Chapter 4: Heat

CHAPTER 4: HEAT
4.1 Understanding thermal equilibrium
The difference
Temperature
between temperature
Is the degree of hotness
and heat
of a body
Is a base quantity
Depends upon the kinetic
energy of the molecules

The S.I. unit is K or 0C

Measured by
thermometer

Form 4

Heat
Is a form of energy
Is a derived quantity
Depend upon temperature, mass
and type of material ( spesific heat
capacity or specific latent heat)
( Q = mc or Q = ml) )
The S.I. unit is Joule(J)
Measured by Joulemeter

Thermal Contact

Two substances are said to be in thermal contact,

when heat flows from one substance to another it is in contact with.
Heat flows according to temperature differences i.e.from substance hot
to cold substance
The principle of
thermal equilibrium

Two bodies in thermal contact are said to be in thermal equilibrium

when its reach the same temperature and the net rate of heat transfer
between the two bodies is zero.
How a liquid in glass thermometer works ?

When a thermometer is in thermal contact with

a substance ( for example hot water) , heats
flows from the hot water to the
thermometer(mercury)
When thermal equilibrium is reached the net
rate of heat transfer between the two
substances is zero. The temperature of the
thermometer is same as the temperature of the
hot water.
Hence by showing its own temperature, the
thermometer also reads the temperature of the
hot water.
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Basic principle to construct a thermometer.

Two important
1 Specific thermometric property i.e. a physical quantity which
principles to
varies with temperature.
construct a
The table shows four different types of thermometers.
thermometer are.
Thermometer
Thermometric property
Mercury
Volume of mercury varies with
thermometer
temperature
Resistance
Electrical resistance of a wire
thermometer
varies with temperature
Thermocouple
Electromotive force (e.m.f)
thermometer
varies with temperature
Gas pressure varies with
Gas thermometer
temperature
2

Calibration of thermometer i.e the process of marking-up a scale

on a thermometer.
To produce a scale for a thermometer, two fixed points of thermometer
must first be selected.
a) Lower fixed point (0oC) is the melting temperature of pure ice
at standard atmospheric pressure.
b) Upper fixed point (100 o C) is the temperature of steam a
standard atmospheric pressure.
Calibration of a Mercury-in-glass Thermometer on the Celsius Scale

Freeze some pure water.

Crush the ice into small and fill a funnel with them.
When the ice begins to melt inset the bulb of a thermometer so that it is covered with
ice.
When the mercury stops shrinking , mark the stem of the thermometer at the mercury
level, as 0oC.
Now arrange the thermometer inside a flask so that its bulb is just above the surface of
boiling water.
When the mercury stops expanding , mark its level on the thermometer stem ,as 100oC.
Divide the distance between the marks 0oC and 100oC into 100 equal parts, marked as a
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Chapter 4: Heat

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scale along the stem

The formula is used to calibrate a thermometer
= temperature of a substance
o = ice point
100 = steam point
xo = the length of the mercury column at
ice point
x100 = the length of the mercury column at
steam point
x = the length of the mercury column
when the thermometer is placed in a
substance

Mercury Thermometer

The specific thermometric property in used in this thermometer the changes of the volumes of
mercury with the temperature i.e when the temperature increases ,the volume of the mercury
increases.
The sensitivity of the thermometer can be increased by
1 using a thinner-walled glass bulb
2 reducing the diameter of the capillary tube
Mercury is used in the thermometer because
1
has a higher boiling point
2
does not stick to the glass
3
is opaque and therefore it is easier to read.
4
expands and contracts uniformly
4.2 UNDERSTANDING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY, c
Definition and the S.I
The specific heat capacity of a material is defined as the amount
unit of Specific
of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of the substance
Heat
through a temperature of 1oC.
Capacity ,c
The S.I. unit for c is J kg-1 oC-1
A substance with a large specific heat capacity( able to store a
lot of heat ) will experience a smaller temperature rise when
absorbing heat and vice versa.
The relationship
Where,
Q = the heat energy transffered to the substance
between m,c,
m = the mass of the substance
and Q
c = the specific heat capacity of the substance
Q = mc
= the temperature change
Mixtures

Whenever two materials are at different temperatures and in thermal contact,

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Chapter 4: Heat

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the hotter material will lose energy by transfer to the colder one until both
come to the same temperature. They are now in thermal equilibrium.
To determine the specific heat capacity of a solid ( aluminium cylinder)

The electrical power of the heater is recorded = P

The mass of the aluminium cylinder is recorded = m
The initial temperature of the aluminium is read off the thermometer = 1
The electric heater is switched on and the stopwatch is started simultaneously.
After heating for a t ime , t , the heater is switched off.
The maximum reading on the thermometer is recorded = 2
Calculate the heat supplied by the heater = Pt
Calculate the heat absorbed by the aluminum cylinder = mc ( 2-1)
On the assumption that there is no heat loss to surroundings;,
Pt = mc (2-1)
c =
Pt .
m (2-1)
Precautions
(1) Insulates the aluminium cylinder with felt cloth or wool to decrease the loss of heat to
the surroundings.
(2) Some oil is poured into the hole before the thermometer is inserted to ensure more
perfect heat conduction.
Discussions
The value of the specific heat capacity of aluminium ,c determined in the experiment is
larger than the standard value of c.
This is because the experimental value of the temperature rise , less than the expected
temperature rise due to some heat loss to the surroundings.
The smaller the temperature , the greater the
specific heat capacity because c = Pt
m

To determine the specific heat capacity of a solid ( aluminium cylinder)

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Chapter 4: Heat

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The electrical power of the heater is recorded = P

The empty beaker is weighed and its mass is recorded = m1
The beaker is filled with water and the beaker is weighed again and it mass is recorded = m2
The initial temperature of the water is read off the thermometer = 1
The electric heater is switched on and the stopwatch is started simultaneously.
After heating for a t ime , t , the heater is switched off.
The maximum reading on the thermometer is recorded = 2
Calculate the heat supplied by the heater = Pt
Calculate the heat absorbed by the water
= ( m2 - m1)c (2-1)
On the assumption that there is no heat loss to surroundings;,
Pt = ( m2 - m1)c (2-1)
c =
Pt
.
( m2 - m1) (2-1)

Precautions
(1) The water must be stirred continuously to ensure its temperature is uniform.
(2) The beaker should be wrapped with a tissue or felt cloth and placed on a polystyrene
sheet to prevent heat loss to the surroundings and the table.
Discussions
The value of the specific heat capacity of water ,c determined in the experiment is larger
than the standard value of c.
This is because the experimental value of the temperature rise , less than the expected
temperature rise due to some heat loss to the surroundings.
The smaller the temperature , the greater the
specific heat capacity because c = Pt
m
Applications of specific heat capacity of a substance.
Cooking instruments
Cooking instruments such as frying
pans, pots,kettles, electric iron and so on made
of substances with low specific heat capacities .
This is because they can quickly heated up
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when there is only small heat absorption.

The handle of the cooking instruments are
made by the substances with high specific heat
capacities. This is because these materials
undergo a small heat change while heat is
released or absorbed. So , the handles are not
too hot to be held by the bare hands.
Water

Water has a very high specific heat capacity. This makes it very useful for
storing energy. For a given rise in temperature , water can store more energy
than most other substances; as it cools , it releases this energy again. It is
fortunate that water is cheap , safe and readily available.
In a central heating system water is good at
storing energy and carrying it from the boiler
to the radiators, as it cools there it releases a
lot of energy into the room.The system is
commonly used in cold countries to heat and
keep houses warm.

In a car engine cooling

system
,
water
is
circulated through pipes
around the engine block
to absorb energy from the
hot engine and so to keep
it cool. From the cylinder
block ,the water passes
into radiator where it is
cooled by air drawn in by radiator fan.
The cool water is re-circulated through the engine to absorb the heat and this cycle is
repeated continuously while the engine is running.
Sea breeze and Land breeze
In daytime the sun warms the land to higher
temperature than the sea.

It is because land has a lower specific heat

capacity than sea-water.

The air above the land is heated and rises, and its
place is taken by cooler air above the sea moving
inland (convection currents)

Air higher in the atmosphere completes the

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circulation , and hence a sea-breeze is obtained.

At night the sea temperature drops only slightly ,

since it is warmed to a considerable depth during
the day. On the other hand , the land temperature
drops considerably at night. This time, therefore ,
a convection current is obtained in the opposite
direction to daytime, and this is a land-breeze.

Understanding specific latent heat, l

What does the word latent heat
mean?

Latent heat means hidden heat. This heat energy

changes the state of a substance (phase change). The
heat cannot be seen because there is no rise in
temperature of the substance

Phase Change
When a phase
change has
occurred , latent
heat is absorbed or
released

Latent heat and

kinetic theory

In a solid, the molecules are linked to the neighbours by forces of

attraction. As the solid is heated, the molecules vibrate more strongly.
When the solid reaches its melting point, the vibrations have become
so strong that the links begin to give way. Extra energy is needed to
overcome these forces and separate the molecules. This is called the
latent heat of fusion.

No temperature rise occurs during this process, because the latent

heat of fusion is used to overcome the intermolecular binding forces.
The average translational kinetic energy does not change, so the
temperature remains constant.

In a liquid, the molecules are free enough to slide around and change
neighbours, but they are still almost as close to each other as in a
solid. The links are weaker but still effective. As the liquid is heated
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further, the kinetic energy of the molecules increases more. At the

boiling point, the molecules break free from each other and become a
gas. Energy is needed to overcome the remaining links. This is called
the latent heat of vaporisation.

No temperature rise occurs during this process, because the latent

heat of vaporisation is used to overcome the intermolecular binding
forces. The average translational kinetic energy does not change, so
the temperature remains constant.

The Heating and Cooling Curve (Naphthalene)

Heating curve
At AB,CD dan EF :
The heat supplied increases the kinetic energy
of naphthalene. So the temperature rises
because the temperature is a measure of the
average kinetic energy of molecules in a
substance
At BC,DE :

Melting point = 80oC,

Boiling point = 218oC
AB = Solid ,
BC = solid + liquid
CD = liquid
DE = liquid + gas
EF = gas
Cooling curve

At t1 and t2 phase change has occurred.

The latent heat is absorbed to provide the
energy to overcome the binding forces between
the molecules. The energy absorbed does not
increase the kinetic energy of the molecules, so
the temperature remains constant.

At AB,CD dan EF :
Heat is released to the surroundings and the
kinetic energy of the molecules decreases,
resulting in a fall in the temperature of the
naphthalane because the temperature is a
measure of the average kinetic energy of
molecules in a substance
Pada BC,DE :

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At t1 and t2 phase change has occurred.

Chapter 4: Heat

Form 4

The latent heat is released to the

surroundings as the molecules become
more closely pack..
The energy released does not decrease the
kinetic energy of the molecules, so the
temperature remains constant.

Freezing point = 80oC

Condensation point = 218oC
AB = Gas
BC = Gas + Liquid
CD = Liquid
DE = Liquid + Solid
EF = Solid
Definition and the S.I unit of Specific Latent Heat ,l
The specific latent heat
Is the quantity heat of energy required to change 1 kg of a substance
of fusion , lf
from the solid state to the liquid state , without a change in
temperature
The specific latent heat
Is the quantity heat of energy required to change 1 kg of a
of Vaporisation ,lv :
substance from the liquid state to the gaseous state , without
a change in temperature.
The S.I. unit of lf and lv is J kg-1
The relationship between m,l and Q
Where,
Q = the heat energy transferred to the
Q = ml
substance
m = the mass of the substance
l = the specific latent heat of the
substance
To determine the latent heat of fusion of ice

The electrical power of the heater is recorded = P

The mass of each the two empty beakers is determined using the weighing balance.
Mass of empty beaker A = m1
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Chapter 4: Heat

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Mass of empty beaker B = m2

When water starts to drip from the filter funnels at a steady rate, the heater in Set A is
switched on.
The stopwatch is started and the empty beakers A and B are placed beneath the filter
funnels.
After a period of t , the heater in Set A is switched off.
The masses of both beakers of water , A and B are determined using the weighing balance.
Mass of beaker A + water = m3
Mass of beaker B + water = m4
Calculate mass of ice melted by the electric immersion heater, m = (m3 - m1) - (m4 - m2)
Calculate the heat supplied by the heater = Pt
Calculate the heat absorbed by the ice during melting = mlf
On the assumption that there is no heat loss to surroundings;,
Pt = mlf
lf =

pt
m

Precautions
The immersion heater must be fully immersed in the ice cubes to avoid or reduce heat loss
Discussions
The value of the specific latent heat of fusion of ice ,lf determined in the experiment is
larger than the standard value of lf.
This is because the experimental value of the mass of ice melted ,m less than the expected
m due to some heat loss to the surroundings.
The smaller the mass m, the greater the specific latent heat of fusion of ice,lf,
lf = Pt
m
To determine the latent heat of vaporisation of water

The electrical power of the heater is recorded = P

The electric heater is switched on the heat the water to its boiling point.
When the water starts to boil at a steady rate , the stopwatch is started and the reading on
the balance is recorded = m1
After a time ,t the reading on the electronic balance is recorded again = m2
Calculate the mass of water evaporated,
m = m1 - m2
Calculate the heat supplied by the heater = Pt
Calculate the heat absorbed by the water during vaporisation = mlv
On the assumption that there is no heat loss to surroundings;,
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Chapter 4: Heat

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Pt = mlv
lv = Pt
m
Precautions
The immersion heater must be fully immersed in the water to avoid or reduce direct heat
loss to the surroundings.
Discussions
The value of the specific latent heat of vaporization of water ,l v determined in the
experiment is larger than the standard value of lv.
This is because the experimental value of the mass of water evaporated ,m less than
the expected m due to some heat loss to the surroundings.
The smaller the mass m, the greater the specific latent heat of fusion of ice,lv,
lv = Pt
m

.
Applications of Specific Latent Heat in Everyday Life
(1) When we are engaged in strenuous activities , sweating cools our bodies. The sweat
evaporates and the bodies heat is removed as the latent heat of vaporisation.thus our bodies
temperature is decreased.
(2) Drinks can be cooled by adding in several cubes of ice. When the ice is melting , the latent
heat of fusion is absorbed from the drinks. The temperature of the drinks is lowered.
(3) Food can be cooked by using steam. Food such as cakes, eggs, fish, buns and others receive
a large amount of energy when the latent heat of vaporization of steam released from
condensing steam.
4.4 Understanding the gas laws
Gas pressure, temperature and volume in terms of gas molecules.
The kinetic theory of gases was proposed to explain the gas laws. The basic assumptions are:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

All gases are made up of a very large number of tiny molecules.

These molecules are constantly moving around randomly at high speeds.
The molecules collide elastically with anything they meet. If they hit the inner walls of the
container , they bounce off again at the same speed.
The molecules are so small and so far apart that they almost never collide with each other.
So the volume of the gas molecules themselves is negligible with the volume of container,
that is, almost all the gas is empty space.
They do not exert any forces on each other ,but move randomly. There is no intermolecular
attractive forces. Intermolecular forces of repulsion act only during collisions between
molecules; the duration of collisions is negligible compare compared with the time interval
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Chapter 4: Heat

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between collisions.
How the gas pressure is produced?

Based on the assumptions of kinetic theory of gases , molecules of a gas will occupy
the entire available space and collisions occur between molecules and the walls of
container.
Imagine a molecule of mass m approaching one wall with velocity , v .
Its momemtum = mv.
It rebounds with velocity (-v) because it experiences an elastic collision.
Its momentum now is - mv.
So the change of momentum = 2mv
According to Newtons second law of motion , force is exerted on the wall of container
because force is the rate change of momentum
F = change of momentum
time
As the result gas pressure is produced because by the definition of pressure;

Pressure is Force per unit area P =

Hence the gas pressure in the container is the total force , produced by the collision
between molecules and the walls of container.
The higher the average velocity of the molecules in the gas, the greater pressure
exerted by the gas.

F
A

What happen when a gas is heated?

As a gas is heated , the molecules move faster because the kinetic energy of the gas
molecules is proportional to the temperature of the gas. As the result the pressure of the gas
increases if the volume of the gas is fixed.

Therefore a fixed mass

of a gas in a container
has three
characteristics , i.e
pressure, volume and

Gas law

Boyle

Relationship Constant Application

T
1. The bubbles formed
P 1
by a fish expand as
V
they floats towards
or
the surface.
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Chapter 4: Heat

temperature. The
relationship between
these characteristics
can be explained by
the three gas laws.

The three gas laws are

shown in the following
table.

Boyles Law
Equation

P1V1 = P2V2

Form 4

2. Bicycle pump

V T
Charles

Pressure

V1 V2

T1
T2

P T
P1
P
2
T1 T2

1. Hot- air balloon

1.Car tyres after a long

drive become very
firm.

Boyles law states that For a fixed mass at constant temperature, the
pressure of gas is inversely proportional to its volume
Or
P 1
if T constant
V
Where
P=
pressure
V=
volume
T=
temperature
Or P = k
V
PV = k
P1 V1 = P2 V2

Graph

Boyles Law and

the kinetic theory
of gases.

Imaging a sample of gas being compressed , with the temperature

staying constant.

The molecules are squeezed closer together. As a result , the frequency

of collisions between the molecules and the walls of the container
increases .

Therefore , the force increases resulting in a corresponding increase in

the pressure of the gas.
P= F
A

The average kinetic energy of the molecules of the gas remains

unchanged but they are now confined to a smaller space.

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Chapter 4: Heat

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i.e. as volume decreases , pressure increases

Charles
Law

Charless law states that For a fixed mass at constant pressure, the
volume of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature
V T
V = KT
V =K
T

Charles Law and

the kinetic theory
of gases

The Pressure Law

Where

V = Volume
T = Absolute temperature

V1 = V2
T1
T2

In fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the frequency of collisions

between the gas molecules and the walls container is constant.
As the gas is heated , the molecules move faster. They collide with
the walls more frequently and at greater speed.
So they exert a larger pressure on the walls of the containers.
As a result , the gas will expand if it is able to. This allows molecules
to spread out a little which reduces the number of collisions per
second with each unit area of the walls.
The gas continues to expand until the pressure is back to its original
value.
i.e. if temperature is increased but pressure stays the same, the
volume must increase.

The pressure law states that For a fixed mass at constant volume, the
pressure of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature

P T
P = KT
P =K
T

Where P = Pressure
T = Absolute temperature
P1 = P2
T1
T2

The pressure Law

and the kinetic
theory of gases

The sample of gas is kept at constant volume.

As the temperature of the gas rises, its molecules move more rapidly.
As the result, they collide with the walls of the container at higher
frequency , the change of momentum is greater ,and so the force they
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Chapter 4: Heat

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exert on the walls is larger.

As a consequence, the force and hence the pressure increases.
P= F
A
i.e. as temperatures increases , pressure increases

Absolute Temperature,T

The Kelvin scale is known as the absolute temperature scale.

o C = ( + 273 ) K
The absolute zero temperature of -273 oC or 0 K is the
lowest possible temperature that could be attained.
Based on Charles Law and the pressure law, at the
absolute zero temperature the volume and the pressure
of the gas become zero.

If absolute zero temperature is related to the kinetic

energy of molecules, then we might expect that there
would be a temperature where the molecules would be
stationary and their kinetic energy would be zero.

At absolute zero the kinetic energy of molecules is a

minimum. No object can be cooled to a lower
temperature than this.

67