rangeability.
range ( 1/2 " to 12" : 18" on request.
4.Wide temp. range (-200 to
400C).
5.Can be used for steam, gases or
liquids.
6.Linearity is independent of
density, viscosity & pressure.

1.Wide flow range.

3.Can be used for highly corrosive

fluids.

3.Because of the mass flow is

measured,hence the measurement is 4.Immune to liquid chemistry and
not affected by fluid-density ,
physics property.
viscosity, pressurechanges.

FLOW INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN GUIDE

SR.NOPROPERTIES

ORIFICE PLATE

VENTURI

ROTAMETER

1.Square root relationship.

1.high Cost.

1.must be mounted vertically.

2.Low accuracy.

2.Relatively low temperature

limitations.
3.Limited to small pipe sizes and
2. Square root v/s flow relationship. capacities unless put in bypass.

PITOT TUBE
1.Not applicable for dirty & sticky
services.

2.Operating data still limited.

MAG. FLOWMETER

3. Big & heavy in larger pipe size.

4.May be used only with relatively

clean fluids.

4.Viscosity affects the flowmeters.

10

11

Straight Run
Requirement

General
Requirements

1.For Reliable measurement fluid

must enter the primary element free
of Turbulence.This can be achieved
by providing suitable lengths of
straight pipe ( Refer Annexure -A).

1.For Reliable measurement fluid

must enter the primary element free
of Turbulence.This can be achieved Really not required.
by providing suitable lengths of
straight pipe ( Refer Annexure -A).

MASS FLOWMETER

ULTRASONIC

1.Relatively high cost.

2.Fluid measured must be atleast

slightly conductive.Not Suitable for
gas service.

2.Measurement with low flow

velocities ( Re < 4000) not
possible.Vortex frequency remains
2.cannot measure gas flow with low 2.Straight run upstream piping is
constant & independent of press.,
pipeline pressure.
required.
temp, density in the range of Re>
20,000 that is utilized for measuring
volume flow.

9 Disadvantages
3.Accuracy affected by density &
flow profile.

VORTEX
1.Not suitable for dirty arabrasice
fluid as well as for high viscous
liquids.

1.Pressure drop may be high.

3.Pitot tube doesn't work very well

at low velocities because at low
3.Complex elctronic circuitary
velocity differential press. Is very neede.
low.

3.Confirm allowable pressure drop 3.Can be costly & should be taken

loss while selecting meter size.
into consideration.

4.If support not required then tube

4.Temperature limit may be depend
strengths calculation & resonance
on insulation materials (usually less
frequency vibration for all services
than 200C)
including liquids to be checked.

4.Vortex meter is used for steam

water , light hydrocarbons and any
gases where large turndown is
required.

No Straight Run Requirements.

Long staright lengths necessary

depending on the type of fitting
upstreams.

No straight meter run requirement.

1. Susceptible to noise.

3.Integral
linners(Rubber,Cement,Glass etc.)
must be intimately bonded to pipe
material.

Straight Run requirement to be

maintained.

When flow is obstructed it creates

1.Liner material - hard Rubber,PTFE
vortices across shredder bar which
etc.
in turn creates vibrations flow.

Dopper Equation: Vf=K*Df where

K = Constant; Vf= Velocity of fluids
where ultrasonic energy is
reflected; Df=Diff. between
transmitted & reflected frequencies.

2.Electrode material -SS

316,Hestalloy c, titanium,Platinum
etc.

Transmit Time Equation:

Vp=K(Tu-Td)/Tu*Td Where Vp=
Average Velocity ib=n fluid
path,K=Constant;Tu=Upstream
Transit Time, Td= Downstream
transit time.

grounding : Done by Rings on

eithrside or Times grounding by
electrode in order to go around
spurious voltages.

FIELD INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN GUIDE

Orifice Plate Assembly
Plates :

Orifice Tappings

Venturi Meter

Rotameter

Pitot Tubes

Magnetic Flowmeter

Vortex Flowmeter

Mass Flowmeter

Ultrasonic Flowmeter
Transit-Time

Doppler Type

Flow Instruments Comparision Sheet

Sl.No.

Sensor

orifice

venturi

Rangeability1

3.5:1

3.5:1

Accuracy2

2-4% of full span

1% of full span

Dynamics (s)

Advantages

Disadvantages

-low cost

-high pressure loss

-extensive industrial practice

-plugging with slurries

-lower pressure loss than orifice

-high cost

-slurries do not plug

-line under 15 cm

-good for slurry service

-higher cost than orifice plate

flow nozzle

3.5:1

2% full span

-intermediate pressure loss

-limited pipe sizes

elbow meter

3:1

5-10% of full span

-low pressure loss

-very poor accuracy

-low pressure loss

-poor performance with dirty or sticky

fluids

-large pipe diameters

- straight run requirement

annubar

3:1

0.5-1.5% of full span

Applications / Remarks

-wide rangeability
6

rotameter

Magnetic flowmeter

positive displacement

turbine

10:1

2%

10:1

0.5% typically

10:1 or greater

0.5% of
measurement

20:1

0.25% of
measurement

-linear output

-bidirectional flow & large size available -temperature limit may depend on
insulation material (usually less than
-No straight meter run required
200C)

-high reangeability

-high pressure drop

-good accuracy

-damaged by flow surge or solids

-wide rangeability

-high cost

-good accuracy

-strainer needed, especially for slurries

A higher-cost flowmeter, used mainly for water applications. They are limited to conductive fluids. They operate on a voltage
generator.

-wide rangeability

10

vortex shedding

10:1

1% of measurement

11

Target flowmeter

Typically 2%

-insensitive to variations in
density, temperature, pressure, and
viscosity
-for high viscous flow such as
tars,asphalt etc

These are used as an alternative to differential pressure flowmeters. They operate best with clean, low-viscosity, medium to
high speed fluids.
-expensive
-

-wide rangeability
12
13

Coriolis mass
flomwmete
Ultrasonic
Flowmeters

20:1

0.2% typically
Typically 2%

-no straight meter run required

These twisting meters measure mass flow as opposed to volumetric flow. They are known for their accuracy but their size is
limiting. They carry an initial high cost, but a low maintenance cost. They are used for clean liquids and gases flowing at
medium to high velocity, in pipes six inches and under.
These flowmeters are growing exponentially in popularity, mainly due to their effectiveness in use for measuring natural
gasses. They are non-intrusive and have no pressure drop. It is essential that they operate on clean fluids.

FLOWMETER SELECTION GUIDE

TERMINOLOGY

Sr No.

Instrument

G = GOOD

Clean
Liquid

Dirty
Liquid

Slurry

L = LIMITED APPLICATION

Viscous
Liquid

Corrosive /
Errosive
Liquid

Clean
Gas

Dirty
Gas

Steam

Viscosity
Effect

Concentric
Orifice Plate
(Square edge)

High

Segmental Wedge

Low

High

Venturi Tube

Initial Cost

Pressure
and/or Temp.
Compensation
May be
required

Pressure Tap
orientation
Depends on the
Pipe orientation
& Fluid Being
Metered

Same as
Orifice Plate

No Limitations
on Remote Seal High
Elements

Installation Cost

maintenance
Cost

5D to 10D - Up
None with Remote Seal
2D to 5D Version
Down

> 2" >

50 mm

Square
root
Volumetric

Low

Upsteram Runs
shorter than
Same as orifice plate,air
Same as
Orifice Plate by purge & vent cleanners on
Orifice Plate
Factor 2-9
Dirty liquids
times

> 2" >

50 mm

Square
root
Volumetric

1 to 2
of full scale
(1% to 2%)

3:1 to 5:1 > 75,000

Mod

Same as Orifice
Same as Orifice plate
plate

Same as
Orifice plate

Same as Orifice Medium

plate
to High

Medium

1 to 16"(
25mm to
400 mm)

Square
root
Volumetric

0.5% to 2%

3:1 to 5:1 > 4000

Low

5 to 10D - Up

Same as
Orifice plate

Medium

Medium to
Medium
High

> 1/2 "

Medium
> 15 mm

Square
root
Volumetric

1 to 2
of full scale
(0.5% to 5%)

Viscosity
Affetcs
performace
below critical
Rd

Zero May need

adjustment in
vertical
installtion

Low to
High

< 3" <

Medium
75mm

Linear
Volumetric

1 to 10
of full scale
(0.5% to 5%)

> 1/16" > Linear

1mm
Volumetric

0.5 of rate
(0.2 to 2%)

1/2" to 12"
Linear
15 to
Volumetric
300mm

1 of rate
(0.5% to 1.5%)

V-cone

Preferred Meter
Orientation

Other Considerations

Low

Typical ancillary Equipments

3:1 to 5:1 > 500

Straight Piping
Requirements

Square
root
Volumetric

Sensitivity to
Installation
effects

> 1/2">
15 mm

Reynolds Nos.
Typical
or other
Rangeability
limitations

10D to 40D- Up
2D to 6D Down

(%)

High

Accuracy

3:1 to 5:1 >10,000

Flow Nozzle

Target

Type of
Measurement

Square
2 to 4
root
of full scale
Volumetric ( 0.5% to 3% )

Full Bore Size

Availability

X = NOT RECOMMENDED

Variable Area

Magnetic

Vortex

High

None

> 1" >

25mm

0.5 to 2
of full scale
(0.5% to 5%)

1of full scale

3:1 to 5:1 >10,000
(0.5% to 1.5%)

3:1 to 20:1 > 1000

Same as Orifice plate

Same as Orifice
plate

10:01

Fluids
under
3 Cp

None

None

30:1 to
100:1

None

Low

5 to 10D - Up
3D - Down

Block valve may be

required to Isolate Meter
for Servicing

> 20,000

High

Same as Orifice Block valve may be

plate with 0.70 required to Isolate Meter
for Servicing
Beta

10:1 to
20:1

> 1/4" > 6 Linear

0.25% of rate 10:1 to
mm
Volumetric (0.1% to 1%) 50:1

10

Turbine

11

Ultrasonic - Doppler
Type

None

> 1/2 "

> 15 mm

Linear
5 of full scale
Mass
> 10:1
(1% to 5%)
Volumetric

12

Ultrasonic - Transit
Time

None

> 1/2 "

> 15 mm

Linear
Mass
Volumetric

1 to 5
of full scale
(1% to 5%)

High

Drain, Vent Blow -off &

S/D Valves

> 10:1

Low to
High

Same as Orifice Medium

Plate
to High

Cn only
beinstalled
Low to
Vertical pipe with Medium
Flow up
Electrodees
must be in
AC Design may Horizonatal
give better
plane.Flow
Medium
Performance
should be
to High
ON some
Upwards in
Slurries
vertical
installation.
Indicates Zero
Flow below cut- off

Medium

Medium to Medium to
High
High

Low

Medium

Low

Low

Low

Operation
Cost

Performance
Stability

Standard or Recommended Practise.

* AGA3
Performanc
* ANSI/API 2530
Medium to e affected
* ANSI/ASME MFC 3M
High
by Edge &
* ISO 5167 ASME Fluid
Tap Wear
Meters
Low to
Medium

GOOD

GOOD

* AGA3
* ANSI/API 2530
* ANSI/ASME MFC 3M
* ISO 5167 ASME Fluid
Meters

Medium

GOOD

* AGA3
* ANSI/API 2530
* ANSI/ASME MFC 3M
* ISO 5167 ASME Fluid
Meters

Medium

GOOD

Low

Low

Medium to
Medium
High

Performanc
e affected
by Wear of
Target

Low

Low

Medium

GOOD

Low to
Medium

Low to
Medium

Low

GOOD

ISO 6817

Low to
Medium

Low to
Medium

Medium

GOOD

ANSI / ASME MFC 6M

* AGA7
* API 2534
* ISO 2715 ASME Fluid
meter
* API Manual for
Petroleum Measurement
Standards

High

Similar to
Orifice Plate

Strainers, Filters, Air

Eliminators, steam taps
may be required

Viscosity can
affects
Performance

Some design
Low to
must be oriented
High
as Calibrated

Medium to Medium to
Medium
High
High

Performanc
e affected
by wear of
bearing &
other
parameters

Fluids
Must Have
High
Suspensoi
ds

Similar to
Orifice Plate

May have
problems on
concentrated
slurries

Transducers
Low to
must bein
High
horizontal plane

Low to
Medium

Low

Low

GOOD

Fluids
must be
clean

Similar to
Orifice Plate

May have
problems on
Dirty Fluids

Transducers
Low to
must bein
High
horizontal plane

Low to
Medium

Low

Low

GOOD

ANSI / ASME MFC - YY

Fluids
under
10 CST

High

FLOWMETER SELECTION GUIDE

TERMINOLOGY

Sr No.

13

14

Instrument

Coriolis Type

Thermal Dispersion

G = GOOD

Clean
Liquid

Dirty
Liquid

Slurry

L = LIMITED APPLICATION

Viscous
Liquid

Corrosive /
Errosive
Liquid

Clean
Gas

Dirty
Gas

Steam

Viscosity
Effect

None

Full Bore Size

Availability

Type of
Measurement

Linear
< 6"
Mass
< 150 mm
Volumetric

< 3" <

75 mm

Logirithmic
Mass

X = NOT RECOMMENDED
Accuracy

(%)

Reynolds Nos.
Typical
or other
Rangeability
limitations

0.4 of rate 40:1 to

(0.15% to 2%) 100:1

1% to 5%

Upto
100:1

None

None

Sensitivity to
Installation
effects

None

Straight Piping
Requirements

None

Mod to High 10 to 20D - UP

Typical ancillary Equipments

Other Considerations

Preferred Meter
Orientation

Initial Cost

Special supports may be

required for meters

Entrained air
may cause
problem

Specific
orientations vary
High
with meter
designs

May need to
provide
comensation
for wide TEMP.
ranges

Some types
require same
Low to
orientation as in High
calibration

Installation Cost

Low to
Medium

Low to
Medium

maintenance
Cost

Low

Low

Operation
Cost

Performance
Stability

Low to High GOOD

Low to
Medium

Standard or Recommended Practise.

*ANSI / ASME MFC-11M

California weights &
standards

Performanc
e affeccted
by severe
Build up on sensor for
immersion
types

Level Instruments Design Guide

Sl.No. Characteristics

DP Cell

Displacement type
Displacer LT

Float type

1.Ultrasonic transmitters work on the principle of

sending a sound wave from a peizo electric
transducer to the contents of the vessel. The
device measures the length of time it takes for the
reflected sound wave to return to the transducer. A
successful measurement depends on reflection
from the process material in a straight line back to
the transducer.
Also 2.Time of Flight Technilogy.
3. Short ultrasonic impulses emitted from
transducer. 4.Bursts are created from electrical
energy applied to piezo electric crystal inside the
transducer.
5.The
transducer creates sound wave ( mechanical
energy).
6.With longer measuring ranges a lower frequency
The float of material that is lighter than and higher amplitude are needed to produce sound
waves that can travel further.
the fluid follows the movement of the 7.The longer the measuring range the larger the
liquid level. The position of the float, transducer nust be

The difference in pressures between to points in a vessel

depends on the fluids between these two points. If the
1.By Archimedes principle, a body immersed in a liquid is buoyed by a
difference in densities between the fluids is significant,
which is certainly true for a vapor and liquid and can be force equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body. ( Thus, a body
true for two different liquids, the difference in pressure can that is more dense than the liquid can be placed in the vessel, and the amount of
liquid displaced by the body, measured by the weight of the body when in the
be used to determine the interface level between the
fluids. Usually, a seal liquid is used in the two connecting liquid, can be used to determine the level. )
pipes (legs) to prevent plugging at the sensing points.
1

Working

Perhaps the most frequently used device for the

measurement of level is a differential pressure transmitter. 2.Displacers work on the Archimedes
Using DP for level is really an inferential measurement. A Principle, when a body is immersed in a
DP is used to transmit the head pressure that the
fluid it loses weight equal to that of the
perhaps attached to a rod, can be
diaphragm senses due to the height of the material in the fluid displaced.
determined to measure the level.
vessel multiplied by a density variable.

Arrangement

Ultrasonic LT

Radar LT

Guided Wave Radar LT

Radar Technology is a time flight measurement

1. Microwave energy is transmitted by the radar.
2.The Mircowave energy is reflected off the product surface.
3.The Radar Sensor receives the microwave energy.
4.The time from transmitting to receving the microwave
energy is measured.
5.
The time is converted to a distance measurement and then
eventuallly a level
Radar Wavelength =
Speed of Light / Frequency

Guided Wave Radar level measurement

1.Time of Flight , 2.Top Mounted 3.Solids &
liquids applications. 4.Contact Management.
5.GWR is virtually unaffected by
Temperature,Pressure &
vacuum,Conductivity,Dielectric
constant,Specific Gravity,Vapor steam or Dust
air movement, Build ups & Foam.
Principle of Operation:

=c / f
Frequency 6.3 GHz
wavelength = 47.5 mm

Frequency 26 GHz
wavelength = 11.5 mm

A microwave pulse (2 GHz) is guided

along a cable or rod in a 20 diameter or
inside a coaxial system.
The pulse is then reflected from the solid
or liquid, back to the head of the unit.
The travel time of the pulse is measured
and then converted to distance.

Level Instruments Design Guide

Sl.No. Characteristics
3

DP Cell

Displacement type
Displacer LT

Float type

Accuracy

Typical accuray 5~ 10 mm.

1.Both floats and displacers work well with clean liquids and are accurate and
1.The primary benefit of DPs is that it can be externally adaptable to wide variations in fluid densities
installed or retrofitted to an existing vessel. It can also be
isolated safely from the process using block valves for
maintenance and testing.
4

Advantages

2.There are certain measurements such as total level in

separator vessels that due to wide variations in material
composition of the upper phase DP is the only viable if
not ideal option.

Disadvantages

Application

Practical Limitation

2.the process fluid measured must maintain its density if repeatability is required,
this is particularly true of displacers

1.D/P transmitters are subject to errors due to changes in liquid density.

Density variations are caused by temperature changes or change of
product.

Displacers are affected by changes in product density since the displacement of

the body (its weight loss) is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. eg. If the
specific gravity changes, then the weight of the displaced material changes, thus
changing the calibration.

2.These variations must always be compensated for if

accurate measurements are to be made.
3.DPs are mainly intended for clean liquids and require
two vessel penetrations. One is near the bottom of the
vessel where leak paths are the cause of the majority of
problems. D/Ps should not be used with liquids that
solidify as their concentrations increase. An example is
paper pulp stock.

This is especially problematic in interface measurements, where both liquids

increase or decrease density, while the signal is proportional to the density
difference. Because the displacer is emersed in the process fluid it will be
vulnerable to particulate deposition. This will change the displacer mass and the
effective displacement causing a calibration shift.

Refer Annexure - 1

Refer Annexure - 1

Fluid density must be stable if readings are to be

accurate. If liquid density is subject to change a second
d/p transmitter is required to measure density and then
used to compensate for any changes. To accommodate
the measurement of light slurries, differential pressure
transmitters are available with extended diaphragms that
fit flush to the side of the vessel. However, if the d/p
transmitter diaphragm becomes coated, it may require
recalibration, which can be impractical and will add to the
"cost of ownership". Frequently, the measuring device is
only one consideration in the total installation of the job.
Although a D/P transmitter is often less expensive than
other types of level sensors, there is usually considerable
additional hardware and labour required to make a
practical installation. The implementation of a stable, lowpressure leg and 3 / 5 valve manifolds will add
considerable cost to the installation.

1. Displacers and floats should only be used for relatively non-viscous, clean
fluids and provide optimal performance in switch applications and over for short
spans.
2 .Spans of up to 12m are possible, but they
become prohibitively expensive.
3.Cost of installation for displacers is high and many refineries are now replacing
them due to the inaccuracies experienced under process density changes
especially on interface duties.
4. High quality float switches still provide reliable and repeatable performance.
Even with todays array of level technologies, if a 100% process seal is required
under fail conditions for a Cryogenic application the only technique available,
other than nucleonic, is a magnetically coupled float switch

Refer Annexure - 1

Radar LT

Ultrasonic LT

1.the transducer does not come into

contact with the process material

2.No Moving Parts in this level

measurement techniques.

3.a single top of vessel entry makes

leaks less probable than fully wetted
techniques
There are various influences that affect
the return signal. Things such as
powders, heavy vapors, surface
turbulence, foam and even ambient
noise can affect the returning signal.
Temperature can also be a limiting factor
in many process applications. Ultrasonic
devices will not operate on vacuum or
high pressure applications.

Guided Wave Radar LT

1 Typical Accuracy for High Frequency(26Ghz " K " Band) - 3~

5 mm. 2.Typical Accuracy for Low Frequency ( 6.3 Ghz - "C" Band 10 mm.

1.This non-contact technology produces highly

accurate measurements in storage tanks and
some process vessels. Radar is an excellent,
but fairly expensive technology (1k to 5k per
measurement) for continuous level
measurements.
2.radar can be highly accurate, is immune to
most vapours / physical characteristics of the
measured media, other than, in some cases,
dielectric constant.
1.Its primary disadvantage is cost.
2.The pressure ratings on radar antenna are
limited and these devices cannot measure
interfaces.

3.Pulse radar has difficulty making accurate

measurement when the media is in close
proximity to the antenna because the time
difference between send and return signals is
too fast to measure accurately.

Refer Annexure - 1

Refer Annexure - 1

Successful measurement depends on

the transmitter being mounted in the
correct position so that the internal
structure of the vessel will not interfere
with the signal path. To ignore
obstructions in the vessel, tank mapping
has been developed. Tank mapping lets
the operator take a "sonic snapshot" of
an empty vessel. The transducer
transmits a sound burst and the echo is
recorded as a signature of the tank. Any
obstructions in the vessel will send an
echo and create a profile. Later on, this
signature or profile is locked into the
ultrasonic units memory so it will not
respond to echoes created by these
obstructions.

In the case of hydrocarbons, an accurate water

Interface Measurement
bottoms measurement must be made for precise
inventory control. Typically, another technology, such
as RF Admittance is used to make the interface
measurement between water and hydrocarbons. Some
installations, such as floating roof tanks, require the
installation of a stillpipe. Inconsistencies on the internal
surface of the stillpipe can cause erroneous echoes,
these can have an adverse effect on the accuracy of
some vendor's equipment.
High frequency
shorter wavelength
narrower beam angle
more
focused signal
ability to measure
smaller vesselswith more flexible
mounting
Low frequency
longer wavelength
wider beam angle
less focused
signal
ability to measure smaller
vessels with difficult application
variables.

Refer Annexure - 1

Level Instruments Design Guide

Sl.No.

Characteristics

Working

Nuclear LT

Capacitance LT

1.Nucleonic level controls are used for point and continuous measurements, typically A capacitance probe can be immersed in the liquid of the tank,
where most other technologies are unsuccessful.
2.The
and the capacitance between the probe and the vessel wall
radioisotopes used for level measurement emit energy at a fairly constant rate but in depends on the level. By measuring the capacitance of the
random bursts. Gamma radiation, the source generally used for nucleonic level
liquid, the level of the tank can be .As the level rises and
gauging is similar to microwaves or even light (these are also electromagnetic
material begins to cover the sensing element the capacitance
radiation, but of lower energy and longer wavelength). The short wavelength and higher within the circuit between the probe and the media (conductive
energy of gamma radiation penetrates the vessel wall and process media.
applications) or the probe and the vessel wall (insulating
3.A detector on the other side of the vessel measures the radiation field strength and applications) increases. This causes a bridge misbalance, the
infers the level in the vessel. Different radioisotopes are used, based on the penetrating signal is demodulated (rectified), amplified and the output is
increased.
power needed to "see" the process within the vessel. With single point gauges the
radiation provides a simple on/off switching function, whereas with continuous level
measurement the percentage of transmission decreases as the level increases.

RF Admittance
The theory of operation for an RF Admittance level transmitter is
similar to that of Capacitance transmitters, but with two important
circuit additions. The oscillator buffer and chopper drive circuits
permit separate measurement of resistance and capacitance. Since
the resistance and capacitance of any coating are of equal
magnitude (by physical laws), the error generated by a coating can
be measured and subtracted from the total output. The result is an
accurate measurement regardless of the amount of coating on the
probe.

Arrangement
Capacitance Type

RF Ad mittance Type

Accuracy

Level Instruments Design Guide

Sl.No.

Characteristics

Nuclear LT

Capacitance LT

RF Admittance

RF Admittance is next generation capacitance as such it is by far

the most versatile technology for continuous level measurement. It
can handle a wide range of process conditions anywhere from
Capacitance techniques are capable of operation at extremes of cryogenics to approximately 850 o C and from vacuum to 10,000
2.These applications generally involve high temperatures / pressures or where toxic or
psi pressure. Aside from the electronic circuit technology, sensing
temperature and pressure. They work well for materials that
corrosive materials are within the vessel. Placing the source and / or detector in wells
wont leave a coating. Usually only a single tank penetration is element design is very important to handle these process
within the vessel can reduce source sizes.
conditions. There are no moving parts to wear, plug, or jam. As with
required.
capacitance systems there is only a single tank penetration, usually
3.An extension of this is to use a moving source within the vessel; this facilitates the
at the top of the tank, above the actual process level.
unique ability to combine density profiling with accurate tracking of a moving interface.
1.As no penetration of the vessel is needed there are a number of situations that cause
nucleonic transmitters to be considered over other technologies.

Advantages

Disadvantages

Application

Practical Limitation

In other words

It would appear that nucleonic gauges provide a truly universal "fit and forget" level
RF admittance is intrusive. Insulating granular measurements
measurement technology. Although when the "cost of ownership" is calculated nuclear
require special considerations, such as the moisture range and
level measurement is often more expensive than conventional systems. Hidden costs
location of the sensing element to minimize errors caused by probe
include initial licensing and periodic surveying. These services are usually provided by
movement.
external authorities or by the equipment supplier, assuming they have appropriately
Capacitance systems are intrusive. Have problems with varying
qualified staff. If no longer required, the nucleonic gauge must be disposed of through dielectric materials and those medias, that coat the sensing
appropriately licensed, external organizations, which again can be a costly exercise. element. Thus users are normally limited to water-like media.
Even acids and caustics that dont appear to coat the sensing
element are so conductive that the thin film they leave can
cause serious errors in measurement.

From a psychological standpoint, the radiation symbol found on these controls is

frequently the cause of unfounded concern with uninitiated plant personnel. Plant
Management is usually required to ensure that appropriate education is given to any
staff likely to be involved with this measurement technology. Source size regulations
can often be met in difficult applications by placing the source and / or detector in wells
within the vessel if necessary.

Most users realise the limitations of Capacitance level

Admittance technology and nucleonic measurement provide the
measurement, such as the large errors caused by coatings. This only practical methods for level measurement in coating
has led to a decrease in the number of these systems in
applications. For insulating materials with changing dielectric
operation. Other technologies such as FMCW radar and in
constants, the measurement can only be made reliably if the
particular RF Admittance have now gained acceptance due to material being measured is homogeneous. A reference sensor is
high levels of reliability and accuracy.
added to monitor the dielectric constant and then compensate the
calibration based on this information. Smart RF transmitters are
available providing superior levels of stability and accuracy as well
as remote communication. Knowledge of the approximate electrical
character of the process material is key to optimum system
selection and performance.

Control Valve Comparision Sheet for Reference

SR.NO

Properties

Globe Body Valves

Single Seated
1. Minimum leakage in close position.

Double Seated
1.Higher leakage rate than Singale
seated valve

3-Way valve

Rotary Valves
Angle Valve

1.Three pipeline connections provide

1.For high pressure
general converging (flow mixing0 or
services
diverging(flow-splitting) services.

2.Require large actuator force,particulrly 2.Required less actuato forces due to

large sizes.
balancing feature of plug.

2.Usually single port type

only.

Cage guided
1.Leakage rate is like
as Single seat.

Butterfly valve
1. For High capacity and low
pressure drop services.

2.Balanced Plud design 2.Conventional discs provide

permits operation with throttling control for up to 60disc
smaller actuators.
rotation.

Ball Valve

Eccentric spherical plug valve

1.Suitable for erosive and viscous fluids 1.Usually less costly than conventional
or slurries containing entrained solids or globe valves and adaptable to ordinary
fiber
control requirements.
2.V-Notch produces an equal % flow
characteristicn,and used for control of
above fluids and application where very
high rangeability is required.

3.Noise attenuation or
3.Low torque requirements can permit
3.Typical wafer body design , a lug
anti-cavitation type trim
ball valves to be used inQuick manual or
wafer design and flanged design.
available.
automatic operation.

3.Most common body atype & simple in

Construction

4.Full Ball : 1.A complete sphere as the

flow controlling member.
2.Rotary shaft design and include aflow
passage.
3.Trunion mounted with a Single piece
ball & shaft to reduce torque
requirements & last motion.
V-Port Ball Valve:1. V -Port ball valve
utilizes a partial sphere that has a Vshaped notch in it. 2.Notch permits wide
range of service & produces an equal %
flow charcteristics. 3.Straight forward
flow design produces very little pressure
drop & the valve is suited to the control
of erosion & viscous fluids.
4.V-port ball reduces the clogging when
it comes in contact with seal which
produces shearing effect.

WORKING
1

Applicable Codes

BEST SUITED
CONTROL

Linear and Equal %

DESIGN
INFORMATION

Valve shall be designed to meet the

design pressure and temperature.

1.Efiicient throttling

ADVANTAGES

2.Accurate flow control

3.Available in Multiple ports

1.High Pressure drop

5

DISADVANTAGES

Quick opening,Linear ; offer full flow with

Exhibits approximately equal % flow
Linear flow characteristics through 90 of
minimum turbulence and can balance or
disk rotation.
characterics.
throttle fluids.Best suited for On-off .
Interchangeability o ftrim permits
1.Actuator selection demands careful
choice of several flow characteristics consideration,particularly for
or noise attenuation or anti-cavitation construction with unbalanced valve
components.
plug.
1.Reduced unbalance permits
operation of valves with smaller
actuators than those necessary of
single ported valves.
2.Higher capacity than the Single
ported valves.
3.Many double seated bodies
reverse, so the plug can be installed
either push-down-to -open or pushdown-to-close.
1.Will not provide same "Shut-off "
as the Single Seated do.

2.More expensive than other valve

1.Throttling service/flow regulation

6

RECOMMENDED
USED
2.Frequent operation

1.High performance butterfly valve

should be sized to control within 15
to 75 range of disk opening.
1.Low cost and Maintenance.
2.High Capacity

1.Low cost.

3.Good flow control.

3.Low leakage and maintenance

4.Low pressure drop.

4.Tight sealing with low torque.

1.High torque required for control.

1.Poor throttling characteristics.

2.High Capacity. 1.Erosion resistance.

2.Prone to Caviation at lower flows. 2.Prone to Cavitation.

1.Throttling service/flow regulation
but not generally recommended
because of their maintenance cost
and leakage.

1. Can be used for throttling midtravel position control either

converging or diverging fluids.

1.Fully open/closed at throttling

services & on-off valve.

1.Fully open/closed, limited -throttling

2.Frequent operation.
3.Minimal
fluid trapping inline.
4.Big
2.Higher temperature fluids.
lines(Liquid service upto 96").

Control Valve Comparision Sheet for Reference

SR.NO

Properties

APPLICATION

Globe Body Valves

Single Seated

1.Liquids,vapors,gases,corrosive
sustances,slurries

Double Seated

3-Way valve

Rotary Valves
Angle Valve

Cage guided

1.Coking service.
2.Solids carried in
supsension.
3.Severe
flashing services.
4.Cavitaion services.
5.High pressure drops.

1.Typically used in refineries on

highly viscous fluids (
dirt,contaminants, or process
deposits on trim) concern

Butterfly valve

1.Lquid,gases ,slurries,liquids with

suspended solids.

Ball Valve

Eccentric spherical plug valve

1.Most liquids, high temperatures,

slurries.

2.Specified for application stringent shut- 2.Often used for on-off or low
off requirements.
pressure throttling device.
(Typical upto ANSI 2500)

As per Piping Specifications.(H-103)

Standard end connections

(Flanged,screwed,butt weld etc.)Can As per Piping
be specified to mate with piping
Specifications.(H-103)
design specs.

As per Piping
Std. Raised faced piping
Specifications.(H-103) flanges.Typical ANSI 600.

As per Piping Specifications.(H103).Typical upto ANSI 900.

As per Piping Specifications.(H-103)

MATERAIL

As per Piping Specifications.(H-103)

As per Piping Specifications.(H-103)

Variations include trim materials

As per Piping
selected for high temperature service. Specifications.(H-103)

As per Piping
Specifications.(H-103)

As per Piping Specifications.(H-103)

As per Piping Specifications.(H-103)

PACKING

PTFE( Polytetrafluro ethylene widely

used because of its inert and has low coefficient of friction. Can be applied to
400F.

CONNECTION
RATING

10

11

Metal-to-Metal seating usually

Metal-to- Metal saeting surfaces pr soft
provides only Class II shut-off
SEAT LEAKAGE seating with PTFE.Tight shut-off
capability,although Class III
achievable.
capability is also possible.

Tight-off can be achieved.

Tight shut-off achievable.

Quick Opening:Provides a maximum change in flowrate at lower valve tarvel with fairly linear relationship and lesser flow increase as the plug further opens.(
Normally not used for throttling)

12

TRIM
CHARACTERISTICS

Linear: Provides equal increase in CV for equal increment in stem travel.

Linear one often specified for liquid level control and application requiring constant gain Pressure
(
drop is Constant)
Equal %:Provides equal% increase in CV for equal increament of stem travel.This characteristic provides throttling control valve at valve close position and rapidly increaasing capacity as the plug is near the open position.
Equal% is suitable for pressure control application, or on application where highly varying pressure drop can be expected and pressure drop at the control valve is relatively small against the system pressure drop.

13

SIZING

14

Flow Capacity

The shear Safety factor should be a

minimum 150% at the specied Shutoff pressure drop condition.
Moderate

High

High

WIRE CONVERSION CHART

S.W.G.

Wire Number
(Gauge)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

American Wire Gauges (AWG) Metric

0.3

7.62

0.289

7,348

(MM2)
42.429

0.276

7.01

0.258

6,543

33.592

0.252

6.401

0.229

5,827

26.694

0.232

5.893

0.204

5,189

21.155

0.212

5.385

0.182

4,621

16.763

0.192

4.877

0.162

4,115

13.267

0.176

4.47

0.144

3,665

10.52

(Inches)

(MM)

(Inches)

(MM)

0.16

4.064

0.128

3,264

8.346

0.144

3.658

0.114

2,906

6.605

0.128

3.251

0.102

2,588

5.268

0.116

2.946

0.091

2,304

4.154

0.104

2.642

0.081

2,052

3.3

0.092

2.337

0.072

1,829

2.63

0.08

2.032

0.064

1,628

2.086

0.072

1.829

0.057

1,450

1.651

0.064

1.626

0.051

1,291

1.306

0.056

1.422

0.045

1,150

1.038

0.048

1.219

0.04

1,024

0.817

0.04

1.016

0.036

0,9119

0.65

0.036

0.9144

0.032

0,8128

0.515

0.032

0.8128

0.028

0,7239

0.407

0.028

0.7112

0.025

0,6426

0.321

0.024

0.6096

0.023

0,5740

0.255

0.022

0.55.88

0.02

0,5106

0.204

0.02

0.508

0.018

0,4547

0.159

0.018

0.4572

0.016

0,4038

0.125

0.0164

0.4166

0.014

0,3606

0.101

0.0148

0.3759

0.013

0,3200

0.08

0.0136

0.3454

0.011

0,2870

0.066

0.0124

0.315

0.01

0,2540

0.049

0.0116

0.2946

0.009

0,2261

0.041

0.0108

0.2743

0.008

0,2032

0.032

0.01

0.254

0.007

0,1803

0.024

0.0092

0.2337

0.0063

0,1601

0.02

0.0084

0.2138

0.0056

0,1422

0.015

0.0076

0.193

0.005

0,1270

0.012

0.0068

0.1727

0.0044

0,1143

0.009

0.006

0.1524

0.004

0,1016

0.008

0.0052

0.1321

0.0035

0,0889

0.006

0.0048

0.121

0.0031

0,0787

0.005

American Wire Gauge

Diameter

Diameter

Cross Sectional Area

(AWG)

(inches)

(mm)

(mm2)

0.46

11.68

107.16

0.4096

10.4

84.97

0.3648

9.27

67.4

0.3249

8.25

53.46

0.2893

7.35

42.39

0.2576

6.54

33.61

0.2294

5.83

26.65

0.2043

5.19

21.14

0.1819

4.62

16.76

10

0.162

4.11

13.29

11

0.1443

3.67

10.55

12

0.1285

3.26

8.36

Sl.No.

13

0.1144

2.91

6.63

14

10

0.1019

2.59

5.26

15

11

0.0907

2.3

4.17

16

12

0.0808

2.05

3.31

17

13

0.072

1.83

2.63

18

14

0.0641

1.63

2.08

19

15

0.0571

1.45

1.65

20

16

0.0508

1.29

1.31

21

17

0.0453

1.15

1.04

22

18

0.0403

1.02

0.82

23

19

0.0359

0.91

0.65

24

20

0.032

0.81

0.52

25

21

0.0285

0.72

0.41

26

22

0.0254

0.65

0.33

27

23

0.0226

0.57

0.26

28

24

0.0201

0.51

0.2

29

25

0.0179

0.45

0.16

30

26

0.0159

0.4

0.13

Remarks