Convolutional Codes: Dr. Chih-Peng Li (李志鵬)

Chapter10
Convolutional Codes
Dr. Chih-Peng Li ()
Table of Contents
10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes
10.2 Structural Properties of Convolutional Codes
10.3 Distance Properties of Convolutional Codes
Convolutional Codes
Convolutional codes differ from block codes in that the encoder
contains memory and the n encoder outputs at any time unit
depend not only on the k inputs but also on m previous input
blocks.
An (n, k, m) convolutional code can be implemented with a kinput, n-output linear sequential circuit with input memory m.
Typically, n and k are small integers with k<n, but the memory order m
must be made large to achieve low error probabilities.
In the important special case when k=1, the information sequence

is not divided into blocks and can be processed continuously.
Convolutional codes were first introduced by Elias in 1955 as an
alternative to block codes.
3
Convolutional Codes
Shortly thereafter, Wozencraft proposed sequential decoding as an
efficient decoding scheme for convolutional codes, and
experimental studies soon began to appear.
In 1963, Massey proposed a less efficient but simpler-toimplement decoding method called threshold decoding.
Then in 1967, Viterbi proposed a maximum likelihood decoding
scheme that was relatively easy to implement for cods with small
memory orders.
This scheme, called Viterbi decoding, together with improved
versions of sequential decoding, led to the application of
convolutional codes to deep-space and satellite communication in
early 1970s.
4
Convolutional Code
A convolutional code is generated by passing the information
sequence to be transmitted through a linear finite-state shift
register.
In general, the shift register consists of K (k-bit) stages and n
linear algebraic function generators.
Convoltuional Code
Convolutional codes
k = number of bits shifted into the encoder at one time
k=1 is usually used!!
n = number of encoder output bits corresponding to the k
information bits
Rc = k/n = code rate
K = constraint length, encoder memory.
Each encoded bit is a function of the present input bits and their
past ones.
Note that the definition of constraint length here is the same as
that of Shu Lins, while the shift registers representation is
different.
6
Encoding of Convolutional Code

Example 1:
Consider the binary convolutional encoder with constraint
length K=3, k=1, and n=3.
The generators are: g1=[100], g2=[101], and g3=[111].
The generators are more conveniently given in octal form
as (4,5,7).
Encoding of Convolutional Code

Example 2:
Consider a rate 2/3 convolutional encoder.
The generators are: g1=[1011], g2=[1101], and g3=[1010].
In octal form, these generator are (13, 15, 12).
Representations of Convolutional Code

There are three alternative methods that are often used
to describe a convolutional code:
Tree diagram
Trellis diagram
State disgram

Tree diagram
Note that the tree diagram in the
right repeats itself after the third
stage.
This is consistent with the fact that
the constraint length K=3.
The output sequence at each stage is
determined by the input bit and the
two previous input bits.
In other words, we may sat that the
3-bit output sequence for each input
bit is determined by the input bit and
the four possible states of the shift
Tree diagram for rate 1/3,
register, denoted as a=00, b=01,
K=3 convolutional code.
c=10, and d=11.
10

Trellis diagram
Tree diagram for rate 1/3, K=3 convolutional code.

11

State diagram
0
1
a
a a
c
0
1
b
a b
c
0
1
c
b c
d
0
1
d
b d
d
State diagram for rate 1/3,

K=3 convolutional code.
12

Example: K=2, k=2, n=3 convolutional code
Tree diagram
13

Trellis diagram
14

State diagram
15

In general, we state that a rate k/n, constraint length K,
convolutional code is characterized by 2k branches emanating
from each node of the tree diagram.
The trellis and the state diagrams each have 2k(K-1) possible states.
There are 2k branches entering each state and 2k branches leaving
each state.
16

Example: A (2, 1, 3) binary convolutional codes:
the encoder consists of an m= 3-stage shift register together with

n=2 modulo-2 adders and a multiplexer for serializing the
encoder outputs.
The mod-2 adders can be implemented as EXCLUSIVE-OR gates.
Since mod-2 addition is a linear operation, the encoder is a

linear feedforward shift register.
All convolutional encoders can be implemented using a linear
feedforward shift register of this type.
17

The information sequence u =(u0, u1, u2, ) enters the encoder
one bit at a time.
Since the encoder is a linear system, the two encoder output
sequence v (1) = ( 0(1) ,1(1) , 2(1) , ) and v ( 2 ) = ( 0( 2 ) ,1( 2 ) , 2( 2 ) , )can
be obtained as the convolution of the input sequence u with the
two encoder impulse response.
The impulse responses are obtained by letting u =(1 0 0 ) and
observing the two output sequence.
Since the encoder has an m-time unit memory, the impulse
responses can last at most m+1 time units, and are written as :
g (1) = ( g 0(1) , g1(1) , , g m(1) )

g ( 2 ) = ( g 0( 2 ) , g1( 2 ) , , g m( 2 ) )
18

The encoder of the binary (2, 1, 3) code is
g (1) = (1 0 1 1)
g ( 2 ) = (1 1 1 1)
The impulse response g(1) and g(2) are called the generator
sequences of the code.
The encoding equations can now be written as
v (1) = u g (1)
v ( 2) = u g ( 2)
where * denotes discrete convolution and all operations are mod-2.
The convolution operation implies that for all l 0,

m
l( j ) = ul i gi( j ) = ul g 0( j ) + ul 1 g1( j ) +
i =0
where ul i = 0 for all l < i.

19
+ ul m g m( j ) , j = 1, 2,.

Hence, for the encoder of the binary (2,1,3) code,
l(1) = ul
+ ul 2 + ul 3
l( 2 ) = ul + ul 1 + ul 2 + ul 3
as can easily be verified by direct inspection of the encoding
circuit.
After encoding, the two output sequences are multiplexed into a
signal sequence, called the code word, for transmission over the
channel.
The code word is given by
v = ( 0(1) 0( 2 ) ,1(1)1( 2 ) , 2(1) 2( 2 ) , ).

20

Example 10.1
Let the information sequence u = (1 0 1 1 1). Then the
output sequences are
v (1) = (1 0 1 1 1) (1 0 1 1) = (1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1)
v (2) = (1 0 1 1 1) (1 1 1 1) = (1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1)
and the code word is
v = (1 1, 0 1, 0 0, 0 1, 0 1, 0 1, 0 0, 1 1).
21

If the generator sequence g(1) and g(2) are interlaced and then
arranged in the matrix
g 0(1) g 0( 2 )
G=
g1(1) g1( 2 )
g 0(1) g 0( 2 )
g 2(1) g 2( 2 )
g1(1) g1( 2 )
g 0(1) g 0( 2 )
g m(1) g m( 2 )
g m(1) 1 g m( 2)1
g m(1) 2 g m( 2)2
g m(1) g m( 2 )
g m(1) 1 g m( 2)1
g m(1) g m( 2 )
where the blank areas are all zeros, the encoding equations can
be rewritten in matrix form as v = uG.
G is called the generator matrix of the code. Note that each
row of G is identical to the preceding row but shifted n = 2
places to right, and the G is a semi-infinite matrix,
corresponding to the fact that the information sequence u is of
arbitrary length.
22

If u has finite length L, then G has L rows and 2(m+L)
columns, and v has length 2(m + L).
Example 10.2
If u=(1 0 1 1 1), then
v = uG
11 0 1
11
= (1 0 1 1 1)
= (1 1, 0 1, 0 0, 0
11 11
01 11 11
11 01 11 11
11 0 1 11
11 0 1
1, 0 1, 0 1, 0 0,
11
11 11
1 1),
agree with our previous calculation using discrete convolution.

23

Consider a (3, 2, 1) convolutional codes
Since k = 2, the encoder
consists of two m = 1stage shift registers
together with n = 3
mode-2 adders and two
multiplexers.
24

The information sequence enters the encoder k = 2 bits at a time,
and can be written as
u = (u 0(1) u 0( 2 ) , u1(1) u1( 2 ) , u 2(1) u 2( 2 ) , )
u (1) = (u 0(1) , u1(1) , u 2(1) , )

u (2) = (u 0( 2 ) , u1( 2 ) , u 2( 2 ) , )
There are three generator sequences corresponding to each input
sequence.
( j)
( j)
( j)
( j)
g
=
(
g
,
g
,
,
g
Let i
i ,0
i ,1
i , m ) represent the generator sequence
corresponding to input i and output j, the generator sequence of
the (3, 2, 1) convolutional codes are
or as the two input sequences
g1(1) = (1 1),
g (21) = (0 1),
g1(2) = (0 1),
g (2)
2 = (1 0),
25
g1(3) = (1 1),
g (3)
2 = (1 0),

And the encoding equations can be written as
v (1) = u (1) g1(1) + u ( 2 ) g (21)

v ( 2 ) = u (1) g1( 2 ) + u ( 2 ) g (22 )
v ( 3) = u (1) g1( 3) + u ( 2 ) g (23)
The convolution operation implies that
l(1) = ul(1)
+ u l(1)1 + u l(21)
l( 2 ) =
u l( 2 ) + u l(1)1
l(3) = ul(1) + ul( 2 ) + ul(1)1 ,
After multiplexing, the code word is given by
v = ( 0(1) 0( 2 ) 0(3) ,1(1)1( 2 )1(3) , 2(1) 2( 2 ) 2( 3) , ).
26

Example 10.3
If u(1) = (1 0 1) and u(2) = (1 1 0), then
v (1) = (1 0 1) (1 1) + (1 1 0) (0 1) = (1 0 0 1)
v ( 2 ) = (1 0 1) (0 1) + (1 1 0) (1 0) = (1 0 0 1)
v ( 3) = (1 0 1) (1 1) + (1 1 0) (1 0) = (0 0 1 1)
and
v = (1 1 0, 0 0 0 , 0 0 1, 1 1 1).
27

The generator matrix of a (3, 2, m) code is
g1(,10) g1(,20) g1(,30) g1(,11) g1(,21) g1(,31)
g1(,1m) g1(,2m) g1(,3m)

(1) ( 2 ) (3)
(1) ( 2 ) ( 3)
(1)
( 2 ) ( 3)
g 2, m g 2, m g 2, m
g 2, 0 g 2, 0 g 2, 0 g 2,1 g 2,1 g 2,1
G=
g1(,10) g1(,20) g1(,30)
g1(,1m) 1 g1(,2m) 1 g1(,3m) 1 g1(,1m) g1(,2m) g1(,3m)
(1) ( 2 ) ( 3)
(1)
( 2)
( 3)
(1)
( 2 ) ( 3)
g 2, 0 g 2, 0 g 2, 0
g 2, m 1 g 2, m 1 g 2, m 1 g 2, m g 2, m g 2, m
and the encoding equation in matrix are again given by v = uG.

Note that each set of k = 2 rows of G is identical to the
preceding set of rows but shifted n = 3 places to right.
28

Example 10.4
If u(1) = (1 0 1) and u(2) = (1 1 0), then u = (1 1, 0 1, 1 0) and
v = uG
1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 111
= (1 1, 0 1, 1 0)
0 11 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0
= (1 1 0, 0 0 0, 0 0 1, 1 1 1),
it agree with our previous calculation using discrete convolution.
29

In particular, the encoder now contains k shift registers, not all
of which must have the same length.
If Ki is the length of the ith shift register, then the encoder
memory order m is defined as m max K i
1 i k
An example of a (4, 3, 2)
convolutional encoder in
which the shift register
length are 0, 1, and 2.
30

The constraint length is defined as nAn(m+1).
Since each information bit remains in the encoder for up to m+1
time units, and during each time unit can affect any of the n
encoder outputs, nA can be interpreted as the maximum number
of encoder outputs that can be affected by a signal information
bit.
For example, the constraint length of the (2,1,3), (3,2,1), and
(4,3,2) convolutional codes are 8, 6, and 12, respectively.
31

If the general case of an (n, k, m) code, the generator matrix is
Gm
G 0 G 1 G 2
G
G
G
G
0
1
m 1
m
G=
G0
G m 2 G m 1 G m
where each Gl is a k n submatrix whose entries are

g1(,1l) g1(,2l )
g1(,nl )
(1)
( 2)
(n)
g 2,l g 2,l
g 2 ,l
Gl =
(1)
( 2)
(n)
g k ,l
g k ,l g k ,l
Note that each set of k rows of G is identical to the previous set
of rows but shifted n places to the right.
32

For an information sequence
u = (u 0 , u1 , ) = (u 0(1) u 0( 2 ) u 0( k ) , u1(1) u1( 2 ) u1( k ) , )
and the code word v = ( v 0 , v1 , ) = ( 0(1) 0( 2) 0( n ) ,1(1)1( 2) 1( n ) , )
is given by v = uG.
Since the code word v is a linear combination of rows of the
generator matrix G, an (n, k, m) convolutional code is a linear
code.
33

A convolutional encoder generates n encoded bits for each k
information bits, and R = k/n is called the code rate.
For an kL finite length information sequence, the corresponding
code word has length n(L + m), where the final nm outputs are
generated after the last nonzero information block has entered the
encoder.
Viewing a convolutional code as a linear block code with
generator matrix G, the block code rate is given by kL/n(L + m),
the ratio of the number of information bits to the length of the code
word.
If L m, then L/(L + m) 1, and the block code rate and
convolutional code are approximately equal .
34

If L were small, however, the ratio kL/n(L + m), which is the
effective rate of information transmission, would be reduced
below the code rate by a fractional amount
k n kL n( L + m)
m
=
k n
L+m
called the fractional rate loss.
To keep the fractional rate loss small, L is always assumed to be
much larger than m.
Example 10.5
For a (2,1,3) convolutional codes, L=5 and the fractional rate loss
is 3/8=37.5%. However, if the length of the information sequence
is L=1000, the fractional rate loss is only 3/1003=0.3%.
35

In a linear system, time-domain operations involving convolution
can be replaced by more convenient transform-domain operations
involving polynomial multiplication.
Since a convolutional encoder is a linear system, each sequence
in the encoding equations can be replaced by corresponding
polynomial, and the convolution operation replaced by
polynomial multiplication.
In the polynomial representation of a binary sequence, the
sequence itself is represent by the coefficients of the polynomial.
For example, for a (2, 1, m) code, the encoding equations become
v (1) ( D) = u( D)g (1) ( D)

v ( 2 ) ( D) = u( D)g ( 2 ) ( D),
where u(D) = u0 + u1D + u2D2 + is the information sequence.
36

The encoded sequences are
v (1) ( D ) = 0(1) + 1(1) D + 2(1) D 2 +

v ( 2 ) ( D ) = 0( 2 ) + 1( 2 ) D + 2( 2 ) D 2 +
The generator polynomials of the code are
g (1) ( D ) = g 0(1) + g1(1) D + + g m(1) D m
g ( 2 ) ( D ) = g 0( 2 ) + g1( 2 ) D + + g m( 2 ) D m
and all operations are modulo-2.
After multiplexing, the code word become
v ( D) = v (1) ( D 2 ) + Dv ( 2 ) ( D 2 )
the indeterminate D can be interpreted as a delay operator, and
the power of D denoting the number of time units a bit is
delayed with respect to the initial bit.
37

Example 10.6
For the previous (2, 1, 3) convolutional code, the generator
polynomials are g(1)(D) = 1+D2+D3 and g(2)(D) = 1+D+D2+D3.
For the information sequence u(D) = 1+D2+D3+D4, the encoding
equation are
v (1) ( D) = (1 + D 2 + D 3 + D 4 )(1 + D 2 + D 3 ) = 1 + D 7
v ( 2 ) ( D) = (1 + D 2 + D 3 + D 4 )(1 + D + D 2 + D 3 )
= 1+ D + D3 + D4 + D5 + D7 ,
v ( D) = v(1) ( D2 ) + Dv(2) ( D2 ) = 1 + D + D3 + D7 + D9 + D11 + D14 + D15 .

Note that the result is the same as previously computed using convolution
and matrix multiplication.
38

The generator polynomials of an encoder can be determined
directly from its circuit diagram.
Since the shift register stage represents a one-time-unit delay,
the sequence of connection (a 1 representing a connection and a
0 no connection) from a shift register to an output is the
sequence of coefficients in the corresponding generator
polynomial.
Since the last stage of the shift register in an (n, 1) code must be
connected to at least one output, at least one of the generator
polynomials must have degree equal to the shift register length
m, that is
m = max deg g ( j ) (D )
1 j n
39

In an (n, k) code where k>1, there are n generator polynomials
for each of the k inputs.
Each set of n generators represents the connections from one of
the shift registers to the n outputs.
The length Ki of the ith shift register is given by
K i = max deg g i( j ) (D ) ,
1 j n
1 i k,
where g i( j ) (D ) is the generator polynomial relating the ith input

to the jth output, and the encoder memory order m is
m = max K i = max deg g i( j ) .

1 i k
1 j n
1 i k
40

Since the encoder is a linear system, and u(i)(D) is the ith input
sequence and v(j)(D)is the jth output sequence, the generator
polynomial g i( j ) (D )can be interpreted as the encoder transfer
function relating input i to output j.
As with k-input, n-output linear system, there are a total of kn
transfer functions.
These can be represented by the k n transfer function matrix
G (D)
g1(1) ( D ) g1( 2) ( D )
(1)
( 2)
g 2 ( D ) g 2 ( D )
=
g (1) ( D ) g ( 2) ( D )
k
k
41
( D )
(n)
g 2 ( D )
g1(
n)
n
g (k ) ( D )

Using the transfer function matrix, the encoding equation for an
(n, k, m) code can be expressed as
V (D ) = U(D )G (D )
where U ( D ) u (1) ( D ), u (2) ( D ), , u ( k ) ( D ) is the k-tuple of
input sequences and V ( D ) v (1) ( D ), v (2) ( D ), , v ( n ) ( D ) is
the n-tuple of output sequences.

After multiplexing, the code word becomes
( )
( )
v(D ) = v (1) D n + Dv (2 ) D n +
42
( )
+ D n 1 v (n ) D n .

Example 10.7
For the previous (3, 2, 1) convolutional code
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 + D D 1 + D
0 1 1 1 0 0
G (D ) =
1
1
D
For the input sequences u(1)(D) = 1+D2 and u(2)(D)=1+D, the
encoding equations are
1 + D D 1 + D
(1)
(2 )
(3 )
2
V (D ) = v (D ), v (D ), v (D ) = 1 + D ,1 + D
D
1
1
= 1 + D 3 ,1 + D 3 , D 2 + D 3
] [
[
v ( D ) = (1 + D 9 ) + (1 + D 9 ) D + ( D 6 + D 9 ) D 2
= 1 + D + D8 + D 9 + D10 + D11
43

Then, we can find a means of representing the code word v(D)
directly in terms of the input sequences.
A little algebraic manipulation yields
( )
v (D ) = u (i ) D n g i (D )
i =1
where
gi ( D )
(1)
gi
( D ) + Dg ( D ) +
n
( 2)
n 1
( n 1)
D gi
(D ),
n
1 i k,
is a composite generator polynomial relating the ith input

sequence to v(D).
44

Example 10.8
For the previous (2, 1, 3) convolutional codes, the composite
generator polynomial is
( )
( )
g (D ) = g (1) D 2 + Dg (2 ) D 2 = 1 + D + D 3 + D 4 + D 5 + D 6 + D 7
and for u(D)=1+D2+D3+D4 , the code word is
v ( D ) = u ( D2 ) g ( D )
= (1 + D 4 + D 6 + D8 ) (1 + D + D 3 + D 4 + D 5 + D 6 + D 7 )
= 1 + D + D 3 + D 7 + D 9 + D11 + D14 + D15
again agreeing with previous calculations.
45
10.2 Structural Properties of Convolutional

Codes
Since a convolutional encoder is a sequential circuit, its
operation can be described by a state diagram.
The state of the encoder is defined as its shift register contents.
For an (n, k, m) code with k > 1, the ith shift register contains Ki
previous information bits.
k
Defined K i =1 K i as the total encoder memory, the encoder
state at time unit l is the binary K-tuple of inputs
(u ( ) u ( )
1
1
l 1 l 2
u l(1)K1
u l(21)u l(2 2)
u l(2 K) 2
u l(k1)u l(k 2)
and there are a total 2K different possible states.
46
u l(k K) k

Codes
For a (n, 1, m) code, K = K1 = m and the encoder state at time
unit l is simply (u l 1u l 2 u l m ).
Each new block of k inputs causes a transition to a new state.
There are 2k branches leaving each state, one corresponding to
each different input block. Note that for an (n, 1, m) code, there
are only two branches leaving each state.
Each branch is labeled with the k inputs causing the transition
ul(1) ul( 2 ) ul( k ) and n corresponding outputs ( l(1) l( 2 ) l( n ) ) .
The states are labeled S0,S1,,S2K-1, where by convention Si
represents the state whose binary K-tuple representation
b0,b1,,bK-1 is equivalent to the integer
i = b0 20 + b1 21 +
47
+ bK 1 2 K 1

Codes
Assuming that the encoder is initially in state S0 (all-zero state),
the code word corresponding to any given information
sequence can be obtained by following the path through the
state diagram and noting the corresponding outputs on the
branch labels.
Following the last nonzero information block, the encoder is
return to state S0 by a sequence of m all-zero blocks appended
to the information sequence.
48

Codes
Encoder state diagram of a (2, 1, 3) code
If u = (1 1 1 0 1), the code word

v = (1 1, 1 0, 0 1, 0 1, 1 1, 1 0, 1 1, 1 1)
49

Codes
Encoder state diagram of a (3, 2, 1) code
50

Codes
The state diagram can be modified to provide a complete
description of the Hamming weights of all nonzero code words
(i.e. a weight distribution function for the code).
State S0 is split into an initial state and a final state, the selfloop around state S0 is deleted, and each branch is labeled with
a branch gain Xi ,where i is the weight of the n encoded bits on
that branch.
Each path connecting the initial state to the final state
represents a nonzero code word that diverge from and remerge
with state S0 exactly once.
The path gain is the product of the branch gains along a path,
and the weight of the associated code word is the power of X in
the path gain.
51

Codes
Modified encoder state diagram of a (2, 1, 3) code.
The path representing the sate sequence S0S1S3S7S6S5S2S4S0

has path gain X2X1X1X1X2X1X2X2=X12.
52

Codes
Modified encoder state diagram of a (3, 2, 1) code.
The path representing the sate sequence S0S1S3S2S0

has path gain X2X1X0X1 =X12.
53

Codes
The weight distribution function of a code can be determined
by considering the modified state diagram as a signal flow
graph and applying Masons gain formula to compute its
generating function
T ( X ) = Ai X i ,
i
where Ai is the number of code words of weight i.

In a signal flow graph, a path connecting the initial state to the
final state which does not go through any state twice is called a
forward path.
A closed path starting at any state and returning to that state
without going through any other state twice is called a loop.
54

Codes
Let Ci be the gain of the ith loop.
A set of loops is nontouching if no state belongs to more than one
loop in the set.
Let {i} be the set of all loops, {i, j} be the set of all pairs of
nontouching loops, {i, j, l} be the set of all triples of
nontouching loops, and so on.
Then define = 1 Ci + Ci ' C j ' Ci '' C j '' Cl '' + ,
i
i' , j'
i '' , j '' , l ''
Ci ' C j 'is the product of

where Ci is the sum of the loop gains,
i
i' , j'
the loop gains of two nontouching loops summed over all pairs of
C j '' Cl '' is the product of the loop gains of
nontouching loops, '' '' C
i ''
i , j , l ''
three nontouching loops summed over all nontouching loops.
55

Codes
And i is defined exactly like , but only for that portion of the
graph not touching the ith forward path; that is, all states along
the ith forward path, together with all branches connected to
these states, are removed from the graph when computing i.
Masons formula for computing the generating function T(X) of
a graph can now be states as
T (X ) =
F
i
where the sum in the numerator is over all forward paths and Fi
is the gain of the ith forward path.
56

Codes
Example (2,1,3) Code:
There are 11 loops in the
modified encoder state
diagram.
Loop 1 : S 1 S 3 S 7 S 6 S 5 S 2 S 4 S 1
Loop 2 : S 1 S 3 S 7 S 6 S 4 S 1
Loop 3 : S 1 S 3 S 6 S 5 S 2 S 4 S 1
Loop 4 : S 1 S 3 S 6 S 4 S 1
Loop 5 : S 1 S 2 S 5 S 3 S 7 S 6 S 4 S 1
Loop 6 : S 1 S 2 S 5 S 3 S 6 S 4 S 1
Loop 7 : S 1 S 2 S 4 S 1
Loop 8 : S 2 S 5 S 2
Loop 9 : S 3 S 7 S 6 S 5 S 3
Loop 10 : S 3 S 6 S 5 S 3
Loop 11 : S 7 S 7
57
(C
(C
(C
(C
(C
(C
(C
= X8
= X3
= X7
= X2
= X9
= X8
= X3
= X5
(C 8
(C
(C
10
= X)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
= X4
(C11 = X )

Codes
Example (2,1,3) Code: (cont.)
There are 10 pairs of nontouching loops :
Loop pair 1 : (loop 2 , loop 8)
Loop pair 2 : (loop 3, loop 11)

Loop pair 6 : (loop 7 , loop 9 )
Loop pair 7 : (loop 7 , loop 10 )
58
(C C
(C C
(C C
(C C
(C C
(C C
(C C
(C C
(C C
(C C
2
11
8
)
=X )
=X )
=X )
=X )
=X )
=X )
=X )
=X )
=X )
= X4
11
11
9
10
11
11

Codes
Example (2,1,3) Code : (cont.)
There are two triples of nontouching loops :
(C C C
Loop triple 2 : (loop 7, loop 10, loop 11 ) (C C C
Loop triple 1 : (loop 4, loop 8, loop 11 )
10
11
= X4
11
= X8
There are no other sets of nontouching loops. Therefore,
(
+ (X
(X
= 1 X 8 + X 3 + X 7 + X 2 + X 4 + X 3 + X 3 + X + X 5 + X 4 + X
4
+ X8 + X3 + X3 + X4 + X8 + X7 + X4 + X2 + X5
+ X 8 = 1 2X + X 3
59

Codes
There are seven forward paths in this state diagram :
(
)
(F = X )
(F = X )
(F = X )
(F = X )
(F = X )
(F = X ).
Foward path 1 : S 0 S1 S 3 S 7 S 6 S 5 S 2 S 4 S 0 F1 = X 12
Foward path 2 : S 0 S1 S 3 S 7 S 6 S 4 S 0
Foward path 3 : S 0 S1 S 3 S 6 S 5 S 2 S 4 S 0
Foward path 4 : S 0 S1 S 3 S 6 S 4 S 0
Foward path 5 : S 0 S1 S 2 S 5 S 3 S 7 S 6 S 4 S 0
Foward path 6 : S 0 S1 S 2 S 5 S 3 S 6 S 4 S 0
Foward path 7 : S 0 S1 S 2 S 4 S 0
60
11

Codes
Forward paths 1 and 5 touch all states in the graph, and
hence the sub graph not touching these paths contains no
states. Therefore,
1 = 5 = 1.
The subgraph not touching forward paths 3 and 6:
3 = 6 = 1 - X
61

Codes
The subgraph not touching
forward path 2:
2 = 1 - X
forward path 4:
4 = 1 (X + X) + (X2)
= 1 2X + X2
62

Codes
forward path 7:
7 = 1 (X + X4 + X5) + (X5)
= 1 X X4
63

Codes
The generating function for this graph is then given by
X 12 1 + X 7 (1 X ) + X 11 (1 X )
+ X 6 1 2 X + X 2 + X 8 1 + X 7 (1 X ) + X 7 1 X X 4
T (X ) =
3
X
1
2
X6 + X7 X8
6
7
8
9
10
=
=
X
+
3
X
+
5
X
+
11
X
+
25
X
+
3
1 2X X
T(X) provides a complete description of the weight

distribution of all nonzero code words that diverge from and
remerge with state S0 exactly once.
In this case, there is one such code word of weight 6, three of
weight 7, five of weight 8, and so on.
64

Codes
There are eight loops, six pairs of nontouching loops, and one
triple of nontouching loops in the graph of previous modified
encoder state diagrams : (3, 2, 1) code, and
(
+ (X
= 1 X 2 + X 4 + X 3 + X + X 2 + X 1 + X 2 + X 3
6
) ( )
+X2 +X4 +X3+X4 +X5 X6
= 1 2 X 2 X 2 X 3 + X 4 + X 5.
65

Codes
There are 15 forward path in this graph, and
5
2
3
5
4
2
6
5
3
F
=
X
1
X
+
X
+
X
1
X
+
X
1
+
X
1
X
i i
i
(
(
+ X 4 1 + X 3 1 X X 2 + X 6 1 X 2 + X 6 1 + X 5 (1 X )
+ X 8 1 + X 4 1 X X 2 X 3 + X 4 + X 7 1 X 3
+ X 6 1 + X 3 (1 X ) + X 6 1
= 2 X 3 + X 4 + X 5 + X 6 X 7 X 8.
Hence, the generating function is

2X 3 + X 4 + X 5 + X 6 X 7 X 8
3
4
5
=
2
X
+
5
X
+
15
X
+
T (X ) =
2
3
4
5
1 2X 2X X + X + X
This code contains two nonzero code word of weight 3, five

of weight 4, fifteen of weight 5, and so on.
66

Codes
Additional information about the structure of a code can be
obtained using the same procedure.
If the modified state diagram is augmented by labeling each
branch corresponding to a nonzero information block with Y j,
where j is the weight of the k information bits on the branch, and
labeling every branch with Z, the generating function is given
by
T ( X , Y , Z ) = Ai , j ,l X Y Z .
i
i , j ,l
The coefficient Ai,j,l denotes the number of code words with

weight i, whose associated information sequence has weight j,
and whose length is l branches.
67

Codes
The augment state diagram for the (2, 1, 3) codes.
68

Codes
For the graph of the augment state diagram for the (2, 1, 3)
codes, we have:
= 1 ( X 8Y 4 Z 7 + X 3Y 3 Z 5 + X 7Y 3 Z 6 + X 2Y 2 Z 4 + X 4Y 4 Z 7
+ X 3Y 3 Z 6 + X 3YZ 3 + XYZ 2 + X 5Y 3 Z 4 + X 4Y 2 Z 3 + XYZ )

+ ( X 4Y 4 Z 7 + X 8Y 4 Z 7 + X 3Y 3 Z 6 + X 3Y 3 Z 5 + X 4Y 4 Z 7
+ X 8Y 4 Z 7 + X 7Y 3 Z 6 + X 4Y 2 Z 4 + X 2Y 2 Z 3 + X 5Y 3 Z 4 )
X 4Y 4 Z 7 + X 8Y 4 Z 7
(
(Z
)
(
) X (Y Z
= 1 + XY Z + Z 2 X 2Y 2 Z 4 Z 3 X 3 YZ 3 Y 3 Z 6
X 4Y 2
Z4
69
Y 4 Z 7 X 9Y 4 Z 7

Codes
12 4 8
7 3 6
2
11 3 7
F
X
Y
Z
X
Y
Z
XYZ
X
Y Z (1 XYZ )
1
+
1
+
i i
i
+ X 6Y 2 Z 5 (1 XY Z + Z 2 + X 2Y 2 Z 3 ) + X 8Y 4 Z 8 1
+ X 7Y 3 Z 7 (1 XYZ ) + X 7YZ 4 1 XYZ X 4Y 2 Z 3

= X 6Y 2 Z 5 + X 7YZ 4 X 8Y 2 Z 5
Hence the generating function is

X 6Y 2 Z 5 + X 7YZ 4 X 8Y 2 Z 5
T (X ,Y , Z ) =
= X 6Y 2 Z 5 + X 7 YZ 4 + Y 3 Z 6 + Y 3 Z 7
+ X 8 Y 2 Z 6 + Y 4 Z 7 + Y 4 Z 8 + 2Y 4 Z 9
70
)
)+

Codes
This implies that the code word of weight 6 has length 5
branches and an information sequence of weight 2, one code
word of weight 7 has length 4 branches and information
sequence weight 1, another has length 6 branches and
information sequence weight 3, the third has length 7 branches
and information sequence weight 3, and so on.
71
The Transfer Function of a Convolutional

Code
The state diagram can be used
to obtain the distance property
of a convolutional code.
Without loss of generality, we
assume that the all-zero code
sequence is the input to the
encoder.
72

Code
First, we label the branches of the state diagram as either D0=1,
D1, D2, or D3, where the exponent of D denotes the Hamming
distance between the sequence of output bits corresponding to
each branch and the sequence of output bits corresponding to the
all-zero branch.
The self-loop at node a can be eliminated, since it contributes
nothing to the distance properties of a code sequence relative to
the all-zero code sequence.
Furthermore, node a is split into two nodes, one of which
represents the input and the other the output of the state diagram.
73

Code
Use the modified state diagram, we can obtain four state
equations:
X c = D 3 X a + DX b
X b = DX c + DX d
X d = D2 X c + D2 X d
X e = D2 X b
The transfer function for the code is defined as T(D)=Xe/Xa. By
solving the state equations, we obtain:
D6
d
6
8
10
12
T ( D) =
D
D
D
D
a
D
=
+
2
+
4
+
8
+
=
d
2
1 2D
d =6
2(d 6 ) 2 (even d )
ad =
0
(odd d )
74

Code
The transfer function can be used to provide more detailed
information than just the distance of the various paths.
Suppose we introduce a factor N into all branch transitions
caused by the input bit 1.
Furthermore, we introduce a factor of J into each branch of the
state diagram so that the exponent of J will serve as a counting
variable to indicate the number of branches in any given path
from node a to node e.
75

Code
The state equations for the state diagram are:
X c = JND 3 X a + JNDX b
X b = JDX c + JDX d
X d = JND 2 X c + JND 2 X d
X e = JD 2 X b
Upon solving these equations for the ratio Xe/Xa, we obtain the
transfer function:
J 3 ND 6
T ( D, N , J ) =
1 JND 2 (1 + J )
= J 3 ND 6 + J 4 N 2 D8 + J 5 N 2 D8 + J 5 N 3 D10
+ 2 J 6 N 3 D10 + J 7 N 3 D10 +
76

Code
The exponent of the factor J indicates the length of the path that
merges with the all-zero path for the first time.
The exponent of the factor N indicates the number of 1s in the
information sequence for that path.
The exponent of D indicates the distance of the sequence of
encoded bits for that path from the all-zero sequence.
Reference:
John G. Proakis, Digital Communications, Fourth Edition, pp.
477 482, McGraw-Hill, 2001.
77

Codes
An important subclass of convolutional codes is the class of
systematic codes.
In a systematic code, the first k output sequences are exact
replicas of the k input sequences, i.e.,
v(i) = u(i),
i = 1, 2, , k,
and the generator sequences satisfy
if j = i
( j) 1
, i = 1,2 ,...k,
gi =
if j i
0
78

Codes
The generator matrix is given by
0 Pm
I P0 0 P1 0 P2
I P0 0 P1
0 Pm 1 0 Pm
I P0
0 Pm 2 0 Pm 1 0 Pm
G=
where I is the k k identity matrix, 0 is the k k all-zero matrix,

and Pl is the k (n k) matrix
g1(,kl+1) g1(,kl+ 2 )
g (k +1) g (k + 2 )
2,l
Pl = 2,l
g (kk,l+1) g (kk,l+ 2 )
79
g1(,nl)
g (2n,l)
,
g (kn,l)

Codes
And the transfer matrix becomes
( k +1)
(n )
1 0
0 g 1 (D )
g1 (D )
0 1
0 g (2k +1) (D )
g (2n ) (D )
G (D ) =
0 0
1 g (kk +1) (D )
g (kn ) (D )
Since the first k output sequences equal the input sequences, they
are called information sequences and the last n k output
sequences are called parity sequences.
Note that whereas in general kn generator sequences must be
specified to define an (n, k, m) convolutional code, only k(n k)
sequences must be specified to define a systematic code.
Systematic codes represent a subclass of the set of all possible
codes.
80

Codes
Consider the (2, 1, 3) systematic code. The generator
sequences are g(1)=(1 0 0 0) and g(2)=(1 1 0 1). The generator
matrix is
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
G=
1 1 0
1
1
1
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
The (2, 1, 3)
systematic code.
81

Codes
The transfer function matrix is
g(1)=(1 0 0 0) and g(2)=(1 1 0 1).
G(D) = [1 1 + D + D3].
For an input sequence u(D) = 1 + D2 + D3, the information

sequence is
(1)
(D ) = u(D )g (D ) = (1 + D 2 + D 3 )1 = 1 + D 2 + D 3
(1)
and the parity sequence is
)(
v (2 ) (D ) = u(D )g (2 ) (D ) = 1 + D 2 + D 3 1 + D + D 3
= 1+ D + D2 + D3 + D4 + D5 + D6
82

Codes
One advantage of systematic codes is that encoding is somewhat
simpler than for nonsystematic codes because less hardware is
required.
For an (n, k, m) systematic code with k > n k , there exits a
modified encoding circuit which normally requires fewer than K
shift register states.
The (2, 1, 3) systematic

code requires only one
modulo-2 adder with
three inputs.
83

Codes
Example (3,2,2) Systematic Code:
Consider the (3, 2, 2) systematic code with transfer function
matrix
2
1 0 1 + D + D
G (D ) =
2
0
1
1
D
+
The straightforward realization of the encoder requires a total

of K = K1 + K2 = 4 shift registers.
84

Codes
Example (3,2,2) Systematic Code:
Since the information sequences are given by v(1)(D) = u(1)(D)
and v(2)(D) = u(2)(D), and the parity sequence is given by
v (3 ) (D ) = u (1) (D )g1(3 ) (D ) + u (2 ) (D )g (23 ) (D ) ,
The (3, 2, 2) systematic encoder, and it requires

only two stages of encoder memory rather than 4.
85

Codes
A complete discussion of the minimal encoder memory required
to realize a convolutional code is given by Forney.
In most cases the straightforward realization requiring K states of
shift register memory is most efficient.
In the case of an (n,k,m) systematic code with k>n-k, a simpler
realization usually exists.
Another advantage of systematic codes is that no inverting circuit
is needed for recovering the information sequence from the code
word.
86

Codes
Nonsystematic codes, on the other hand, require an inverter to
recover the information sequence; that is, an n k matrix G-1(D)
must exit such that
G(D)G-1(D) = IDl
for some l 0, where I is the k k identity matrix.
Since V(D) = U(D)G(D), we can obtain
V(D)G-1(D) = U(D)G(D)G-1(D) = U(D)Dl ,
and the information sequence can be recovered with an l-timeunit delay from the code word by letting V(D) be the input to
the n-input, k-output linear sequential circuit whose transfer
function matrix is G-1(D).
87

Codes
For an (n, 1, m) code, a transfer function matrix G(D) has a
feedforward inverse G-1(D) of delay l if and only if
GCD[g(1)(D), g(2)(D),, g(n)(D)] = Dl
for some l 0, where GCD denotes the greatest common divisor.
n
For an (n, k, m) code with k > 1, let i (D ), i = 1, 2, , ,
k
n
be the determinants of the k distinct k k submatrices of the

transfer function matrix G(D).
A feedforward inverse of delay l exits if and only if
GCD i ( D) : i = 1, 2,
for some l 0.
88
, kn = D l


Codes
For the (2, 1, 3) code,
GCD 1 + D 2 + D 3 , 1 + D + D 2 + D 3 = 1 = D 0
and the transfer function matrix
2
+
+
1
D
D
1
G ( D) =
2
D+D
provides the required inverse of delay 0 [i.e., G(D)G1(D) = 1].
The implementation of the inverse is shown below
89

Codes
For the (3, 2, 1) code , the 2 2 submatrices of G(D) yield
determinants 1 + D + D2, 1 + D2, and 1. Since
GCD 1 + D + D 2 , 1 + D 2 , 1 = 1
there exists a feedforward inverse of delay 0.
The required transfer function matrix is
given by:
0
0
G 1 ( D ) = 1 1 + D
1
D
90

Codes
To understand what happens when a feedforward inverse does not
exist, it is best to consider an example.
For the (2, 1, 2) code with g(1)(D) = 1 + D and g(2)(D) = 1 + D2 ,
GCD 1 + D, 1 + D 2 = 1 + D,
and a feedforward inverse does not exist.
If the information sequence is u(D) = 1/(1 + D) = 1 + D + D2
+ , the output sequences are v(1)(D) = 1 and v(2)(D) = 1 + D;
that is, the code word contains only three nonzero bits even
though the information sequence has infinite weight.
If this code word is transmitted over a BSC, and the three
nonzero bits are changed to zeros by the channel noise, the
received sequence will be all zeros.
91

Codes
A MLD will then produce the all-zero code word as its
estimated, since this is a valid code word and it agrees
exactly with the received sequence.
The estimated information sequence will be
u(D
) = 0, by a
implying an infinite number of decoding errors
caused
finite number (only three in this case) of channel errors.
Clearly, this is a very undesirable circumstance, and the
code is said to be subject to catastrophic error propagation,
and is called a catastrophic code.
1
2
n
GCD g ( ) ( D ) , g ( ) ( D ) , , g ( ) ( D ) = D l and GCD i ( D )
: i = 1, 2,...., n = D l are necessary and sufficient conditions
k
for a code to be noncatastrophic.
()
92

Codes
Any code for which a feedforward inverse exists is
noncatastrophic.
Another advantage of systematic codes is that they are always
noncatastrophic.
A code is catastrophic if and only
if the state diagram contains a loop
of zero weight other than the
self-loop around the state S0.
Note that the self-loop around
the state S3 has zero weight.
State diagram of a (2, 1, 2)
catastrophic code.
93

Codes
In choosing nonsystematic codes for use in a
communication system, it is important to avoid the
selection of catastrophic codes.
Only a fraction 1/(2n 1) of (n, 1, m) nonsystematic
codes are catastrophic.
A similar result for (n, k, m) codes with k > 1 is still
lacking.
94
10.3 Distance Properties of Convolutional

Codes
The performance of a convolutional code depends on the
decoding algorithm employed and the distance properties of the
code.
The most important distance measure for convolutional codes is
the minimum free distance dfree, defined as
d free
min {d ( v, v ) : u u} ,
where v and v are the code words corresponding to the

information sequences u and u, respectively.
In equation above, it is assumed that if u and u are of
different lengths, zeros are added to the shorter sequence so
that their corresponding code words have equal lengths.
95

Codes
dfree is the minimum distance between any two code words in the
code. Since a convolutional code is a linear code,
d free = min {w ( v + v ) : u u}
= min {w ( v ) : u 0}
= min {w ( uG ) : u 0} ,
where v is the code word corresponding to the information
sequence u.
dfree is the minimum-weight code word of any length produced by
a nonzero information sequence.
96

Codes
Also, it is the minimum weight of all paths in the state diagram
that diverge from and remerge with the all-zero state S0, and it
is the lowest power of X in the code-generating function T(X).
For example, dfree = 6 for the (2, 1, 3) code of example 10.10(a),
and dfree = 3 for the (3, 2, 1) code of Example 10.10(b).
Another important distance measure for convolutional codes is
the column distance function (CDF).
Letting
() (
v
=
v
[ ]i 0 v0
1
2)
v0( ) , v1( ) v1(

n
2)
v1( ) , , vi( ) vi(

n
2)
vi(
n)
denote the ith truncation of the code word v, and
() ( )
( ) () ( )
( )
() (
u
=
u
u
u
,
u
u
u
,
,
u
[ ]i 0 0
0
1
1
1
i ui
denote the ith truncation of the code word u.
1
97
2)
ui(
k)

Codes
The column distance function of order i, di, is defined as
di
{(
min d [ v]i , [ v]i : [u]0 [u]0 ,
= min w [ v ]i : [u ]0 0
where v is the code word corresponding to the information

sequence u.
di is the minimum-weight code word over the first (i + 1) time
units whose initial information block is nonzero.
In terms of the generator matrix of the code,
[ v ]i = [u ]i [G ]i
98

Codes
[G]i is a k(i + 1) n(i + 1) submatrix of G with the form
or
G 0 G1
[G ]i = G 0
G 0 G1
G0
[G ]i =
Gi
G i 1 ,
G 0
G m 1 G m
G m 2 G m 1 G m
G m 1
G1
G 0 G1
G 0 G1
G0
99
i m,
Gm
G m 1
G1
G0
G m , i > m.
G m 1
G1
G 0

Codes
Then
di = min w ([u ]i [G ]i ) : [u ]0 0
is seen to depend only on the first n(i + 1) columns of G and this

accounts for the name column distance function.
The definition implies that di cannot decrease with increasing i
(i.e., it is a monotonically nondecreasing function of i).
The complete CDF of the (2, 1, 16) code with
G ( D ) = 1 + D + D 2 + D 5 + D 6 + D8 + D13 + D16 ,
1 + D 3 + D 4 + D 7 + D 9 + D10 + D11 + D12 + D14 + D15 + D16
is shown in the figure of the following page.
100

Codes
Column distance function of a (2,1,16) code
101

Codes
Two cases are of specific interest: i = m and i .
For i = m, dm is called the minimum distance of a convolutional
code and will also be denoted dmin.
From the definition di = min{w([u]i[G]i):[u]00}, we see that
dmin represents the minimum-weight code word over the first
constraint length whose initial information block is nonzero.
For the (2,1,16) convolutional code, dmin = d16 = 8.
For i , limi di is the minimum-weight code word of any
length whose first information block is nonzero.
Comparing the definitions of limi di and dfree, it can be shown
that for noncatastrophic codes
lim di = d free
i
102

Codes
di eventually reaches dfree and then increases no more. This
usually happens within three to four constraint lengths (i.e.,
when i reaches 3m or 4m).
Above equation is not necessarily true for catastrophic codes.
Take as an example the (2,1,2) catastrophic code whose
state diagram is shown in Figure10.11.
For this code, d0 = 2 and d1 = d2 = = limi di =3, since
the truncated information sequence [u]i =(1, 1, 1, , 1)
always produces the truncated code word [v]i =(1 1, 0 1, 0 0,
0 0,, 0 0), even in the limit as i .
Note that all paths in the state diagram that diverge from and
remerge with the all-zero state S0 have weight at least 4, and
dfree = 4.
103

Codes
Hence, we have a situation in which limi di = 3 dfree =
4.
It is characteristic of catastrophic codes that an infinite-weight
information sequence produces a finite-weight code word.
In some cases, as in the example above, this code word can
have weight less than the free distance of the code. This is due
to the zero weight loop in the state diagram.
In other words, an information sequence that cycles around this
zero weight loop forever will itself pick up infinite weight
without adding to the weight of the code word.
104

Codes
In a noncatastrophic code, which contains no zero weight loop
other than the self-loop around the all-zero state S0, all infiniteweight information sequences must generate infinite-weight
code words, and the minimum-weight code word always has
finite length.
Unfortunately, the information sequence that produces the
minimum-weight code word may be quite long in some cases,
thereby causing the calculation of dfree to be a rather formidable
task.
The best achievable dfree for a convolutional code with a given
rate and encoder memory has not been determined exactly.
Upper and lower bound on dfree for the best code have been
obtained using a random coding approach.
105

Codes
A comparison of the bounds for nonsystematic codes with the
bounds for systematic codes implies that more free distance is
available with nonsystematic codes of a given rate and encoder
memory than with systematic codes.
This observation is verified by the code construction results
presented in succeeding chapters, and has important
consequences when a code with large dfree must be selected for
use with either Viterbi or sequential decoding.
Heller (1968) derived the upper bound on the minimum free
distance of a rate 1/n convolutional code:
d free
2l 1
K + l 1) n
min l
(
l 1
2 1
106
Maximum Free Distance Codes

Rate
107

Rate 1/3
108

Rate 1/4
109

Rate 1/5
110

Rate 1/6
111

Rate 1/7
112

Rate 1/8
113

Rate 2/3
Rate k/5
114

Rate 3/4 and 3/8
Rate k/7
115

Convolutional Codes: Dr. Chih-Peng Li (李志鵬)

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Convolutional Codes: Dr. Chih-Peng Li (李志鵬)

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Chapter10

In the important special case when k=1, the information sequence

Encoding of Convolutional Code

Encoding of Convolutional Code

Representations of Convolutional Code

Representations of Convolutional Code

Representations of Convolutional Code

Tree diagram for rate 1/3, K=3 convolutional code.

Representations of Convolutional Code

State diagram for rate 1/3,

Representations of Convolutional Code

Representations of Convolutional Code

Representations of Convolutional Code

Representations of Convolutional Code

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

the encoder consists of an m= 3-stage shift register together with

Since mod-2 addition is a linear operation, the encoder is a

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

g (1) = ( g 0(1) , g1(1) , , g m(1) )

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

where * denotes discrete convolution and all operations are mod-2.

The convolution operation implies that for all l 0,

where ul i = 0 for all l < i.

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

v = ( 0(1) 0( 2 ) ,1(1)1( 2 ) , 2(1) 2( 2 ) , ).

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

agree with our previous calculation using discrete convolution.

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

u (1) = (u 0(1) , u1(1) , u 2(1) , )

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

v (1) = u (1) g1(1) + u ( 2 ) g (21)

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

g1(,1m) g1(,2m) g1(,3m)

and the encoding equation in matrix are again given by v = uG.

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

where each Gl is a k n submatrix whose entries are

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

v (1) ( D) = u( D)g (1) ( D)

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

v (1) ( D ) = 0(1) + 1(1) D + 2(1) D 2 +

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

v ( D) = v(1) ( D2 ) + Dv(2) ( D2 ) = 1 + D + D3 + D7 + D9 + D11 + D14 + D15 .

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

where g i( j ) (D ) is the generator polynomial relating the ith input

m = max K i = max deg g i( j ) .

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

the n-tuple of output sequences.

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

and the code word is

10.1 Encoding of Convolutional Codes

is a composite generator polynomial relating the ith input