Best Power Practice Japan PDF

ASIA-PACIFIC PARTNERSHIP on Clean Development and Climate
This textbook has been prepared by Japanese electric power companies as a

contribution to PGT-06-01: Best Practices for Power Generation one of the
activities undertaken by the Power Generation and Power Distribution Task Force in
the context of the ASIA-PACIFIC PARTNERSHIP on Clean Development and
Climate. The textbook describes important issues associated with maintaining, and
enhancing, levels of heat efficiency at a coal-fired thermal power plants, and
constitutes a summary of matters of which all technicians working in power
generation plants need to be aware. It would give us considerable satisfaction if this
textbook provides useful guidance to technicians in the course of day-to-day
operations, and in the carrying out of maintenance, at coal-fired thermal power plants.
In the course of preparing this textbook, we have quoted extracts from books and
Bulletins of the Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society.
The authors
would like to extend their warmest appreciation to individual writers of these books
and Bulletins, as well as to the Societies itself, for their willingness to provide such
valuable information, and thus to make this textbook possible.
April, 2007
The Federation of Electric Power Companies of Japan
List of Authors (Titles Dispensed and Omitted and Listed in Random Order)
Kazuhiro Sakai:
Satoshi Tanishima:
Kenichiro Kawashima:
Tatsurou Yamaoka:
Shinichi Taniguchi:
Terunori Kobayashi:
Noriyuki Sonoda:
Susumu Sakata:
Shin Katayama:
Takashi Maruta:
Takashi Naganuma:
Yoshiaki Fukuzawa:
Yoshitaka Oka:
Section Manager, Affair Infrastructure Sec. Thermal Power Dept.

Hokkaido Electric Power Co., Inc.
Manager, Planning Group, Thermal Power Department,
Tokyo Electric Power Company
Deputy Manager, Planning Group, Thermal Power Department,
Tokyo Electric Power Company,
Manager, Overseas Project Group, Thermal Power Plant Engineering Center,
Thermal Power Department,
Mechanical Engineering & Asset Management Strategist, Overseas Project Group,
Thermal Power Department,
Manager, Operations & Maintenance Section, Thermal Power Department,
Chubu Electric Power Co., Inc.
Assistant Manager, Thermal Power Administration Sect. Power Generation Div.
The Chugoku Electric Power Co., Inc.
Staff Assistant Manager, Thermal Power Mechanical Engineering Sect. Power
Generation Div.
The Chugoku Electric Power Co., Inc.
Assistant Manager, Technical Section, Karatsu Power Station,
Kyushu Electric Power Co., Inc.
Technical Section, Karatsu Power Station, Kyushu Electric Power Co., Inc.
Senior Research Engineer, Environment And Chemistry Engineering Group,
Research Laboratory,
Kyushu Electric Power Co., Inc.
Manager, Plant Management Group No.1, Thermal Power Dept.
Electric Power Development Co., Ltd.
Assistant Manager, Plant Management Group No.1, Thermal Power Dept.
Electric Power Development Co., Ltd.
Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society

Masaru Wakao:
Deputy General Manager, Thermal Power Department, Thermal And Nuclear

Power Engineering Society
Secretariat
Masato Hasegawa:
Hirofumi Kazuno:
Tomoaki Koga:
Yasunori Eitoku:
Masato Ishimura:
Manager, Siting and Environment,

The Federation of Electric Power Companies
Deputy General Manager, Siting and Environment,
Manager, Engineering Department,
Manager, Engineering Department,
Deputy General Manager, Engineering Department, The Federation of
Electric Power Companies
Table of Contents
Chapter 1
Summary of Thermal Power Generation in Japan
1
1
1.1
History of Electric Power Companies in Japan
1.2
History of the Power Plant and the Role of Thermal Power Generation in Japan
1.3
Movements in Thermal Efficiency of Thermal Power Plants in Japan and Outlook
for Thermal Power Generation Technology in the Future
Chapter 2 Functional and Operational Control of Thermal Power Plants
12
2.1
Operation Control
12
2.2
Power Supply Operations
22
2.3
Start-up and Stop Operation Control
25
2.4
Performance Management
39
2.5
57
2.6
Example of Operation Control and Performance Management

(Hokkaido Electric Power Co., Inc)
Combustion of Coal
2.7
Examples for the Operation of Soot Blowers
133
Chapter 3 Maintenance and Efficiency Control of Thermal Power Plants
103
142
3.1
Maintenance and Administration of Aged Thermal Power Plants
142
3.2
Boilers and Auxiliary Machines
163
3.3
Water Quality Control of Boiler
200
3.4
Turbines and Auxiliary Machines
263
3.5
Power Generators
330
3.6
Efficiency and Operation Improvement of Thermal Power Plants
366
Chapter 4 Environmental Preservation Provision of Facilities
376
4.1
Environmental Preservation Measures of Thermal Power Plants
376
4.2
Dust Precipitator
393
4.3
Desulphurization Equipment
409
4.4
Denitrification Equipment
427
4.5
Maintenance of Environmental Protection System
448
4.6
Waste Treatment and Effective Use
457
References
1. Summary of thermal power generation in Japan

1.1 History of electric power companies in Japan
Electricity supply in Japan is carried out by independent regional electric power companies, which require close
communication to operate efficiently. In 1952, the nine major electric power companies established the Federation
of Electric Power Companies (FEPC) to promote smooth operations within the industry. Since then, the FEPC has
played an important role as a base for communication between the power companies and as a forum for
exchanging ideas on the evolution of the environment in the electricity industry. The FEPC undertakes various
activities aimed at ensuring operations of the electricity industry in keeping with the development of the country
as a whole.
With the restoration of Okinawa to Japan in 1972, the Okinawa Electric Power Company resumed its
participation in Japan's electric power industry, becoming a full FEPC member in March 2000.
Fig. 1.1-1 Service Areas by Company
1.2 History of the power plant and the role of thermal power generation in Japan
Electricity consumption in Japan has expanded almost consistently after the world war . Further, in recent
years, the need has intensified for a comfortable life as seen in the progression of computerization and the
proliferation of air conditioners, and even though the Japanese economy has entered a stable growth period,
electric power demand shows no signs of slowing down. In addition, new problems are starting to appear as the
demand increases.
Let consider the current situation and future of electricity consumption.
Due to the betterment of people's living standards, comfortable living is sought and the role of electricity in
living starting with air conditioning is growing increasingly. Moreover, due to the progression of a highly
intelligent community as a result of IT innovation including the computer and communication, the role of
electricity is increasing in all aspects of industry and living. From these facts, over the course of time, the
percentage of electricity consumption among consumption of other energies (electrification ratio) is running high.
Although the electric power demand is dependent on the trends in the business climate and those in politics and
the community, even in recent years when the Japanese economy has entered a stable growth period, it continues
to increase due to the progression of computerization and the proliferation of air conditioners.
Electric power in Japan is supplied mainly by thermal (oil, LNG, coal, etc.), hydro, and nuclear power
generation. There are 1,300 or more power plants in all parts of Japan to meet the electric power demand
growing steadily due to an upsurge in the desire to seek comfortable living, computerization, graying, etc.
Ratio of electric power accounting for primary energies

(electrification ratio)
Domestic supply of primary energies
PJ (Petajoules=1015J)
denotes the percentage that electric power accounts for
(Fiscal )
(Note) 1PJ equals a heating value of about 25,800 kl of crude oil.

Source: Comprehensive Energy Statistics (2003 version)
Fig.1.2-1: Ratio of electric power accounting for primary energies

(electrification ratio)
The role of electric energy, being useful and easy to use, is intensifying year after year, and the ratio of electric
energy to the consumption of all energies has now reached about 40%.
Track record and outlook of power generated by source.

(Hundred million kWh)
Oil, etc.
Coal
Natural gas
(LNG)
Hydro
Geothermal power
generation and new
Power generated yearly
Nuclear power
(Note) 1. Oil, etc. includes LPG, other gases and bituminous mixtures.
2. Due to rounding off, there may be cases where the total value
Source:
does not equal 100%.
3. Total of 10 electric power companies. Power received is included.
4. The numeric values in the graph represent the segment share (%).
Fig.1.2-2:
(Fiscal)
Outline of Fiscal 2005 Supply Program
(March 2005) and others
Track record and outlook of power generated by Source.
Power generated increases with each passing year, and we cope with the demand for increasing electric power
while planning departure from the use of oil through the use of nuclear energy, natural gas (LPG), etc.
As our lives become convenient and rich, the role of electricity serving in our lives continues to expand. The
amount of electricity usage varies significantly depending on the time period of the day and the season.
When we look at the electric consumption on an annual basis, in recent years, the growth in the summer season
is significant due to air conditioning, and when we look at it on a daily basis, the maximum consumption is
marked at about 2:00 p.m. when the heat in midsummer reaches its peak. The difference between the maximum
and the minimum values of electricity consumption is more and more on an increasing trend. The increase in
home air conditioners has a significant effect on this.
On the other hand, electricity is an energy that is impossible to be stored. Although a plant that generates
electric power is built to the peak of demand (maximum electric power demand), when the electric power demand
varies significantly according to season and time period, efficiency in the utilization of the power plant lowers,
and as a result, the cost to deliver the electricity will be comparatively high.
Movements in how electricity is used over one day in midsummer

(Merging of 10 electric power companies)
(Million kW)
July 20, 2004

July 24, 2001
August 25, 1995
August 7, 1990
August 29, 1995
July 31, 1975
(Time)
(Note) Merging of 9 electric power companies
only in 1975
Survey conducted by the Federation of Electric Power

Companies of Japan
Fig. 1.2-3 Movements in how the electricity is used over one day in midsummer
For electric power demand, there is a significant difference between daytime and nighttime in one day. This
reflects the fact that while a good amount of electricity is used by plants and offices in the daytime, industrial
activities are not performed much at night. In addition, even in the daytime, the amount of electricity used
decreases from 12:00 to 13:00 p.m. when plants and offices are in a lunch break.
During the day on a hot summer day, electric power demand for air conditioning increases. The consumption at
the peak in the daytime reaches about 2 times that in the time period in a day when the consumption is lowest.
Movements in how the electricity is used over one year

(Merging of 10 electric power companies)
(Million kW)
(All-time maximum)
Fiscal 2001
Fiscal 2004
Fiscal 1995
Fiscal 1990
Fiscal 1985
Fiscal 1975
Fiscal 1968
Fiscal 1967
(Month)
(Note) Merging of 9 electric power companies before
1975
Survey conducted by the Federation of Electric Power

Companies of Japan
Fig.1.2-4: Movements in how the electricity is used over one year

When we look at electric power demand on a month-by-month basis, there is a big change in how the electricity
is used even through one year. Electricity demand registered its peak during the summer season of fiscal 1968,
and currently, there are 2 peaks in the summer and the winter in conjunction with the upsurge in electric power
demand used for heating in winter. In particular, the increase in the peak in summer is remarkable, showing a big
gap compared with spring and autumn when there is low demand for air conditioning. The gap in electric power
demand due to the season will cause the efficiency of the utilization rate of plant to lower together with scale-up
of the gap due to the time period, and will contribute to increasing the cost to deliver the electricity to the
consumer.
[Combination in response to the characteristics of the source]
Although the amount of electricity usage varies, as it is impossible to store the electricity, and it is necessary to
adjust the amount of electricity to be generated with reference to the electric power demand. Electric power
companies combine a variety of electric power generation systems for the purpose of meeting electric power
demand that varies every moment.
Efforts to cope with peak electric power demand
During the day when electricity is used in large amounts, a power plant must generate high-volume electricity.
Provision for peak electric power demand is made by an oil-fired thermal power and pumped-storage
hydroelectric power generation, which are excellent in coping with electric power demand that can vary.
Supplying base electric power demand
On the other hand, base electric power demand is supplied by nuclear power generation and hydro power
generation (run-off river type) taking the power generation cost and environment load into account.
Combined use of sources
Further, in Japan, most energy resources rely on imports from abroad. To supply electricity with stability in the
future as well, taking the limited fossil resources, global environmental issues, further economics, etc. into
account, we intend to combine the resources in well-balanced way making use of characteristics of each type of
power generation including hydro, thermal, and nuclear, thereby dispersing the risk by not relying on one source.
Electricity demand varies during the day or at night even in one day. In electric utilities, the features of hydro,
thermal, and nuclear power generation such as operation characteristics, economics, and efforts to cope with
global environmental issues are judged comprehensively to combine various kinds of sources in an optimum
balance.
Pumped-storage
hydroelectric power
Equalizing pool-type
hydro
Water reservoir-type
hydro
Supply capacity to cope

with peak electric power
demand
Oil

with middle electric
power demand
LNG, LPG, and other gases
Coal
Nuclear power
with base electric power
demand
Run-off river-type hydro/geothermal power generation

(Time)
Fig.1.2-5: Combination of sources for electric power demand
Table 1.2-1: Characteristics of respective sources and optimum combination

Power generation
system
Pumped-storage
hydroelectric power
Equalizing pool-type
hydro
Water reservoir-type
hydro
Oil-fired thermal
power
LNG, LPG, and other

gas-fired thermal
power
Coal-fired thermal
power
Supply capacity
Characteristics
Supply capacity to
cope with peak
electric power
demand
Supply capacity to
cope with peak
electric power
demand
Finds application as a supply capacity to cope with sudden

fluctuation in demand and peak demand because it copes very
easily with fluctuation in electric power demand.
Supply capacity to
cope with peak
electric power
demand
Supply capacity to
cope with middle
electric power
demand
Supply capacity to
cope with base and
middle electric power
demands
Although the initial cost is high, this is excellent

economically from the viewpoint of average service life, and
because it copes extremely easily with fluctuation in electric
power demand, this type finds application as a supply
capacity for peak demand.
Although the running cost is relatively high, the capital cost is
low and it is excellent in coping with fluctuation in electric
power demand, thereby finding application as a supply
capacity for peak demand.
The running cost is low, and with respect to the capital cost as
well, it is cheaper than a coal-fired thermal power and it is
excellent in coping with fluctuation in electric power demand,
thereby finding application as a supply capacity for middle
demand.
Although the capital cost is high, it copes more easily than
nuclear power with fluctuation in electric power demand,
thereby finding application as a supply capacity for
intermediate demand between that for base demand and that
for middle demand.
Nuclear power
Run-off river-type
hydro power
generation
Supply capacity to
cope with base
electric power
demand
Supply capacity to
cope with base
electric power
demand
Supply capacity for peak demand:

Supply capacity for middle demand:
Supply capacity for base demand:
Although the capital cost is high, the running cost is low,

whereby this can perform the operation at a high utilization
rate as a supply capacity for base demand.
Although the initial cost is high, it is excellent economically
from the viewpoint of average service life, and it finds
application as a supply capacity for base demand.
A source whose amount of electricity to be generated can easily be

adjusted
A source that has the two features of peak electric power demand and
base electric power demand
A source that supplies a constant volume of electricity
1.3 Movements in thermal efficiency of thermal power plants in Japan and outlook for thermal
power generation technology in the future
Since the first Rankine cycle-based thermal (steam) power generation plant (Steam pressure: 0.59MPa (gage)
(6atg), 7.5kW (10HP) was manufactured by Charles A. Persons in 1884, the thermal efficiency of steam power
generation plants has improved significantly together with improvement of steam conditions (higher
temperature/higher pressure) and larger capacity.
In Japan as well, LNG-fired supercritical pressure (SC) plants whose main steam pressure was 24.3 MPa (gage)
(246 atg) and whose main/reheat steam temperature was 538/566 C came into operation in the form of Tokyo
Electric Power Company's Anegasaki thermal plant Unit No.1 in 1967. Subsequently, similar steam conditions
were adopted for coal-fired plants, and in 1989, 2-stage reheat LNG-fired Ultra Supercritical pressure (USC)
thermal power generation whose main steam pressure was 31.0 MPa (gage) (316atg) and whose ultrasupercritical-pressure/high-pressure/middle-pressure steam temperature was 566/566/566 C came into operation
at CHUBU Electric Power Company's Kawagoe thermal power plant Unit No.1. As described earlier,
improvement of steam conditions has been planned steadily. However, in recent years, the growth of steam
conditions has become relatively slow, and as shown in the figure, the thermal efficiency of steam power
generation moves at little over 40%.
Slowdown trends in rise of thermal efficiency of thermal (steam) power generation achieved a significant
change through the introduction of LNG combined cycle power generation using a full-scale exhaust heat
recovery system with a turbine inlet temperature (TIT) of the 1100- C-class gas turbine as a core at TOHOKU
Electric Power Company's Higashi Niigata Unit group No.3 in 1984. As shown in the figure, through the
adoption of combined cycle power generation system combining the Brayton cycle (gas turbine) and the Rankine
cycle (steam turbine), the thermal efficiency of the thermal power plant rose in a stroke to about 44%. TIT of gas
turbines for commercial use has risen at a rate of about 20 C/year on average due to progression of cooling
technology and development of heat-resistant materials. In November 1999, the advanced combined cycle
power generation cycle (ACC) consisting mainly of a 1,450- C-class gas turbine begun commercial operation at
TOHOKU Electric Power Company's Higashi Niigata Unit group No.4-1, and 50% thermal efficiency, having
which had been a dream for a long time in the thermal power generation sector, was attained. During this period,
a number of LNG combined cycle power generation plants were introduced one after another, and attained an
excellent track record of operation with high thermal efficiency, load change, etc. The installed capacity of LNG
combined cycle power generation at the end of 2001 reached 22 million kW in total across the 6 Electric Power
Companies & 21 groups, coming to account for 17% of the installed capacity of all commercial-use thermal
power generation.
Currently, in addition, TOKYO Electric Power Company's Futtsu thermal power plant Unit group 3 & group 4,
Shinagawa thermal power plant Unit group No.1, Kawasaki thermal power plant Unit group No.1, TOHOKU
Electric Power Company's Unit group No.4-2, etc. are in the advanced stage of construction, and the thermal
efficiency of ACC under construction is planned to be 50 to 53%.
On the other hand, with respect to coal-fired thermal power, improvement in the steam condition of coal-fired
USC thermal power generation continues steadily such as at CHUBU Electric Power Company's Hekinan thermal
power plant Unit No.3 (main steam pressure: 24.1 MPa (gage) (246 atg), main/reheat steam temperature:
538/593 C), Electric Power Development Company's Matsuura thermal power plant Unit No.2, HOKURIKU
Electric Power Company's Nanao Ohta thermal power plant Unit No.2 (main steam pressure: 24.1 MPa (gage)
(246 atg), main/reheat steam temperature: 593/593 C), TOHOKU Electric Power Company's Haramachi thermal
power plant Unit No.2, CHUGOKU Electric Power Company's Misumi power plant Unit No.1 (main steam
pressure: 24.5 MPa (gage) (250atg), main/reheat steam pressure: 600/600 C), Electric Power Development
Company's Tachibanawan thermal power plant Unit No. 1 & No.2 (main steam pressure: 25 Mpa (gage) (255atg),
Gross thermal efficiency [%] HHV
main/reheat steam pressure: 600/610 C), which have started operation.

In addition, pressurized fluidized bed combustion (PFBC) combined cycle generation plants combining
expansion and steam turbines started operation at HOKKAIDO Electric Power Company's Tomatoh Atsuma Unit
No.3 in 1998, CHUGOKU Electric Power Company's Oosaki Unit No.1-1 in 2000, and KYUSHU Electric Power
Company's Kanda Unit No.1 in 2001. Through these, the thermal efficiency of coal-fired thermal power plants
reached about 43%.
Combined cycle power generation
(Gas/Steam turbine)
Kawasaki
Higashiniigata#4
Himeichi#5
Higashiniigata#3
Yokohama #7, 8
Shinkokura#2 Anesaki#1 Kashima#5

Chiba#1
Chiba#2
Kawagoe#1
Hitachinaka#1
Kanda#1
Steam power generation

(Boiler/Steam turbine)
Fiscal year
Fig.1.3-1: Developments in thermal efficiency of thermal power generation
Table 1.3-1: Major coal-fired thermal power generation plants in Japan (1959 - 1985)
Era
No.
1
From
1976 to
1985
Power plant
Sumitomo joint electric

Niihamanishi
power co., Ltd
Unit
Approved
output
Steam conditions
Unit No.1
75
10.0MPa-538 C/538 C
Tohoku
Sendai
Unit No.1
175
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
Kyushu
Minato
Unit No.1
156
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
Tohoku
Sendai
Unit No.2
175
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
Chugoku
Mizushima
Unit No.1
125
12.5MPa-538 C/538 C
Tohoku
Sendai
Unit No.3
175
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
Unit No.2
75
10.0MPa-538 C/538 C
Before
1975
Electric power
company

Niihamanishi
power co., Ltd
Manufacturer
Turbine
Generator
Mitsubishi
MHI
MHI
Electric
Corp.
Babcock- GE, Hitachi,
Hitachi, Ltd.
Hitachi K.K.
Ltd.
Mitsubishi
MHI
MHI
Electric
Corp.
BabcockHitachi, Ltd. Hitachi, Ltd.
Hitachi K.K.
Hitachi K.K.
Hitachi K.K.
Mitsubishi
MHI
MHI
Electric
Corp.
Hitachi K.K.
Mitsubishi
MHI
MHI
Electric
Corp.
Toshiba
Toshiba
MHI
Corp.
Corp.
Mitsubishi
MHI
MHI
Electric
Corp.
Hitachi K.K.
Toshiba
Toshiba
IHI
Corp.
Corp.
Mitsubishi
MHI
MHI
Electric
Corp.
Mitsubishi
MHI
MHI
Electric
Corp.
Boiler
Operation
started from
1959-08
1959-10
1960-09
1960-11
1961-11
1962-06
0962-07
Chugoku
Mizushima
Unit No.2
156
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
Kyushu
Omura
Unit No.2
156
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
10
Shikoku
Saijo
Unit No.1
156
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
11
Chugoku
Shimonoseki
Unit No.1
175
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
12
J-POWER
Takehara
Unit No.1
250
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
13
Hokkaido
Naie
Unit No.1
175
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
14
J-POWER
Takasago
Unit No.1
250
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
15
J-POWER
Takasago
Unit No.2
250
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
16
Hokkaido
Naie
Unit No.2
175
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
IHI
Hitachi, Ltd. Hitachi, Ltd.
1970-02
17
Shikoku
Saijo
Unit No.2
250
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
IHI
1970-06
18
Jyoban Joint
Power Co.
Nakoso
Unit No.7
250
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
MHI
1970-10
19
Tobata Co-operative
Thermal Power
Company, Inc.
Tobata Cooperative
Thermal Power
Company, Inc.
Unit No.2
156
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
MHI
20
Toyama Kyodo
Toyamashinko
Unit No.1
250
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
21
Toyama Kyodo
Toyamashinko
Unit No.2
250
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
22

power co., Ltd
Mibugawa
Unit No.1
250
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
23
Hokkaido
Sagawa
Unit No.3
125
12.5MPa-538 C/538 C
MHI
Fuji
Fuji
1977-06
Unit No.1
350
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
MHI
Toshiba
Corp.
Toshiba
Corp.
1977-10
Unit No.2
350
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
MHI
Unit No.1
350
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
BabcockHitachi K.K.
Unit No.1
500
24.1MPa-538 C/538 C
MHI
24
Sakata kyodo
power company,
Ltd.
25
Sakata kyodo
power company,
Ltd.
26
Hokkaido
27
J-POWER
Sakata kyodo
power
company,
Ltd.
Sakata kyodo
power
company,
Ltd.
Tomatoh
Atsuma
Matsushima
28
J-POWER
Matsushima
Unit No.2
500
24.1MPa-538 C/538 C
29
Hokkaido
Sagawa
Unit No.4
125
17.7MPa-538 C/538 C
30
31
32
33
J-POWER
Jyoban Joint
Power Co.
Jyoban Joint
Power Co.
Hokkaido
Takehara
Unit No.3
700
24.1MPa-538 C/538 C
Nakoso
Unit No.8
600
24.1MPa-538 C/566 C
MHI

Hitachi K.K.
Hitachi K.K.
Mitsubishi
MHI
MHI
Electric
Corp.

Toshiba
Corp.
Toshiba
Corp.
1964-08
1965-11
1967-03
1967-07
1968-06
1968-07
1969-01
1971-06
1971-09
1972-06
1975-03
1978-10
1980-10
1981-01
MHI
Toshiba
Corp.
Toshiba
Corp.
1981-06
KHI
Fuji
Fuji
1982-05

Hitachi K.K.
MHI
Nakoso
Unit No.9
600
24.1MPa-538 C/566 C
IHI
Toshiba
Corp.
Tomatoh
Atsuma
Unit No.2
600
24.1MPa-538 C/566 C
IHI
Hitachi, Ltd.
Mitsubishi
Electric
Corp.
1963-08
1983-03
1983-09
Toshiba
Corp.
1983-12
Hitachi, Ltd.
1985-10
Table 1.3-2: Major coal-fired thermal power generation plants in Japan (1986 - 2005)
Era
From
1986 to
1995
Electric power
company
Power plant
Unit
Approved
output
Steam conditions
34
Chugoku
Shinonoda
Unit No.1
500
24.1MPa-538 C/566 C
IHI
35
J-POWER
Ishikawa
Unit No.1
156
18.6MPa-566 C/566 C
KHI
Fuji
Fuji
1986-11
IHI
Toshiba
Corp.
Toshiba
Corp.
1987-01
Fuji
Fuji
36
Chugoku
37
38
39
Boiler
Shinonoda
Unit No.2
500
24.1MPa-538 C/566 C
J-POWER
Ishikawa
Unit No.2
156
18.6MPa-566 C/566 C
KHI
Kyushu
Matsuura
Unit No.1
700
24.1MPa-538 C/566 C
MHI
J-POWER
Matsuura
Unit No.1
1000
24.1MPa-538 C/566 C
BabcockHitachi K.K.
40
Chubu
Hekinan
Unit No.1
700
24.1MPa-538 C/566 C
MHI
41
Hokuriku
Tsuruga
Unit No.1
500
24.1MPa-566 C/566 C
MHI
42
Chubu
Hekinan
Unit No.2
700
24.1MPa-538 C/566 C
BabcockHitachi K.K.
43
Chubu
Hekinan
Unit No.3
700
Generator
Toshiba
Corp.

MHI
Toshiba
Corp.
Toshiba
Corp.
Mitsubishi
Electric Corp.
Toshiba
Corp.
Toshiba
Corp.
Operation
started from
1986-04
1987-03
1989-06
1990-06
1991-10
1991-10
1992-06
1993-04
1993-06
24.1MPa-538 C/593 C
IHI
MHI
Mitsubishi
Electric Corp.
BabcockHitachi K.K.
Fuji
Fuji
44
Tohoku
Noshiro
Unit No.1
600
24.5MPa-538 C/566 C
45
Okinawa
Gushikawa
Unit No.1
156
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
KHI
1994-03
24.1MPa-538 C/566 C
BabcockHitachi K.K.
1994-07
46
47
Soma Kyodo
Tohoku
Shinchi
Noshiro
Unit No.1
Unit No.2
1000
600
24.1MPa-566 C/593 C
48
Hokuriku
Nanao Ohta
Unit No.1
500
24.1MPa-566 C/593 C
49
Okinawa
Gushikawa
Unit No.2
156
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
50
J-POWER
Takehara
Unit No.2
350
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
IHI
BabcockHitachi K.K.
BabcockHitachi K.K.
BabcockHitachi K.K.
Toshiba
Corp.
MHI
MHI
Toshiba
Corp.
Toshiba
Corp.
Soma Kyodo
Shinchi
Unit No.2
1000
24.1MPa-538 C/566 C
MHI
52
Kyushu
Reihoku
Unit No.1
700
24.1MPa-566 C/566 C
IHI
53
J-POWER
Matsuura
Unit No.2
1000
24.1MPa-593 C/593 C
BabcockHitachi K.K.
MHI
Tohoku
Haramachi
Unit No.1
1000
24.1MPa-566 C/593 C
MHI
Toshiba
Corp.
55
Hokkaido
Tomatoh
Atsuma
Unit No.3
85
16.6MPa-566 C/538 C
MHI
MHI
56
Chugoku
Misumi
Unit No.1
1000
24.5MPa-600 C/600 C
MHI
MHI
IHI
Toshiba
Corp.
57
58
Hokuriku
Tohoku
Nanao Ohta
Haramachi
Unit No.2
Unit No.2
700
1000
24.1MPa-593 C/593 C
24.1MPa-600 C/600 C
59
Shikoku
Tachibana wan
Unit No.1
700
24.1MPa-566 C/593 C
60
J-POWER
Tachibana wan
Unit No.1
1050
25.0MPa-600 C/610 C
61
Hokuriku
Tsuruga
Unit No.2
700
24.1MPa-593 C/593 C
BabcockHitachi K.K.
BabcockHitachi K.K.
IHI
MHI
BabcockHitachi K.K.
BabcockHitachi K.K.
62
J-POWER
Tachibana wan
Unit No.2
1050
25.0MPa-600 C/610 C
63
Chugoku
Osaki
Unit No.1
250
16.6MPa-566 C/593 C
360
24.1MPa-566 C/593 C
IHI
64
Kyushu
Kanda
New Unit
No.1
65
Chubu
Hekinan
Unit No.4
1000
24.1MPa-566 C/593 C
IHI
66
Okinawa
Kin
Unit No.1
220
16.6MPa-566 C/566 C
MHI
67
68
J-POWER
Isogo
Unit No.1
600
25.0MPa-600 C/610 C
IHI
Hokkaido
Tomatoh
Atsuma
Unit No.4
700
25.0MPa-600 C/600 C
IHI
69
Chubu
Hekinan
Unit No.5
1000
24.1MPa-566 C/593 C
IHI
70
Okinawa
Kin
Unit No.2
220
16.6MPa-566 C/566 C
MHI
71
Kyushu
Reihoku
Unit No.2
700
24.1MPa-593 C/593 C
MHI
Toshiba
Corp.
Toshiba
Corp.
Mitsubishi
Electric Corp.
Toshiba
Corp.
Mitsubishi
Electric Corp.
Mitsubishi
Electric Corp.
Toshiba
Corp.

Toshiba
Corp.
Toshiba
Corp., GE
Toshiba
Corp.
MHI
GT: ALSTOM
ST: TOSHIBA
Toshiba
Corp.
72
Tokyo
Hitachinaka
Unit No.1
1000
24.5MPa-600 C/600 C
73
Tokyo
Hirono
Unit No.5
600
24.5MPa-600 C/600 C
MHI
MHI
74
Kansai
Maizuru
Unit No.1
900
24.1MPa-595 C/595 C
MHI
MHI
1995-06
1995-07
1995-12
1997-07
1997-07
1998-03
1998-06
1998-07
1998-07
2000-07
Toshiba
Corp.
Toshiba
Corp.
Fuji
Toshiba
Corp.

Toshiba
Corp.
1995-03
GE
Toshiba
Corp.
Mitsubishi
Electric Corp.

Toshiba
Corp.
1995-03
2000-06

Fuji
SIEMENS
1994-12
Toshiba
Corp.
BabcockHitachi K.K.
10
Toshiba
Corp.
Mitsubishi
Electric Corp.
Mitsubishi
Electric Corp.
51
54
From
1996 to
2005
Manufacturer
Turbine
Toshiba
Corp.
No.
Toshiba
Corp.

Mitsubishi
Electric Corp.
Mitsubishi
Electric Corp.
2000-09
2000-12
2000-12
2001-07
2001-11
2002-02
2002-04
2002-06
2002-11
2003-05
2003-06
2003-12
2004-07
2004-08
Technical development, in general, aims at higher efficiency of power generation for the purpose of reducing
the environmental load and CO2 emission; however, concrete issues include the following:
(1) High-temperature gas turbine aiming at further improvement of thermal efficiency of combined cycle power
generation
(2) Making coal utilization technology starting with coal gasification combined cycle power generation system
more sophisticated
Thermal power plants consist of a boiler, turbine, and generator, and the efficiency of power generation was
increased through the larger capacity of the configuration of the basic equipment and sophistication of running
conditions (mainly higher temperature and pressure of the stem cycle system). Gross thermal efficiency was
increased from about 30% 40 years ago to 40% currently. This 40% was achieved by the ultra-supercritical
pressure power generation system. For the purpose of increasing the efficiency further, the development of
combined cycle power generation technology is in progress. Through this development, we can aim at 50%
efficiency. This technology aims, in addition to the conventional steam cycle, to combine the gas turbine cycle to
improve the efficiency of power generation comprehensively through power generation from both cycles.
Combined cycle power generation using natural gas is becoming mainstream in new thermal power generation
technology as combined cycle power generation. Further, the development of a ceramic turbine blade is in
progress to improve the efficiency by causing higher temperature. With respect to the use of coal related to the
reduction of CO2 emission, although the pulverized coal combustion system has been adopted in recent years for
the purpose of improving efficiency, the integrated coal gratification combined cycle (IGCC) is the target of
development to improve efficiency further.
The fluidized bed generation system is a generation system that uses fluidized bed combustion. The
commercialization of fluidized bed combustion was propelled as a combustion system of flame-resistant materials.
However, in recent years, the excellent environmental characteristics of fluidized bed combustion, such as
desulfurization in furnace and low NOx combustion, are receiving attention. From the viewpoint of improving
efficiency, the development and commercialization of the pressurized fluidized bed combined cycle generation
system (PFBC) are in progress. In light of its intrinsic characteristics, it is also considered that it will pave the
way for mixed fuel power generation with coal and biomass (especially waste).
11
I.
Functional and Operational Control of Thermal Power Plants
2.1.1 Operation control

Since safe and economical operation is carried out at thermal power stations while carefully
checking environmental problems, there are many points that operators must judge to take
appropriate measures. Therefore, a large load is applied to operators in case of an emergency.
Therefore, it is necessary to automate emergency manual operations to be taken against faults, as
well as to automate normal manual operations in order to minimize operators judgments. To keep
the final protection of the plant, it is absolutely required to take appropriate measures for the plant
facilities.
A unit protection device is installed to protect each unit if a fault occurs in any unit and it
becomes difficult to continue safe operation of the unit. This unit protection device is called the
unit trip interlock. Basically, the unit trip interlock is classified into the boiler protection
interlock (MFT), turbine protection interlock (MTS), and generator protection interlock (86G).
These interlock systems may vary depending on the manufacturers design. In principle,
however, the once-through unit boiler, turbine, and generator are mutually interlocked. Figure 35
shows an example of the trip interlock system.
2.1.1.1 Boiler protection interlock (MFT)
This boiler protection interlock is intended to shut down the fuel supply to stop the boiler if it
becomes difficult to continue stable combustion of the boiler. The conditions for tripping of this
interlock may vary slightly depending on the type of boiler, that is, whether it is drum boiler or a
once-through unit boiler. Generally, these conditions are fuel pressure drop, high furnace pressure,
stopping of two ventilating fans, protection of the reheating unit, supply water flow rate drop, and
drum level drop. In addition to these conditions, unit emergency stop and turbine/generator trip
conditions are interlocked. According to the boiler model, further conditions are interlocked.
2.1.1.2 Turbine protection interlock (MTS)
If it becomes difficult to continue stable operation of the turbine, the solenoid is operated to stop
the turbine. The conditions for tripping of this interlock are turbine overspeed, thrust error,
bearing hydraulic pressure drop, and degree of vacuum drop, etc. In addition to these conditions,
the unit emergency stop, turbine manual stop, and generator trip conditions are interlocked.
A-type interlock circuit
A type
Description
Problem on
turbine side
Turbine trip
Problem on
boiler side
Fire extinguishing
of boiler
B type
Generator trip
Problem on generator
side
Generator trip
Problem on turbine
side
Turbine trip
If a problem occurs on the

turbine side and the turbine is
tripped (each turbine valve is
opened), the generator and boiler
are stopped immediately.
In this group, a circuit to
immediately extinguish fire in the
boiler if a problem occurs on the
generator side is added.
Fig. 35
C type
Conditions for protection of

the reheater
Fire extinguishing of
boiler
B-type interlock circuit

side
Generator trip
Problem on turbine
side
Turbine trip
boiler
Problem on boiler side
C-type interlock circuit
Description
If a problem occurs in any of the
boiler, turbine, or generator,
mutual interlock is activated to
trip the unit completely.
This interlock where the turbine
is tripped immediately if a
problem occurs in the boiler is a
characteristic feature, which
cannot be seen in the A type or B
type.
Any of the thrust, hydraulic

pressure, or exhaust speed is faulty.
Description
Basic interlock circuit

Problem on
generator side
If a problem occurs on the

turbine side and the turbine is
tripped (each turbine valve is
opened), the generator and boiler
are stopped conditionally. This
system is that the T-G and T-B are
not tripped if the conditions are
not satisfied.
This system is mainly used for
units designed by Ebasco.
side
Generator trip
Problem on turbine
side
Turbine trip
Examples of trip interlock systems

12
boiler
2.1.1.3 Generator protection interlock (86G)

A status where stable operation of the generator or transformer is difficult is detected by the
protective device or protective relay. After this, the generator is disconnected from the system and
the turbine is tripped to stop the generator at the same time. The conditions for detection of the
protection are ratio differentiation of the generator, loss of excitation, ratio differentiation of the
ground fault or transformer, impulse hydraulic pressure, overexcitation, etc. In addition to these
conditions, the high/low frequency of the system and the protection of the bus-bar are interlocked.
2.1.1.4 Protection device tests during operation
The important point during plant operation is that the plant can be stopped safely in case of an
emergency. To maintain this safety, it is necessary to periodically check the operation status of
various safety prevention apparatus installed for protection of the plant. Table 3 shows examples
of the protection device tests.
Table 3
Main turbine
Turbine
driven feed
pump
Seal oil
equipment
Inspection test item

Valve tests
(1) Main steam stop valve
Examples of protection device tests

Frequency
Contents of test
Twice/week
The valves are manually opened or closed one by one from the central control
room to check the valve operation and open/closed indication lamp operation.
(2) Intercept valve, reheated

steam stop valve, combined
reheat valve
Protection device tests
(1) Lock-out
(Oil trip)
(2) Thrust failure protection trip
Twice/week
The valves of each system are manually opened or closed from the central
control room to check the valve operation and open/closed indication lamp
operation.
Once/week
Extraction check valve test
Twice/week
After the operation of the emergency shutdown device has been removed, the
test handle is operated to check the operation of the oil trip mechanism.
After the operation of the thrust failure protection device has been removed,
the test handle is operated to check the operation of the thrust bearing wear
trip mechanism.
Valves are manually opened or closed with the test handle or switch to check
the valve operation and open/closed indication lamp operation.
Oil pump automatic starting test
Once/week
The hydraulic pressure is decreased using the testing equipment in the

simulated mode to check the automatic startup at the set hydraulic pressure
levels of the auxiliary oil pump, emergency oil pump, and turning oil pump.
Main oil tank oil level alarm test
Once/week
The indication rod of the oil gauge is moved up or down to check the alarm
operation.
Valve test
Once/week
The high-pressure and low-pressure steam stop valves are opened or closed
manually to check the operation of the valve and open/close unit.
Protection device tests

(1) Overspeed trip
Once/month
After the trip circuit has been removed, the RPM is increased in the simulated
mode to check the overspeed trip set hydraulic pressure level.
After the trip circuit has been removed, the bearing oil pressure is decreased
in the simulated mode to check the trip set hydraulic pressure level.
After the trip circuit has been removed, the thrust position is moved in the
simulated mode to check the trip set hydraulic pressure level.
The hydraulic pressure is decreased using the testing equipment in the
simulated mode to check the automatic startup at the set hydraulic pressure
levels of the extra main oil pump and emergency oil pump.
The pump is manually started at the work site, and a load is applied to check
the operation of the auxiliary oil pump and minimum flow recirculating valve.
The discharge pressure and differential pressure of the seal oil are decreased
using the testing equipment in the simulated mode to check the alarm
operation and auto startup at the set hydraulic pressure level.
Once/week
(2) Bearing hydraulic pressure

drop trip
(3) Thrust failure protection trip
Once/month
Once/month
Oil pump auto starting test
Once/month
Spare feed water pump (motor

drive) starting test
Emergency pump automatic
starting test
(Seal oil discharge pressure, low
differential pressure alarm test)
Vacuum drop alarm test of
vacuum tank
Once/month
Once/week
Once/month
The vacuum level is decreased using the testing equipment in the simulated
mode to check the alarm operation.
13
I.
2.1.2 Boiler operation control during normal operation

It must be strongly attempted to find the error status early and to prevent problems during
normal unit operation in order to maintain stable operation status.
The actions to be actually taken are basically classified into the inspection at the work field, and the sampling and
evaluation of the operation records. It is important to take these actions daily in order to check status change in
the early phase, and this leads to appropriate actions and measures being taken in a timely manner.
2.1.2.1 Inspection at the work field
As a rule, the inspection interval must be every work shift. Walkaround inspection of the boiler
main unit parts and boiler auxiliary devices is carried out. The inspection results must be kept.
If any problem symptom is observed, it is necessary to grasp any status change as time elapses.
Generally, walkaround inspection is carried out according to the checklist. In addition to this
inspection, further inspection points, such as unusual noise, unusual odor, or discoloration must
also be inspected.
The combustion status inside the furnace must also be checked during walkaround inspection.
However, if the type of coal to be used is changed, the inspection must be carried out with special
attention.
One of the points to inspect the status of clinker and ash sticking to each heat transfer surface
inside the furnace is to check whether or not excessive development or accumulation exists. The
other point is that the contamination status of each heat transfer surface is checked with the
secular change in the operation data stated on the next page to appropriately operate the soot
blower or wall deslagger. When the type of coal to be used is changed, these points become
particularly important.
2.1.2.2 Sampling and evaluation of operation records
To grasp the secular change in the boiler static characteristics and to evaluate performance,
records of the boiler operated at its rated output are sampled periodically.
In daily operation, it is basically checked whether or not the balance among the feed water flow
rate, fuel flow rate, and air flow rate is correct.
As deviation of the boiler input command to the output command and deviation of the water/fuel
ratio and air/fuel ratio are checked, it is possible to judge whether or not the balance is correct.
Additionally, it must be strongly attempted to check changes in the make-up water quantity in
order to find any boiler tube leak in the early phase.
In the coal-fired boiler, the characteristics of the boiler may change greatly according to the coal
properties. The heat absorption distribution of the furnace, SH, and RH is changed according to
the combustibility of the coal or slagging/fouling ability. According to the contamination degree of
the heat transfer surface, the exhaust gas temperature increases and it adversely affects the boiler
efficiency. Therefore, the heat absorption status of each heat transfer surface is grasped by
checking the following points.
Changes in control parameters using the RH temperature control or SH temperature control
Changes in the gas temperature of each part of the rear gas duct including the gas temperature at the
outlet of the ECO.
The soot blower and wall deslagger can be operated at efficient intervals.
Since changes in coal properties may affect the characteristics of the exhaust gas (NOx, unburned matter in ash,
etc.), it is necessary to grasp the characteristics if the type of coal to be used is changed.
If an imbalance occurs in the metal temperature distribution of each part of the furnace, SH, and RH or in the
steam temperature distribution of each part of the SH and RH, it is thought that changes in combustion status may
be the cause. Therefore, it is necessary to check the damper opening of the wind box at the work field.
Since an increase in the AH differential pressure may greatly affect the drive power of the ventilating equipment
or the operation tolerance, it is important to grasp the secular change.
Normally, the AH soot blower is operated at intervals of work shifts (three times/day). If the AH differential
pressure increases, appropriate measures to shorten the interval are taken.
14
If the AH differential pressure becomes excessively large (normally, the reference level is the
planned value multiplied by 1.5) or if the ventilating equipment capacity reaches its limit, it must
be investigated whether to water wash the AH.
For the pressure loss of the water and steam systems (particularly pressure loss of the furnace),
the increased speed caused by the secular change is grasped and it is used as a factor to judge the
chemical washing timing, etc.
2.1.2.3 Others
It is important to strictly control the water quality during boiler operation including startup
according to the standard for water treatment.
2.1.3 Auxiliary units of the boiler
Generally, the auxiliary units of the boiler are the feed water, ventilation, and fuel systems.
This section describes the ventilating equipment, air preheater, and coal pulverizer of the coal-fired
boiler plant.
2.1.3.1 Ventilating equipment

In the coal-fired boiler, a balanced air ventilation system is generally utilized to achieve the
following purposes.
1) The furnace pressure is maintained at a constant level to maintain combustion stability.
2) The furnace pressure is maintained at atmospheric pressure or lower in order to prevent coal ash from leaking
outside.
A centrifugal type or an axial flow type ventilating equipment (fan) is utilized. The control
system of the centrifugal ventilating equipment is the inlet damper control, inlet vane control, RPM
control, or a combination of them. The control system of the axial-flow ventilating equipment is
the moving blade variable control, inlet vane control, RPM control, etc. With these controls, the
process values for an object are controlled. The following lists up cautions operation.
Axial flow type: According to the characteristics of the ventilating equipment, there is a surging area. If the
operation point enters this surging area, the pressure and gas volume are changed rapidly
accompanied by vibration, causing damage to the unit.
Centrifugal type: There is no clear operation impossible area as described for the axial flow type. However,
the operation may become unstable in a low-load area, causing vibration or noise of the
duct.
(1) Induced draft fan (IDF)
This fan is intended to keep the furnace pressure at a constant level of atmospheric pressure or lower. To
prevent wear caused by coal ash, a dust removal equipment (EP, etc.) is installed downstream. Basically,
the PID control is used to control the furnace pressure. In many induced draft fans, the air flow rate signal
is used as an advance signal.
(2) Forced draft fan (FDF)
This fan is intended to feed the combustion air (secondary air) to the boiler. The air flow rate for
combustion is controlled by the combustion volume command from the boiler control unit and the
correction signal from the O2 control of the exhaust gas at the outlet of the boiler.
When two systems, that is, the ventilation system and air pre-heater, are installed in the boiler, the IDF is
interlocked with the FDF in the same system. There are many examples where the other fans are also
stopped if one fan is stopped.
This interlock is intended to prevent overheating of the gas temperature at the outlet of the air pre-heater
and decreasing in the air temperature at the outlet since an imbalance occurs between the air volume and
gas volume passing through the air pre-heater if the IDF or FDF is stopped.
(3) Primary air fan (PAF)
This fan is intended to feed the air (primary air) used to transfer the coal from the coal-pulverizing
machine to the burner.
15
I.
Boiler
Boiler
Gas
Secondary
air
Mill
Primary air
Mill
Fig. 9
Cold primary air system
Fig. 10
Moving vane auto

operation command
of A-induction fan
A-air pre-heater
startup
B-air pre-heater
startup
Moving vane auto

operation command
of A-forced draft fan
A-forced draft fan

startup
A-induction fan
startup
60s
Moving vane of
A-induction fan fully
closed
Hot primary air system
B-induction fan
startup
60s
Auto operation of
moving vane of
A-induction fan
Auto operation of
moving vane of
A-forced draft fan
Moving vane of
closed
Moving vane of
B-induction fan fully
closed
Moving vane auto

operation command
of B-induction fan
60s
Moving vane auto

operation command
of B-forced draft fan
B-forced draft fan
startup
Ventilation system
startup completion
Auto operation of
moving vane of
B-forced draft fan
Auto operation of
moving vane of
B-induction fan
Moving vane of
B-forced draft fan
fully closed
Fig. 11
Moving vane of
closed
A-induction
fan stop
Moving vane of
A-forced draft fan
fully closed
A-forced draft fan

stop
Example of ventilation system startup sequence
30s
Fig. 12
Moving vane of
B-induction fan fully
closed
B-induction
fan stop
Moving vane of
B-forced draft fan
fully closed
B-forced draft fan

stop
Ventilation system
stop completion
Example of ventilation system stop sequence
The primary air also has the purpose of drying raw coal to allow easy pulverizing of raw coal to be
loaded into the coal-pulverizing machine in addition to the purpose of transferring the pulverized
coal.
The primary air temperature at the inlet of the coal-pulverizing machine is 180 C to 250 C. The
fan installation places and the number of fans to be installed in the cold primary air system are
different from those of the hot primary air system.
In the cold primary air system, one or two fans are installed on the upstream side of the air
pre-heater regardless of the number of coal-pulverizing machines. This fan is intended to control
the primary air duct pressure. On the other hand, in the hot primary air system, one fan specific
to one coal-pulverizing machine is installed on the downstream side of the air pre-heater. This fan
16
is intended to control the primary air flow rate.

Figures 9 and 10 show an outline of each system. Additionally, Figs. 11 and 12 show examples of
the startup sequence and stop sequence of the ventilation system, respectively.
2.1.3.2 Air pre-heater (GAH)
This air pre-heater is intended to increase the combustion air temperature and to collect the heat
of the exhaust gas at the outlet of the boiler. Generally, a regeneration-type air pre-heater is
utilized where hot gas and air are alternately made to contact the heat transfer materials called
elements to exchange the heat. There are two kinds of systems available: the Ljungstrom system
in which the elements are rotated, and the Rothemuhle system in which the elements are fixed and
an air duct called a
hood is rotated.
Figures 13 and 14 each show GAH, respectively. Normally, the GAH is separated into two sections, that is, the
hot gas-passing section and the combustion air-passing section.
In the coal-burning boiler with the cold primary air system, the air side is separated into the primary and
secondary sections. The following describes cautions on operation of the regeneration-type air pre-heater.
1) Air leak
Center section on
high-temperature side
Primary air outlet
Sector plate on high-temperature side

Gas inlet
Guide bearing
Secondary air outlet

Lubricant circulation
unit
Sensor drive unit
Soot blower on
high-temperature side
Rotor drive unit

Heating element
Soot blower on low-temperature side
Main pedestal
Side pedestal
Connecting duct
Rotor
Pin rack
Gas
outlet
Center section on low-temperature side
Rotor post
Fig.13
Primary air
inlet
Secondary air
inlet
Support bearing
Example of Ljungstrom-type GAH
Secondary air outlet
Gas inlet
Primary air outlet
Collar seal
Soot blower
Primary air hood
Sealing frame
Secondary air hood

Stator
Heat transfer surface
Main shaft
Hood drive unit

Pin rack
Secondary gas outlet

Primary gas outlet
Primary air inlet
Secondary air
inlet
Fig. 14
Rotation unit
Example of Rothemuhle-type GHA
In the regenerative air pre-heater, air leaking to the gas side cannot be avoided due to its structure.
17
I.
Therefore, it is required to adjust the seal appropriately.

Recently, as the capacity of the unit becomes large, the element diameter also becomes large. Additionally,
the thermal deformation volume becomes large. The leak volume cannot be suppressed by the fixed seal.
Therefore, an automatic seal adjustment unit is installed. If the air leak volume is too large, its necessary
to be cautious that the FDF, PAF, and IDF are overloaded.
Additionally, if the gap of the seal mechanism is made excessively narrow, the seal mechanism may make
contacts, causing current value hunting or overload of the GAH motor.
2) GAH differential pressure
If the temperature at the low-temperature part of the element decreases to a level close to the sulfuric acid
dew point, ash and SO3 chemical compounds are accumulated and the element is blocked. Additionally,
as the operation time elapses, the GAH differential pressure increases. It is difficult to remove the ash and
SO3 chemical compounds by the soot blow. Therefore, water washing is needed. It is very important to
always keep the temperature of the low-temperature part over appropriate temperature level or more.
(The temperature is controlled by the steam type air pre-heater.)
3) Fire of GAH element
If any combustible materials (used cables at the factory, wood chips, soot including unburned matter, etc.)
exist on the GAH element, a fire may occur due to the oxygen concentration and atmospheric temperature.
The risk of fire is the highest when a boiler with high oxygen concentration is started up or during boiler
banking.
Great attention should be taken since past cases also occurred while these two timings.
The following describes fire prevention measures.
1) No combustible materials shall be put on the element.
2) The element shall always be kept clean by the soot blow.
Additionally, it is also important to establish operation procedures if a fire occurs in the GAH.
2.1.3.3 Coal-pulverizer (Mill)
This coal-pulverizer is designed to pulverize coal to a fine particle size diameter necessary to burn
it by the burner. Generally, this machine is called mill. In the coal-burning boiler, this mill is
one of the important auxiliary units that greatly affect the operation characteristics of the plant.
The mill is classified into two types of the coal-pulverizing method, that is, the vertical mill (roller
mill, etc.) and the horizontal mill (tube mill, etc.).
Figures15 and 16 show overall diagrams of typical mills. The mill is composed of a duct, damper,
primary air chamber, seal unit, pulverizing unit, separator, pyrite emission unit, and pulverized
fuel pipe. In any mill, raw coal is dried, pulverized, coarse grain is separated, and transferred
continuously inside the mill.
Generally, the combustion volume is adjusted by changing the feed coal volume to be loaded into
the mill in the vertical mill. Additionally, the combustion volume is controlled by changing the
primary air flow rate passing through the mill in the horizontal mill. In the horizontal mill, the
feed coal volume is controlled to keep the coal seam level inside the mill drum at a constant level.
The following describes cautions on operation.
1) Remaining coal stop
In the normal mill stop cycle, after the temperature inside the mill has been lowered, the coal feed is
stopped and the coal remaining inside the mill is purged in that order.
18
Pulverized coal outlet
Coal
feed
port
Motor for rotary classifier
Rotary classifier
Housing
Reject chute
Coal feed pipe
Roller pressurizing unit
Roller
Table segment
Primary air port
Table
Primary air inlet
Motor
Speed reducer
Fig. 15
Example of vertical mill (Roller mill)

Pulverized
Pulverized fuel pipe coal outlet
Coal feed
pipe
Coarse grain separator
Primary air inlet

Pulverized fuel pipe
Coal feed pipe
Motor
Mill drum
Fig. 16
Example of horizontal mill (Tube mill)
If the mill is stopped in case of an emergency, the above steps cannot be performed correctly. Pulverized
coal and raw coal exist inside the mill in relatively high-temperature status. Therefore, great caution shall
be taken since nature conservation or mill explosion may occur. This risk increases as the volatile
components included in the raw coal are large.
To prevent a fire inside the mill or to extinguish a fire, inert gas (inert steam) injection equipment or
fire-extinguishing water injection equipment are often installed. It is necessary to establish procedures if
the mill is stopped in case of an emergency.
2) Mill motor overload
When using coal (coal with low HGI) with poor grindability in the roller mill, the mill motor may be
19
I.
overloaded. In this case, the coal feed volume needs to be limited.

3) Temperature at mill outlet
If surface moisture of raw coal that is stored in an outdoor coal yard is high due to rain or other factors, raw
coal drying, pulverizing, and transfering processes are not performed smoothly. As a result, an accident
occurs which the inside of the mill is filled with coal. This phenomenon occurs if the mill differential
pressure increases. (In the tube mill, the current value of the mill motor is lowered.)
In the initial indication, it is shown that the temperature at the mill output is decreased.
If the temperature at the mill output decreases excessively and it cannot be maintained, appropriate
measures are needed to limit to the coal feed volume.
4) A/C
The weight ratio of the primary air volume that is the air for transfer of the pulverized coal to the
pulverized coal volume is called A/C (Air/Coal). Generally, the mill is operated at an A/C range of
approximately 1.8 to 3.0. If the A/C becomes high (the concentration of the pulverized coal is thin), the
naturalness of the pulverized coal is lost, causing an accidental fire.
Recently, a burner that allows stable combustion even though the A/C is high is put into practice.
However, if the A/C becomes high when using a burner other than such a burner, it is necessary to perform
combustion aid using the pilot ignition burner.
5) Flow velocity inside the pulverized coal pipe
The flow velocity inside the pulverized coal pipe from the mill to the burner shall satisfy the following
conditions.
1. This flow velocity shall be the flame propagation velocity. (The flame propagation velocity is
determined by the A/C and the volatile components included in the coal.)
2. This flow velocity shall be faster than the level at which pulverized coal is not subsided or accumulated
inside the pipe.
3. This flow velocity shall be slower than the level at which the inside of the pipe wears out.
Therefore, a velocity ranging from 18 to 30 m/s is generally used. The flow velocity inside the pipe is
almost determined by the primary air flow rate. However, the primary air flow rate shall not be
excessively decreased.
Mill system
startup
Mill system startup

conditions satisfied
Lubricant unit startup

Rotary classifier startup
Roller pressurizing unit
startup
Coal gate open
Pilot ignition
burner ignition
Mill system stop
Cool air damper open

Hot air damper closed
Pilot ignition burner

ignition
Cool air damper open

Hot air damper closed
Mill stop coal feed volume
Mill inlet temperature

below specified value
Mill outlet temperature
below specified value
All mill outlet dampers open/Mill seal air damper open

Primary air shut-off/Regulation damper open
Mill warning
Seal differential pressure/Primary air volume/Waiting for mill
temperature conditions satisfied
Coal gate close/Coal feeder stop
Mill purge
Mill motor startup
Coal supply
volume above
specified value
Coal feeder startup
Mill motor/roller pressurizing unit/rotary classifier stop
Mill outlet
temperature above
specified value
Primary air shutoff/Regulation damper close All mill outlet dampers

close
Mill inlet seal air damper close
Initial coal feed completion
Pilot ignition burner

fire-extinguishing command
Fig. 17
Pilot ignition burner OFF
Auto operation of coal feeder

SS
Example of vertical mill startup
Fig. 18
Example of vertical mill stop
Since the combustion volume rather than the primary air volume is controlled in the horizontal mill, the
auxiliary air damper is opened to keep the minimum flow velocity inside the pipe if the flow velocity
decreases.
6) Coal feed volume and coal consumption volume
When the mill is operated at a constant load, a relationship is established in which the coal feed volume is
equivalent to the coal consumption volume (combustion volume). However, this relationship is not
established when the mill is started or stopped or when the mill load varies.
Precise grasping of the combustion volume is an essential condition for boiler control. In particular, it is
20
absolutely necessary to control the steam temperature in the once-through boiler. Generally, the
combustion volume is measured by the coal supply machine. However, when the mill is started up, the
coal supply start does not meet the coal consumption start.
In the control system, when the mill is started up or stopped, the simulated coal consumption signal is used
as combustion volume in order to adjust the coal consumption close to the coal consumption characteristics
suitable for actual conditions. The coal consumption characteristics may vary depending on the type of
coal. Changes in steam temperature and exhaust gas O2 may occur when the mill is started up or stopped.
Therefore, these points must be taken into consideration.
7) Mill pyrite
Rocks or other foreign objects other than the raw coal supplied to the mill are discharged to the outside of
the mill without being pulverized. These discharged foreign objects are called pyrites. In the
horizontal mill, such foreign objects are not discharged to the outside and they are accumulated as materials
for pulverizing. In the vertical mill, pyrites are snapped from the primary air port inside the mill to the
primary air chamber, and then they are discharged to the outside. If this processing unit malfunctions,
pyrites and coal are accumulated in the primary air chamber. As a result, a fire may occur by the hot
primary air. Therefore, it is important to check that the pyrite-processing unit functions correctly.
According to the circumstances, the mill needs to be stopped.
Figures 17 and 18 show examples of the vertical mill startup sequence and stop sequence.
21
2.2 Power Supply Operations

Electric power demand is not always constant and it varies greatly depending on the season or time zone.
Since the daily electric power demand varies as time elapses as shown in the daily load curves stated in Fig. 27,
it is necessary to supply electric power corresponding to the demand that varies every moment.
Additionally, since the economy and followingness of each power generation method differ from each other, it
is also necessary to generate electric power with an appropriate combination of power generation methods by
taking their features into consideration. When the daily load is classified into the base load, middle load, and
peak load, each load is classified into the relevant power generation method as described below.
LNG fired power
Run-off-river
hydraulic power
Peak
Oil fired power

Middle
Pumping-up
hydraulic
power
(Energy)
Adjustable
hydraulic
power
Nuclear power
Coal fired
power
Base
(Electric power)
Pumping-up hydraulic power
(Time)
Fig. 27
Example of daily load curves and combination of power generation methods by time zone
(1) Base load

Since the variation in load is small and the utilization factor is high, large capacity thermal power, nuclear
power, and run-off-river hydraulic power, which can be operated continuously for an extended period of time and
has an excellent efficiency, are operated.
(2) Middle load
This middle load has intermediate characteristics between the base load and peak load. Since electric energy
larger than that of the peak load is required, the middle capacity thermal power, which is relatively economical
and has excellent start/stop characteristics, is used.
(3) Peak load
Since the load varies greatly in the peak load range, the excellent adjustment capability of electric power
generation and frequent start/stop ability are required.
Additionally, it is necessary that the operation time is short and the utilization factor is small.
Therefore, even though the efficiency is slightly sacrificed, pondage type hydraulic power or reservoir type
hydraulic power having less construction cost, or pumping-up hydraulic power or gas turbine having excellent
peak characteristics can be operated.
The following describes the typical operation method of a thermal power plant during daytime and nighttime.
2.2.1 Output adjustment by load dispatching operation
Since the electric power demand is changed every moment as described previously, it is necessary to supply
electric power corresponding to this demand. Since changes in electric power demand cannot be adjusted by
hydraulic power alone, it is also necessary to adjust the output using the thermal power generation plant. The
operation is performed using the following auto control together with the output adjustment based on the power
supply command.
(1) Automatic frequency control (AFC)
The system frequency varies due to an unbalance between electric power generation and demand. Therefore,
the generator output is adjusted so that the frequency of the electric power system is kept within the specified
value.
(2) Economical load dispatching control (ELD or EDC)
The load is dispatched so that the general power generation cost for each power generation unit becomes the
22
lowest price.
2.2.2 Minimum load operation

As nuclear power generation is used for the base load operation to the daily electric power demand, the
minimum load operation of the thermal power plants is conducted to adjust the supply capacity to the electric
power demand during daytime and nighttime. Therefore, this minimum load operation becomes important, as
well as stop operation during nighttime. In particular, it is required to enable lower minimum load operation of a
large capacity plant and to improve the power generation efficiency in a low load area.
The minimum load may vary depending on the fuel, capacity, main machine, and/or auxiliary machines of the
plant. However, the minimum load is generally 10 to 40% of the rated output.
The following describes the typical subjects and considerations related to the turbine during minimum load
operation.
(1) Steam flow rate
If the steam flow rate decreases, a local overheating problem occurs due to an unbalance of the flow rate
between the boiler overheating unit and reheater. Therefore, the steam temperature, gas temperature, and
evaporation tube wall temperature need to be considered. In the case of a once-through boiler, it is necessary to
keep a supply water volume of 25 to 30% or more of the maximum evaporation volume in order to ensure the
stable flow inside the evaporation tube constituting the water wall of the furnace.
(2) Wetness of turbine exhaust chamber
If the reheating steam temperature drops or the vacuum degree of the condenser increases during low-load
operation, the wetness of the exhaust chamber may increase. Since this wetness may corrode the vane in the
final stage of the low-pressure turbine, it is absolutely necessary to conduct the operation by taking the wetness
into consideration.
(3) Temperature of turbine exhaust chamber
The vacuum degree of the condenser tends to be high during low-load operation. This may cause the
temperature of the exhaust chamber to lower and adversely affect the vibration and differential expansion.
Furthermore, the steam flow rate may decrease at an extremely low output ranging from 5 to 10% of the rated
output. Therefore, the temperature of the turbine exhaust chamber may increase due to windage loss.
Generally, to prevent this problem, the water is continuously sprayed into the exhaust chamber to decrease the
temperature.
However, the continuous water spray may corrode the vane at the final stage. Therefore, great care should be
taken for this point.
(4) Drain control of feed water heater
The drain from the feed water heater must be collected to the feed water heater at the lower stage as much as
possible in order to improve the thermal efficiency. Therefore, the pressure inside the feed water heater
decreases in the low-load operation area and the pressure difference inside each feed water heater decreases. If
the pressure difference inside the unit among the feed water heaters decreases, it becomes difficult to discharge the
drain to the feed water heater at the lower stage. To prevent such a problem, great care should be taken, such as
switching of the collection destination to the condenser, etc.
(5) Control of boiler feed water pump
Since the supply water flow rate decreases during low load operation, the discharge flow rate of the boiler feed
water pump also decreases. If the supply water flow rate of the boiler becomes less than the re-circulation flow
rate of the pump, the operation enters a status whereby the minimum flow rate of the pump is maintained by the
re-circulation control valve. Therefore, great care should be taken since the control valve is damaged if the
pump is operated for an extended period of time in the above status. Additionally, when using the turbine driven
feed water pump, great care should be exerted so that the pump is not operated at a speed close to its critical
speed.
2.2.3 Leading power factor operation
In recent power systems, as the capacity of the extra-high voltage power transmission line or power
transmission line increases and the difference in generated power during daytime greatly differs from that during
nighttime, the leading power factor operation of the reactive power control is conducted so that the operation is
performed by changing the tap of the inductive phase modifying equipment (reactor or synchronous phase
modifier) or by operating the synchronous generator using the advancing power factor.
The leading power factor operation of the generator means that the field current of the generator decreases by
utilizing the characteristics of the synchronous machine and the operation is performed using the advancing power
factor to absorb the reactive power of the power system. The following describes the problems and notes when
23
performing the leading power factor operation of the generator.

(1) Stability drop due to low excitation
When the leading power factor operation is performed, the internal induced voltage becomes small.
As a result, the internal phase angle increases and synchronizing power decreases, causing the stability to lower.
The stability is determined by the terminal voltage and reactance of the generator, as well as the external
impedance. Therefore, when performing the leading power factor operation, it is necessary that the under
excitation limit (UEL) of the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) is set at a position where both the allowable limit
by the possible output curve of the generator and the static stability limit of the system are satisfied to prevent the
loss of synchronism.
(2) Temperature increase of iron core and mechanical part
If the leak magnetic flux entering the iron core end part of the stator increases, the temperature increases due to
the eddy current induced by the elements making up the iron core end part. Therefore, even though the stator
end part of the turbine generator uses a structure that suppresses the temperature increase, it is necessary to
conduct the operation with the possible output curve area of the generator by taking changes in the stator iron core
temperature, stator coil temperature, and cooling gas temperature into consideration.
Figure 29 shows an example of the generator output curve.
Limited by magnetic field temperature.
Limited by armature temperature.
Limited by armature iron core end temperature.
Reactive power [pu]
Delay
Curve AB:
Curve BC:
Curve CC:
Active power (pu)
Advance
Under excitation limit (UEL)
Fig. 29
Generator output curve
24
2.3 Start-up and Stop Operation Control

2.3.1 Start pattern
Electric power demand changes not only throughout the year, but also weekly and daily.
A thermal power unit start or stop in order to adjust its output to flexibly correspond to changes in power demand.
The unit has the following start patterns from unit stop to unit start.
(1) Cold start
The unit is started after it has been stopped for an extended period of time, such as for periodic inspection.
(2) Weekly start and stop (WSS)
In WSS, the unit is stopped at nighttime on a Friday or on a Saturday when the electric power demand
decreases, and then it is started early on Monday morning when the electric power demand starts increasing.
The stop time is 12 to 36 hrs. Figure 2 shows an example of this schedule.
Output
Main steam
temperature
Start
Parallel
Ignition
Parallel-off
Main steam
pressure
Fig. 2 Weekly start and stop schedule
(3) Daily start and stop

The unit is stopped at midnight, and then started the next morning so that the power generation corresponds to
differences in electric power demand between daytime and nighttime. The stop time is from 6 to 12 hrs. Figure
3 shows an example of the daily start and stop schedule.
This daily start and stop is necessary because efficient operation of the power system is achieved by increasing
the base load units, such as nuclear or large capacity thermal power generation.
In this daily start and stop operation, the adverse effects on the unit service life and supply reliability should be
considered. In the first case, thermal stress on the turbine rotor is a particularly problem.
Output
Main steam
temperature
Fig. 3
Start
Parallel
Ignition
Parallel
-off
Main steam
pressure
Daily start and stop schedule

25
(This thermal stress is caused by differences in temperature between the steam and turbine rotor when the unit
is started. Normally, this temperature difference is called mismatch temperature.) According to the low cycle
fatigue index (LCFI) of the turbine rotor, the number of yearly start and stop cycles is limited to take measures
against this problem. In the second case, the start and stop time is short and the operation reliability needs to be
kept at a high level.
To solve these problems, it is necessary to take appropriate measures, such as improvement of the unit
reliability, omission of operation steps, and/or review of standards.
(4) Quick start
This quick start is used to restart the unit after it has been stopped for a short time (about less than 6 hrs.) due to
system problems or power control. Normally, the quick start is called very hot start.
In this case, the thermal stress of the turbine requires special attention.
The metal temperature of each part meets the steam temperature immediately before the trip. However, since
the boiler and piping after restarting are cooled as the stop time elapses, the steam temperature is mismatched with
the metal temperature due to decrease of the steam temperature and throttle of the control valve. Therefore, it is
preferable that the steam temperature is increased to a high temperature level and the speed is increased rapidly,
and the parallel and load are increased.
2.3.2 Starting of unit

Figure 4 shows an outline of the start steps of the coal burning supercritical pressure voltage transformation
once-through plant. The following describes the operating procedures and provides notes on each start step.
(1) Determination of start schedule
The period of time required to start the unit is determined by the boiler or turbine status. As described in
Table 1, the unit start mode is determined by the metal temperature at the first stage of the turbine. As the time
required for each event is added, the overall time required for the start process is calculated.
In the start schedule, the parallel schedule time is determined to the base point. Based on the start time
required described above, the schedule time, such as boiler ignition, turbine start, and full load achievement is
determined.
Output
Main steam
pressure
RPM
Parallel/
output
increase 1
Fig. 4
Output
increase II
Unit start steps (Cold start)
26
Power supply
distribution
Water quality check
Wet/dry change-over
Voltage transformation start
Coal single fuel firing
BFP M/T change-over
Coal charging start
Preparations for
parallel
Turbine start/speed up
Preparations for turbine start
Temperature increase/
pressure increase
Boiler hot cleanup
Boiler ignition
Boiler cold cleanup
Preparations for boiler ignition
High-pressure cleanup
Low-pressure cleanup
Condensed water cleanup and vacuum increase
Preparations for unit start
Water quality check
Output
increase III
Table 1
Start type
Item
Planned values at start
Metal temperature at 1st stage

Main steam pressure
Main steam temperature
Reheating steam
temperature
Steam temperature at 1st
stage
Metal temperature at 1st
stage
Mismatch temperature
Turbine speed up ratio
Low-speed heat soak time
High-speed heat soak time
Initial load volume
Initial load holding time
Unit
Very hot start

(Stopped for 2 hrs.)
Example of start modes

Hot start
Warm 2 start
Warm 1 start
Cold start
(Stopped for 150
hrs.)
- 230
8.5
400
200
C
MPa
C
C
460 8.5
510
505
390 460
8.5
470
480
340 390
8.5
410
377
230 340
8.5
410
289
438
391
315
315
301
494
453
368
326
216
C
rpm/min.
min.
min.
%
min.
-56
300
0
0
3
0
-62
300
0
0
3
0
-53
150
0
0
3
15
-11
150
0
0
3
15
+85
100
20
55
3
60
The boiler start mode is determined by the fluid temperature at the inlet of the water separator, and it is then
used for the fuel program for start or start by-pass valve control.
(2) Preparations for unit start
Inspect and check each part so that the work during unit stop is completed and there is no obstacle hindering the
start.
Confirm that units related to common facilities are being operated correctly or that they are ready for operation.
Confirm that the interlock, alarm device, and monitoring instrument function correctly, and that the fuel and
demineralized water necessary to start are maintained.
(3) Pre-boiler cleanup
In the once-through boiler, it is necessary to supply high purity water from the start.
Therefore, cleanup is carried out to remove impurities (particularly, iron content) from each system prior to the
ignition.
In the pre-boiler cleanup, the vacuum in the condenser is increased, and then the condenser system,
low-pressure supply water system, and high-pressure supply water system are cleaned up from the upstream side
in order.
In each system, the circulation operation is carried out through the condensate demineralizer so that the water
quality becomes the standard value or less after the standard to pass the water to the condensate demineralizer has
been satisfied using the blow outside the system.
Additionally, the turning operation of the turbine is performed to prevent deflection of the turbine rotor before
increasing the vacuum.
(4) Boiler cold cleanup
When the water quality in the pre-boiler satisfies the boiler passing water standard, the water is fed to the boiler
to perform the cleanup at a normal temperature. Table 2 shows the water quality standard when the once-through
boiler is started.
After the boiler has been filled with water (this work is not needed when the boiler filled with water has been
stored), the blow outside the system is performed through the drain system of the water separator. After the
water quality of the blow water has satisfied the standard for the water passed to the condensate demineralizer, the
circulation operation is performed until the water quality is the standard value or less through the condensate
demineralizer.
(5) Preparations for boiler ignition
The supply water system is changed from the cleanup status to the boiler ignition status.
The ventilation system is started to purge the furnace. The remaining unburnt gas is purged at a specified air
flow rate for a specified period of time in order to prevent explosion in the boiler furnace. (Example, 30% MCR
flow rate for 5 min.)
The fuel system for start (oil or gas) is started up to check the system for leak.
Generally, light oil is used for the start.
(Note) Cleanup is essential for a cold start. The cleanup is usually omitted for the WSS or DSS start. The operation often
enters the ignition preparations from the low-pressure cleanup circulation status during unit stop.
(6) Boiler ignition and hot cleanup

After the boiler has been ignited, the temperature is increased to the target temperature of the hot cleanup (fluid
temperature at the outlet of the furnace is approx. 150 C.). The temperature is kept at this cleanup target
27
temperature. If the water quality becomes the standard value or less, the temperature increase is restarted.
(7) Temperature increase and pressure increase
The temperature increase and pressure increase of the boiler are performed to achieve the steam conditions at
turbine start determined by the turbine start mode. By adjusting the fuel charging volume, the start bypass valve
and drain valve in the steam system, the temperature increase and pressure increase are completed within the
target time.
The feed water flow rate and air flow rate are controlled to their minimum flow rates. At this time, the
re-heater protection (prevention of burning) and the thick wall part protection (relaxing of thermal stress) exist as
limitation items when started. The former is limited by the gas temperature at the outlet of the furnace, as well
as the fuel charging volume. The latter is limited by the temperature increase ratio at the inlet of the water
separator and the outlet of the super heater.
(8) Preparations for turbine start
In the cold start, the metal temperature of each turbine part decreases to a level close to room temperature.
When starting the turbine in this status, thermal stress occurs as a result of the difference in temperature when
compared to the steam.
Class
Table 2
Water quality at starting of once-through boiler

Process
(When the volatile substance process applies.)
Circulation before ignition

(Boiler cold cleanup)
Temperature increase/pressure
increase circulation
(Boiler hot cleanup)
Greater than
Greater than
15 and 20 or
20
less
19
8.5 9.6 ( )
9.0 9.6
0.1 or less
0.1 or less
100 or less
100 or less
10 or less
10 or less
100 or less
50 or less
20 or less
10 or less
20 or more
20 or more
30 or less
30 or less
0.1 or less
0.1 or less
100 or less
100 or less
40
41
200 or less ( )
100 or less ( )
Load operation
(42)
[1/2MCR
or less]
Greater than
Greater than
Greater than
Greater than
15 and 20 or
15 and 20 or
20
20
less
less
19
19
Economizer
8.5 9.6 ( )
9.0 9.6
8.5 9.6 ( )
9.0 9.6
pH (at 25 C)
11 19
inlet
0.1 or less
0.1 or less
0.1 or less
0.1 or less
Electric conductivity (mS/m) ( )( ) (at 25 C)
11 19
100 or less
100 or less
100 or less
100 or less
(!S/m) ( )( ) (at 25 C)
36
38
40
or
less
(
)
20
or
less
(
)
7
or
less
7 or less
Dissolved oxygen (!gO/l)
200 or less
100 or less
30 or less
30 or less
Iron (!gFe/l)
20 or less
20 or less
5 or less
5 or less
Copper (!gCl/l)
38
38
20 or more ( )
20 or more ( )
10 or more
10 or more
Hydrazine (!gN2H4/l)
30 or less
30 or less
30 or less
30 or less
Silica (!gSiO2/l)
11 19
0.1 or less
0.1 or less
Furnace
Electric conductivity (mS/m) ( )( ) (at 25 C)
11 19
100 or less
100 or less
water wall
(!S/m) ( )( ) (at 25 C)
outlet
300 or less
300 or less
Iron (!gFe/l)
(38)
Note
This value becomes the target according to the boiler shape.
(39)
When starting the unit after it has been stopped for a long period of time, it is preferable to adjust the hydrazine concentration to a higher level in order to promote forming
of a protective coat inside the system.
+
At this time, the hydrazine is dissociated in the water and it exists as the hydrazinium ion (N2H5 ).
(40)
The target concentration of the iron is 100!gFe/l or less.
(41)
The target concentration of the iron is 50!gFe/l or less.
(42)
This shows an abbreviation of the maximum continuous rating that means the maximum continuous load.
Feed water
Max. operating pressure (MPa)
To reduce this thermal stress, the warming of the casing and control valve must be carried out before starting
the turbine.
Additionally, it is important to check for faulty parts, such as the shaft position or eccentricity using the turbine
monitor instruments before starting the turbine through turning.
(9) Turbine start and speed up
Items to be considered most at turbine start are thermal stress and vibration problems.
Therefore, the warming (heat soak) is performed until the rotor temperature reaches the transition temperature
[temperature, at which the mechanical properties of the material lower rapidly (becomes fragile)] to prevent the
fragility of the turbine rotor from being broken or to reduce the thermal stress of the rotor surface and the stress at
the center of the rotor.
This heat soak is classified into two groups. The first group is the low-speed heat soak in which the turbine is
started with low-speed RPM kept in order to prevent the turbine rotor from being broken. The second group is
the high-speed heat soak in which the turbine is started at a rated RPM to prevent excessive thermal stress of the
rotor as the parallel and output increase.
As described above, the heat soak time and speed up rate are determined by considering the thermal stress in
order to control the service life of the rotor.
Additionally, it is necessary to determine a start schedule most suitable for the turbine so that vibration is
minimized.
To determine this turbine start schedule, the start load operation chart (mismatch chart) is provided. The heat
soak time and speed up rate are usually determined by the metal temperature at the first stage, as well as the main
steam temperature and pressure when the turbine is started up.
Table 1 shows examples of the speed up rate and heat soak time in each start mode. It is important that the
turbine is started according to the schedule created based on this chart and the operation is performed while
carefully checking the steam temperature so that the difference in temperature between the internal and external
28
metal surfaces of each turbine part and the steam temperature change ratio do not exceed their limit values.
The vibration and expansion difference are monitored during increasing of the turbine RPM.
Great care should be taken as the amplitude tends to be large at a speed close to the critical speed of the rotor.
In the boiler, as the turbine speed increases, the fuel charging volume is adjusted to keep the necessary steam
volume. For a cold start, the fuel charging volume is minimized before starting the turbine in order to reduce the
thermal stress applied to the turbine. It is also necessary to prevent excessive increase of the main steam
temperature by suppressing the increase of the fuel charging volume during speed up to the minimally required
level.
(10) Preparations for parallel
If heavy oil facilities are provided, light oil is changed to heavy oil before starting parallel output. Variations
in main steam temperature and main steam pressure are checked when changing light oil to heavy oil.
It must be checked that the ash processing facility, desulfurization facility, and denitration facility have been
started and they are in standby mode before charging the coal after parallel output has been started.
If the coal on the belt of each coal supply machine is discharged, each coal supply machine needs to be put in
coal on status.
(11) Parallel, output increase 1
When the turbine reaches the rated RPM, the generator voltage is increased to its rating, and then the turbine is
synchronized with the system to put in parallel status.
After the initial output is kept using the initial output volume corresponding to the turbine start mode, the
output increases to 20%ECR.
In the output increase process, the turbine valve is changed, the low-pressure/high-pressure feed water heater is
started, and the coal burner at the first stage is started.
Variations in main steam pressure in the process utilizing the bleed air and in the coal charging process are
checked carefully while the output is increasing. Additionally, it is also necessary to carefully check the NOx
and SOx control after the coal has been charged.
After the output has reached approx. 20%ECR, the boiler supply water pump is changed from the electric drive
(M-BFP) to the turbine drive (T-BFP). After that, the power at the station is changed (start transformation "
station transformation).
(12) Output increase II
The output increases to 50%ECR. The wet/dry of the boiler is changed at an output of approx. 25%ECR (the
boiler status is changed from recirculation to once-through status and the control system is also changed to
once-through control). By changing the wet/dry of the boiler, the boiler circulation pump (BCP) is stopped.
According to the voltage transformation mode, the main steam pressure starts increasing at an output of approx.
30%ECR. This operation is controlled by the boiler input command. However, in the output and main steam
pressure increase process after the wet/dry has been changed to dry, it is necessary to carefully check the
balance between the feed water flow rate and fuel flow rate, as well as variations in the steam temperature of each
part.
As the output increases, the coal burners are ignited in order and the oil burners are turned off to burn only coal.
Additionally, the second T-BPP unit is put in the service in status.
After the output has reached 50%ECR, the stable operation of the unit is checked and the water quality of each
part is checked. When the water quality satisfies the standard value, the drain is collected from the high/low
pressure supply water heater.
(13) Output increase III
The output increases to 100%ECR. As the output increases, the coal burners are ignited in order.
After the output has reached 100%, the operation status of the unit is checked and the patrol inspection is
performed at the work field to check that no errors exist. After that, load dispatching ferry is done.
2.3.3 Stopping of unit

When stopping the unit, the output is decreased sequentially according to the stop schedule in which the stop
period, heat radiation cooling during this period, and operation conditions for next start are taken into
consideration.
The stop method is classified into four groups as described below. Figure 5 shows an outline of the stop steps.
1) Normal turbine stop & boiler hot bank
This stop method is used to stop the unit according to the standard (normal) stop schedule, such as the
weekly start and stop and the daily start and stop.
29
2) Boiler forced cooling stop

This stop method is used to cool the boiler in a short time to ensure work safety during boiler related repair
work (in-furnace work or repair of pressure resistant parts, etc.).
The normal operation is performed until the units are put in the parallel-off status. After the units have
been put in the parallel-off status, water and air are fed continuously to cool the boiler.
3) Turbine forced cooling stop
This stop method is used to cool the turbine in a short time to ensure work safety if repair work needing the
turbine oil pump stop is needed.
The main steam pressure is normally kept at a higher level than the normal level corresponding to the
output drop, and the main steam temperature and reheating steam temperature are decreased to a lower
level than the normal target temperature to stop the units. Figure 6 shows a typical stop pattern.
In this case, boiler forced cooling needs to be performed for safety reasons.
4) Boiler & turbine forced cooling stop
This stop method is used to cool both the boiler and turbine when stopping the unit accompanying the
periodic inspection.
The following describes the operating procedures and cautions for the stop step.
(1) Preparations for unit stop
After the unit stop schedule has been determined, heavy oil warming and steam type air pre-heater (SAH) are
started when using heavy oil.
Output drop I
Output drop II
Boiler off
Parallel-off
Turbine trip
BFPT/M change-over
Coal single fuel firing
Oil burner ignition
Dry/wet change-over
Output drop start
Voltage transformation start
Starting of preparations
for unit stop
Output
Boiler hot bank
Boiler forced cooling
Output
drop III
Fig. 5
Unit stop steps (Normal turbine stop)
30
Vacuum
retention
Vacuum
break
Pressure
Load
Temperature
Re-heating steam temperature

Main steam
temperature
Load
Main steam
pressure
RPM
1%/min.
RPM
0.5%/min.
Time
Load drop start
Parallel-off.
360 min
Fig. 6
Example of turbine forced cooling stop
Additionally, the preparations for auxiliary steam supply from another boiler or a boiler in the plant are
performed.
(2) Output drop I
The output drops to 50%ECR.
When the output is approximately 95%ECR, the main steam pressure starts dropping according to the voltage
transformation mode. According to the output drop, the coal burners are turned off sequentially.
(3) Output drop II
The output drops to 20%ECR.
According to the output drop, the oil burners are ignited and coal burners are turned off.
Additionally, the first T-BFP unit is put in the service out status.
The drain tank level of the water separator increases when the output is approximately 25%
ECR. The BCP is started to change-over the dry/wet.
After the M-BFP has been put in the service in status, the second T-BFP is put in the service out status.
The output reaches 20%ECR. The transition to heavy oil single fuel firing is completed and the power
change-over in the plant (station transformation " start transformation) is completed.
(4) Output drop III, parallel-off
The output is dropped to the parallel-off target value (5%ECR).
The high-pressure/low-pressure supply water heater is stopped according to the output drop.
Additionally, oil burners are turned off in order.
When the output reaches the parallel-off target value, the parallel-off is performed.
(5) Turbine trip, boiler off
After completion of parallel-off, the turbine is tripped. After checking that the auxiliary steam is changed to
another boiler or a boiler in the plant, all oil burners are turned off.
When the burner purge is completed after the final burner has been turned off, the MFT is then operated to
check that all fuels are shut off completely.
After the MFT has been operated, the furnace purge is performed for 5 min.
2.3.4 Stopping of boiler

There are two kinds of boiler stop methods after parallel-off, that is, boiler hot bank stop and boiler forced
31
cooling stop.
The above stop methods are carried out according to the schedules even though there is a difference between
the plan stop and work stop. In addition to the above stop methods, there is a stop method by the MFT operation
during unit operation.
(1) Normal stop
When the unit stop schedule is determined, heavy oil warming or SAH is started according to the output drop
schedule time. The preparations are made so that the auxiliary steam can be supplied from another boiler or a
boiler in the plant.
When the output drop is started, the coal burners are turned off in order according to the decrease of the fuel
flow rate. When the output is approximately 95%ECR, the main steam pressure also drops according to the
voltage transformation program.
In particular, the balance among the supply water, fuel, and air (boiler input command, water-fuel ratio, air-fuel
ratio) should be checked carefully.
The heavy oil burners are ignited in order when the output becomes 50% or less. If the preparations for
ignition of the heavy oil burners are not in time, the output is kept at 50%ECR.
When the output becomes approximately 25%ECR, the drain tank level of the water separator increases. As
the BCP is started, the dry/wet is changed over.
The output reaches 20%ECR. Check that the transition to heavy oil single fuel firing is completed and the
power change-over in the plant (station transformation " start transformation) is completed. After checking the
above, the output drops to the parallel-off target value (5%ECR).
After the output has reached the parallel-off target value, the parallel-off is performed, and then the turbine is
tripped.
After checking that the auxiliary steam is changed to another boiler or a boiler in the plant, all oil burners are
turned off.
When the burner purge is completed after the final burner has been turned off, the MFT is then operated to
check that all fuels are shut off completely. After the MFT has been operated, the furnace purge (after purge) is
performed for 5 min.
(2) Stopping of boiler hot bank
After the MFT has been operated and the furnace purge has been completed, the ventilation system and
water/steam system are sealed to minimize the heat loss of the boiler as preparations for restart.
The contents of the stop operation are described in clause 1.3-(5).
The result data of the boiler pressure drop rate and steam temperature drop rate during hot bank is grasped. If
the drop rate is excessively fast, check whether any leak comes from the start bypass valve, or the main
steam/super-heater drain valve.
Heat or pressure remains in the boiler during hot bank. As a rule, the operation and adjustment of the boiler
system valve, and the inspection and work of the equipment leading to the boiler system valve, and the opening of
the manhole must not be performed.
(3) Boiler forced cooling stop
Before conducting the inspection work or periodic inspection work related to the boiler, forcibly cool the boiler
to stop it in order to enable safe work on the turbine side.
The contents of the stop operation are described in clause 1.3-(6).
After forced cooling has been completed, the boiler storage status may vary depending on the stop purpose.
Table 6 shows examples of storage methods (except for plant that the oxygen process applies to the water
process).
Actually, water filled status or nitrogen disused status often occurs. In this case, the boiler water is blown
completely after the forced cooling has been completed, and then the boiler is stored in the dry status.
(4) Measures for MFT operation
The operators must understand the causes of the MFT operations fully. If MFT occurs, check that the
protection interlock functions properly. Additionally, the boiler must not be restarted until the cause of the MFT
has been located and corrective action has been taken.
The following describes the measures to be taken after the MFT has been activated when the operation of the
auxiliary machine in the ventilation system is continued.
1) Check items after MFT
The fuel shut-off valve, burner valve, and SH/RH spray valve are closed.
The auxiliary machines are tripped. (Mill, coal supply machine, PAF, and RFP, etc.)
32
The mill hot air gate and damper are closed.

The burner complete off alarm signal send items through the television set inside the furnace.
2) The air flow rate is the furnace purge air flow rate (normally, 30% of MCR flow rate). The furnace is
purged for 5 min. or longer.
3) The auxiliary steam supply is changed to another boiler or a boiler in the plant.
4) To prevent fire caused by spontaneous ignition, the air is flown at the minimum air flow rate to purge
the flammable contents of the coal remaining in the mill and pulverized coal pipe in order to cool the
inside of the mill (volatile purge). If a mill inert system is provided, the mill is made inert to prevent a
fire.
5) Each part of the boiler is inspected visually to check that no faults exist. In particular, when the MFT
is operated from the high-output, the solenoid escape valve (PCV) may be activated. Therefore, it is
necessary to check that no leak exists after activation.
6) After the cause of the MFT has been found and corrective measures have been taken, the operation is
restarted. At this time, if it takes long to locate the cause, it is possible to stop main auxiliary machines
in the ventilation system, but the damper in the gas duct is put in the natural ventilation status (to purge
the volatile content).
7) After the pilot torch has been ignited, oil remaining in the trip burner is purged.
8) Coal remaining in the mill is purged after parallel. Additionally, if the mill clearing system is provided,
the remaining coal is processed by the clearing when the preparations for pyrite processing unit are
completed.
Table 6 Example of storage methods in case of once-through boiler stop
Stop period
Item
Boiler main body
From economizer to
outlet of water
separator
Super-heater and
re-heater
1
48 hrs. or less
48 hrs. to 1 week
1 week or more to 1 month
1 month or more
Hot banking
(Valve is closed with
normal operation kept.)
Nitrogen sealing storage or

water filling storage
N2H4 50 100 mg/#

N2H4 100 300 mg/#

N2H4 300 500 mg/#
Same as above.
Same as left.
Nitrogen sealing storage

(Re-heater: Dry storage)
Nitrogen sealing storage

(Re-heater: Dry storage)
If the auxiliary machine in the ventilation system is tripped, the furnace must be purged after the damper in the
gas duct has been put in the natural ventilation status. Additionally, when all power supplies are lost, it is
checked that the fuel is shut-off and the back-up operation of the AH is performed by the air motor and that the
damper in the gas duct is put in the natural ventilation status.
(5) Operation of Soot Blower When Unit Is Not Used Boiler clinker removal
When working inside the furnace during the suspension of boiler operation, it is necessary to conduct clinker
removal before paralleling off in order to ensure safety against clinker fall.
2.3.5 Concept of turbine start
Thermal power generation facilities in Japan were originally positioned for adjustment of the load. However,
thermal power generation actually comprises approximately 60% of all capacity, and this output will continue to
be important in the future. Additionally, thermal power generation facilities are considered increasingly
important for stable energy supply.
Thermal power generation facilities are classified into two groups, combined power generation facilities having
high efficiency and excellent operability, and conventional power generation facilities utilizing various fuels and
having rich operation results. Continuing the operation of conventional power generation facilities is important
in order to maintain a range of energy sources, and there are plans worldwide to construct thermal power
generation plants mainly using coal. Since coal is dispersed worldwide and its deposits are abundant,
conventional thermal power generation plants are being constructed.
It is desirable to increase the capacity of conventional power generation facilities and to improve their
efficiency levels in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In 2000, commercial operation started of
Tachibana Bay Plant, controlled by Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. This state-of-the-art large capacity
plant (1,050MW) has a main steam pressure level of 25MPa and a temperature of 600 C, and utilizing high steam
conditions with a re-heating steam temperature of 610 C.
However, the turbine has many small gaps and is rotated at high speed and high temperature. Therefore,
rubbing or excessive thermal stress occurs, causing damage to the unit.
For this reason, utilization of the proper operation method and monitoring method is more important by
considering extension of the periodic inspection, which has been utilized recently.
As the number of new plant being constructed in Japan is decreasing rapidly, and the construction and
maintenance of power generation plants are shifting overseas, the remote monitoring service business is started.
33
The following items can be monitored by the manufacturers in their own country.
2.3.5.1 Reduction of thermal stress

Thermal stress occurs inside the steam turbine caused by differences between the temperature of each steam
turbine part and the steam temperature to be ventilated.
The cautions on the turbine start plan is that this thermal stress occurring in the rotor and casing is reduced.
The thermal stress of the high-pressure rotor operated under the severest conditions is monitored to control the
LCFI (Low Cycle Fatigue Index). To monitor this thermal stress, the metal temperature at the outlet of the first
stage of the turbine is determined as a representative measurement point. This measured metal temperature
value is used to make the judgment.
According to the metal temperature at the first stage achieved by natural cooling during the stop time and the
turbine plan ventilation temperature, which has been adjusted with the boiler side beforehand, the start mode is
classified into those described in Table 7. As the stop time is longer, the start time also becomes longer.
Table 7
Start mode
Very hot start
Examples of start mode classifications and stop time levels
Hot start
Stop time
Stopped for up to 4 hrs. from
immediately after turbine trip.
Stopped for 8 to 11 hrs.
Warm start I
Stopped for 32 hrs.
Warm start II
Stopped for 56 hrs.
Cold start
Stopped for 150 hrs. or longer
Remarks
DSS: Parallel-off at midnight and parallel-in the next

morning.
WSS I: Parallel-off at midnight on Saturday and parallel-in on
Monday morning.
WSS II: Parallel-off at midnight on Friday and parallel-in ion
Monday morning.
Stopped for 1 week or longer.:page 15
RPM: 3600 rpm
Load: 100%
Vacuum degree
Main steam pressure
(Vacuum pump start)

(Condensate water cleanup)
(Preparations for ignition M - BFP start/Ignition)
(Parallel-in (initial
load holding))
(Turbine start)
(M/T change-over)
(Rub check)
(Low-speed heat soak)
(2nd T-BFP turn ON)
(Speed up start)
(Low-pressure cleanup)
(High-pressure cleanup)
(Boiler cold cleanup)
(Boiler hot cleanup)
Fig. 19
Example of typical start
As described above, the natural cooling is started and the rotor temperature is changed according to the turbine
stop time. The typical start mode is classified into various typical classes because the operation mode is
classified into patterns by operation style. To relax the thermal stress that occurs as a result of the difference in
temperature between the main steam and rotor, it is necessary to adjust the start method.
As described above, since the time needed for the start is different from the stop time, it is important to grasp
the start time for the power supply plan.
Figure 19 shows the events in the typical cold start processes. The following introduces the main monitoring
items in the start process.
(1) Pre-warming
In the cold start in which the turbine is started from almost room temperature, warming of the high-pressure
turbine is needed to reduce the thermal stress. The metal temperature after the first stage is controlled. This
pre-warming is intended to reduce the brittleness of the rotor even though it depends on the material.
(2) All-around flow operation
To reduce the thermal stress of the construction, casing close to the nozzle at the first stage or nozzle during
ventilation, the all-around flow operation (full-arc operation) is performed. When using the machine control
method (MHC), the sub-valve of the MSV is opened to perform.
When using the individual oil tube method using the electric control method (EHC), all control valves are opened
slightly to perform this method. At approximately 7% of the load after starting, the partial insertion operation is
started. Figure 20 shows the relationship between the opening of the control valves and load during this partial
34
Control valves
opening
Main steam
pressure
insertion operation as an example of the voltage transformation operation.
Fully opened.
4th valve
1st to 3rd
valve
Load
Fig. 20
Example of pressure and control valves opening during voltage transformation operation
(3) Low-speed heat soak operation

In the cold start, the heat soak operation is performed by the steam passing through the turbine in the status that
the heat transfer effect is high. This operation is performed by taking the critical RPM of the generator having
the lowest critical speed into consideration. This RPM is generally about 800 rpm.
(4) High-speed heat soak
When the RPM reaches the rated RPM, the heat soak operation is started to further heat up the turbine evenly.
At this time, since the heat transfer effect becomes high together with the stream flow rate, the initial load holding
time may be extended.
2.3.5.2 Other limited factors related to start
Important items to be monitored other than factors related to the thermal stress are those related to the vibration
and elongation difference. The following shows items related to the vibration.
(1) Eccentricity
In an example 700MW-plant, the maximum diameter of the steam turbine shaft is approximately 500mm, a
large diameter. The span between the bearings is approximately 6m. Therefore, to suppress the bend of the
rotor, it is necessary that the turning is generally performed for approximately 10 hrs. or more to set the
eccentricity to the standard value or less.
Table 8
Detection location
Detection RPM
Vibration control values
Shaft
3000rpm/3600rpm
1500rpm/1800rpm
Bearing
3000rpm/3600rpm
1500rpm/1800rpm
12.5
17.5
6.2
8.7
15
21
7.5
10.5
25
35
12.5
17.5
Alarm value
Stop value
Remarks
Rated speed or
more
Less than rated
speed
(2) Vibration limit value

The turbine speed must pass through various critical speed ranges including the generator until the turbine
reaches the rated RPM. Additionally, since the turbine is a large high-speed rotating unit, the vibration may
increase due to the eccentricity and bearing lubrication status or small imbalance.
Therefore, it is necessary to set the alarm value and stop value, which are the control value or less as shown in
Table 8 according to Technical standard for thermal power generation facilities and Electric technical standard
for steam turbine for thermal power generation and standard for generator vibration.
Furthermore, the control is used by which the vibration amplitude and vibration increase rate are determined as
parameters and the control is classified into the safe zone, alarm zone, and trip zone. In this control, the
previously described three zones are classified into critical speed range or less, critical speed range, and
critical speed or more by the RPM range to control the turbine vibration by computer.
35
Oil temperature
Start
Continuous
turning
$ RPM of
Turning
disengagement rating
Rated
RPM
Control valve
change-over
Oil temperature
Stop
Continuous turning
Equivalent to control valve

change-over load
Fig. 21
Turbine
trip
$ RPM of
rating
Turning
start
Example of bearing lubricant oil temperature setting and monitoring
(3) Oil temperature

It is important to control the lubricant oil temperature in order to form a stable lubricant film, to protect the
bearing, and to prevent oil whip. The temperature width shown in Fig. 21 is set to change the control value
according to the turbine operation status (RPM).
(4) Metal temperature
It is important to monitor the bearing metal temperature for protection of the bearing metal. The temperature
monitoring conditions may vary depending on the bearing shape, such as thrust bearing, oval journal bearing, or
tilting pad journal bearing. Additionally, it is also important to monitor rapid changes in metal temperature.
(5) Vacuum degree in exhaust chamber
If the vacuum degree is much higher than the design value (pressure inside the condenser is too low), the
low-pressure casing is deformed, causing rubbing to occur. Additionally, as the vacuum degree decreases, the
vibration stress at the final stage increases.
(6) Temperature in exhaust chamber
It is further important to control the temperature around the final stage as the vane at the final stage is made
longer. Measures for protection of the final stage, such as use of casing spray are taken so that flexibility of the
operation is not lost.
(7) Limitations on wetness
Monitoring is important for protection of erosion on the vane at the final stage. Even though the wetness at
the outlet of the final stage is generally controlled in a range of 8 to 12%, it is necessary to take appropriate
measures or to perform the monitoring in a range exceeding this wetness range. The start point of the expansion
curve of the re-heating part, that is, the pressure and temperature of the re-heating steam must be monitored.
Figure 22 shows a conceptional diagram of the typical wetness limitation curve expressed by the equivalent
re-heating steam pressure line that indicates the re-heating steam conditions for wetness of 12%. The lower
portion of each re-heating pressure curve shows the operable range.
36
Vacuum degree
The lower portion of each re-heating steam pressure shows

the operable range.
Equivalent re-heating steam

pressure line
Re-heating steam temperature
Fig. 22
Concept of wetness limit curve
Allowable time
Under the operation conditions, the motion that comes and goes between the wet area and dry area is called
dry and wet alternation. However, it is important that coming and going between the wet area and dry area are
eliminated at the final stage or L-1 (stage one before the final stage). Impurities in the steam may accumulate in
the nozzle and on the vane due to dry and wet alternation, causing corrosion to occur.
Frequency
Fig. 23
Concept of frequency limit curve (example of rating 3600rpm)
(8) Frequency limit value

The principal vibration of the vane at the final stage is designed so that it is separated well properly to the rated
RPM. However, the operation may be performed with the principal vibration beyond the rated RPM as the effect
on the system side is received.
Figure 23 shows the frequency limit curve. The control of the service life is %tf/Tfo & 1.0 and the operation
needs to be performed without exceeding this formula.
t f : Cumulative operation time at frequency (f).
Tf0 : Allowable operation time at frequency (f).
37
High and medium pressure rotor

expansion direction
Low pressure rotor expansion direction
High
pressure
High and medium

pressure bearing base
on front
Low pressure expansion difference meter
Thrust bearing
High pressure expansion

difference meter
Low pressure B
Low pressure A
Medium
pressure
High and medium

pressure casing
(Second bearing base)
Combined with low pressure
casing
Low pressure B
casing
Low pressure A
casing
Low pressure B expansion

direction
High and medium pressure and low pressure A

expansion direction
Fig. 24
Example of casing and rotor expansion directions
Orange
band
1st alarm point
Red band
Fig. 25
Max. rotor short

Max. rotor long
Red band
2nd alarm point
Green
mark
Red
mark
(9) Expansion difference

The rotor is warmed earlier than the casing at startup, on start.
Figure 24 shows a concept of the rotor and casing moving directions as a typical example of three casing types.
The difference in expansion between the rotor and casing may become the biggest on the anti-generator side of the
high pressure turbine and the generator side of the low pressure B turbine. The elongation difference meter is
provided on these parts as shown in the drawing to monitor them.
Figure 25 shows an example of the monitoring method. Rotor long means that the rotor is extended longer
than the casing. Rotor short is opposite to rotor long. The green mark shows the status that the turbine rotor is
kept pushed against the front side in the cold condition.
The red band shows the area causing contact in the axial direction.
As the rotor is rotated, it is pulled by centrifugal force in the circumferential direction and it is then shortened.
Example of limitations on expansion difference
That is, even though the rotor does not enter the red band on the long side during operation, it is extended as it
is released from the centrifugal force in the stop process.
As a result, the rotor may enter the red band area.
On the contrary, when the rotor is started in a status close to the short side before the RPM is increased, it may
advance toward the rotor short side as the RPM is further increased.
This width shows the portion between the red mark and the first alarm point, and the orange band.
38
2. 4
Performance Management
2.4.1
Grasping of performance
In the performance control of thermal power plants, the constant, accurate grasping of unit operation, and
working to improve thermal efficiency are most important.
As a method to grasp performance, the deviation from the desired value which can be expected as long as the
equipment is operated normally including the acceptance performance test results etc., and also initial design
values at the start of operations are controlled. This desired value comprises operation status values such as the
temperature and pressure of each part, and performance values such as unit efficiency and boiler efficiency. The
latter performance values change by external conditions and therefore revision of the same conditions is necessary
for making comparisons. Setting of coefficients for revision may be performed by theoretical calculation or by
testing.
Next, in order to reasonably maintain facility performance in thermal power plants, in general, daily control is
made so that appropriate measures may be taken by monitoring the operation status. By monitoring the necessary
control items by instruments, daily operation log, calculators, etc., abnormal conditions are detected early and by
conducting operation and maintenance properly, efforts are made to perform reference value operations.
On the other hand, every day operation conditions are grasped from operation records and typical items which
affect performance (condenser vacuum degree deviation, exhaust gas temperature, exhaust gas O2) are plotted by
day, ten days, month in graphs, and the trend controlled. Especially, in regard to power plants with coal energy and
such where coal quantity, quality cannot be grasped in real time, the plant situation is grasped by trend control.
Also, to evaluate performance and thermal efficiency improvement measures at the time of regular inspection,
performance test items (high pressure turbine internal efficiency, air preheater efficiency, feed water heaters, etc.)
were grasped and simultaneous records taken on the overall unit for detailed control.
2.4.2 Grasping of equipment performance
To control performance changes of the unit, unit performance tests were conducted regularly, and efficient
operation, maintenance and improvement of facilities are being undertaken.
In general, performance tests were conducted with minimum output, 2/4 output, 3/4 output and rated output and
items such as plant thermal efficiency are being measured.
2.4.2.1
Heat input and output of a thermal power plant
An example of fuel, electric output, and various losses of a thermal power plant is shown in Fig. 2.4.2.1. The major part
of fuel consumed in boiler combustion is used for the generating of steam. This steam is sent to the turbine but a
little over ten percent of the heat quantity are discarded into the atmosphere as exhaust gas. Steam that flows into
the turbine expands inside the turbine and works to rotate the generator to generate electric power. During this
time, a part of the work becomes mechanical loss such as by bearings, etc. and also becomes generator loss. The
steam which has expanded with the turbine exhaust pressure flows into the condenser where it is cooled to
become condensed water while the heat quantity possessed by the steam is discharged into the cooling water of
the condenser.
Heat loss by exhaust gas

Cycle loss
Boiler fuel
(A)
Mechanical
Generator
loss
In-station
loss
motive
power
Turbine end
output (D)
Turbine room heat

input
(B)
Gross electric Net electric output

output
(E)
(F)
Heat discharge
loss (G) to
condenser
Boiler auxiliary
steam (C)
39
Fig.2.4.2.1
With oil fired thermal power use boilers, furnaces into which air is forced drafted by a force draft fan are widely
adopted. With this system, operation is performed with the pressure inside of the furnace or flue higher than the
atmospheric pressure and therefore caution must be exercised on leakage of gas and measures taken. Also, in the
case of coal fired boilers, blast furnace gas or coke oven gas burning boilers, a balanced draft system in which the
gas pressure inside the furnace is maintained slightly lower than the atmospheric pressure by an induced draft fan
is mainly adopted.
The reason for this is that with coal fired boilers, consideration is made for ash leakage and with blast furnace
gas and coke oven gas fired boilers, the fuel gas containing a large amount of CO is hazardous and the supplied
pressure of fuel gas is low.
With boiler capacity becoming greater, the consumed motive power of force draft fans and induced draft fans also
becomes greater and therefore it becomes necessary to restrain the draft loss of the convective heat transfer
surface to a suitable value. Table 2.4.2.1 shows an example of draft loss of respective parts of a large capacity
boiler of the coal fired balanced draft system.
Table 2.4.2 .1Example of draft loss of a boiler (Calculated values at maximum continuous load)
Draft loss
kPa
Items
Air (secondary) side pressure loss
Forced draft fan inlet air duct and silencer
Forced draft fan outlet air duct
Air preheater
Air preheater outlet - Burner wind box inlet air duct
Burner wind box
0.54
0.43
1.37
0.59
1.47
Total
4.40
Gas side pressure loss

Superheater - Economizer
NOx remover
Air preheater
Gas, gas heater, and electrostatic precipitator
Economizer outlet - Induced draft - fan inlet flue and silencer
Induced draft fan outlet flue and chimney
1.37
1.03
1.52
1.59
0.84
1.06
Total
7.41
Total pressure loss of air and gas
11.81
40
2.4.2.2 Boiler
When calculating boiler efficiency, it is necessary to clarify whether the standard of the fuel calorific value is of
a high level calorific value containing latent heat of vaporization at the time the moisture from hydrogen in the
fuel becomes steam or whether it is of a low level calorific value in which latent heat of vaporization is deducted
from the high level calorific value.
In this chapter, explanation is provided with high level calorific value as the standard.
As a method to obtain boiler efficiency, the quantity of heat which is transferred to the feed water in the boiler
and used to generate steam is compared with the heat quantity which should be generated by the combustion of
the fuel fed to the furnace. This is called the heat input output method and is expressed by the following
equation.
Boiler efficiency "
Ws (h0 - hl)
! 100%
Gf Hh
(1)
Where WS is the boiler steam quantity kg/h, h0, h1 is the generated steam and feed water enthalpy kJ/kg, Gf is
the fuel consumed quantity kg/h, and Hh is the high level calorific value of fuel kJ/kg.
As another method, the boiler heat loss is calculated from the exhaust gas temperature and the exhaust gas
amount after passing the entire generating surface of the boiler, (the outlet if there is an air preheater) and by
deducting this from 100%, the boiler efficiency is obtained. This is called the heat loss method and is calculated
by the formula mentioned later. The heat loss becomes less as the exhaust gas temperature is lowered and boiler
efficiency rises but for this a larger air preheater generating surface is required and facility expenses increase.
Additionally, in the case where fuel containing sulfuric
content is used, the problem of low temperature corrosion (sulfuric corrosion) occurs and therefore it is important
to select a suitable exhaust gas temperature in planning the boiler. In current boilers, the exhaust gas temperature
is set at 130 - 150#C with coal and heavy oil (crude oil) fuel, at 165#C with high sulfuric content heavy oil, etc,
and around
100#C with gas fuel but with certain fuels, normally an environment preserving device (Electric dust collector,
desulfurizing equipment) is installed for the back wash and therefore it is necessary to optimize the exhaust gas
temperature in the entire facility including this.
(1) Dry exhaust gas loss L1
Out of the heat loss by the exhaust gas discharged from the outlet of the boiler (air preheater), when the portion
by latent heat of dry gas is assumed to be:
Gdry : Dry gas amount per 1 kg of fuel kg/kg
Cg
: Average specific heat of dry gas .0 kJ/kg#C
tg
: Air preheater outlet exhaust gas temperature #C
to
: Boiler efficiency standard temperature #C
L1 "
Gdry Cs (ts - to)

! 100%
Hh
( 2)
(2) Loss L2 by hydrogen moisture in the fuel

Out of the heat loss by the exhaust gas exhausted from the boiler (air preheater) outlet, the loss caused by
evaporation of the moisture produced from hydrogen in the fuel and the contained moisture during combustion of
the fuel and moreover the loss caused by heating up to the temperature of exhaust gas and discharged:
Where;
: Moisture produced from hydrogen in 1 kg of fuel and the moisture kg/kg contained in the fuel
Mf
$hR : Latent heat of vaporization contained in moisture 2,500 J/Ks
Cm
: Average specific heat of steam 1.9 J/kg#C
Cw
: Specific heat of water at reference temperature 4.2kJ/kg#C
L2 "
Mf ($hR % Cm - ts - Cw - ts)
! 100%
Hh
(3)
41
(3) Loss L3 by moisture in the air

Out of the heat loss by the exhaust gas which is discharged from the boiler (air preheater) outlet, the loss caused
by latent heat of moisture contained in the air for combustion is assumed to be:
MA : Moisture contained in air for combustion per 1 kg of fuel, whereby:
L3 "
MaCa (ts - to)

! 100%
Hh
( 4)
(4) Loss L4 by radiation heat

It is difficult to accurately obtain the heat loss radiated into the atmosphere from the peripheral walls of the
boiler and appurtenant facilities. This loss becomes proportionally smaller with large capacity boilers because
their surface area becomes relatively smaller and also because the radiation heat amount is roughly constant
irrespective of the load; the proportion of loss becomes smaller as the load becomes larger.
(5) Loss L5 by unburned fuel gas
This is the heat loss due to the combustible gas remaining such as CO in the fuel gas because of incomplete
combustion.
L5 "
23,700 ! C
(CO)
!
! 100%
Hh
(CO 2) % (CO)
(5)
Where;
23,700
: Lost heat amount kJ/kg when carbon becomes CO by incomplete combustion of

carbon in the fuel
C
: Combusted carbon amount kg/kg in 1 kg of fuel
: CO and CO2 density vol. % in exhaust gas
(CO, CO2 )
Besides the above, there is combustible gas loss by unburned hydro-carbons and H2 but these are of minute
amounts which can be neglected in current commercial use boilers.
(6) Loss L6 by combustion residue

This is heat loss mainly by unburned carbon in the combustion residue by combustion of solid fuel.
L6 "
33,900 ! C'
! 100%
Hh
( 6)
Where
33,900
: Combusted heat amount KJ/Kg of carbon
C
: Unburned carbon amount KJ/Kg per 1 kg of fuel
This heat loss in liquid and gaseous fuel is negligible.
(7) Other loss L7
Besides the above, there are small losses such as by carrying out of combusted ash or steam atomizing or heat
losses which cannot be measured or for which the cause is unknown and these are treated as other losses. Errors
of measuring instruments may be included in this loss.
From the above heat losses, boiler efficiency may be expressed by the following equation
7
Boiler efficiency " 100 & ' Li
(7 )
l "1
Table 2.4.2.2 shows examples of boiler efficiency and heat loss of commercial use boilers for exclusive firing
of heavy (crude) oil, of natural gas and of coal.
With natural gas, the hydrogen content during combustion is approximately double that of heavy (crude) oil and
therefore the loss by hydrogen moisture content during combustion is great. Since the exhaust gas temperature is
low, dry exhaust gas loss is small but boiler efficiency becomes approximately 2% lower compared with heavy
(crude) oil. Also with coal, the hydrogen content during combustion is even less than that of heavy (crude) oil and
therefore even when loss by unburned carbon is considered, boiler efficiency tends to become the highest among
the three fuels. However, coal characteristics will differ greatly by origin and caution must be exercised in the
evaluation of its efficiency.
42
Table 2.4.2.2 Examples of heat loss by boiler efficiency (Calculated values by rated loads)
Boiler efficiency (Higher calorific value standard) (%)
Exhaust gas temperature

(Air preheater outlet)
Excessive air factor
(Air preheater outlet)
Boiler heat loss
Dry exhaust gas loss
Loss by hydrogen content during
combustion
Loss by moisture content in air
Loss by radiation heat
Loss by unburned fuel gas
Loss by combustion residue
Other losses
Total
Boiler efficiency
(Higher calorific value standard)
Heavy (crude) oil

exclusive boiler
140
Natural gas
exclusive boiler
99
Coal exclusive
boiler
135
1.14
1.16
1.20
%
%
4.33
6.53
2.70
10.19
4.31
4.03
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
0.07
0.17
0.00
0.00
1.00
12.10
87.90
0.05
0.17
0.00
0.00
1.00
14.11
85.89
0.09
0.17
0.00
0.52
1.50
10.62
89.38
#C
Coal fired boiler
Heavy (crude) oil firing boiler
Natural gas fired boiler
Boiler load (%)
Fig. 2.4.2.2 Relation between boiler efficiency and boiler load

Also, in general, with heavy (crude oil) fired boilers, the air preheater low temperature end average metal
temperature is controlled by a steam type air preheater and as a result, the lowering of exhaust gas temperature at
low load is small and boiler efficiency becomes maximum between the rated load where excessive air factor is
low to 75% load.
On the other hand, with exclusive natural gas fired boilers and exclusive coal fired boilers, the exhaust gas
temperature drops greatly with lowering of load and therefore boiler efficiency tends to become maximum with a
load of around 50 to 75%. At loads lower than this, boiler efficiency tends to drop because of the increase in dry
exhaust gas loss by the increased excessive air factor and increase in radiation loss. (Fig. 2.4.2)
43
2.4.2.3 Steam Turbine

Turbine performance (turbine room performance, turbine plant performance) is expressed with the use of the
terms, heat rate, thermal efficiency, internal efficiency, etc.
(1) Heat rate, thermal efficiency, steam consumption ratio
Turbine heat rate is the quantity of heat required to produce 1 kWh of electricity and is expressed by the
following equations.
1. In the case of non-reheat turbines
HR "
Q Gsis & Gwiw & Geie

"
Ls
Ls
(1)
2. In the case of reheat turbines (Fig. 2.4.2.3-1)
HR "
Q Gsis & Gwiw % Gr (ir & ir' ) & Geie

"
Ls
Ls
( 2)
Turbine
LP turbine
Boiler
HP turbine
Boiler auxiliary
steam etc.
Condens
er
#1 Heater
2 Heater
#3 Heater
Deaerator
#5 Heater
#6 Heater
Condenser pump
Feed water pump
Low pressure pump
Fig. 2 .4.2.3-1 Turbine reheat cycle

Where:
: Turbine heat rate (kJ/kWh)
HR
Q
: Quantity of heat consumed by the turbine (kJ/h)
Lg
: Generator end electric output (kW)
GS
: Turbine inflow steam quantity (kg/h)
iS
: Turbine inflow steam enthalpy (kJ/kg)
GW
: Feed water quantity to boiler (kg/h)
iw
: Feed water enthalpy to boiler (kJ/kg)
Go
: Quantity of steam to outside of turbine plant such as boiler auxiliary steam (kg/h)
io
: Steam enthalpy to outside of turbine plant such as boiler auxiliary steam
Gr
: Quantity of reheated steam
ir
: Medium pressure turbine flow in steam enthalpy (kJ/kg)
ir
: High pressure turbine outlet steam enthalpy (kJ/kg)
The definition of turbine heat rate may be expressed in two ways, either gross or net, depending on whether
feed water pump drive motive power is considered or not.
44
a. In the case of feed water pump electric drive
Q
Ls
Q
Net Heat Rate "
Ls & LBFP
Gross Heat Rate "
(3)
( 4)
b. In the case of water feed pump turbine drive
Gross Heat Rate "

Net Heat Rate "
Q
Ls % LBFP
(5)
Q
Ls
( 6)
Where LBFP : Motive power required for feed water pump

Turbine thermal efficiency t is expressed by the following equation.
(t"
3,600
! 100%
HR
(7)
According to Fig. 1, this is
(t"
(E)
! 100%
( B) & (C )
(8)
Moreover, the following definitions are used to express efficiency of the generation plant.
Gross plant thermal efficiency "

Net plant heat efficiency "
(E)
! 100%
( A)
(9)
(F )
! 100%
( A)
(10)
Turbine thermal efficiency (%)
The two factors which affect turbine heat rate and thermal efficiency are steam conditions of boiler steam
production, condenser vacuum degree, feed water temperature and feed water heating steps, etc. namely the heat
cycle conditions are the performance of the turbine itself. Fig.2.4.2.3-2 shows the trends of unit capacity and
thermal efficiency of commercial use reheating turbines.
Vacuum degree 5.1 kPaa (722 mmHg)

31 MPa class
24 MPa class
16.6 MPa
class
12.5 MPa class

10 MPa class
Output (MW)
Fig. 2.4.2.3-2 Unit capacity and turbine thermal efficiency
45
(2) Turbine internal efficiency, turbine efficiency

To express the performance of the turbine itself, turbine internal efficiency and turbine efficiency are used.
Internal efficiency i is expressed by the ratio between steam adiabatic heat drop Ho (Theoretical work load of
zero loss steam) and heat drop Hg effectively used.
( i " Hg / Ho ! 100 %
(11)
Figure 2.4.2.3-35 shows the steam condition (Pressure, enthalpy functions) in the case of the reheating turbine
and the internal efficiency of the high pressure turbine, medium pressure turbine and low pressure turbine are
expressed by the following quotation.
Pressure:
Px: Turbine main steam check valve inlet
P0: 1st step nozzle inlet
P1: High pressure turbine outlet
Pr: Before medium pressure turbine reheat
stop valve
P2: Medium pressure 1st step inlet
P3: Medium pressure turbine outlet
P4: Low pressure turbine inlet
P5: Low pressure exhaust (Condenser inlet)
$EL: Exhaust loss
Saturation line
Fig.2.4.2.3-3 5 Reheating turbine steam expanded diagram (i-s diagram)

High pressure turbine
( IH "
H eH i s & ir'
"
H o H i s & i1
(12)
Medium pressure turbine
( It "
H el ir & i4
"
H o l i r & i3
(13)
Low pressure turbine
( IL "
H eL i4 & i6
"
H o L i 4 & i5
(14)
Turbine efficiency is the ratio between theoretical work and effective work, and is the product of internal
efficiency and mechanical efficiency. The relation between the turbine efficiency r of a back pressure turbine or
a simple condenser turbine and the steam specific consumption SR (Kg/kWh) is as follows:
SR "
GS
3,600
"
PS He(t(s
(15)
Where:
GS : Inflow steam quantity (Kg/h)
Pg : Generator output (KW)
Ho : Adiabatic heat drop inside turbine (KJ/kg)
g : Generator efficiency
46
Boiler
(3) Heat balance (Heat balance diagram) Steam expanded diagram

Figure 5 is an example of a reheating turbine heat expanded diagram. The pressure, temperature, enthalpy or
quantity of steam of each part of the turbine, based on the expanded diagram shown in the diagram are called the
heat balance diagram. Figure 2.4.2.3-4 shows a 1,000,000 kW heat balance diagram. The manner of steam
expansion, the condition of steam at each part, turbine extraction, etc, are normally obtained by performance
calculation by turbine makers. The heat balance around the feed water heater periphery is calculated by the
following procedures.
High
pressure
turbine
Low pressure
turbine (A)
Medium
pressure turbine
Low pressure
turbine (B)
Condenser
Make up water
Condenser
pump
BFP turbine
Grand steam
condenser
Condensate
booster pump
Boiler feed water pump
Fig. 2.4.2.3-4
Feed water booster pump
Drain pump
Example of 1,000 MW supercritical pressure turbine heat balance
(1) Piping pressure drop from the turbine extraction point to the feed water heater is normally maintained at
around 5% of the pressure (2.5 - 12%).
(2) Temperature inside the feed water heater becomes the saturation temperature of the extraction pressure.
(3) The feed water heater outlet feed water temperature is selected to be 2.5 to 5#C lower than the saturation
temperature inside the heater and feed water heater to be designed. (In the case of a direct contact type such
as a deaerator, the outlet feed water temperature is to be the same as the saturation temperature and also in
the case where the extraction temperature is fairly higher than the saturation temperature in reheating steam
turbines, etc., this temperature may be utilized with a superheat reducing section provided inside the feed
water heater with the feed water selected to be 0 - 3#C higher than the saturation temperature. (Refer to
Chapter 2, Clause 3.4)
(4) When a drain cooler is provided in the water feed heater, the drain outlet temperature is designed to be 5 to
10#C higher than the water feed temperature.
(5) Taking the No. 5 heater in Fig. 2 as an example, the extraction amount necessary for the water feed heater
is obtained by the following procedure. (However, the heat discharge loss is to be neglected.)
Gx (ix-i14) = Gw(i12-i11)-Gd(i13-i14)
Where:
Gx : Extraction quantity (Heated steam quantity)
ix
: Extraction enthalpy
Gw : Feed water quantity
i11 : Feed water heater inlet feed water enthalpy
i12 : Feed water heater outlet feed water enthalpy
Gd : Inflow drain quantity
i13 : Inflow drain enthalpy
i14 : Outflow drain enthalpy
47
Leading phase
Lagging phase
2.4.2.4 generator
(1) Available output curve
Figure 2.4.2.4-1 shows an example of available generation output curve. This curve is divided into parts (A),
(B), and (C).
Fig. 2.4.2.4-1 Available output curve

(A) Range restricted by rotor coil temperature
(B) Range restricted by stator temperature
(C) Range restricted by stator core end part temperature
1) Range restricted by rotor coil temperature

The restrictions by rotor coil temperature may be obtained under the conditions of a constant field current.
Namely, this may be obtained by the V curves shown in Fig. 2.4.2.4-2 36, whereas a line parallel to the axis of the
ordinate is drawn through field current 1f at the rated load and rated power factor, and the intersecting point of the
line with the respective V curve power factor is plotted on the MW-MVAR coordinate to obtain the restriction by
rotor coil density.
Output (MVA)
Terminal
voltage=Rated Voltage
Field current (A)
Fig. 2.4.2.4-2 V curve

2) Range restricted by stator coil temperature
Restriction by the stator coil temperature may be obtained from constant conditions of the stator current. It
becomes a circle which passes through rated point P with the origin point as the center of the circle.
48
3) Range restricted by the stator core end part temperature

The cause for increasing of temperature of the stator core end part in the leading phase range is that the
composite magnetic flux from the magnetic flux by stator coil end magnetomotive force and the magnetic flux by
rotor coil end magnetomotive force increase with a lower excitation (leading power factor) and the eddy current of
the core end part becomes greater. This upper limit is higher with machines with a larger short circuit ratio but
with recent large capacity machines with large electrical charge, the end part temperature increase tends to become
large and therefore overheating is prevented by core end magnetic shield, core end slit, core end stage,
non-magnetic finger plate, non-magnetic rotor coil retaining ring, etc.
(2) Resistance capacity to short period overload
Loads exceeding the available output curve even though for short periods will result in a rapid increase of
temperature and therefore repeated overload operation is not desirable because the service life of the generator
coil will be shortened, but there is a permissible range in which the insulation is not greatly affected. Table
2.4.2.4-12 shows the overload permissible limit specified by ANSI C50-13.
Table 2.4.2.4-1
Short period overload resistant amounts

Time (seconds)
Armature current (%)
Field voltage (%)
10
226
208
30
154
146
60
130
125
120
116
112
(3) Continuous unbalanced load resistance

When a generator is operated under unbalance load or by single phase load, a negative phase current flows in
the stator coil and as a result, the revolving field which revolves in the opposite direction at the same speed turns
off the rotor and an eddy current of double frequency flows on the surface of the rotor and the rotor wedge and the
rotor overheats. Especially in the part in which the eddy current concentrates, if the unbalance becomes serious,
burning may result by local overheating.
The permissible limit of continuous unbalanced load is greatly affected by the material and structure of the
equipment and cannot be specified in one manner. Table 2.4.2.4-2 shows the permissible limit proposed
recently by ANSI where limitations are made more severe with large capacity machines.
Table 2.4.2.4-2
Indirect cooling loss

Direct cooling loss
- 800 MVA
801 960 MVA
951 1,200 MVA
1,201 1,500 MVA
Unbalanced load resistance
Continuous unbalanced
load
I2(%)
10
8
6
5
Short period unbalanced load

I2t*
30
10
I 2t
= 10 0.00625 (MVA 800)
*I2 (P.U.) t (Seconds)
(4) Short period unbalanced load resistance

At the time of short period unbalance load such as by one-line ground and line short circuit, the double
frequency eddy current flows on the rotor surface and the rotor overheats for the same reason mentioned in clause
6.3. The most severe failure by rotor overheating is line short circuiting.
Where the negative phase current is /2, a failure continuation time of 1 second, the temperature rise of the rotor
is proportional to t / 2 tdt but with consideration of equivalent negative phase current/2SQ which gives the same
)o
temperature rise in t seconds, adopting of /22sqt as the scale is widely accepted.

With large capacity machines, the rotor is of light weight compared with the capacity, and therefore the
reduction of relative thermal capacity was considered and i22t<30 for indirect cooling machines and i22t/*10 was
generally adopted but with the recent super large capacity generators, the limitations shown in Table 3 have been
proposed to ANSI.
(5) Efficiency
Generator loss consists of core loss, mechanical loss, stator I2R loss, stray load loss, and world magnetic I2R
loss.
49
Generator efficiency (%)
1. Core loss
If the used material is assumed to be the same, core loss relates to magnetic flux density, frequency, and stator
core weight, and with their increase, core loss increases.
2. Mechanical loss
Mechanical loss consists of bearing friction loss and windage loss. Since windage loss is proportional to gas
density, the windage loss of hydrogen cooling machines is extremely smaller than that of air cooling machines.
This is one of the advantages of the hydrogen cooling machine. Bearing friction loss increases in an exponential
function manner with increases in revolutions and journal diameter.
3. Stator I2R loss and stray load loss
Stator I2R loss is proportional to the square of the stator current and stator coil average length/coil cross
sectional area. In addition, surface loss is affected by void length and winding pitch, becoming smallest with a
5/6 winding pitch and loss decreases as void length increases.
4. Field I2R R Loss
Field I2R Loss is proportional to the square of the field current and field resistance but as shown in the V curve
of Fig. 36, more field current becomes necessary with the same output as the power factor becomes lower and loss
increases.
Figure 2.4.2.4-3 shows the generator efficiency and changes in efficiency by partial load of a typical capacity
generator. As shown in this figure, in general, in the case of standard specification generators, efficiency tends to
become better with larger capacity. Also, in regard to partial load, core loss and mechanical loss are constant and
therefore efficiency rapidly worsens with low load but in the case of hydrogen cooling machines, lowering of gas
pressure inside the machine and operating at low load is possible and as a result, windage loss decreases and
normally, the maximum efficiency rate is displayed at 70 - 80% load.
Load (%)
Fig. 2.4.2.4-3Generator efficiency curve
2.4.2.5 Condenser facilities

Vacuum degree control of condenser facilities, causes of vacuum degree lowering and their judgment, as well as
restoring means and the appropriate number of circulating pumps to be operated are decided.
(1) Desired value of vacuum degree
In regard to the daily desired vacuum degree of condensers, a control value is set against the design value when
the respective units are installed.
Figure 2.4.2.4-4 shows the philosophy on desired values. The control width of the vacuum degree is set with
consideration of accuracy of instrumentation, cleanliness of tubing, and dispersion of the performance record.
With an increase in the vacuum degree when the cooling water temperature is low, turbine specific heat changes
50
Vacuum
degree
from decreasing to increasing and since there is a risk of problem occurrence in the facilities, the vacuum degree
is controlled so that it does not exceed the efficiency limit vacuum degree.
(2) Facility control
By the frequency of operation and data measurements of the respective facilities, difference control of the
desired value of the vacuum degree is being conducted.
The following shows the general control items.
Operation control of the ball cleaning device
Control of electrolytic protection device
Measuring of vacuum pump extraction quantity
Control of instrumentations
Tubing brushing cleaning
Cleaning of the inlet channel and circulating pump chamber
(3) Disposition to adopt when deviation is seen from the desired value of the vacuum degree
First, check to see if there is any abnormal condition of instrumentation and when confirming, pay attention to
the following points.
Drain accumulation in the detection piping
Temperature compensation if the standard temperature differs between the mercury vacuum gauge and
the atmospheric pressure gauge.
Difference between the atmospheric pressure compensated vacuum degree and the transmitter side.
Whether there is any abnormal condition in the correlation between the atmospheric compensation value
of the mercury vacuum degree gauge and the respective temperatures of the exhaust room and hotwell.
Any abnormal condition of the mercury vacuum degree and atmospheric temperature gauge at the time
of periodic checking.
Efficiency limit vacuum

degree
Upper limit of
vacuum degree
Vacuum degree
desired value
Lower limit of
vacuum degree
Turbine specific heat consumption

correction coefficient (%)
Sea water temperature (#C)
Area A--- Desired value (Design value )

Area B --- Area in which checking of the vacuum degree related instruments
should be checked.
Area C--- Area in which cause should be investigated and measures
conducted.
Fig. 2.4.2.4-4
Philosophy on desired value of vacuum degree.
(4) Investigation method of cause for deviation of vacuum degree from the desired value
When a deviation seen from the vacuum desired value is found with measuring instruments in a normal state, in
general, investigate the following.
1.Increase in leak in quantity of air
The lowering of the vacuum degree occurs when leak in exceeds the extraction capacity of the vacuum pump.
2.Lowering of cleanliness of tubing
With no increase in the leak in air amount and with the vacuum pump found to be normal, the cause of lowering
of the vacuum degree is often caused by the lowering of cleanliness of the tubing.
3.Lowering of the cooling water volume
When the cooling water volume drops, an increase of difference in the cooling water inlet, outlet temperature
( T), increase of CWP discharge pressure, and lowering of the condenser water chamber level occurs, and an
abnormality of the condenser side (tubing clogging, siphon cut-off, etc.), abnormality of the CWP side CWP
51
performance lowering, CWP chamber water level lowering, check washing valve seat leak, etc. are conceivable.
4.Abnormality of the vacuum pump
When an abnormality of the vacuum pump is seen, conduct changeover testing with a spare machine and
compare the respective air extraction amount and vacuum degree.
Also, since the seal water relations of the vacuum pump greatly affect the vacuum degree, pay attention to the
following points.
a. Increase in seal water temperature by contamination of the seal water cooler, increase of bearing
cooling water temperature.
b. Shortage of seal water by abnormality of the seal water pump, clogging of the discharge strainer of
the pump, etc.
c. Lowering of water level by malfunctioning of float valve for seal water tank water level adjustment
5.Increase of condenser heat load
The desired value of the vacuum degree is calculated from the design heat load, cooling water amount, and
heating surface, etc. and if the heat load increases above the design value, even if the cooling water volume and
others are in accordance with designed values, the vacuum degree decreases. Especially, with the once-through
boiler unit, leakage of the respective bypass valves from the start-up bypass system to the condenser causes
lowering of thermal efficiency and care should be exercised.
(5) Performance curve
The vacuum degree of the condenser is affected by the condenser load, cooling water inlet temperature, and
cooling water volume. Condenser pressure is obtained from saturation steam temperature ts.
t s " t1 %
Q
1
Gc ! c p ! + ! (1 & p )
e
" t1 %
t 2 & t1
1
1& p
e
(1)
Where
p"
A! K
Gc ! c p ! +
(2)
Figure shows an example of the condenser performance curve. The condenser pressure change at the time of
changes in condenser heat load and cooling water inlet temperature when the cooling water volume is constant is
shown. When the condenser pressure is recorded by the elapse of time in this curve, the contamination coefficient,
etc. of the cooling pipe may be assumed. This curve is a straight line at the time of no load to a certain load. When
the condenser load is small or the inner pressure is low, the condenser pressure is restricted by the performance of
the air extraction device and there are cases where the pressure to be obtained by equation (1) cannot be obtained.
52
Fig. 2.4.2.4-5
Assumed performance curve of the condenser
2.4.2.6 High pressure water feed heater

In a condition with a constant rated output, to measure the water feed outlet terminal temperature difference
(T.D.) as well as the drain outlet temperature difference (D.C.), the following data items are collected, evaluated
and countermeasures executed.
Water feed temperature (inlet, outlet) of the respective high pressure water feed heater
Extraction temperature, pressure of the respective high pressure water feed heater
Drain outlet temperature of the respective high pressure water feed heater
Inner pressure of the respective high pressure water feed heater
Drain flow rate of the respective high pressure water feed heater
Drain level of the respective high pressure water feed heater
Drain water level adjusting valve opening of the respective high pressure water feed heater
Water feed pressure loss
The water feed outlet terminal temperature difference (T.D.) and the outlet temperature difference (D.C.) are
obtained from the following equations
T. D=TS-TW (OUT)
D.C= Td-TW (IN)
Where
T.D. : Water feed outlet terminal temperature difference (#C)
D.C. : Drain outlet temperature difference (#C)
TS : Saturation temperature ( C) to water feed heater inlet steam pressure
TW (OUT) : Water feed outlet temperature ( C)
Td : Drain outlet temperature ( C)
TW (IN) : Water feed outlet temperature ( C)
(1) The effect by the water feed heater performance on the turbine cycle
a. The number of water feed heater units and temperature increase
Although decided with consideration of the heater output and economy, in general, from an economical aspect,
6 to 8 heaters are installed for 200 MW and over. There is a close connection between the number of water feed
heaters and temperature increase and in regard to water feed temperature rise per unit of water feed heater, it is
53
desirable to raise the temperature evenly with heaters of less than the reheating point in the one step reheating
cycle. From the aspect of performance, it is optimal to plan to increase the average temperature rise at the low
pressure feed water heater rather than to increase the temperature of the feed water reheater by extraction from the
reheating pump.
This temperature rise is restricted by the thermal stress, etc. of the water chamber and normally, the increase is
suppressed to around 20 to 75 C.
(2) Effect by terminal temperature difference (T.D.) change
To obtain the effect on turbine heat rate by T.D. changes, the extraction quantity changes to the respective water
heat heater T.D. change are calculated, and with the turbine inlet steam quantity kept constant, the heat rate may
be obtained from the extraction quantity change and output quantity change. The following shows an example of
calculation in regard to a high pressure feed water heater.
a. Trial calculation data
Subject unit 600MW
At rated output, when T.D. is +3 C
b. Trial calculation results
Decrease of extraction quantity by T.D. increase
EXT
Turbine room input heat increase by reheated steam quantity increase by extraction quantity decrease by
T.D increase
Exhaust quantity increase by extraction quantity decrease by T.D. increase
Increase of exhaust loss heat quantity by exhaust quantity increase
Output heat decrease from the turbine room by feed water temperature decreasing
Increase of turbine room consumption
54
Condenser
G:
T:
I:
CRH, HRH :
EXT :
EXH :
FW :
I, O :
COND :
Flow rate
kg/h
Temperature
C
Enthalpy
kcal/kg
Low, high temperature
reheated steam
Extraction
Exhaust
Water feed
Inlet, outlet
Condensed water
Output change
(increase)
Turbine room thermal efficiency HR
after T.D. increase
Reference heat
consumption
Reference output
Reference specific heat
consumption (HR)
Reference
output
Reference output
Heat rate change ratio
Gross thermal efficiency change quantity
2.4.2.7 Boiler exhaust gas control

Together with the reduction of boiler exhaust gas loss and saving of fuel expenses, to reduce the running costs
of boiler operation and maintenance expenses, and repair expenses, and attempt to improve overall efficiency,
control values are set on the AH low temperature part average temperature, exhaust gas temperature control
exhaust gas O2 value, and AH air leakage ratio and control are executed.
(1) AH low temperature average temperature control
In accordance with the sulfuric contents in the used fuel, the optimum value is set for each boiler with sulfuric
55
acid dew point measurement etc. as a reference and upon confirming the corrosion situation of the AH element,
etc. staged lowering is attempted. It is desirable to set the average temperature control value at the maximum
point of sulfuric acid condensation quantity in accordance with the sulfur contents of the used fuel but reduction
should not be made in one stroke but in stages with consideration of the following points and confirming that
there are no problems.
Deviation of the theoretical value and actual record value of the sulfuric acid dew point
The relation between the sulfur contents in the fuel and produced SO3 density.
Local metal temperature drop by unbalance of gas temperature distribution
(2) Exhaust gas temperature control
The AH outlet exhaust gas temperature differs greatly by boiler according to the boiler and AH structure, and
the kind of fuel and since it fluctuates greatly by factors such as load and atmospheric temperature and air leakage
of AH, it is difficult to set a standard but it is set upon executing of countermeasures on temperature decrease of
exhaust gas by each boiler, conducting an actual machine test with the AH element in the best condition, with the
air leakage in the minimum condition and based on these results, with exhaust gas control data as a reference and
with the atmospheric pressure as the parameter. The deviating trend to the control value is grasped and when the
deviation is large and continuous, the following deviation factors are analyzed and appropriate measures are to be
taken.
Lowering of exhaust gas temperature by increase in AH air leakage amount
Aging deterioration by corrosion, wear of AH, and rising of exhaust gas temperature by lowering of AH
performance by staining of the heating surface, etc.
Increase of exhaust gas temperature incident to dry gas quantity increase by Combustion gas O2 (Excess
air factor)
Those by characteristic changes of the fuel.
(3) Control of exhaust gas O2
The Eco outlet combustion gas O2 differs by each boiler, depending on the boiler, combustion method, and type
of fuel. Therefore, a combustion test is to be made after improvement of combustion facility or after periodic
inspection as required, O2 distribution is to be measured, abnormality of instruments, inappropriateness of
detection point, faulty combustion, etc., deviation factors from control values are to be analyzed, and if a large
deviation situation continues, the O2 meter, burner tip, and body, and damper are to be checked for combustion air
or exhaust gas O2 distribution is to be measured and suitable measures taken.
(4) AH air leakage ratio
The temperature of the gas which passes the boiler will differ depending on the boiler condition (cold boiler hot
boiler, etc.) which in turn effects changes in the amount of heat deformation. Therefore, to prevent leakage of
AH air, the setting of respective seals is calculated in advance and the gap value is set in a cold boiler condition so
that the clearance becomes minimum in rated load operation but a certain amount of leakage is unavoidable.
However, with the new type AH, with the improvement of the seal plate supporting method and additions to the
seal section, direct leakage from the seal gap has been improved compared with the old type. Furthermore, to
reduce leakage from the high temperature side radial seal which was the greatest leakage factor during operation,
a sensor drive system of the high temperature side sector plate has been developed. With this system, the rotor
shaft side that controls the gap between the sector plate and seal to a minimum under any boiler operation
condition is structured so that it constantly follows the contraction-expansion of the rotor, and control is conducted
so that only the gap of the rotor periphery and sector plate outer end section gap becomes minimum.
56
2.5 Example of Operation Control and Performance Management (Hokkaido Electric Power Co., Inc)
2.5.1 Overview of Hokkaido Electric Power Co., Inc.
Hokkaido Electric Power Co. Inc. was established in May 1951 to supply electricity in the Hokkaido region.
With an area of about 83,500km2 and a population of 5.7 million, Hokkaido is flourishing in agriculture, fishery and
tourism. The capital city, Sapporo, with a population of 1.7 million, located at 45 degrees at north latitude, once hosted
the winter Olympics in 1972, and has held Sapporo Snow Festival every February visited by numerous visitors
including those from foreign countries.
Hokkaido Electric Power Co., Inc., established on May 1, 1951, has the headquarters in Sapporo and has been
engaged in electric power generation, transmission and distribution by about 5,800 employees. Table 2.5.1-1shows the
electric energy sale, the supply facilities and transmission and distribution facilities.
Electric energy demand
Year 2005
Supply facilities
Transmission and distribution facilities
Total
Electric light
Electric power
Specific scale
Total
Hydro-electric power station
Thermal power station
Nuclear power station
Transmission distance
Transforming station
Distribution line distance
66 places
53 places
12 places
1 place
369 places
Table 2.5.1-1
The company has 12 thermal power stations. The breakdown is shown in Table 2.5.2.
Steam power station
Gas turbine power station
Internal combustion power station
Geothermal power station
6 places
1 places
4 places
1 places
3,900 MW
148 MW
17.4 MW
50 MW
Table 2.5.1-2
Fig. 2.5.1 Thermal Power Stations of Hokkaido Electric Power Co. Inc.
Okhotsk Sea
Japan Sea
Date power station
Sunagawa
power station
Sapporo
Naie power station

Onbetsu power station
Tomatouatsuma power station

Tomakomai power station
Mori power station
Pacific Ocean
Shiriuti power station
57
30,833 GWh
11,540 GWh
2,218 GWh
17,075 GWh
6,505 MW
1,231 MW
4,115 MW
1,158 MW
8,230 km
19,300 MVA
66,753 km
2.5.2Overview of Coal Thermal Power Station

The steam power stations are six places include seven units of coal thermal power stations in three places. The outline of the facilities of these seven units is shown in Table 2.5.3.
Start of
operation
Authorized
output
Date
MW
No.1 unit
No.2 unit
Oct., 1980
Oct., 1985
350
600
No.4 unit
Jun., 2002
700
No.1 unit
No.2 unit
No.3 unit
No.4 unit
May, 1968
Feb., 1970
Jun., 1977
May, 1982
175
175
125
125
Name
Tomatouatsuma
Naie
Sunagawa
Main steam
Fuel
Foreign
coal
Domestic
coal
Reheat steam
Pressure
(MPa)
16.6
24.1
Temperature
()
566
538
Temperature
()
538
566
25.0
600
600
16.6
16.6
12.5
17.7
566
566
538
538
538
538
538
538
Boiler type
Natural circulation
Supercritical once-through
Ultra supercritical
once-through
Natural circulation
Natural circulation
Natural circulation
Subcritical once-through
Boiler
efficiency
Turbine
Unit
efficiency efficiency
87.28
87.91
45.03
47.70
39.41
41.93
88.73
49.83
44.21
87.08
87.08
85.72
86.27
45.14
45.55
43.63
45.40
39.26
39.40
37.41
39.16
Table 2.5.2
2.5.3Practice in Tomatouatuma Power Station

2.5.3.1 Organization and Service
This power station is operated by 102 personnel in three divisions. The operation of environmental facilities has been outsourced to the affiliated companies. Fig. 2.5.3-1 shows the
organization and service.
58
Power Station Organization and Operation /Management System

Fig.2.5.3-1
Power Station Organization
Operation /Management of Power Stations

For operation of power stations, the following shall be conducted under the supervision based on the
regulations and policies stipulated by the head office (Thermal Power Dept.)
Station manager
Deputy manager
Generation Div.
Business staff
Management staff
Operation staff
Environment
Engineering Div.
Environment
Engineering Staff
Environment
Facility Staff
Machinery staff
Maintenance
Div.
1. Oversight, communication, PR related power station management

2. Operation/ management of generation facilities (except Environment Engineering related)
3. Management of fuel
4. Compilation, analysis, management of operation history data
5. Investigation, test planning and execution for operation/performance of facilities
6. Press release and public hearing
7. General affairs, emergency/disaster office, PR, document control, administration
8. Personnel affairs, education, labor, welfare, safety and health
9. Accounts, land management
10. Other items not supervised by other divisions
1. Supervision, communication, PR, investigation planning/execution of environmental conservation
matters
2. Operation/management of smoke, feed/waste water, ash handling facilities, environment
monitoring facilities.
3. Investigation, test planning and execution for operation/performance of facilities
4. Treatment/management, utilization planning/execution of waste after generation
5. Analysis management, chemical investigation of fuel, boiler water, etc
6. Accident prevention/safety for hazardous materials
Planning and management of maintenance, repair of facilities and daily maintenance as well as
repair and maintenance works
Electrical
Measurement staff
Main generation related operations outsourced to other companies

Cleaning, greening, security, port management
Coal stock, transportation, ash handling work
Operation and monitoring of smoke, feed/waste water facilities
Chemical analysis work
Daily maintenance / inspection work
59
2.5.3.2 Operation System

The power station consists of two rooms: the central control room where the boiler, turbine and generator are operated,
and the centralized management room where the environmental facilities are operated. The detail is shown in Fig.
2.5.3-2
Generation manager
Administration
deputy manager
+
7 personnel
Environment
engineering manager
Central control unit

Operation
Engineering assistant
manager
+
4 personnel
Facility assistant manager
Operation
management of
environmental facilities
Operation management of
+
6 personnel
assistant
Control of BTG
generation facilities
manager +
5 groups
Operators (8
people)
Operation of BTG
generation facilities
Centralized management
room (operation is
outsourced to affiliated
companies)
Daytime shift (11
personnel)
+
Team
leader + 8
4 groups
operators
Operation of
Fig. 2.5.3-2
2.5.4. Management for Operating Power Station

Various kinds of managements have been carried out in accordance with the standards set forth in Steam Power
Generation Facilities Maintenance and Service Manual.
2.5.4.1 Operation Management

The Steam Power Generation Facilities Maintenance and Service Manual stipulates the operation management
standard (Table 2.5.4-1), setting standard for control and permissible values for trial operation (Table 2.5.4-2), etc.
In addition to usual monitoring by operators, the plant operation conditions are input into computers (see Fig. 2.5.4-3:
System Configuration) for proper control.
Examples of management documents

- Daily report (Table 2.5.4-4):One hour value (24 points), maximum-, minimum-, average values, and
one-day energy amount for the management items
- Monthly report (Table 2.5.4-5):Boiler and turbine maintenance logs, month-end generation records, etc.
60
Table 2.5.4-1
Operation management items
Operation time
Unit
Hrs/min.
Generated energy
MWh
Generator output
Main stop valve steam
pressure
Main stop valve steam
temperature
Reheat stop valve steam
pressure
Reheat stop valve steam
temperature
MW
MPa
!C
MPa
!C
Measure
values
Daily and
monthly
totals
Daily and
monthly
totals
Max value
Max value
Max value
Max value
Max value
Max value
Main steam flow rate
t/h
mmHg
t
kl
kl
t
kl
Turbine vibration amplitude
1/100mm
Fuel
Consumption
Condenser vacuum
Coal (humidity)
Crude oil
Heavy oil
Orimulsion
Diesel oil
Min value
Monthly
total
Operational Management Standard

Measure location
Control values
under normal
operation
Recorder
Record frequency
Indicator
office
Site
1/
day
1/
month
1/
year
Remarks
As
needed
Paralle parallel off (Start sending air stop for

house boiler)
Rated output
24 hours
Rated output
Rated value
1.05
Rated value
8!C
Rated value
1.05
Rated value
8!C
Smaller one
the MCR
turbine intake
Min operation
Maximum value within 1 hour

Sum up monthly the operation time 5% over rated
pressure
Sum up monthly the operation time at 8!C, 14!C,
28!C over rated temperature.
Sum up monthly the operation time at 8!C, 14!C,

28!C over rated temperature.
+
of
or
Atmospheric pressure corrected value
For generation
Max value
JEAC3717
caution value*
Bearing
No.
Amplitude
61
*
Shaft
Bearing
Over rated
Under 12.5
Under 6.25
pH (25!C)
Silica
Electric
conductivity
pH (25!C)
Silica
Feed water
Electric
quality
conductivity
Dissolve O2
RBOT
All oxidization
Impurities
Lubricate
oil for
Kinetic viscosity
turbine
(40!C)
Water content
Color phase
Unit
Gross
efficiency
Net
Boiler drum water level
Boiler
water
quality
Boiler drum pressure

Superheater spray flow rate
Reheater spray flow rate
Turbine ejector pressure
Turbine ejector temperature
Bearing inlet oil pressure
Bearing outlet oil pressure
Turbine contro oil pressure
Measure
values
Unit
"gSiO2/l
Control values
under normal
operation
Measure location
Recoder
Record frequency
Indicator
office
Site
1/
day
1/
month
1/
year
As
needed
Remarks
Average
value
Water
quality
standard value
According to thermal power station water

management manual
Over 70 mins.
Under 0.3
Under 10
(New
oil
standard) # 10%
Under 500
Under 4
According to turbine oil management manual
"S/cm
"gSiO2/l
"S/cm
"gO/l
minute
mgKOH/g
mg/100ml
mm2/s
mg/l
ASTM
%
mm
MPa
t/h
t/h
MPa
!C
MPa
!C
MPa
Calculate
value
Highest,
lowest
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
Warning value
Rated 1.05
Max operation
Max operation
Rated 1.05
Rated + 8!C
Warning value
Warning value
Warning value
62
Control valve opness

Expansion of turbine shaft
Expansion of turbine shaft
Expansion of turbine shaft,
casing
Turbine speed
Unit
Measure
values
Control values
under normal
operation
%
mm
Maximum
Maximum
mm
mm
Maximum
Maximum
Warning value
rpm
Maximum
Rated 1.05
Measure location
Recorder
Record frequency
Indicator
office
Site
Max operation
1/
day
1/
month
1/
year
Remarks
As
needed
Also possible with cum angel

Managed by difference expansion warming value
for more than 2 casings
More than 2 casings
63
Table 2.5.4-2
Setting Standard for Control and Permissible Values for Trial Operation
(Boiler)
Items
Generator load
Pressure
Economizer inlet feed water
Unit
MW
MPa
Superheater inlet or main steam
Steam pressure for rated
Reheater outlet steam
Design steam pressure for

rated
Design temperature for rated
!C
Main steam
Feed water
Superheater spray
Reheater spray
Drum water level
Economizer gas oxygen
concentration
Furnace
Forced fan outlet pressure
Pulverizer inner pressure (For vertical
mill, pressure difference of primary
fan)
t/h
Combustion gas !C
Draft
Flow rate
Temperature
Economizer inlet feed water

Superheater inlet or main steam
Design flow rate for rated

mm
%
Design water level for rated

Object value for rated
kPa
Design value for rated

Permissible value standard

setting for trail operation
Rated output
(referred to as rated
hereafter)
Design pressure for rated
1.05
1.05
rated 1.05
MCR or max operation value
Design temp for rated + 8!C
Design temp for rated + 8!C
Remarks
$
$
$
<
<
MCR or turbine intake amount

MCR
Warning value
Warming value (low)
$
$
$
$
$%
%
Warning value
Fan rated value
Minimum flow speed (For
vertical mill, mill pressure
difference corresponding to
min. flow speed)
Tube mill: Warning value
$%
$
%
!
!
!
!
!
% or
$%
%
$
$
$
$
!
!
!
!
MCR


$
$
!
!
!C

Rated current of motor
Operation value for rated
$
$
$
$
$
!
!
!
A
!C

Max operation value
Warning value
Rated current of motor
Warning value or max
operation value
Pulverizer coal surface
Wind box
Gas mixing fan

Gas recirculating fan
Induced fan inlet pressure
Air preheater gas outlet/inlet
difference
Reheater inlet
(superheater outlet)
Air preheater inlet
Air preheater outlet

Equilibrium: lower limit,

pressureized: MCR
MCR
Fan rated value
Fan rated value
Air preheater outlet

Pulverizer inlet
Pulverizer outlet
Auxiliary equipment motor
Auxiliary equipment bearing temperature
Air !C
Control value standard setting

for trail operation
Rated output
hereafter)
!C
64
Turbine driven feed
Inlet feed water temperature

Feed water flow rate
Feed water inlet pressure
!C
t/h
MPa
Design value for pump

Feed water outlet pressure
MPa
MPa

for trail operation

Warning value (low)
rpm
t/h
MPa

Steam inlet pressure

Steam inlet temperature
MPa
!C

Design turbine rotation

Pump rated value
Warning value or min
operation value
Turbine design pressure 1.05
Turbine design temperature +
8!C
Coal
t/h
MPa
!C
t/h

MPa
Items
Heavy/cru
de oil
Fuel
Turbine driven feed pump
Boiler water circulating pump inlet/outlet

pressure differential
Rotation speed
Feed water flow rate
Feed water outlet pressure
Fuel pump
Highest operation value

Pump rated value
NPSH or minimum value
(Booster inlet pressure:
NPSH)
Rated value or warning value
(whole pumping process +
pump inlet: MCR)
consumption
Burner pressure
Temperature
Flow rate
Fuel pump outlet pressure
Unit
Explanation of signs in Remarks column

$: To be operated at or under permissible value (For warning value only, under permissible value)
%: To be operated at or over permissible value (For warning value only, over permissible value)
$%: To be operated within the range of permissible value
!: No description as control value is necessary required
<: To be operated under the permitted level
65
Rated value for pulverizer

Warning value
Warning value
MCR or facilitys max
capacity
Pump rated value
$
$
%
Remarks
%
$%
$
%
$
<
!
!
$
%
$
$
!
!
!
!
(Turbine)
MPa

for trail operation
Rated output
hereafter)
!C

rated
rated
rated
Steam temperature for rated
Items
Generator load
Pressure
Main steam
Unit
MW
First stage outlet

High-pressure turbine outlet
Temperature
Main steam
High-pressure turbine
Design steam temperature for

rated
Steam temperature for rated
Reheat steam
Exhaust room
Bearing return oil
Oil
Control oil
Bearing oil
Control valve operness (cum angle)
Condenser vacuum
Difference expansion
Thrust bearing
MPa
% (deg)
kPa
mm
!C
Radial bearing
Vibration (shaft / bearing)
Air bleed
Saturation steam temp for

design vacuum
Pressure
Temperature
Design oil pressure for rated

Design oil pressure for rated
Design openness for rated
Design vacuum
Design difference expansion
for rated
Supply oil temperature
+ 20!C
Supply oil temperature
+ 20!C

Rated output
hereafter)
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
Steam temperature for rated +
8!C
Design steam temperature for
rated
Steam temperature for rated +
8!C
Warning value
Remarks
$
$
$
$
<
<
<
$
Max operation value

Max operation value
Warning value
%
%
$
%
$
Warning value
Warning value
Warning value
1/100
mm
At or under warning value
Caution value in JEAC3717
MPa
!C

Maximum operation value
$
$
Explanation of signs in Remarks column

$: To be operated at or under permissible value (For warning value only, under permissible value)
%: To be operated at or over permissible value (For warning value only, over permissible value)
$%: To be operated within the range of permissible value
!: No description as control value is necessary required
<: To be operated under the permitted level
66
!
!
!
!
!
Fig 2.5.4-3
Appendix 32
Schematic of Thermal Performance / Heat Management System
Calculation Center
Head Office
Power Station
Thermal Power Dept

Input from other depts.
Input for unsystemized power stations

Plant control system
Data link to other depts.
Performance management system
Unit calculator
Temperature sensor
Pressure sensor
Lsw, etc
Heat management system
Performance
Performance
management system
management system
Heat management
statistic data
Business transaction
automation calculators
Large computers
Data
transmission
Unit calculator process functions

(1)Operation history
(2)Operation condition monitor
(3)Plant efficiency analysis
(4)Start/stop loss management
(5)Equipment management
(6)Turbine thermal stress calculate
(7)Unit start/stop
Performance management Business terminal

terminal
Business terminal
Display current
output of each
generator
Ex. Tomato-Atsuma Unit No.2
Boiler/turbine maintenance diary

preparation
(1) Operation history

(2)Operation condition search
(3)Plant efficiency analysis
(4)Start/stop loss management
(5)Auxiliary equipment
operation time,
start/stop times
Performance management
terminal
(1) Heat management data check output

(2) Monthly report output
67
(1) Heat management data check

(2) Compilation, calculations
(3) Report output
Output various
monthly reports
Distribution
Submit to government
agencies
(Specified formats)
Table 2.5.4-4
68

69
70
71
72
Monthly Report (Table 2.5.4-5)..Boiler and Turbine Maintenance Log, Month-end Generation Record, etc
73
April, 2004
Month Eng Generation Record

Items
This month
Hr Min
Generation time
720 00
MWh
Generated output
Startup times
447,775
0
times
Fuel
Coal (w)
Consumption
Diesel oil
Gross efficiency
Net efficiency
t
kl
%
%
Items
144,001
16.3
42.64
40.70
Main steam
Time operated with steam pressure

5% over rated pressure
Time operated with steam temp
8!C over rated temperature
hours min
hours min
hours min
hours min
After last inspection

(B) 15837 35
(T) 15837 - 35
(B)
10,853,339
(T)
10,853,339
(B)
6
(T)
6
3,558,145
1,650.4
0 - 00
0 - 00
0 - 00
0 - 00
0 - 00
0 - 00
0 - 00
Control value
CWT
operation
AVT
operation
pH (25!C)
Silica
"gSiO2/l
Electric
conductivity
"S/cm
Dissolved
oxygen
"gO/l
CWT
operation
AVT
operation
CWT
operation
AVT
operation
Measured value
8.5 9.0
8.82
9.3 9.5
20 $
0.2 $
0.05
0.3 $
20 200 $
7$
18821 - 02
12,348,254
34
This month
Reheat steam
Water Quality Management Record

Items
Cumulative total
100.0
-
74
After last inspection

Main steam
Reheat steam
(B)
(T)
(B)
(T)
(B)
(T)
(B)
(T)
0- 01
0- 01
0- 00
0- 00
0- 00
0- 00
0- 00
0- 00
(B)
(T)
(B)
(T)
(B)
(T)
0- 00
0- 00
0- 00
0- 00
0- 00
0- 00
2.5.4.2 Management System by Computer

(1) Functions of unit computer
" Input of unit operation conditions, and display and print-out of necessary data
" Output of daily reports needed for daily management
" Data collection and efficiency calculation needed for performance management
" Calculation of turbine thermal stress
" Start/stop of the unit
(2) Functions of performance management system
" Tabulation of statistical thermal management data and transmission of them to the headquarters
" Collection of performance test data and thermal efficiency calculation
" Accumulation of major operation condition values of the unit
& Retrieval of operation condition values and trend monitoring are available
& Turbine efficiency calculation, condenser cleanliness calculation, management of heat exchanger
operation conditions, management of major equipment operating hours, etc
" Management of start/stop loss
" Document-output aid in the designated form
(3) Plant management system
" Tabulation of operation data from all the power stations
" Output of various monthly and yearly reports in and out of the company
(Major report data: generated energy, thermal efficiency, in-station ratio, utilization ratio, fuel
consumption performance, etc)
2.5.4.3 Other Management
(1) Start/stop loss management
The start/stop loss, which does not serve for generation, is properly managed because the fuel, in-house
electricity and supplementary steam amount used for start/stop largely affect the efficiency and costs.
(2) Periodical Equipment Tests
Protection devices and other equipment are periodically tested to check for correct operation.
" Turbine-valve stick prevention test
" Protection device operation test (oil pump automatic startup and thrust wear test, emergency speed
governor lockout test)
" Startup test of emergency power supply device (gas turbine)
" Periodical switching to backup machine
2.5.4.4 Daily Inspection of Facilities (patrol)

The patrol of facilities, items and the patrol method are stipulated in Table 2.5.8. Usually, daily and priority patrols are
carried out by the operator once per shift. Also the patrol by managers and the safety-focused patrols are carried out as
needed.
Shift time and patrol time
22:00
8:00
16:00
Shift 1
Patrol
Specific patrol
22:00
Shift 2
!
Shift 3
!
"
75
Daily Inspection Standard

Facilities
Boiler
safety valve
Drum safety valve, superheater

safety valve, reheater safety
valve, etc
Main
piping
Main steam, reheat steam, feed

water, condenser pipings, etc
Furnace
Inside furnace
Main
rotating
machine
(excluding
steam
turbine)
Forced draft fan, induceddraft

fan, gas recirculating fan, gas
mixing fan, boiler water pump,
feed water pump (MD, TD),
pulverizer, heavy oil pump,
orimulsion pump, circulating
water pump, condenser pump,
condenser booster pump, etc
Main
valves
Main stop valve, control valve,

reheat stop valve, intermediate
prevention valve
Steam turbine
Main heat
exchanger
Feed water heater, deaerator,

cooling tower, etc
Generator
Main body, collector ring,

excitation board, etc
Relays
Auto voltage adjuster, relay

board, power board, etc
Breaker
C/C, L/C, MCS
Hydrogen
seal
oil
equipment
Hydrogent cooler, seal oil

equipment, etc
Armature
cooling
equipment
Amature cooling equipment
Main
transformer
Main, house, startup,

transformers
Frequency
1 / day
3 / day
Items
Tentacle,
hearing
Leakage
Defects in hangers
Vibration
Leakage
Combustion
condition
Situations inside
Vibration, unusual
sound
Temperature rise,
oil surface, oil
leakage
Leakage
gland part
Method
Remarks
visual,
Visual
Tentacle, hearing
Visual, hearing
Visual
Visual, hearing
Tentacle, hearing
Tentacle,
visual
from
smell,
Visual
Vibration, unusual
sound from valve
Steam leak from
valve gland
Abnormality
in
working
Vibration unusual
sound, temperature
Steam leak from
casing
Oil drain from
bearing
Loosening of nut,
bolt
Leakage
Water level
Usual sound,
vibration,
smell
Usual sound,
smell
Usual sound,
smell
Usual sound,
vibration,
smell,
leaking
Usual sound,
vibration,
smell
Usual sound,
vibration,
smell,
leaking
Tentacle, hearing
Visual, hearing
Tentacle, hearing
Tentacle, see, hear
Visual, hearing
Visual
Visual, tentacle
Visual, hearing
Visual
Visual, hearing,
tentacle, smell
Visual, hearing, smell
Visual, hearing,
tentacle, smell
Visual, hearing,
tentacle, smell
Table 2.5.4-6
76
Heavy oil pump for power

stations using such fuel,
orimulsion for Shiriuchi PS
only
d. Performance Management
2.5.5 Efficiency management on a daily basis

(1) Maintenance of proper operation by condition monitor, equipment patrol, record meters, diary record.
Observe whether the output, pressure, temperature, flow rate of steam, condenser vacuum, fuel consumption are
properly maintained.
(2) Operation for performance maintenance

Condenser vacuum is maintained by reflecting the cleanliness management in the operation of backwashing,
a ball washing equipment.
Reduction of exhaust gas loss is improved as heat collection of each section is promoted by operation of
boiler as well as preheater soot blower.
2.5.5.2 Performance test

(1) Objective
Operation data and thermal efficiency is to be obtained after unit is kept constant, eliminating as many external factors
as possible for affecting the efficiency fluctuations so as to compare the against changes and conditions before/after
periodic inspection. (See Appendix 2.5-1Steam Power Station Performance Test Manual)
(2) Frequency
Before periodical inspection
100% load
After periodical inspection
100% load or needed for operation
(3) Management items

1. Thermal efficiency (measured value, corrected value)
Gross thermal efficiency
Net thermal efficiency
Auxiliary power ratio
Boiled room efficiency
Turbine room efficiency
2. Boiler room heat loss
Heat loss is calculated by adding various losses, such as, dry gas loss, loss caused by water and hydrogen
content in fuel, unburned matter loss, etc
3. Efficiency correction
Test results are kept in a constant condition by adjusting the values such atmospheric temperature, steam
temperature/pressure, condenser vacuum and etc to design values.
4. Preparation of control charts
Test results are displayed in charts and, for significant changes, analysis is done.
(4) Results of performance test

The results and records of the performance test conducted at Tomato-atsuma coal fired power plant are shown in table
2.5.5-1. Additionally an actual example of performance control chart administrated at the same power plant is shown
in table 2.5.2-2.
77
Table 2.5.5-1
78
79
80
81
82
Director
Deputy
Director
Manager
Maintenance Division
Deputy Manager
Steam
Computer
Equipment
Steam
Drum
Environmental Engineering Division

Deputy Manager
Environmental
Environmental
Facilities
Engineering
Manager
Electricity Power Generation Division

Deputy Manager
person
in
operation
management
charge
Manager
(Central control room)

A
B
C
Transition in Thermal Efficiency (Generating End) in 2007 [for December]

The thermal efficiency of each unit has no problem within the control range.
No. 1 Unit
Utilization Previous
factor
fiscal year
control chart (3 method)
under survey
Thermal
efficiency
(thermal efficiency)
upper limit
38.65
average value 37.88
lower limit
37.10
Low
coefficient
use
Thermal efficiency
variation
efficiency (month)
38.28
Beginning
38.03
Middle
38.61
End
38.19
of
(amount of change)
upper limit
0.95
average value 0.96
Year
No. 2 Unit
factor
fiscal year
Thermal efficiency
efficiency (month)
40.74
Beginning
41.68
Middle
40.63
End
39.96
coefficient of
use
Thermal efficiency
variation
upper limit
41.19
average value 40.43
lower limit
39.68
(amount of change)
upper limit
0.93
average value 0.28
bowl cleansing stop to vacuum down
Year
No. 4 Unit
factor
fiscal year
upper limit
43.78
average value 42.98
lower limit
42.18
Thermal efficiency
efficiency (month)
43.73
Beginning
43.60
Middle
43.90
End
43.70
Variation of thermal efficiency

periodical check
Year
Table 2.5.5-2
83
(amount of change)
upper limit
0.98
average value 0.30
Appendix 2.5-1
Q-1-7
Steam Power Stations Performance Test Manual
April 1, 1995
Revised June 1, 2004 (First revision)
(Jurisdiction) Thermal Power Department
(Contents)
I. General
1. Objective of Performance Test
2. Implementation of Performance Test
II. Methods for Performance Test

1. Operational Condition for Testing
2. Measurement of Test Data
3. Measuring Equipment
4. Measurement Data and Calculation Methods
. Analysis of Test Data
1. Calculation Processing and Control charts
2. Preparation of charts
Attachment
1. Steam Power Generation Steam Schematic
2. Thermal Efficiency Calculation Equations
3. Performance Test Results (Actual)
84
Q-1-7
Steam Power Stations Performance Test Manual
This manual is to introduce standardized procedure for performance test methods for steam power stations based on
"Thermal Power Station Operation and Maintenance Regulations."
I. General
(1) Objective of Performance Test
The objective of performance test is to grasp the performance of each steam power station, to use such information in
daily operation and maintenance and to improve the energy efficiency in heat and electricity generated.
2. Implementation of Performance Test

(1) Responsibility for Implementation
Planning, implementation, consideration for performance test is done by each steam power station.
(2) Time and Number of Tests

a. Test time and number are shown in the table below. As for the load needed for operation, appropriate load
is be set based on the operational condition of each unit.
b. In the event a question arises against test results, re-test shall be conducted.
c. Flexible operation shall be done in case a test cannot be conducted in a certain load condition due to load
dispatching reasons and others, conducting such test on next occasion.
Test load
Test time
Before periodic inspection (Note)
After periodic inspection (Note)
4/4 load
Load needed for operation (minimum)
One time
One time
One time
Note: Periodic inspection means regular maintenance company inspection and intermediate inspection.
(3) Performance Test

Calculation methods of various efficiency indexes for grasping performance of steam power stations are as shown in
the table below, whereas heat input-output methods are primarily applied for heavy/crude oil, bituminous mixture and
PFBC thermal units and loss methods for coal-fired thermal units.
Additional calculation methods are to be used as secondary methods, for reference in consideration of efficiency.
Items
Plant applied
Test name
(Primary)
Boiler room
efficiency
Heavy/crude oil
Bituminous mix
PFBC
Heat
input/output
method standard
Heat input/output
method
Loss method
standard
Loss method
Coal-fired
thermal power
Turbine room
efficiency
Heat
input/output
method
Gas turbine room

efficiency
Heat
input/output
Plant efficiency
Heat input/output
method
(Boiler room
efficiency)
(Turbine room
efficiency)
(4) Measurement of Data

For testing, the main fuel is to be exclusively combusted and measurement of data is to be conducted after the
operational condition has become steady.
For more details, "II Methods for Performance Test;1.Operational Condition for Testing and 2.Measurement of Test
85
Data" is to be referred to. For measuring equipment largely affecting the test results, required precision needs to be
ensured. (Confer II Methods for Performance Test;3.Measuring Equipment)
(5) Analysis of Measured Data

Each thermal efficiency indexes are calculated from measured data and their results are analyzed using control charts.
(6) Report and Response to Test Results

Test results are to be immediately reported related authorities along with considerations. In the event any major
performance decrease is observed, necessary measures are taken.
II. Methods for Performance Test

1. Operational Condition for Testing
(1) Main fuel is to be exclusively combusted and operational condition shall be steady.
(2) Load shall be controlled to be constant by load limiter or the openness of control valve.
(3) The same burner is to be used for the same testing load.
(4) Auxiliary steam extraction to other units shall be stopped.
(5) Soot blower needs to be completed before test, otherwise efficiency correction for steam extraction is to be
done.
(6) Furnace bottom ash need be cleared before test if such affects the results.
(7) Pure water supply to make-up tank shall be stopped.
(8) Other matters are the same as normal operation.
2. Measurement of Test Data

(1) One hour before measurement, operational condition is to be set in testing load, confirming the steady
condition of each part, measurement is to be commenced.
(2) Measurement of record is conducted for 2 hours, every 30 minutes. Measurement of fuel consumption,
however, is to be conducted for 4 hours for obtaining precise values.
(3) Measurement of Fuel Consumption
CoalSum of measurements of each coal scale, not taking into consideration the changes in coal
level in the hopper.
Fuel oil See flowmeter.
(4) Sampling of Fuel
CoalConsidering the coal consumed in one test as 1 log, sample out 60 units of 500g specimen for
1 lot using auto-sampler of each coal scale (or equal time interval) and prepare 1
specimen for one test.
In case specimen sampling is impossible due to structural reasons for coal scale such
as sealed type, sampling is done using other proper methods.
Fuel oil Sample out 1 specimen for one test from lines after the tank outlet.
(5) Measurement of generator output is done using signals from the generator input into the plant management
system. (When such plant management system in not installed, integrated power meter in central control
room is to be used)
(6) Sampling of Ash (Only for coal-fired thermal power plant)
1 specimen for one test is sampled out from EP representing hopper or furnace bottom. In case, unburned
matter for MC or PC collected ash cannot be ascertained by EP ash, sample should be taken from MC and
PC.
86
(7) Sampling of exhaust gas is to be done at Eco outlet and designated point of AH outlet for analysis by Orsat
method or corresponding methods.
For PFBC unit, analysis is conducted between boiler outlet and gas turbine inlet.
(8) Items for Specimen Analysis are as follows;
Analysis of specimen is based on Fuel Quality Test Manual.
Type of fuel
Coal
Density
Humidity
Moisture
Ash content
Fuel
Calorific value
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Combustive sulfur
Exhausted gas analysis
Analysis
Carbon
Remarks
Elemental analysis
CO
O2
AH outlet O2
Boiler outlet O2
Furnace clinker
EP ash
MC ash
"
PC ash
"
Outlet
High standard
Industrial analysis
CO2
Eco
Unburned matter analysis
Bituminous mix
crude oil
Analysis items
(Note)
Heavy
Orsat corresponding methods
! : Items to be analyzed
: Items analyzed when loss method is applied
" : Items analyzed as necessary
! : Items not analyzed
(9) Test procedure

It is as shown below:
87
PFBC Unit
Test Procedure
Time
1H
2H
3H
4H
5H
6H
Test load
Record
Coal sampling
Fuel consumption record
Heavy/crude oil, ash sample
Gas analysis
3. Measurement Equipment
(1) Precision of Meters
Measuring equipment shall be arranged according to the table, grasping its precision.
Input minimum
Precision /
Measuring
Measurement items
Remarks
value (min. meter
Unit
tolerance
position
reading)
0.01%
0.03%
Hydrogen
0.01%
0.15%
Nitrogen
0.01%
0.06%
Fuel analysis
Boiler
AH outlet gas temp
"C
! (Central
1"C
#0.5"C
No water base
Carbon
control)
0.01Mpa (1atg)*
MPa
control)
(#0.5atg)*
"C
! (Central
1"C
#0.5"C
Turbine
Reheat steam
Pressure
#0.005Mpa
! (Central
Main steam
FDF inlet air temp (dry ball)
control)
*The brackets show the minimum reading values of equipment for power stations requiring meter reading.
(2) Correction of Measuring Equipment

The following correction shall be done to measuring equipment.
a. Until testing time conducted after periodic inspection
All measuring instruments used for measurement
b. Until other testing time
Coal scale and other instruments deemed necessary
88
Reheat steam
Temp.
Main steam
4. Measurement Data and Calculation Methods

For calculation of each thermal efficiency figure, the measurement data and calculation methods shown in Appendix 5
are to be used. No irrelevant data need be used for calculation.
III. Analysis of Test Data

1. Data Processing and Control charts
The measured data are to be filled in and gathered in Performance Test Measurement Record (Appendix 4), and each
thermal efficiency figure in Performance Test Results (Appendix 1). In addition, Control charts (Appendix 2) are to be
prepared for consideration of each units performance.
2. Preparation of Control Charts

Control charts are prepared to determine whether the plant is in a steady condition or not, using JIS Z-9021,
Shewhart Control chart.
(1) Application of Control chart

a. Applied to 4 items, namely, gross efficiency, boiler room efficiency, turbine room efficiency, auxiliary
power ratio.
b. Control charts are prepared for each item above for load profile of 4/4 and needed.
(2) Control Limit

For control limit used for control charts, 3 sigma method (allowing 3 times of standard deviation range above and
below expected value) is to be adopted.
Upper Control Limit (UCL) = Expected value + (3$Standard deviation)
Lower Control Limit (LCL) = Expected value (3$Standard deviation)
In order to obtain control values, test needs to be conducted a few times, and the estimated value from the
results can be used.
(3) Judgment by Control Chart

Control chart is useful for recognizing units deviation from controlled condition. Generally, when the measured
values are within the control limit lines, units are considered as normal. If these are beyond the limit lines, it is viewed
as abnormal, requiring clarification. The following cases need caution.
a. One point is located beyond the control limit.
b. 9 points are on the same side of the center line.
c. 6 points have increased or decreased.
d. 14 points are rising and falling alternately.
e. Of the consecutive 3 points, 2 points are in the domain of 2 ! and 3 ! or beyond.
f. Of the consecutive 5 points, 5 points are in the domain of ! and 2 ! or beyond.
g. Consecutive 15 points are in the domain of # !.
h. Consecutive 8 points are in the domain beyond # !.
The conventional control lines (center line and control limit line) can be insufficient as a standard in case unit
condition changes. In such a case, a new control line needs to be provided using the recent data as auxiliary
data.
89
90
<Thermal Efficiency Calculation Equation> Appendix - 2

1. Definition of boiler room efficiency, turbine room efficiency, unit thermal efficiency
(1) Boiler room efficiency (%B)
Diagram 1
From unit thermal equilibrium line diagram, boiler room efficiency is defined as follows. Also,
auxiliary input heat into boiler system QEX is defined as input heat or negative output heat in some cases. Here, the
latter concept is adopted, viewing only fuel combustion heat as input heat.
QRS (Output heat)
QTS (Output heat)
QO (Output heat)
QG
Turbine heat generating

system
Qf (Fuel combustion heat)

Boiler system
(Generator output)
QEX (Boiler auxiliary heat input)
QBL (Heat loss)
QTL (Heat loss)
Diagram 1 Unit Heat Equilibrium
Boiler room efficiency can be calculated as follows based on heat equilibrium of boiler system;
Qf + QEX = QO + QBS + QBL
Qf QBL = QO + QBS QEX
Boiler room efficiency
%B ' (1 -
QO & QBS - QEX

QBL
)'
Qf
Qf
Loss method
Heat input-output method
(2) Turbine room efficiency ( T)

Consider turbine room input heat as boiler room output heat QO, focus only on generator output as turbine room
efficiency.
Turbine room efficiency can be calculated as based on heat equilibrium of turbine system;
QO=QG+QTS+QTL
QO!QTS!QTL=QG
Turbine room efficiency
%T ' (1
QTL
QG
)'
QO - QTS
QO - QTS
Loss method
Heat input-output method
(3) Unit Thermal Efficiency ( P)
91
Unit thermal efficiency is the product of boiler room efficiency multiplied by turbine room efficiency.
Unit thermal efficiency
%P ' %B $ %T '
QO & QBS - QEX

QT
$
Qf
QO - QTS
(Heat input-output standard method)
'
QG QO & QBS - QEX

$
Qf
QO - QTS
(1)
(Note) Conventionally, Unit thermal efficiency by heat input-output method has been calculated as
%P '
QG
Qf
However, the steam generated in the unit system is used outside, the heat value of such steam must be incorporated
into the calculation. Therefore, Equation (1) can represent the heat input-output method unit thermal efficiency.
Theoretically, heat input-output method and loss method should compute out the same results.
(4) Boundary of Boiler and Turbine Systems

Boundary of boiler and turbine systems are shown in Diagram 2.
Turbine system
Boiler system
WMS # iMS
WEj # iEj
WSS # iSS
SH
WSD # iSD
WHR # iHR
WRS # iRS
WLR # iLR
Qf # QEX
RH
Heat loss
Heavy oil
Drain
Heavy oil
heater
WFW # iFW
WSAH # iSAH
WSAH # iSAHD
WSC # iSC
WSC # iSCD
AH
Atomize
steam
Exhaust gas
Combusted air
SAH
Heater
SC
(qsc)
Diagram 2 Boundary of Boiler and Turbine Systems
92
2. Calculation Method of Boiler Room Efficiency

(1) Heat input-output method boiler room efficiency (
%Bi '
Bi)
QO & QBS - QEX

$ 100[%]
Qf
Qf ' Hf ( Mf
Qf
:Fuel combustion heat
[kJ/h]
QEX
:Boiler auxiliary input heat
[kJ/h]
QO
:Boiler room output heat (For generation) [kJ/h]
QBS
Hf
:Fuel higher heating value
[kJ/h]
Mf
:Fuel consumption
[kg/h]
QO=WMS
iMS+WHR
(Heating, etc)
WEj
iEjWSS
[kJ/h]
iSSWRS
iRSWLR
iLRWFW
iFWWSAH(iSAHiSAHD)WSC(iSCiSCD)QEX
WMS
: Main stop valve inlet steam flow rate
[kg/h]
iMS
[kJ/kg]
WHR
: High temp reheat steam flow rate
[kg/h]
iHR
[kJ/kg]
WEj
: Ejector driving steam flow rate
[kg/h]
iEj
[kJ/kg]
WSS
: Superheater spray water flow rate
[kg/h]
iSS
[kJ/kg]
WRS
: Reheater spray water flow rate
[kg/h]
iRS
[kJ/kg]
WLR
: Low temp reheating steam flow rate
[kg/h]
iLR
[kJ/kg]
WFW
: Final feed water heater outlet flow rate
[kg/h]
iFW
[kJ/kg]
WSAH
: SAH heating steam flow rate
[kg/h]
iSAH
[kJ/kg]
iSAHD
: SAH drain enthalpy
[kJ/kg]
WSC
: SC heating steam flow rate
[kg/h]
iSC
[kJ/kg]
iSCD
: SC drain enthalpy
enthalpy
enthalpy
enthalpy
enthalpy
enthalpy
enthalpy
enthalpy
enthalpy
enthalpy
[kJ/kg]
93
QBS ' )qsc*2 ! )qsc*1

(qsc)1 : Heating value brought by feed water at SC inlet
[kJ/h]
(qsc)2 : Heavy oil heating and atomizing steam generated at SC [kJ/h]
QEX ' WSAH (Note) ) iSAH - iSAHD * & WSC
(Note)
) iSC - iSCD *
(Note) WSAH and WSC show steam flow from other units, own unit being 0.
Main Stop Valve Inlet Steam Flow Rate (WMS)
WMS ' WFW & WSS - WEj - WBD - WBS -
1
WCL
2
WCL ' WMU - WBD - WBS

WBS
: Boiler air ejecting heater etc. flow rate [kg/h]
WCL
: Cycle leak rate
[kg/h]
WBD
: Continuous blow rate
[kg/h]
WMU
: Make-up water
[kg/h]
Low Temp Reheat Steam Flow Rate (WLR)
WLR ' WMS - WHL - +WHi

WHL
: High pressure turbine leak
[kg/h]
WHi
: Leakage from low temp reheat steam pipe
[kg/h]
High Temp Reheat Steam Flow Rate (WHR)
WHR ' WLR & WRS
94
(2) Loss Method Standard Boiler Room Efficiency (
% B1 ' 1 !
B1)
Q BL
! L CL ! L BD ! L AT ! L EX
Qf
"Li : Boiler heat loss total
[kJ/kg fuel]
+ Li ' L g & L w & L as & L ASH & L co & L Rd & L UB & L AH
a.
Lg Dry gas heat loss
L g ' C g ( -M gt & )m ! 1*M at ,)t g ! t a *
Cg
[kJ/kg fuel]
: Dry gas specific heat
1.38
[m3N/kg fuel]
Mgt : Theoretical combustion gas amount

m
[kJ/m3N K]
: Eco outlet air excess coefficient

[m3N/kg fuel]
Mat : Theoretical air amount

tg
: AH outlet gas temperature
["C]
ta
: Air temperature (FD inlet temperature)
["C]
b. Lw Loss due to Water Content, Hydrogen Combusted Water in Fuel
L w ' )Ww & Wh *)i g ! t a *
[kJ/kg fuel]
Ww : Water content in fuel
[kg/kg fuel]
Wh : Hydrogen combusted water in fuel
[kg/kg fuel]
: Steam enthalpy at steam pressure 10.1kPa, tg (AH outlet gas temperature) "C
ig
[kJ/kg]
: Air temperature ["C] (same value as water enthalpy [kJ/kg]=ta)
ta
c.
Las Loss due to air humidity
L as ' 1.29Z ( m ( M at )t g ! t a *
[kJ/kg fuel]
: Absolute humidity
[kg/kg]
Cs
: Steam specific heat
1.88
95
[kJ/kg K]
d. LASH Ash sensible heat loss
L ASH ' C ASH (
)
*
A 3 PBOT
)800 ! t a * & 100 ! PBOT )t g ! t a *0/
2
100 1 100
100
.
CASH : Ash specific heat

A
1.05
: Ash content in fuel
[kJ/kg K]
[%]
PBOT : Furnace bottom ash falling rate

e.
[kJ/kg fuel]
[%]
Lco Heat loss due to unburned fuel
L co ' H co ( -M gt & )m ! 1*M at ,(
4CO5
[kJ/kg fuel]
100
Hco : CO combustion heat
[kJ/m3N]
[CO] : Volume ratio of CO
[%]
(Orsat analysis value at Eco outlet)
LRd Heat loss due to radiation
f.
(According to A.M.B.A. Standard Radiation Loss Chart in ASME Power Test Code)
g. LUB Heat loss due to unburned matter in ash
L UB ' Hc (
A
u
(
100 100 ! u
[kJ/kg fuel]
Hc
: Carbon heating value
33,900
: Average unburned matter in ash
[kJ/kg]
[%]
h. LAH Heat loss due to AH air leakage
L AH ' C a )1 & 1.61Z * (
Ca
6
100
( -M gt & )m ! 1*M at ,)t g ! t a *
: Specific heat of air (=CS)
1.30
: AH inlet gas amount standard air leaking ratio
96
[kJ/kg fuel]
[kJ/m3N K]
[%]
i.
LCL Cycle Leakage Heating Value Loss
L CL '
1 WCL ) iFW ! t a *
(
2
Qf
WCL : Cycle leakage flow rate

iFW
j.
[kg/h]
: Final feed water heater outlet feet water enthalpy
[kJ/kg]
LBD Heat loss due to continuous blow
L BD '
WBD ) iFW ! t a *
Qf
WBD : Continuous blow amount

iBD
[kg/h]
enthalpy
[kJ/kg]
k. LAT Heat loss due to atomizing steam
L AT !
WAT ) iFW t a *
Qf
WAT : Atomizing steam flow rate

l.
[kg/h]
LEX Other heat loss

In case any loss is found other than a.~k., it is totaled and considered as other heat loss as a whole.
Theoretical air
Mat !
Mat
$
o( ,
1 '
/
* ) 3.33s (#
&8.89c( ) 26.7- h (
8+
100 %
.
"
0100
c( ! c 2
100
h( ! h 2
o( ! o 2
s( ! s 2
W1
0100
W1
100
0100
W1
100
0100
W1
100
A2
u
100 u
[m3N/kg fuel]
Combustion carbon amount
[%]
/
100A ,
*
o ! 100 -- c ) h ) n )
100 W1 *+
.
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
97
: Carbon
: Hydrogen
: Nitrogen
: Combustive sulfur
: Oxygen
[%]
W1
: Fuel inherent moisture
[%]
Fuel elemental analysis value (No water basis)
[%]
Air Excess Coefficient m
m!
21
' 0O 1 0.50CO 1$
21 79& 2
#
0N 2 1
"
%
In this regard, however,

(N2)=100 {(CO2)+(CO)+(O2)}
(O2)
(CO2)
(CO)
(N2)
Indicating volume ratio in dry combustion gas

[%]
O2, CO2, CO are Orsat analysis
Theoretical Dry Gas Amount Mgt
$
1 '
o( ,
/
* ) 3.33s ( ) 0.8n (#
&8.89c( ) 21.1- h (
100 %
8+
.
"
M gt !
n( ! n 2
0100
W1
[m3N/kg fuel]
100
Hydrogen combustion moisture in fuel Wh and water content in fuel WW
Wh !
9h (
100
WW !
W2
W1
100
[kg/kg fuel]
W2
100
[kg/kg fuel]
W2
: Surface humidity of coal
[%]
98
Absolute Humidity Z
Z ! 0.622 2
Ps
Pa
Ps ! PW
[kg/kg]
Ps
0.0008 2 Pa 2 0Td
Pa
: Atmosphere pressure
[kPa]
Ps
: Steam pressure
[kPa]
PW
: Saturated steam pressure for wet-bulb temperature
[kPa]
Td
: Dry-bulb temperature (=Ta)
[3C]
TW
: Wet-bulb temperature
[3C]
AH Air Leakage Ratio
4!
(Eco outlet gas amount basis)
0O 2 1out 0O 2 1in 2 100

21 0O 2 1out
[%]
(O2) out : AH outlet O2
[%]
(O2) in: Eco outlet O2
[%]
3. Calculation Method of Turbine Room Efficiency
QG
2 100
Q O Q TS
5T !
QG
: Generator output (=860 PG)
PG
[%]
[kJ/h]
[kWh]
QTS : Turbine output heat
[kJ/h]
4. Calculation Method of Unit Thermal Efficiency

(1) Gross unit thermal efficiency ( P)
a. Unit thermal efficiency based on heat input-output method (!Pi)
5 Pi !
K
K!
QG
2 K2 100
Qf
[%]
: Modification coefficient (See IV, exposition, calculation processing)
Q O ) Q BS Q EX
Q O Q TS
b. Unit thermal efficiency based on heat loss method (!P1)
5 P1 ! 5 B1 25 T / 100
[%]
99
TW 1
(2) Auxiliary Power Ratio ( )
PGH )
8!
PG
2 PCM
7 PG
2 100
PG
[%]
PGH : House transformer power
[kWh]
PG : Total of generator output of each unit
[kWh]
PCM : Common auxiliary power
[kWh]
(Note) Auxiliary power consists of the common auxiliary power proportionately divided by each units generator
output added by house transformer power.
(3) Net Unit Efficiency ( P)
/
.
5 P ( ! 5 P 2 -1
8 ,
*
100 +
[%]
5. Correction of Calculated Thermal Efficiency

The following correction is conducted for calculated thermal efficiency.
(1) Boiler room efficiency ( B)
a. Atmosphere temperature correction
b. Fuel surface humidity correction
c. Fuel hydrogen content correction
d. Fuel inherent moisture correction
(2) Turbine room efficiency ( T)

e. Main steam pressure correction
f. Main steam temperature correction
g. Spray water correction
h. Reheat system pressure loss correction
i. Reheat steam temperature correction
j. Condenser vacuum correction
k. Generator power factor correction
100
6. Various Constants in Calculation

(1) Thermal efficiency is calculated with higher heating value standard.
(2) Standard temperature for thermal efficiency is FDF inlet and atmosphere temperature.
(3) Dry gas specific heat shall be 1.38 kJ/m3N K from JIS B-8222.
(4) Specific heat for dry air and air shall be 1.30 kJ/m3N K from JIS B-8222.
(5) Enthalpy for exhaust gas steam shall be calculated with steam partial pressure as 10.1kPa.
(6) Heating value of carbon shall be 33,900kJ/kg from JIS B-8222.
(7) Heating value of carbon monoxide shall be 12,610 kJ/kg from JIS B-8222.
(8) Specific heat of steam shall be 1.88 kJ/kg K from Heat Management Handbook.
(9) Specific heat of ash is 1.05 kJ/kg K from Heat Management Handbook.
(10) Cycle leakage loss shall be equally shared by boiler and turbine system, finally leaked to the outside of system at
final feed water heater outlet.
(11) Make-up water, air sensible heat and fuel sensible heat shall be 0.
7. Calculation Standard for Main Steam Flow Rate

In this manual, feed water flowmeter standard shall be adopted. Other standards can be used provided sufficient
precision is ensured. (Grounds for adopting feed water flowmeter standard is as mentioned below)
Moreover, for grasping the deviation error of feed water flowmeter standard, it is desired that main steam flow
rate for high pressure turbine first-stage pressure standard, condenser flowmeter standard, etc is used as reference.
The calculation method of main steam flow rate using high pressure turbine first-stage pressure standard by means
of regression line will be explained later.
(1) Calculation Standards for main steam flow rate are as follows;
a. Main steam flowmeter standard
b. Condenser flowmeter standard
c. Feed water flowmeter standard (Adopted in JIS B-8222 and this manual)
(2) Comparison of each calculation standard
a. Main steam flowmeter standard has a weaker reliability than other methods since steam itself is compressive
fluid.
b. Condenser flowmeter standard ensures high precision due to its low temperature and pressure when used, but
the feed water heater drain flow rate needs to be calculated with low-precision flowmeter or heat balance
calculation, thus showing lower reliability.
c. Feed water flowmeter standard has a problem of deviation error caused by scale attaching to the flowmeters
flow nozzle, but precision is thought to be higher than the aforementioned standards.
8. AH Air Leakage
According to the boiler boundary in Diagram 2, exhaust gas analysis is done at AH outlet, but in reality, to
eliminate the influence of combustion air leaking in, it is done at Eco outlet.
Along with this, AH air leakage ratio is measured to obtain the heat loss due to AH air leakage.
101
9. Calculation Method of High Pressure Turbine First-Stage Pressure Standard Steam Flow Rate by
Regression Line
(1) Preparation Procedure
a. At each generator output, high-pressure turbine firs-stage pressure (P) and feed water flowmeter standard main
steam flow rate (WMS) are measured.
(Note 1) High-pressure turbine firs-stage pressure is measured with meters capable of reading minute fluctuations
such as expanded pressure meter, transmitter output voltage.
(Note 2) Main steam flow rate is calculated after density correction of each flow rate.
b. Regression line for high-pressure turbine firs-stage pressure (P) and feed water flowmeter standard main steam flow
rate (WMS) are calculated.
This regression line is applied to performance tests conducted from this point on, calculating main steam flow
rate.
(2) Calculation Example

Main steam flow
rate (WMS)
SH spray
(WSS)
Example of measurement results

Generator
High-pressure
Main steam
output
turbine
flow rate WMi
firs-stage
[t/h]
pressure Pi
[MPa]
WMS=WFW WSS
Feed water flow

rate
(WFW)
MCR
13.0
580.470
4/4
11.4
514.760
3/4
8.4
370.680
2/4
5.8
242.880
Minimum
3.5
152.810
Calculation procedure
a. Calculate S1= Pi2 ( Pi)2/n.
2
S1=60.928
2
b. Calculate S2= (WMsi) [ (WMsi)] /n.
S2=128,557.61
c. Calculate S3= Pi (WMsi)
S3=2,796.953
Pi (WMsi)/n.
d. Calculate P= Pi/n.
P = 8.42
e. Calculate WMS= (WMsi)/n.
WMS=372.32
f. From above,
WMS !
S3
S1
/
P ) -- WMS
.
S3
S1
,
P **
+
WMS=45.9059P 14.2074
Calculating regression line.

g. Calculating the correlation function !,
1
/ S 2
9 ! -- 3
. S1 2 S 2
,2
*
*
+
=0.9994
102
2.6 COMBUSTION OF COAL

Because coal has a variety of physical and chemical properties compared with other fossil fuels (heavy oil or
gas) according to the difference in generation conditions, the burning process (ignition and combustibility) and
exhaust-gas composition after combustion vary with the type of coal.
In this seminar, pulverized coal combustion is described generally: how coal properties affect combustion, the
concept of combustion, combustion equipment, and the development of combustion technology.
2.6.1 How Coal Property Affects Pulverized Coal Combustion
For the preliminary evaluation of coal as fuel, we generally conduct a proximate analysis, an ultimate analysis
and an ash content analysis of coal. The detailed analyses of coal are described in II-1 Coal. This section
discusses how the coal properties relate to combustibility, grindability, slagging/fouling and abrasion
characteristics, etc. when coal is evaluated as a fuel burned in pulverized coal burning boilers.
2.6.6.1 Relation of Coal Property to Ignitability and Combustibility
Certain items are used to evaluate the ignitability and combustibility of coal: the fuel ratio and coal rank, the
volatile matter and calorific value, the adhesiveness and agglomeration, etc.
(1) Fuel Ratio and Coal Rank
The fuel ratio has traditionally been used as the simplest standard to evaluate the ignitability and combustibility
of coal. The fuel ratio means the weight ratio of fixed-carbon to the volatile matter. Generally speaking, the higher
the fuel ratio of coal, the poorer the ignitability and the slower the combustion speed. It can be said that coal with
a fuel ratio 2.5-3.0 is preferable for pulverized coal burning boilers in order to lower unburned losses.
The coal rank means the degree of coalification, which is classified according to the physical and chemical
properties of coal.
As shown in Table 1, the coal rank is categorized into brown coal, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal and
anthracite coal according to the order of coalification, on the basis of a calorific value, fixed carbon amount,
volatile matter amount, and agglomeration characteristic.
Table 1 Coal Rank (ASTM Standard)
Item
Class
Group
I. Anthracite coal
1.
2.
3.
1.
II. Bituminous coal
2.
3.
4.
5.
III. Sub-bituminous
coal
IV. Brown coal
High anthracite coal

Anthracite coal
Semi-anthracite coal
Low volatile
bituminous coal
Semi-volatile
bituminous coal
A High volatile
bituminous coal
B High volatile
bituminous coal
C High volatile
bituminous coal
1. A Sub-bituminous
coal
2. B Sub-bituminous
coal
3. C Sub-bituminous
coal
1. A. Brown coal
2. B. Brown coal
Range of fixed
carbon
(dry coal/no-mineral
base %)
98
92 / <98
86 / <92
78 / <86
69
/ 78
Range of volatile
matter
(dry coal/no-mineral
base %)
2
2</ 8
8 < / 14
14 < / 22
22 < /
Range of calorific value

(constant wet
coal/no-mineral base
kcal/kg)
-
Agglomeration
characteristic
Not exist
31
7,780
< 69
31 <
7,220
/ <7,780
/ < 7,220
/ < 6,390
/ < 6,390
Exist
6,390
5,830
5,830
5,280
/ < 5,830
Not exist
4,610
/ < 5,280
3,500 / < 4,610

< 3,500
Generally, exist
103
Not exist
Anthracite refers to coal with non-agglomeration characteristics, low volatile matter, and a fuel ratio of more
than 6, and it is poor in ignitability and combustibility. Sub-bituminous coal and brown coal, whose fuel ratio is
less than 1, are excellent in ignitability and combustibility, but poor in mill grindability (explained later) and have
slagging/fouling characteristics. Therefore, bituminous coal, whose fuel ratio is intermediate, is generally used in
pulverized coal burning boilers. The bituminous coal is classified into five types as below, and the higher the rank
the poorer in ignitability and combustibility.
(1) Low volatile matter bituminous coal (the fuel ratio is approx. 4)
(2) Medium volatile matter bituminous coal (the fuel ratio is approx. 2.8)
(3) A high volatile matter bituminous coal (the fuel ratio is approx. 1.5)
(4) B high volatile matter bituminous coal (the fuel ratio is approx. 1.2)
(5) C high volatile matter bituminous coal (the fuel ratio is approx 1.1)
(2) Volatile Matter and Calorific Value
Ignitability evaluation of coal itself is generally performed in accordance with the volatile matter amount and
the calorific value contained in coal. In general, when the volatile matter amount is less than 20%, it is necessary
to consider some methods to stabilize the ignitability. The following expression has traditionally been used as the
ignitability index:
Ignitability index =
[(raw coal calorific value kcal/kg) - 81 x (fixed carbon %)]

(volatile matter %) + (moisture %)
The ignitability index, which can be used as a judgment criterion of the ignition difficulty of coal with much
surface moisture, indicates discharged moisture and a calorific value of volatile matter. When the ignitability
index is 35 or less, it is said some measures for ignitability improvement should be taken.
(3) Adherence and Agglomeration Characteristics
Coal adherence means a property of the cake-like expansion of coal when it is heated, and is usually judged by
a button index. Coal with a high button index requires special attention because fuel-fines adhere to or clog in a
burner nozzle or unburned hydrocarbon increases due to fuel-fines blended in the process of combustion. For coal
with a button index of 6-7 or more, it is necessary to consider special designs to prevent these problems.
2.6.1.2 Relation of Coal Property to Grindability and Dryness

In general, pulverized coal combustion is characterized by pulverizing coal to 50-100m and drying and
burning it. The point of this combustion lies in the selection of the coal pulverization degree so that the coal can
be burned out in a combustion chamber. As aforementioned, the coal combustibility greatly varies with the coal
rank. The following shows the type of coal and the grading required for combustion.
(1) Anthracite coal
<10-15% (200 mesh = 74m residual amount)
(2) Bituminous coal
<15-35% (-ditto-)
(3) Semi-bituminous coal <35-45% (-ditto-)
(4) Brown coal
<45-55% (-ditto-)
The difficulty in coal grinding is usually evaluated by the HGI (Hardgrove Grindability Index) and the moisture
based on the ASTM standard.
(1) HGI
Because linking the coal component analytical values to the HGI tends to have many errors, it is preferable to
directly measure the HGI to gauge coal grindability. The rough standard of grindability is as follows. The higher
the HGI, the easier the grinding.
(1) Coal with a fuel ratio of approx. 1.0 is 35-45 in HGI
(2) Coal with a fuel ratio of approx. 2.0 is 45-75 in HGI
(3) Coal with a fuel ratio of approx 3.0 is 75-100 in HGI
Because the smaller the HGI, the poorer the grindability and because large-sized mills are required, a HGI of
more than 40 is preferable.
(2) Moisture
The mill grinding capability is affected by total moisture including surface- and inherent moisture.
High-moisture content causes a lack of dryness in the mill, decreases the classification efficiency in the mill and
accordingly lowers the mill grinding capability. From this viewpoint, the total moisture contained in coal is
preferably 20% or less.
2.6.1.3 Slagging Characteristic and Ash Property
Slagging is a phenomenon whereby coal ash (slag) melted in the boiler furnace adheres to the radiant
heat-transfer surface in the furnace, and is cooled, solidified, and built-up. The following coal properties relate to
104
the degree of slagging:

(1) Ash Melting Temperature
Slagging results from the fact that coal ash melted in the furnace bumps against the heat-transfer surface and
adheres to it before solidifying. Slagging is judged by whether the ash melting temperature is higher or lower than
the gas temperature in the proximity of the heat-transfer surface. Such a problem is rarely seen with coal with a
melting temperature exceeding 1300 in pulverized coal burning boilers.
(2) Ash Content
In the case of coal with strong slagging characteristics, the slag accumulation amount is proportional to the ash
amount input into the furnace. Because the ash amount input into the furnace is proportional to the ash-content
amount per coal calorie, the coal with high ash-content and low calorie requires more attention.
(3) Ash Alkaline Ratio
The ash alkaline ratio is defined by the following expression using the figures showing the ratio of the basicity
component to the acidic component in ash.
Ash alkaline ratio =
(Fe2O3 ! CaO ! MgO ! Na2O ! K2O)

SiO2 ! Al2O3 ! TiO2
The large ash alkaline ratio means an increased slagging characteristic because low-melting oxides and
compound salt are easily generated. It is generally said that the slagging characteristic is small if the ash alkaline
ratio is 0.5 or less.
This is also identified by the color of ash: much SiO2 and Al3O3 show white, much CaO shows yellow, much
Fe2O3 shows red, and much Fe2O3 and CaO show pink to purple. That is to say, as the ash color changes from
white to reddish, the ash slagging characteristic becomes stronger.
(4) Fe2O3/CaO Ratio and S-content in Coal
When the ratio of Fe2O3 to CaO in ash is approx. 0.3-3, low-melting compounds tend to be generated. This fact
can become a supplementary judgment criterion of the ash alkaline ratio.
Also, when the S-content in ash is large, Fe generates basicity components and low-melting sulfuric acid complex
salt, increasing the slagging characteristic. The S-content in ash is preferably 2% or less for preventing slagging
problems.
2.6.1.4 Fouling and Ash Property

Fouling means a phenomenon whereby coal ash in the gaseous or melting state condenses, adheres to and
builds up on the convective heat-transfer surface of the superheater or the reheater at the rear of the furnace. The
following coal content affects fouling:
(1) Basicity component in Ash
The most influential on fouling is basicity substances including Na. Sufficient care should be taken over coal
with a large content of Na2O, K2O, Cl, CaO, etc., especially that with a large Na2O content.
(2) S-content in coal
S-content in coal develops the occurrence of fouling by generating basicity components and low-melting
sulfuric acid complex salt.
2.6.1.5 Abrasion and Coal Properties
Pulverized coal burning boilers will cause the abrasion of grinders (mills) or pulverized coal pipes, and also of
the backside convective heat-transfer surface by fly ash.
The influential mineral matter causing mill abrasion is quartz, pyrite, etc. When judged from the analytical values,
the content of quartz, Fe2O3 and S-content become its criterion.
The abrasion degree by fly ash is largely affected by the hardness, density and granularity of fly ash. When
judging the abrasion degree based on the coal properties, the following mineral matter in ash should be focused
on:
(1) Quartz ( -SiO2: Mohs hardness = 7)
(2) Cristobalite (SiO2: Mohs hardness = 7)
(3) Mullite (3Al2O3 & SiO2: Mohs hardness = 7.5)
(4) Hematite (Fe2O3: Mohs hardness = 6)
(5) Anorthite (CaAl2Si2O3: Mohs hardness = 6)
105
2.6.2 Concept of Pulverized Coal Combustion

When coal is pulverized in the grinder (mill) and float-fired in the pulverized state, the ignition time and
combustion time are extremely shortened and the burner combustion can become just like heavy oil or gas fuel is
being burned. This is the greatest characteristic of pulverized coal combustion. In the following section, the
combustion mechanism and characteristics of pulverized coal are explained.
2.6.2.1 Combustion Mechanism of Pulverized Coal
The model of pulverized coal burning flames is shown in Fig. 1.
The primary air and pulverized coal blown into the furnace from the coal compartment are heated by radiant
heat from both the surrounding flames and the high-temperature slag adhering to the furnace wall, and then start
igniting and burning, forming a primary combustion area. The primary combustion area is mainly an area where
volatile matter in coal is burned. And there, CH4, H2, CO etc. volatized from coal grains are mixed with oxygen in
the primary air diffused from the surroundings, forming flames around the grains. The secondary burning area is
mainly a char burning area, where unburned gases and chars flowing from the primary combustion area are
burned by a diffusive mixture with a secondary air blown from the supplementary air compartment.
Large grain size
Ash + unburned
hydrocarbon
Small grain size
Ash
Coal grainsVolatile matter burning area Char burning area

Primary burning area
Ignition
Volatile matter
discharge
Supplementary air
compartment
(Volatile matter
burning area)
Combustion
completion
Secondary burning area

Char burning area
NOx generation
characteristic
Ignitability
Burnout
characteristic
Primary burning area

Qpd [Primary air/coal ratio]
Secondary burning area
QS = [Q total = Qp] Q : Burning quantity
Fig. 1 Model of pulverized coal burning flame

Char burning means the combustion of oxygen and carbon diffused from the surfaces or fine pores of chars, and
the burning velocity is extremely slow compared with that of volatile matter. Therefore, char burnout time
accounts for approx. 80-90% of the total coal burnout time.
In the flame model in Fig.1, the points of pulverized coal combustion we must note are the ignitability, burnout
characteristic and NOx generation characteristic.
These points are closely related to the performance and operability of pulverized coal burning boilers. The
ignitability and burnout characteristic are discussed in this section and the NOx generation characteristic is
discussed in Section 2.3.
(1) Ignitability
The ignition difficulty in pulverized coal greatly varies with the coal properties. According to the individual
coal properties, we will evaluate the burner type, selection of burner design specifications, necessity of auxiliary
burners, and a minimum load which can completely burn coal.
The surface temperature of pulverized coal blown into the furnace rises by its own flame and by the radiant heat
from other high-temperature heat sources in the furnace, and after it reaches a certain level, the coal is ignited, as
commonly explained in the radiant ignition theories. This temperature causing ignition is defined as radiant
ignition temperature. Coal with a higher ignition temperature needs radiant heat from a higher temperature heat
source, and hence stable ignition in the furnace is difficult, causing unstable combustion or increased unburned
hydrocarbon due to the fluctuation of the ignition point. Therefore, special design consideration is required.
106
Radiant ignition temperature ( C)
Mora
Newlands
Daido
Warkworth
Drayton
Mirror blend
Optimum
Miike
The
Pacific
Ocean
Volatile matter (ash-free basis) (%)
Fig. 2 Relation between volatile matter and radiant ignition temperature

Figure 2 summarizes the relation between the volatile matter in coal and the radiant ignition temperature, when
a small amount of pulverized coal is forcibly fed into the electric furnace in which the temperature can be freely
changed, and is ignited instantly raising shining flames where the ignition temperature is defined as the radiant
ignition temperature.
As shown in the Fig., the radiant ignition temperature drops along with the increase of volatile matter content.
Though the coal with the same amount of volatile matter content shows a variation in r30 C of the radiant
ignition temperature, this variation is considered to be attributed mainly to the difference in the quality of the
volatile matter or calorific values.
The rate of the volatile matter content in domestic coal used in thermal power stations in our country and of
imported coal ranges from 30-50% based on the ash-free basis whereas the radiant ignition temperature ranges
from 600-700 C. From our past experiences, ordinary pulverized coal burning boilers have almost no problem
with the combustion of coal whose radiant ignition temperature is 750 C or less.
Figure 2 shows the comparison of ignitability among coal with different properties, but actual pulverized coal is
transferred by the primary air and continuously blown into the furnace, as shown in Fig.1.
Now lets consider the ignition of pulverized coal grain assemblages which float and flow with minute intervals
in the primary air flow. The coal grain assemblages in the pulverized coal plume are initially ignited by an igniter.
After the igniter goes off, the grains temperature rises with a time lapse under the heat balance, where the sum of
the calorific value of own flame, the radiant heat from other heat sources and the chemical reaction in the coal
grain assemblages is equivalent to the calorific value which can raise the temperatures of coal grain assemblages
and the primary air around it.
Symbol
Brand
Pulverized coal
(200/mesh passes)
Pacific Ocean coal

Daido coal
Ignition distance (m/m)
Amount of coal
supply
1. Air temperature
Normal
temperature
Air flow rate
Temperature in furnace ( C)
Fig. 3 Relation between temperature in furnace and ignition distance

107
H coal
Burning velocity coefficient K* (g/cm S)
When the surface temperature of the grains in a coal grain assemblage exceeds the coal radiant ignition
temperature, they are ignited, and this position is called the ignition distance from the burner. Because the smaller
the grain intervals in the coal grain assemblage (the grains density is high), the larger the radiant heat from other
burning coal grains, and the smaller the air heat capacity around the coal grains, so the coal grain temperature is
apt to rise and the ignition distance becomes shorter. On the other hand, if the intervals among coal grains are too
small (the coal grains density is too high), it is difficult for the radiant heat from other heat sources to penetrate the
core, and because the oxygen consumption of the grain assemblage exceeds the oxygen amount supplied in the
primary air, it is difficult for the combustion to continue. So the ignition distance, on the contrary, becomes larger.
Thus, the pulverized coal assemblage in the primary air flow has the optimum ignition point for the coal grain
density (the inverse number of primary air/coal ratio).
Also, as you understand easily, pulverized coal ignition is strongly affected by ambient temperature.
As shown in Fig.3, the ignition distance of coal with lower volatile matter drastically increases along with the
ambient temperature drop, compared with that of coal with high volatile matter.
This ignition distance increases due to the ambient temperature drop coinciding with the fact that the lower the
load on the pulverized coal burning boiler, the worse the ignition stability.
G coal
A coal
D coal
B coal
Ambient gas temperature = 1,200 C
Ambient oxygen density = 0.04 ala
Fuel ratio (-)
Fig. 4 Relation between burning velocity coefficient and fuel ratio
(2) Burnout Characteristic of Pulverized Coal

The burnout characteristic of pulverized coal is important data to predict the amount of unburned hydrocarbon
generated in pulverized coal burning boilers, to select the degree of necessary coal fineness to maintain unburned
hydrocarbon at a low level, and to determine the furnace dimensions. The burnout characteristic of pulverized coal
greatly varies with coal properties.
Figure4 shows the result when coal grains with various properties are suspended with platinum wire in an
electric furnace, and their combustion-decrease characteristics are measured by microbalance under the condition
of constant oxygen density and gas temperature.
The combustion velocity coefficient K* is represented in the following expression:
K* #
(Wo " WE )
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1)
n$Do 2T
K*:combustion velocity coefficient (g/cm2s)

W: grain weight (g)
D: grain size (cm)
T: combustion period (s)
n: the number of grains (pieces)
Suffixes:
O: before combustion E: after combustion
In this figure the larger the coal fuel ratio (the ratio of fixed carbon to volatile matter), the smaller the
combustion velocity coefficient. The coefficient of the coal with a high fuel ratio is approx. 1/2-1/5 that of the coal
with a low fuel ratio.
108
Because, in actual pulverized coal burning boilers, the gas/coal grain temperature and oxygen density change
when coal moves from the burner exit to the furnace exit, and the combustion is largely rate-controlled by
diffusion resistance in the higher temperature area, as well as by chemical reaction resistance in the lower
temperature area. So it is not appropriate to use the burning velocity coefficient K*, which has been measured
under a certain condition, for the calculation of the burnout in the boiler furnace.
The combustion of pulverized coal grains in the furnace is as per the following expression, where the grain size
is Dp:
d , ro$
3)
2
*
DP '' # "$DP & K & P ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (2)
*
d- + 6
(
1
1
1
#
%
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (3)
K KO K f
Where, the signs are as follows:
K: general combustion velocity coefficient (g/cm2 s)
Kf: combustion velocity coefficient when the oxygen diffusion density in
the gas film is dominant (g/cm2 s)
Kc: combustion velocity coefficient when the chemical reaction rate of
the grain surface is dominant (g/cm2 s)
P: oxygen pressure (atm)
Dp: coal grain size (cm)
ro: specific gravity of coal grain (g/cm3)
-: burning time (s)
The general burning velocity coefficient K varies depending on the coal properties in addition to the grain size
and burning area gas temperature. Therefore, in order to lower unburned losses in a pulverized coal burning boiler,
we must know the characteristics of pulverized coal grains K, coal grain size Dp (coal fineness), in-furnace
retention time -, and gas temperature distribution and oxygen density distribution in the furnace, and then
determine the furnace dimensions or pulverized coal facilities.
Figure 5 shows the trajectory of the flame axis obtained by simulations of heat-transfer flow in the furnace
using the aforementioned expressions (2) and (3), and the calculation results of the unburned hydrocarbon by
applying the calculation of the gas & oxygen density distribution. The combustion rapidly proceeds in the area
approx. five meters high above the burner toward the furnace exit, but it becomes slower in the area approx. 10
meters high, and the combustion reaction almost does not proceed in the area exceeding 20 meters high due to the
gas temperature drop. Therefore, this suggests that in order to improve the burning efficiency of pulverized coal, it
is more effective to reduce the coal grain size by increasing the coal fineness rather than to lengthen the retention
time in the furnace.
2.6.2.2 Combustion Calculation

(1) Coal Calorific Value
The coal calorific value means calories (kcal) generated when a unit amount (1kg) is completely burned out,
and is defined as two types below:
(1) High heating value (HHV) or gross calorific value (GCV)
(2) Low heating value (LHV) or net calorific value (NCV)
109
Fuel ratio
Height from the center of the burner
Air
temperature
Primary 82 C/secondary 312 C
Coal fineness
(200 mesh pass / 100 mesh
residuum)
Unburned carbon ratio
Fig. 5 Relation between coal fineness and unburned hydrocarbon

The coal calorific value generally means a high heating value, and the measuring method is stipulated in JIS M
8814.
The high heating value includes the steam-condensing latent heat (approx. 600kcal/kg) generated by burning
water (W) and hydrogen (H) in coal. However, because in the actual combustion in boilers, this steam is
discharged from the stack without condensing, the latent heat cannot be utilized and the actual coal calorific value
reduces by this amount. The calorific value from which this latent heat has been subtracted is called a low heating
value, and is calculated by the following expression without relying on the actual measurement. (H and W are
wt%)
LHV = HHV 6(9H + W) (kcal/kg)
The calorific value is a very important item for combustion calculation. Especially, when it comes to coal, the
calorific values and individual components vary largely with the type of coal - even the same type of coal varies
with the mining layers. So, we must use the results from the same sample for combustion calculation and for all
analytical values.
Many types of calculation formulas can be considered to obtain the calorific value using the coal analytical
values, but those formulas may have omitted complex, chemically-bound heat during coal combustion, or been
determined by natural experiences. So they cannot be applied to every type of coal with high accuracy. Their
values should only be utilized temporarily when the calorific value has not been calculated yet.
Table 2 Component characteristics related to combustion
Component
Carbon
Hydrogen
Sulfur
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Water vapor
Sulfur dioxide
Air
Carbon dioxide
Molecular
symbol
C
H2
S
O2
N2
H2O
SO2
CO2
Molecular weight
Approx.
Exact value
value
12
12.011
2
2.016
32
32.064
32
31.999
28
28.013
18
18.015
64
64.053
29
28.964
44
44.010
Specific weight
kg/Nm3
Specific constitution
Nm3kg
0.08997
1.42897
1.25041
0.80374
2.92659
1.29298
1.97682
11.12698
0.69980
0.79974
1.24419
0.34169
0.77341
0.50586
The following expressions are typical examples of calorific value calculation in the ultimate analysis and
proximate analysis of coal.
1. Dulongs expression (from the result of the ultimate analysis of coal)
HHV = 81C + 342.5(H-O/8) + 22.5S (kcal/kg)
Where, C, H, O and S show the wt% of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulfur, respectively.
2. Kosakas expression (from the result of proximate analysis of coal)
HHV = 81Cf + (96 - . ! W) ! (Vm + W) (kcal/kg)
Where, Cf, W and Vm show the wt% of fixed carbon, moisture, and volatile matter, respectively, and is
the coefficient of moisture and is used as the following values:
110
When W<5.0
When W/5.0
= 6.5
= 5.0
(2) Combustion Air Flow Rate and Combustion Gas Flow Rate
In order to burn fuel completely, it is necessary to supply necessary and adequate air (oxygen) for combustion.
In actual combustion, air and fuel are not mixed ideally and it is difficult to burn fuel completely by the
theoretically necessary combustion air flow rate alone, hence a proper combustion air flow rate is supplied as an
excess air flow rate depending on the fuel in addition to this theoretical combustion air flow rate. Especially, for
pulverized coal burning, a more excessive air flow rate is needed (for bituminous coal with high volatile matter, it
is approx. 1.2-1.25 in the air ratio) because the combustion characteristic is poorer than that of heavy oil or gas
due to the larger-sized, solid grains with the slow combustion velocity.
Though the major components of coal consist of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S)
etc., the combustible components are carbon, hydrogen and sulfur, each of which is completely burned to become
carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor (H2O), and sulfur dioxide (SO2), respectively. The entire oxygen in coal is
considered to become water (water vapor) by combining with hydrogen during the combustion.
Table 3 List of Component Combustion Values
Theoretical dry air flow rate
Component
O2
N2
Air
Upper row: kg/kg
Carbon
Hydrogen H2
Oxygen
O2
Sulfur
Nitrogen
N2
Moisture
Theoretical
dry gas flow
rate
Lower row Nm3/kg
Combustion
product
Moisture
amount
(CO2)
2.67
1.87
8.83
7.02
11.50
8.89
3.67
1.87
8.00
5.60
-1.00
-0.70
26.48
21.06
-3.31
-2.63
34.48
26.66
-4.31
-3.33
9.00
11.19
-
1.00
0.70
-
3.31
2.63
-
4.31
3.33
-
2.00
0.69
-
12.50
8.89
26.48
21.06
-3.31
-2.63
9.00
11.19
-
5.31
3.33
1.00
0.80
-
1.00
1.24
(H2O)
(SO2)
1. Calculation expressions of combustion air- and gas-flow rates in the ultimate analysis of coal
The combustion air flow rate needed for coal combustion and the generating combustion gas flow rate can
be calculated by the ultimate analysis using the list of component combustion values shown in Table 2. The
calculation results of component combustion are summarized in Table 3.
In this case, it is assumed that air consists of oxygen and nitrogen in a weight ratio of approx. 23.2% and
76.8% each and in a volume ratio of approx. 21% and 79% each.
The following shows the calculation process of the combustion air- and gas- flow rates regarding carbon
in the list, as well as regarding other components.
1 mol C + 1mol O2 = 1mol CO2
12 kgC + 32 kgO2 = 44 kgCO2
Necessary O2 for C 1kg is:
2.667
32
# 2.667 kg or
# 1.867 Nm 3
1.429
12
CO2 generation by combustion of C 1kg is:
44
3.667
# 3.667 kg or
# 1.867 Nm 3
12
1.977
The theoretical dry air flow rate of C 1kg is:
100
# 11.496 or
23.2
100
# 8.891Nm 3
1.867 0
21
2.667 0
N2 in C 1kg of the theoretical dry air is:

111
76.8
# 8.829 or
23.2
79
1.867 0
# 7.024 Nm 3
21
2.667 0
Theoretically generating combustion gas flow rate of C 1kg is:

CO2 + N2 = 3.667 + 8.829 = 12.496 kg
Or = 1.867 + 7.024 = 8.891Nm3
From the component combustion values shown in Table 2, the theoretical dry air flow rate (Ado) per kg is
represented in the following expression:
03
6
Ado # 11.50C % 34.54H " 1 % 4.31 & S
82
5
03
6
Ado' # 8.89 & C % 26.7 4H " 1 % 3.33 & S
82
5
(kg/kg)
(Nm3/kg)
Likewise, the theoretical dry gas flow rate (Gdo) is obtained by the following expression:
03
6
Gdo # 12.50C % 26.54H " 1 % 5.31S % N
82
5
(kg/kg)
or,
03
6
Gdo' # 8.89C % 21.14H " 1 % 3.33S % 0.80 N
82
5
(Nm3/kg)
Supposing that the moisture included in the burning air is Xa (absolute temperature, kg/kg and dry air),
the water vapor flow rate (Wa) is represented in the following expression:
Wa =Xa ! Ado (kg/kg)
or
Wa = 1.61Xa ! Ado (Nm3/kg)
The generating water vapor flow rate (Wf) by the combustion of moisture and hydrogen during burning is
represented in the following expression:
Wf = 9H + W (kg/kg)
or
Wf = 11.19H + 1.244W (Nm3/kg)
The theoretical wet gas flow rate (Gwo) by which the theoretical dry gas flow rate and the entire water
vapor flow rate are added up is obtained from the following expression:
Gwo = Gdo + W + Wa (kg/kg)
or
Gwo = Gdo + Wf + Wa (Nm3/kg)
Supposing that the aforementioned air ratio (actual combustion air flow rate plus excess air/theoretical air
ratio) is m, the actual wet air flow rate (Aw) is represented in the following expression:
Aw = m(1 + Xa)Ao (kg/kg)
or
Aw = m(1+1.61Xa)Ao (Nm3/kg)
The actual dry gas flow rate (Gd) and wet gas flow rate (Gw) are obtained from the following expression:
Gd = Gdo + (m-1) ! Ado (kg/kg)
or
Gd = Gdo + (m-1) ! Ado (Nm3/kg)
Gw = Gd + Wf + m ! Wa (kg/kg)
or
Gw = Gd + Wf m ! Wa (Nm3/kg)
2. Exhaust gas component
As aforementioned, if O2 1mol is supplied to C 1mol, CO2 1mol is generated. However, if air is supplied,
exhaust gas consisting of 21% of CO2 and 79% of N2 generates if C is completely burned because the air
consists of 21% of O2 and 79% of N2 (volume ratio). Thus, if the fuel is C alone, the upper limit of CO2 in
the exhaust gas becomes 21% theoretically.
However, in fuel combustion, the exhaust gas component increases while the ratio of CO2 is relatively
smaller due to the other components (S, N, etc) or the excess air flow rate (O2, N2). In this case, the
theoretical CO2 content ratio (CO2max) and the actual CO2 content ratio are obtained by the following
expression. Here, CO is 0, and also what has been taken into account in the actual gas analysis (liquid
absorption method) is that SO2 gas is absorbed together with CO2 and quantified.
CO2max = (1.867C + 0.69S)/Gdo 0 100
(dry vol%)
CO2 = (1.867C + 0.69S)/Gdo 0 100
(dry vol%)
Also, the other composition in the actual burning gas is obtained from the following expression:
O2 = 21(m-1)Ado/Gd
(dry vol%)
N2 = (0.8N + 0.79m ! Ado)/Gd0100
(dry vol%)
112
H2O = (Gw-Gd)/Gw0100
(wet vol%)
N content (%: daf conversion)
2.6.2.3 Generation Mechanism of Nitrogen Oxide

As shown in previous Fig. 1, the pulverized coal burning area is divided into the primary combustion area,
where coal volatile matter is burned, and the secondary combustion areas, where mainly chars are burned. Each
area contains Thermal NOx (NOx which is defined in the Zeldvich mechanism), Prompt NOx (NOx, which is
oxidized after airborne nitrogen combines with hydrocarbon to become NHi compound, and then generates), and
Fuel NOx (NOx which generates by the oxidization of N in fuel). These NOx, which generate in the above
mentioned areas, have the potential to become an NHi compound and to be partially reduced to N2 under the
intervention of hydrocarbon in the insufficient oxygen area at the rear of the combustion area.
Australian G
coal
Japanese A
coal
Chinese D coal
Raw
coal
Reactor temperature ( C)
Fig. 6 Relation between the residual nitrogen content in chars and the primary reactor temperature
Symbol
Base condition
Coal
Japanese A coal Chinese D coal
Air ratio in the primary reactor = 0.41

Residual O2 = 3%
Reactor temperature (%)
Fig. 7 Relation between NOx generation amount and reactor temperature
Reactor temperature = 1,350 C

Air ratio in the primary reactor =
0.41
Residual O2 =3%
South African
coal
O1.56%N
Japanese B
coal
1.1%N
Japanese A
coal
1.09%N
Chinese D
coal
Australian
0.85%N
C coal
1.59%N
Fuel ratio (-)
113
Canadian F
coal
1.03%N
Fig. 8 Relation between NOx generation amount and coal properties

Japanese A coal
Residual O2 = 3%
Secondary reactor temperature =
1,350 C
0.41
Primary reactor temperature ( C)
Fig. 9 Relation between Nox generation amount and primary reactor temperature
Thus, the NOx generation characteristic of coal fuel, which includes much organic nitrogen, has an extremely
complex reaction pattern compared with conventional gas or oil fuel. In this section, we will consider the NOx
generation mechanism of fundamental pulverized-coal in the reactor pipe.
First, Fig. 6 shows the volatile matter of organic nitrogen included in coal and its content ratio to char.
According to this Fig., the organic nitrogen ratio included in carbonized char is almost the same as that in raw
coal. This means that both the volatile matter in coal and the char include organic nitrogen almost evenly. Also,
the following shows the investigation result of NOx generation characteristics when pulverized coal is burned in
the primary- and secondary combustion areas separately with two electric-heating-type magnetic reactive pipes
connected by a quartz joint.
Figure 7 shows the comparison of NOx generation amounts in these areas by using (Ar+O2) and (N2+O2) as
combustion carrier gas.
This difference in both areas can be considered to be Thermal NOx (Prompt NOx is included). From the figure,
it is considered that almost all generation is accounted for by Fuel NOx when the reactor temperature is below
1400 C while 25-30% is accounted for by Thermal NOx when the reactor temperature is 1600 C.
Figure 8 shows the comparison of NOx generation amounts when the type of coal is changed under the
primary- and secondary reactors temperature of 1350 C.
The relation between the type of coal and the NOx generation amount cannot be determined by the organic
nitrogen content alone in coal. Rather, it seems to be more understandable by the fuel ratio.
Figure 9 shows the relation between the primary reactor temperature and the NOx generation amount, where
the primary reactor air ratio is set to 0.41.
According to this figure, in the volatile matter burning area of the primary reactor, the higher the reactor
temperature, the lower the NOx generation amount. This phenomenon is seen only in an air-short reductive
atmosphere. Because, generally, the higher the temperature, the greater the volatile amount of carbon hydride and
organic nitrogen in coal, it is considered that when the actual air ratio in the burning area of the primary reactor
further decreases, the NOx generation amount will be lowered.
Japanese A coal
Residual O2 = 3%
Secondary reactor temperature =
1,350 C
0.41
Retention time (S) in primary reactor
Fig. 10 Relation between Nox generation amount and retention time in primary reactor
114
Symbo
l
Coal
Japanese A
coal
Char
Residual O2 = 3%
Reactor temperature = 1,350 C
Air ratio (-) in primary reactor
Fig. 11 Comparison of NOx generation amounts between coal and char

Figure 10 shows the variation of the NOx generation amount by setting the air ratio in the primary reactor to
0.41.
According to this, the longer the coal retention time in the volatile matter burning area of the primary reactor,
the lower the NOx generation amount. This is likely because the organic nitrogen gas (NH3, HCN) etc. generated
in the air-short volatile matter burning area is partially reduced to N2 due to the existence of unburned gas.
Figure 11 shows the relation between the NOx generation amount and the air ratio in the primary reactor.
According to this, the NOx generation amount is largely changed by the air ratio in the primary reactor.
2.6.3 Pulverized Coal Combustion Equipment

The pulverized coal combustion equipment mainly consists of a stoker, coal pulverizer (mill), pulverized-coal
pipe, pulverized-coal burner and furnace (these are fuel supply- and combustion equipment behind the bunker);
and of a primary draft fan (PAF) and air preheater (AH) (these are primary draft equipment).
The above equipments are described below:
2.6.3.1 Pulverized Coal Burning Method
The pulverized coal burning method generally employed is classified into two types: (1) according to the burner
arrangement and (2) according to the method of pulverized coal feed (direct/indirect).
(1) Classification according to burner arrangement
The combustion method is classified into the following according to the relation between the furnace and the
burner arrangement.
Figure 12 shows the combustion method according to the burner arrangement.
(Lateral side)
(4) Vertical
firing
(Surface side)
(Front side)
(Lateral side)
(1) Front firing (2) Opposed (3) Tangential

firing
firing
Fig. 12 Combustion methods according to burner arrangement

1. Horizontal firing (horizontal combustion)
The method, where burners are placed at the front or rear of the furnace wall, is called a front firing or rear
firing method, while the method, where burners are placed at both the front and rear sides of the walls, is
115
called an opposed firing method. In these methods, circling motions are given to combustion air to shorten
flames and the fuel and air are circulated and mixed, thereby forming high temperature flames.
2. Tangential corner firing
In this method, burners are placed at the four corners of the furnace, from which pulverized coal and air
are injected tangentially into a virtual circle in the center of the furnace. Each burner independently forms a
flame while the entire flame is swirling slowly in the furnace to form a single flame (fireball), featuring a
long flame trajectory and slow combustion.
Stack
Desulfurization
equipment
Regenerative
preheater
Induced draft fan

Electric dust
collector
Forced draft fan
Bunker
Secondary air
Steam air preheater
Stoker
Primary draft fan
Coal
pulverizer
Coal pulverizer
Seal air fan
Primary air
Fig. 13 Direct combustion method
3. Vertical firing (vertical combustion)

Burners are installed downward from the ceiling of the lower furnace, where pulverized coal and air are
injected downward once, but the flames flow upward while burning. Since the frame trajectory adopts a
U-shape, it is also called U-firing. In this method, because the combustion time can be longer and the
radiation from flames is received at the burner, the burners heat load becomes larger, and because the
pulverized coal injection speed can be lowered, the combustibility and ignitability are better. This is
generally suitable for coal such as anthracite whose combustibility is poor.
(2) Classification According to Pulverized Coal Feed Method

The pulverized coal burning system is classified into the following according to the difference in pulverized
coal feed methods:
(1) Direct combustion method (direct system)
(2) Storing combustion method (bin system)
The direct combustion system, which has had rich achievements, has generally been employed as a standard of
boilers for bituminous coal with high volatile matter.
On the other hand, the bin system has been employed since long ago for the purpose of combustion
improvement in boilers for anthracite coal with low volatile matter of approx. 15% or less. Each method has the
following characteristics:
1. System of combustion method
In the case of the direct combustion method (Fig.13), coal from the bunker is flow-controlled and fed to
the mill by the stoker. Next, the pulverized coal, which has been ground in the mill and dried, is directly
transferred and fed to the burner by the primary air through the pulverized-coal pipe. Hence, the fuel
system and arrangement after the mill are simple.
Though, in the case of the bin system there are various patterns, this example (Fig.14) shows the system
which uses exhaust gas for transferring and drying pulverized coal in the mill.
The bin system is fundamentally different from the direct combustion method in terms of the system after
the mill, and is more or less complex, having more devices. To dry pulverized coal in the mill, combusted
exhaust-gases taken from the entrance and exit of the air preheater are utilized, and each amount of the
116
gases is adjusted so that they reach the necessary temperature at the mill entrance.
The gas-mixed pulverized coal from the mill is separated into pulverized coal and exhaust gas when it
passes through the cyclone (primary) and the bag filter (secondary). The pulverized coal captured here is
stored in the bin while the exhaust gas is returned to the air preheater exit by the exhaust fan.
The pulverized coal is transferred by the pulverized-coal stoker from the bin to the burner entrance, where
it is blended with the primary air and fed into the burner.
2. Operability
In the direct combustion method, the mill operation and burner operation are directly interlocked, and the
load operation is restricted both by the mill operation (the minimum mill load and the dynamics including
mill startup) and by the combustibility at the burner.
Bag filter
Bunker
Stoker
Exhaust fan
Screw conveyor
Desulfurization
equipment
Cyclone
Stack
Induced draft
fan
Coal
pulverizer
Regenerative
air preheater
Pulverized-coal
bin
Stoker
Electric dust
collector
Forced draft facfan

Steam air preheater
Distributor
Secondary air
Primary air
Primary draft fan
Fig. 14 Bin system for pulverized coal
In the bin system, coal grinding and drying in the mill and combustion at the burner can be separated, so
there is no operation restriction by the mill in terms of the load operation, but the combustion alone at the
burner is restricted. This is a little more advantageous than the direct combustion method.
3. Combustibility
In the direct combustion method, when a mill load is low, the air/fuel ratio becomes larger as the load is
lowered, thereby combustibility is apt to worsen.
In the bin system, as aforementioned, grinding and drying in the mill and the pulverized coal input to the
burner can be independently operated (however, within the bins capacity), and the coal moisture
evaporated in the mill is discharged outside the system. Therefore, the burner can ensure the optimal, dried
primary air/ratio with high to low load. This is especially much better for combustibility with a low load
than in the direct combustion method. However, the direct combustion method can also maintain
combustibility equivalent to that in the bin system by employing a high turndown burner (where an
air-pulverized coal mixture is separated into thick and thin types to burn).
4. Maintainability
In the direct combustion method, the greater the number of mills, the more frequent the maintenance and
services of the mills, but it is possible to schedule the intervals of maintenance and services by installing
backup mills.
In the bin system, the mills maintenance and services become easier because the number of mills can be
reduced. And mills can be halted for a short time (depending on the bin capacity), during which
maintenance is possible. However, the frequency of maintenance and services for other devices (a cyclone,
bag filter, exhaust fan, etc) increases.
5. Safety
In the direct combustion method, special safety measures are not needed because there is no pulverized
117
coal storage, whereas in the bin system, strict safety measures (sealing the bin by inert gas, installing
electrostatic, explosion-proof-type explosion doors, enhancing monitor systems, arranging fire
extinguishing equipment, etc.) are required in order to prevent pulverized coal in the bin from sparking and
exploding.
2.6.3.2 Furnace
Furnaces must fulfill certain functions: to convert the chemical energy of fuel into thermal energy effectively,
that is to say, to have combustion equipment (a chamber) to burn fuel completely; and to let the internal can-water
absorb generated heat through the surrounding water pipes. For these purposes, furnaces must be equipped with
the proper type and quantity of burners according to the fuel, and have the appropriate shape and space to
completely burn fuel, as well as the structure to withstand the thermal load.
Typical
bituminous coal
Heavy oil
Gas
Fig. 15 Conceptual comparison of fuel and furnace size

Especially, because the coal (pulverized coal) combustibility is fairly inferior to that of other fuels (heavy oil,
gas, etc.), a larger sized chamber (furnace) is required. The furnace size must be selected by taking into account
the combustibility and also the slagging characteristic of coal (ash adherence to the furnace).
Figure 15 shows the comparison between the type of fuel and furnace size.
As shown in the comparison between the type of coal (coal rank) and furnace size in Fig. 16, the furnace size
varies largely with the type of coal. The difference in some furnaces is larger than that in fuels (typical bituminous
coal and heavy oil).
For recent furnace walls, a welded wall structure, where both pipes are welded by a fin or a weld metal to
ensure air tightness of the furnace, has been employed to decrease heat losses and repair costs.
2.6.3.3 Pulverized Coal Burner

The coal combustion method generally employed is mainly classified into two types: the grate-type combustion
method in which coal is not ground; and the burner combustion method in which coal is pulverized into minute
grains by the coal pulverizer and float-fired in the air.
Though the former features relatively less power consumption and less flying ash, it is not suitable as
combustion equipment for large capacity boilers.
On the other hand, the latter uses pulverized-coal burners to feed pulverized coal into the furnace and burn it.
Compared with the grate-type combustion method, this has many advantages: (1) excess air is less and the
combustion efficiency is high, (2) adjustment of load and combustion is easier and ignition and extinguishing time
is shorter, (3) automatic control is easier, and (4) combustion by mixing with liquid- or gas fuel is easier.
118
Bituminous coal Semi-bituminous

with medium
coal with high
volatile matter
volatile matter
Brown coal
with low Na
Brown coal
with medium
Na
Brown coal
with High Na
Fig. 16 Conceptual comparison of coal rank and furnace size
Electrode
In the pulverized coal burner, a premixed airflow of both the pulverized coal ground by the pulverizer and the
primary air is injected into the furnace through a boxy or cylindrical nozzle, and from the vicinity of this nozzle,
the secondary air heated by the air preheater is blown in. The pulverized coal, which has been injected together
with the primary air, diffuses rapidly while slowing the speed after coming out of the nozzle, and is ignited and
burned while mixing with the secondary air from the outside by receiving radiant heat from the high-temperature
furnace wall and flames. The flow rate of the mixed gas of pulverized coal and primary air is set by taking into
account the flame velocity and the pulverized coal settling velocity.
Figures 17-19 show the structures of typical pulverized coal burners. The burners in Figs. 17 and 18 have been
designed so that the rotating device gives rotating motions to the mixed gas of pulverized coal and primary air.
The pulverized coal burner in Fig. 19, called a tangential tilting burner, has been designed so that the nozzle of
the burner tip moves up and down each at the angle of approx. 30 degrees to adjust steam temperature.
Either burner is usually equipped with an ignition burner in the center or the side.
The pulverized coal burner requires maintenance because the tip is especially apt to be deformed and damaged
by receiving radiant heat in the furnace and vulnerable to abrasion by pulverized coal. Therefore, recently new
techniques have been developed for durability improvement, such as lining the burner with material (made into a
tile form) - ceramic etc. with high heat and abrasion resistance -, or flame-spray coating the surface. Some of them
have been practically used.
Air adjustment handle
Ignition burner
Air cylinder
Pulverized coal
burner
Impeller
Transformer
Air cylinder
Heavy oil burner
Pulverized coal
entrance
Air register (circular type)
Inspection window
Fig. 17 Circular burner

In addition to the abovementioned durability, the following functions are required for pulverized coal burners:
(1) Low NOx combustibility
(2) High turndown
The background is: nowadays we must comply with strict environmental regulations; our country has been
importing coal from all over the world, hence we must deal with such various properties of foreign coal; the need
for coal-fired power as intermediate-load thermal power has been rising because nuclear power generation has
recently increased and the difference between the day and night power demands has increased.
Next, a representative low NOx burner is described below:
119
Figure 20 shows the structure of a DF inter-vane pulverized coal burner.

The secondary air is supplied toward the burner throat through two independent channels so that flames are
stabilized and the mixture of fuel and secondary air can be adjusted. The circular nozzle, from which fuel is
injected, consists of an outer casing and a combustion liner. Each end of the nozzle is narrowed down so that the
fuel concentrates on the center of the axis. The end of the combustion liner can be moved toward the axis, thereby
adjusting the mixture of fuel and secondary air.
Figure 21 shows the structure of the NR burner.
The pulverized-coal nozzle is placed in the center of the burner. On the concentric circle of the outer periphery,
a cylindrical nozzle is mounted to supply inner-peripheral burning-air. Furthermore, outside of this, a
burning-air-rotating device is installed to adjust outer-peripheral burning-air. Around the periphery of the
pulverized-coal nozzle tip, a ceramic-made flame-stabilizer ring is mounted so that minute vortices can be
generated in the pulverized coal flow, enabling quick ignition of the pulverized coal, and stabilizing
high-temperature reduction flames of excess fuel.
Shroud ring
Pulverized-coal
outer casing
Pulverized-coal
combustion liner
Oil burner
Tertiary damper
Front
plate
Tertiary air pipe
Vane support
plate
Vane
Fig. 18 Inter-vane type burner
Secondary air
(heavy oil burner)
Pulverized coal +
primary air
Secondary air
(heavy oil burner)
Fig. 19 Tangential tilting burner

Figure 22 shows a pulverized coal PM burner.
This burner utilizes the characteristic that NOx generating during pulverized-coal combustion decreases at both
the thick/thin pulverized-coal density sides after the primary air/coal weight ratio reaches 3-4. That is to say, by
installing a distributor at the burner entrance, the air-fuel mixture, whose usual primary-air/coal weight ratio is 2-3,
is divided into the higher and lower mixtures of the pulverized coal density, and is fed into the furnace through
separate nozzles and burned so that NOx becomes lowest.
The high-turndown burner, in principle, divides the air-fuel mixture of pulverized coal into thick and thin
120
mixtures. Though with common burners, the pulverized coal density becomes lower and the ignition stability
worsens when the burner load is lower, this high-turndown burner maintains better ignition stability with this thick
mixture even when the burner load is low.
Primary air + pulverized coal
Burner tile cooling air

Separate plate
Moving
combustion
liner
Combustion liner
driving device
Heavy oil entrance
Pitot tube
Primary air + pulverized coal
Combustion
liner
Flow divider
Heavy oil burner
Inner secondary air

Outer secondary air
Purge air connection inlet

Outer
casing
Secondary-air vane
opening/closing device
Inner-vane
Tertiary air damper
Heat sealed plate
Furnace front
wall and furnace
wall pipe
Secondary-air vane
Inner-vane opening/closing device
Secondary air
Tertiary air pipe

Pulverized coal entrance manifold
Heat pipe
Fig. 20 DF inter-vane pulverized coal burner

Figures 23 and 24 show high-turndown burners. The aforementioned PM is also a high-turndown burner.
The burner in Fig. 23 is called a split burner. The burner body has a diaphragm and the nozzle tip has a deflector.
When a primary-air-fuel mixture flows through the bend section of the burner entrance, the high mixture (bend
outer-periphery side) and the low mixture (inner-periphery side) of the pulverized coal density are divided by the
centrifugal force of the pulverized coal.
High-performance
combustion-air circling path
Pilot torch
Flame stabilizing
ring
(with ceramic parts)
Guide sleeve
Pulverized coal +
primary air
Inner-periphery
combustion air
Outer-periphery
combustion air
Fig. 21 NR burner
121
Fig. 22
Pulverized coal PM
burner
Burner front side
Burner side face
Variable separator
Coal nozzle tip

Horizontal diaphragm
Coal nozzle
Seal plate
Entrance
elbow
Thick mixture
Thin mixture
No kicker
block
Fig. 23 Split burner
122
Pulverized coal entrance

(primary air)
(1)
High load position
Low load position
Low load position
High load
position
(2)
(3)
(6)
(5)
(4)
(7)
(9)
(8)
Tertiary air
Secondary air
(1) Split damper (2) Traverse-mounted cyclone (3) Cyclone

exit damper (4) Pilot torch (5) Swirler (6) Burner nozzle (7) Oil
burner (8) Tertiary damper (9) Low load nozzle
Fig. 24 Wide-range burner

In the wide-range burner in Fig.24, the traverse-mounted separator on the burner entrance separates the
pulverized coal flow into high-density and low-density.
Mill outlet damper
Classifier
Oil pressure
load equipment
Separator body
Separator
Body liner
Roll
Pull ring
segment
Fig. 25 Bowl mill
2.6.3.4 Coal Pulverizer (hereafter referred to as mill)

The coal pulverizer is the most important equipment to govern the operability and reliability of coal burning
boilers. Therefore, an optimum mill type must be selected from the comprehensive viewpoint according to the
coal properties and the operation conditions. The mills are classified broadly according to the grinding method,
structure, and draft method. As far as the mills used in thermal power stations are concerned, they can be
classified into the following:
(1) Upright mill
123
(2) Hammer mill and beater wheel mill

Upright mills are suitable for bituminous coal, semi-bituminous coal and part of brown coal; tube mills and
beater wheel mills are used for high-ash content coal; and hammer mills are used for high-moisture brown coal.
Nowadays, domestic coal burning boilers mainly use an upright mill for the following reasons:
1) It can be used for broad types of coal and is suitable for bituminous and semi-bituminous coal burned in
domestic boilers.
2) It needs low consumption power.
3) It is easy to adjust the pulverization degree and start/stop, and excellent in load responsiveness.
4) Necessary floor space is smaller and noise is smaller.
(1) Upright Mill
1. Structure
Figures 25-29 show the structures of various types of upright mills.
The upright mills mainly consist of a reducer section, grinding and drying section, and coarse grain separator
section.
Raw coal
Pulverized coal
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Hot air
entrance
(1) Pulverized-coal pipe (2) Vane driving equipment

(3) Coarse-grain separator vane (4) Reject shoot
(5) Stoker pipe (6) Grinding roller (three pieces)
(7) Roller pressurizer (8) Air port ring
(9) Table segment (10) Grinding table
(11) Foreign substance discharge scraper
(12) Foreign substance discharge hole (13)Reducer
Fig. 26 Upright MBF mill: drawing of whole assembly

Coal, which is fed from the stoker through the stoker pipe positioned in the center of the mill, falls into the
rotating bowl (table), and is spread by centrifugal force, forming a coal layer. This coal layer is inserted between
the roll and the segment liner on the bowl (table), and ground by the roll with the grinding load applied to the roll
by the loading device.
The pulverized coal is blown up by hot air, which is fed by the periphery of the grinding section, and classified
by the upper classifier while being dried. There are two types of classifiers: a fixed type cyclone separator and a
rotary separator. Nowadays, the rotary separator (Fig. 29) is often used because of high combustion efficiency and
energy saving. This provides a high pulverization degree of more than 90% by 200-mesh passing.
The foreign substances and pyrite mixed in coal fall from the air blow section to beneath the bowl, and are
discharged by the scraper into the pyrite hopper through the pyrite discharge pipe.
124
Coal
entrance
Primary air
inlet
Supply
and drain
water
Fig. 27 Cross-sectional view of large scale E mill

Mill exit stop-valve
Stoker pipe entrance section
Mill upper
housing
Coarse grain
separator
(classifier)
Upper-housing
disassembling
support leg
Sealing air piping
Loading rod
seal
Pressure frame
Grinding
-roller
ring seat
cover
Loading rod
Grinding ring
Spring frame
Spring
Mill intermediate
housing
Throat ring
Lower housing
Ring seat
Pyrite
blow
Yoke
Primary air inlet
Pyrite box
Yoke
seal air
Gear box
Pressure
cylinder
Fig. 28
Nowadays, coal burning boilers have often employed pressure mills whose abrasive exhausters need not be
repaired. For these mills, seal air is supplied to prevent pulverized coal leak. Also as a measure to prevent coal
blockage in the stoker pipe, a rotary-type pipe is mounted.
125
Raw coal
Stoker pipe
Classifier driving
equipment
Outlet port
Rotary type classifier
Hydraulic
loading device
Hot-air inlet
duct
Pull ring
segment
Bowl
Fig. 29 MRS type bowl mill
2. Operation and maintenance

The operation of upright mills is simple and start/stop operation can be completely automated.
Also, the wide range of the mill operation load adjustment is important for coal boiler operability.
The upright mill is available for 40-50% turndown, but recently some types of upright mills have become
available for high-turndown operation up to 30% or less.
For mills operation, the maintenance of abrasive parts is also extremely important. So, studies have been
conducted to develop abrasion-resistant materials and to simplify the replacement of roll rings, liners, etc. As for
the material of rolls, in addition to conventional abrasion-resistant cast iron, curing cladding-welding material
with several times abrasion-resistance of cast iron has also been used.
Because the life of the grinding section varies with the coal properties and the operation conditions, etc, it is
necessary to measure periodically the abrasion depth of the rolls or segments of each plant and to schedule the
intervals of replacement. Generally, rolls/rings/liners replacement is conducted in such a manner that one unit of
extra mill per boiler is installed, and maintenance intervals are set, and each mill is maintained sequentially.
Fig. 30 Tube mill
126
Fig. 31 Structure of horizontal-type bowl mill

Pulverized coal + gas mixture
Hot gas + coal
Pulverizer housing
Pulverizer wheel
Hot air (for sealing)
Coal pulverizer
gate mill gage
Abrasion-resistant
plate
Primary grinder
Bearing Driving machine
Fig.32 Beater wheel mill

(2) Hammer mill and beater wheel mill
The hammer mill is a machine that smashes coal with the beating impacts of many hammers or heads rotated at
high-speed. This is used for inferior coal (high moisture coal, brown coal) or to grind coal coarsely. (Fig.32)
Many hammer mills have been used for brown-coal burning boilers in Europe and Australia, but our country
has no application example.
2.6.3.5 Stoker
The stoker is equipment which plays an essential role to determine the combustion rate corresponding to the
load variation and maintain the optimum air/fuel ratio in the coal combustion system.
The most important point when selecting a stoker is that it feeds the correct amount of coal into the pulverizer
from the bunker or silo smoothly and uniformly according to the fuel demand signals.
The following are the types and characteristics of stokers commonly used for pulverized coal boilers.
(1) Belt-type volumetric feeder
This stoker, using rubber belts, has a stable feeding capacity because coal is cut out equally in width and height.
With little interruption of coal feeding and good maintainability, this is generally used for pulverized coal
combustion equipment. Since this is a volume-control type, the coal weight sometimes varies according to the
coal density variation.
127
(2) Belt-type gravimetric feeder

Figure 33 shows the structure of the belt-type gravimetric feeder.
This is a belt-type stoker equipped with a measuring mechanism with a load cell. Because the fuel demand can
be met based on the coal weight and the feeding is exact and stable, the fuel variation caused by the coal density is
compensated.
Thus, because the fuel is correctly controlled and the weight and flow measurements are highly accurate and
maintainability is also excellent, this is suitable for sophisticated plant control with a calculator.
Entrance door
Coal entrance
(from bunker)
2.6.3.6 Primary Draft Equipment

In the direct combustion method, the primary air is used for not only burning pulverized coal, but also drying
and transferring it to the burner in the mill.
In the primary draft system, the primary draft fan (PAF) is placed in two methods relative to the air preheater
(AH) according to the air temperature: a Cold Primary Air Fan method (PAF is installed upstream of the AH,
dealing with cold air) and a Hot Primary Air Fan method (PAF is installed downstream of the AH in the upstream
of the mill, dealing with hot air).
Figure 34 shows the comparison among these circuits.
(1) Comparison between Cold PAF and Hot PAF methods
1. PAF capacity
Cold PAF has a capacity to deal with a primary air flow rate of all mills by one to two PAFs (depending on the
number of draft circuits) regardless of the number of mills.
End plate
Downspout
Dresser coupling
Measuring span roller

Measuring module
Puddle switch for on-belt coal
shortage monitor
Measuring
Illuminating lamp
Head pulley
roller
Entrance gate
(fixed type)
Measuring span
Exit door
Cleaning conveyor
Seal air manifold
Belt take-up adjust screw
Cell preening
take-up pulley
Cleaning conveyor
chain take-up
Support roller
Tension pulley
Coal exit
(to mill)
Belt scraper
Cleaning-conveyor
chain sprocket
Fig. 33 Belt-type gravimetric feeder

On the other hand, Hot PAF is installed in the one PAF - one mill base and the capacity is one mills worth of
the primary air amount, so the same number of units as that of mills is required.
Comparing the total capacities (power) of each method, the Hot PAF method, which deals with hot air, has
larger capacity.
2. AH type
In the Cold PAF method, the air pressure in the primary air circuit is higher than that in the secondary air circuit,
so the AH flow path must be divided into two: for the primary and for the secondary.
The AH is mainly classified into two: an integrated type and a separate type, as shown in Fig. 35. For common
pulverized coal burning boilers, the integrated AH type is often employed because the duct and AH placement
become simpler and the necessary space is smaller.
In the Hot PAF method, the air pressure in the primary air circuit is lower than that in the secondary circuit, so
the AH flow path need not be separated for the primary and the secondary. Figure 34 shows a standard type of AH,
through which the total air flow rate of the primary and secondary air circuits passes AH and then the primary hot
air diverges to be absorbed by PAF.
128
3. Operation power
Cold PAF method
Hot PAF method

Mill
Mill
Control
damper
Secondary air
Combustion
gas
Primary hot
air
Primary cold air
Combustion
gas
Secondary air
Primary cold air
Primary hot air
Control
damper
Fig. 34 Comparison of PAF systems

When operated with high load using many mills, the Cold PAF method has high fan efficiency because fewer
PAFs deal with the primary air flow rate necessary for the operation of all moving mills, and the power
consumption is smaller than that of Hot PAF since cold air is dealt with.
On the contrary, when operated with low load using fewer mills, the Hot PAF method consumes smaller power
in total than that of the Cold PAF method (if the Cold PAF efficiency drops notably with low load) because the
idling mills PAFs can be stopped and the fan efficiency of the moving PAFs is as high as that during high load
operation with the high mill load.
4. Operability
Integrated type
Separate type
Twin flow type
Tri-sector type
System
From boiler
To mill
To boiler
To boiler
Outer
Inner
periphery periphery
From
PAF
From FDF
From boiler
From boiler
To
To boiler mill
From
FDF
From
PAF
From IDF
From IDF
Three-
From
FDF
To
mill
way
split
From
PAF
From IDF
Secondary air
Secondary air
Gas
Gas
Gas
Gas
Gas
Primary air
Gas
Primary air
Primary air
temperature
control
Duct work
Secondary
Gas
air
Primary air
Distribution adjustment of gas flow Distribution adjustment of gas flow

Positive- and inverse rotations
rate to primary- and secondary AHs rate to primary- and secondary air
are available and large change
can be available
sides can be available
alone is possible
Slightly complex
Relatively simple
Construction cost, power

cost and air leak amount
Relatively simple
Almost same
Fig. 35 Comparison of AH types in Cold PAF method

When the mill load and moisture in coal are changed, the necessary temperature at the mill entrance is changed.
The Hot PAF is affected directly by this temperature change and its operation point changes. However, the Cold
PAF is always constant in cold air. Even when necessary temperature at the mill entrance is changed (a change in
the ratio of hot air to cold air), the Cold PAF is less affected by air volume and air pressure fluctuation, and easily
controlled.
129
5. Economic efficiency
As for equipment cost, AH is higher and PAF is lower in the Cold PAF method than in the Hot PAF method, but
these cannot simply be compared because, as a matter of fact, they largely vary with equipment arrangement, duct
work, etc. As for operation power, the efficiency is reversed depending on the operation load area, as
aforementioned, so it is necessary to estimate the economic effect comprehensively, including operation patterns,
to decide the path to be taken.
Generally speaking, high-capacity, exclusive coal-combustion boilers often employ the Cold PAF method while
small-capacity boilers with fewer mills or co-combustion boilers often employ the Hot PAF method.
(2) PAF placement and type
In the Cold PAF method, there are two ways to place PAF: in series with FDF or in parallel with FDF. The
comparison between them is shown in Table 4.
Regarding the PAF types, a centrifugal type has traditionally been used because the air pressure required by
PAF is high and flat across the entire area as shown in Fig. 36 and because the conventional axial-flow fans could
not be enlarged or improved in performance to prevent surging.
Nowadays, the axial-flow fans have been improved against surging characteristics, and some of them have been
provided with a casing treatment suitable for the rotating-blade tips to enhance the fan efficiency.
2.6.3.7 Bunker
The design of bunkers must be fully considered so that they do not cause coal retention or blockage because
such bunker problems are crucial issues causing a load decrease or unit trip in the power stations.
(1) Design of bunker
1. Capacity
The bunker capacity is determined by the following expressions:
The coal amount stored within an available feeding time is:
Vc #
QT
7
Hence, the bunker capacity becomes V #
Vc
(8 / 100)
However, V: bunker capacity (m3)

Vc: storage capacity (m3)
Q: feeding capacity (conveyor capacity) (t/h)
T: available feeding time (h)
!: coal volume specific gravity (foreign coal generally has approx. 0.8) (t/m3)
8: volumetric efficiency (the ratio of storage capacity to bunker capacity is generally 0.6-1.0)
(%)
Table 4 Comparison between PAF layouts
System type
PAF-FDF series configuration
PAF/FDF parallel configuration
System structure
Boiler
Fundamental characteristics
Selection criterion
Mill
Boiler
Mill
FDF air flow rate is larger but PAF air FDF air flow rate decreases by the
amount of PAF air flow rate compared
pressure decreases by the amount of
FDF discharged air pressure compared with the method described at left.
with the method described at right.
The method with a higher economic effect should be employed by taking into
account the characteristics of primary- and secondary air flow rates and air
pressure required by the pulverized coal combustion equipment as well as the
characteristics of fans (varies with the types).
130
2. Bunker shape
Generally, there are two types of bunkers: a conical shape and a pyramidal shape. They are almost the same in
flow characteristics in a bunker, but the conical shape is excellent in the space-occupation rate while the pyramidal
shape is excellent in strength.
3. Inclination angle of hopper wall face
In order for coal to assume an arch shape and not to cause blockage in the bunker, the arch bending moment
must be large. Because the arch bending moment is proportional to the squared distance between the fulcrums and
to the load applied to the arch, the cross-sectional area of the exit and the inclination angle of the wall face must
be more or less large. Generally, an angle of more than 70 degrees has been employed.
Air pressure H (mmH2O)
Characteristic of
conventional type PAF
(large type)
(With casing
treatment)
Improved
type
Necessary Q-H characteristic
Conventional type PAF (without casing treatment)
Air flow rate Q (m /min.)
Fig. 36 PAF characteristic improvement provided with casing treatment
4. Bunker exit
Though the bunker exit is restricted by the diameter of the downspout or the stoker, the larger the bunker exit,
the better blockage prevention. There is a method to enlarge the cross-sectional area of the main bunker exit by
installing a sub-bunker under the bunker.
5. Material
Almost all bunkers are made of steel plates. The bunker exit, where blockage is most apt to occur, is usually
provided with a lining of high corrosion resistant stainless steel or polymeric synthetic resin. Also, Gunite is
sometimes used as a lining material on the vertical section by taking into account the resistance to abrasion.
Adhesive coal
Non adhesive
coal
Plug flow
(core flow)
Mass flow
Fig. 37 Plug flow and mass flow
(2) Flow form and the determination factors

There are two types of coal flow forms: a plug flow (core flow) and a mass flow.
In the plug flow, as shown in Fig.37, the coal near the bunker wall does not move but the coal in or around the
center only flows out. On the contrary, in the mass flow, the coal in the bunker gradually flows out from the lower
position of the bunker.
131
Therefore, the mass flow does not retain coal for a long time in the bunker, but the plug flow always retains
coal in the lower position in the bunker.
The flow form is mainly determined by the following factors:
1. Type of coal
Adhesive coal is apt to take the plug flow pattern, causing blockage.
2. Inclination angle of hopper wall face
It is confirmed by the experiments that if the inclination angle of the wall face exceeds 65-70 degrees, the
flow separates into a mass flow and a plug flow.
3. Material for bunker inner face
When corrosion-prone material, such as steel plates, is used for a bunker inner face, corroded portions cause
an adherence phenomenon, resulting in the retention or blockage of coal. Hence, corrosion resistant material is
usually used: the inner face is often provided with a lining of high corrosion resistant stainless steel or
polymeric synthetic resin to prevent corrosion.
(3) Coal properties and blockage
1. Repose angle
Moisture (%)
Bunker discharge flow-rate per

3
cross-sectional area of the exit (gkm s)
Repose angle
(degree)
The larger the coal grains the more often blockage occurs. The coal flow is affected by grain size distribution,
ash and clay contents and moisture as mentioned below (Fig. 38).
Repose angle (degree)
Fig. 38 Repose angle and blockage
2. Grain size distribution

The finer the grains, the more blockage is apt to occur, though slightly different according to the moisture
content.
3. Ash and clay contents
Ash and clay contents are no problem if their surface moisture is slight. But if it is large, adherence occurs,
resulting in blockage.
4. Moisture
Moisture (especially surface moisture) is a crucial factor. The smaller the grain, the larger the influence, and
10-15% moisture has the highest possibility of causing blockage. However, when exceeding this rate, on the
contrary, adhesiveness decreases. This means that when moisture is slight, it exists as a film over a grain surface,
causing surface friction among coal grains, whereas when moisture increases, this film breaks, developing
lubricating action.
(4) Blockage prevention measures
As aforementioned, blockage can be significantly prevented by bunker specifications by considering the coal
flow- and hopper discharge characteristics, but the following methods are also effective for blockage:
(1) Blending coal
(2) Installing a corner plate
(3) Providing a poking hole and a hammering seat
(4) Installing an air-blaster
(5) Installing a vibrator
132
2.7 Examples for the Operation of Soot Blowers
Reduction of Steam Volume by Revising the Operation of

Low Load Soot Blowers in Tsuruga Thermal Power Plant
The Sun
Shift C
Power Generation Environment
Section
Tsuruga Thermal Power Plant
Hokuriku Electric Power Co., Ltd.
Keywords: radiation, prevention of thermal loss due to thermal conduction

Outline of the Theme
Rapid surges electric load are frequently observed early in the morning at coal thermal power plants. For
Unit 1 of Tsuruga Thermal Power Plant, when an electric load range of less than 250 MW continued for 8
hours or more, all soot blowers were activated to uplift the electric load. In this project, an examination was
to determine which soot blowers should be turned on to improve the soot blower operations and maintain the
electric load the volume of steam at appropriate levels.
Period of the Study
(April 2001 March 2003)
Planning: 6 months
(April September 2001)
Measures Taken: 12 months
(October 2001 September 2002)
Assessment of Results: 6 months
(October 2002 March 2003)
Outline of Tsuruga Thermal Power Plant
Production: Electricity (Unit 1: 500 MW, Unit 2: 700 MW)
Employees: 107
Annual consumption of energy (as of FY2002)
Coal: 2,294,398 (ton)
Heavy Oil: 3,355 (kl)
Outline of the Facility
High temperature
reheated steam pipe
Detailed drawing
of the boiler
Superheater
Turbine
Reheater
Main steam pipe
WW3 level
WW2 level
Generator
WW1 level
Condenser
Low temperature
reheated steam pipe
Boiler
Soot blower
Water feed
pump
Main water feed pipe
Fig. 1: Outline of the Facility
133
1. Background of the Theme Selection

There is a growing gap in electricity consumption between daytime and nighttime. Even in coal thermal
power plants, electric load adjustment is frequently performed excluding the high electric load time. In Unit
1 of Tsuruga Thermal Power Plant, all soot blowers set up in the plant used to be turned on to uplift the
power from the low electric load range to the high electric load range to compensate for the gap in the
electric demand. Before doing so, the unit was subject to be in low electric load operation for 2 hours and
45 minutes before starting the blowers. The way the soot blowers are used is subject to a revision in this
project to smoothen the shift from the low electric load to the high electric load range, to minimize the
transition time of electric load restriction and to lower the volume of steam consumed.
2. Current Conditions and Analysis

(1) Current Conditions
a. Aim and Type of Soot Blowers
Coal contains 10% ash, and combustion of coal generates even more ash. When the ash is deposited in the
steam pipe, the heat transfer performance decreases. The thicker the ash layer on the pipe, the greater the
heat transfer performance deteriorates causing a decrease in steam temperature. The ash layer is not
uniformly distributed throughout the pipe, but attaches in a random manner on the inner wall of the pipe.
This causes difference in temperature of the metal surface of the pipe, increases thermal stress and may
damage to the pipe. In order to remove the ash, a soot blower is used. As shown in Fig. 2 and 3, a lance
tube rotates and moves forward driven by a motor and injects high pressure steam from the nozzle attached to
it to clean the thermal transfer surface of the boiler.
Steam pipe
Swivel tube
Motor
Steam
Steam
valve
Ash (deposits)
Fig. 2 Appearance of a Furnace Soot Blower

Motor
Furnace
Ash (deposits)
Lance tube
Steam valve
Fig. 3: Appearance of a Long Soot Blower

Table 1 shows the types of soot blowers. The blowers are installed as shown in Fig. 1 considering the
balance of collecting thermal energy by the boiler.
Type
Furnace soot
blower
Furnace (WW)
Superheater (SH)
Reheater (RH)
Rear thermal
transmission part
Air preheater
Total
Long soot
blower
Table 1: Types of Soot Blowers

Nos. of
Moving
Units
distance
R.P.M.
Steam
consumption
290(mm)
1.0(rpm)
35.5(kg/pc.)
7,950(mm)
16.9(rpm)
656.5(kg/pc.)
2,540(mm)
7,300(kg/pc.)
24,240(kg)
54
16
10
8
2
90
134
b. Operation of Soot Blowers
Soot blowing
Increase of metal
surface temperature
Increase of coal
consumption
Decrease of thermal
transmission
performance
Attachment of ash
to the thermal
transmission surfaces
Combustion of coal
Figures 4, 5 and 6 show the process of operating a soot blower, rotation mode and the relationship between
the stain indicator and the soot blower respectively. In the high electric load range (250 MW or above), the
stain indicator is calculated to express the condition of ash deposited onto the thermal transfer surface, to
automatically operate the soot blower to the ash deposit areas only. However, in the low electric load range
(less than 250 MW), the stain indicator calculation is unreliable, necessitating operation of all soot blowers,
otherwise ash cannot be removed completely from all the areas of the thermal transmission area, causing
temperature surge of the metal surfaces and widened difference in the internal wall temperature of the
furnace.
Fig. 4: Process of Soot Blowing
"Operation Mode"
"Soot Blower to be Operated"

Soot Blower Start Graph
Start
Stop
Sequence Control
All units
Automatic
Combustion Control
Area of ash deposits (of over

and above the designated stain
indicator level)
Load of 250 MW or above
Fig. 5: Operation Mode of Soot Blowers
Stain Indicator Graph
Fig. 6: Soot Blower and Stain Indicators
(2) Analysis of the Current Conditions
The ranges in which soot

blowing is prohibited
Generator Output (MW)
In the electric load range shown in Fig. 7, the thermal collection performance of the furnace is not balanced.
If a soot blower is used, the boiler is subject to a disturbance and hence, the areas for which soot blowing is
prohibited are designated. If the low electric load condition continues for 8 hours or more after all soot
blowers are operated before decreasing the electric load to the low electric load area, the thermal
transmission surface is stained with uneven distribution of ash deposits. Thus, the duration of 2 hours and
45 minutes is set during which the low electric load condition is maintained, and, after 2 hours and 45
minutes, soot blowing is conducted using all soot blowers. (See Fig. 8)
Fig. 7: Soot Blowing Prohibition Zones
135
Starts all
soot blowers
Starts all
soot blowers
8 hours or more
2 hours and
45 minutes
Fig.8: Timing of Soot Blowing
3. Progress of Actions
(1) Organization
At Tsuruga Thermal Power Plant, decreasing the power generation cost and enhancing the reliability of the
power generation facilities prioritized. In line with this policy, a series of actions was implemented to
further decrease the power generation cost.
(2) Setting Targets

When an electric load is uplifted by starting soot blowers at a constant electric load of 125 MW after
confirming that the low electric load range of less than 250 MW continues for 8 hours or more, which soot
blowers should be used is determined to reduce the number of soot blowers to be used for removing ash and
hence to reduce steam consumption. The reduction target is set for each group of furnaces, superheaters and
reheaters by considering the balance of thermal collection performance.
Target steam consumption: 8,500 kg/time
(reduction of 65%)
Current steam consumption: 24,240 kg/time
(3) Challenges and Examinations

Coal thermal power plants use various types of coal to generate electricity.
The degree of ash deposited
and combustion performance greatly vary from coal-to-coal. An important indicator for determining the
combustion performance of coal includes the combustion ratio, which is expressed by the ratio of fixed
carbon and volatile matter content.
Combustion ratio = Fixed carbon/Volatile matter content
Coals are categorized in terms of the combustion ratio to examine the part where soot blowing should be
conducted.
Coal
Highly combustible coal
Table 2: Combustibility of Coal

Combustibility
Ash content
Low
High
SH and RH sides
SH/RH side
Standard coal
Low combustible coal
High
Low
Furnace side
4. Measures Taken
(1) Selection of Soot Blower Group
After considering the coal categories and combustibility shown in Table 2, a soot blower operation test was
conducted to two patterns as shown in Fig. 9 and 10.
[Pattern 1]
Test Group 1: (A), (E) and (C)

Test Group 2: (C), (D) and (F)
[Pattern 2]
Test Group 3: (A), (B) and (C)
? WW3 level
WW3 level
WW2 level
WW2 level
WW1 level
WW1 level
Fig. 9: Soot Blower Operation Pattern 1
Fig. 10: Soot Blower Operation Pattern 2
The coal shown in Table 3 was used as the representative coal categorized by the combustion ratio and the
test was conducted on Test Group 1, 2 and 3 to determine the response of automatic control of the boiler
against a change in the electric load. In addition, refer to a Fig. 11 about Test Process.
136
Table 3: Representative Coal Categorized by Coal Type

Standard Coal
Test Group 1
Test Group 2
Test Group 3
Mora Coal (Mra)

Country of origin: Australia
Combustion ratio: 1.99
Hunter Valley Coal (HV)

Country of origin: Australia
Prima Coal
Country of origin: Indonesia
(2) Test Process
All soot blowers are started at the electric load of 250 MW or above before decreasing it.
After decreasing the electric load, the electric load of 250 MW or below is maintained for at least 8 hours,
and then the electric load of 125 MW is maintained for at least 4 hours.
Soot blowing of either Pattern 1 or 2.
The electric load is uplifted up to 360 MW.
- To reduce the electric load
retention time
- To reproduce stain condition of
the thermal transmission surface
under the low electric load range
Confirm the response

of automatic control of
boilers
Starts all
soot blowers
- Remove ash on the thermal

transmission surface
Maintain for at least 8 hours
Maintain for
at least 4 hours
Start a start blower of either

one of Test Group 1, 2 or 3.
Fig. 11: Test Process
(3) Criteria for Determining the Response of the Automatic Control of Boilers to the Shift of the Load
The temperature of the main steam must not deviate greatly from the set values along with the increase in
electric load.
The reheated steam temperature of which set values are subject to change along with the shift of the electric
load must not deviate greatly from the set values.
The difference of the internal wall temperature of the furnace must be within the controlled temperature of
150.
(4) Examination of the Location of Ash Attachment

Considering the characteristics of coal, ash is likely to attach to the locations shown in Fig. 12. In the low
electric load zone, air tends to be excessively supplied and combustibility is enhanced. Thus, ash generated
from the combustion of even highly combustible coal is likely to deposit on the furnace side. For
combusting highly combustible coal, it is effective to operate all soot blowers of the furnace shown in Pattern
2. However, the coal contains a lot of ash and soot blowing only on the furnace side involves decreasing the
main steam temperature and widening the gap of the temperature on the surface area.
137
Shift to the
furnace in low
electric load zone
Furnace
Fig. 12: Location of Ash Deposit Anticipated
(5) Results
Table 4 indicates the results of the test for highly combustible coal, standard coal and low combustible coal.
Test group
1
2
3
Table 4: Test Results by Coal Type

Assessment
Soot blower group
Highly Combustible Coal Standard Coal
Low Combustible Coal
Mra
Hv
Pr
(A) (E) (G)
(*1)
(C) (D) (F)
(A) (B) (C)
* The temperature gap on the rear wall surface: 168.9 (max.)
Table 5: Burner Angle Change Program for Highly Combustible Coal
Side View
Fine
powder
coal
Upper limit: +30

Burner Angle ()
Front View
Burner angle
Lower limit: 30
Fig. 13
Before change
After change
Coal Burner Angle Change
Load (MW)
a. Test Group 1
(a)
Highly Combustible Coal

The temperature difference on the surface exceeding its controlled value is largely attributable to the
burner angle when the electric load was increased from 180 MW to 250 MW, which caused a change in the
flow of gas to affect the thermal collection performance on the furnace side. For the reason, the burner
angle program was changed to that shown in Table 5 to remove such gaps and continue the following tests.
In addition, coverage of coal burner angle change is shown in Fig. 13.
(b) Standard Coal

Good results were obtained without any particular problems.
138
b.
Test Group 2 and 3

(a) Highly Combustible Coal
After the burner angle program was changed, the temperature gap on the surface area was able to be
restricted and good results were obtained.
(b) Standard Coal
Good results were obtained without any particular problems.
(c) Low Combustible Coal
For Test Group 3, good results were obtained without any particular problems.
(6) Assessment of the Response of Automatic Control of Boiler to the Load Shift
As a representative of all coal categories, the response to the electric load shift for main steam temperature
(MST) and reheated steam temperature (RST) when all soot blowers are operated for highly combustible coal
are shown in Table 6, 7 and 8. For Test Group 3, the soot blower of the furnace was operated only.
Though the decrease in main steam and reheated steam temperature just after starting the soot blower was
slightly larger than that when all soot blowers were turned on, the difference was narrowed gradually as the
electric load went up. The performance was favorable with no adverse effects on the increase of the electric
load.
Soot blower
group
All
(A)(B)(C)
Table 6: MST and RST before and after the Operation of Soot Blowers
Set temperature
Temperature before
Temperature after starting
()
starting a soot blower ()
a soot blower ()
MST/RST
MST/RST
MST/RST
566 (constant)/
552/525
529/495
varies depending on
559/521
519/476
electric load
Good response observed.

Set Values for the Main
Steam Temperature
All soot blowers used.
Furnace soot blower is
used only.
40/45
Table 8: Response to the Load Shift of

Reheated Steam Temperature
Reheated Steam Temperature ()
Main Steam Temperature ()
Table 7: Response to the Load Shift of

Main Steam Temperature
Temperature
decrease ()
MST/RST
23/30
Good response observed.

Set Values for the Reheated
Steam Temperature
Furnace soot blower is
used only.
139
Temperature Difference on
the Surface ()
Table 9: Temperature Difference on the Surface

in Increasing the Electric Load
Furnace soot blower
is used only.
All soot blowers of the

furnace can be applied.
Steam Volume (kg)
Table 10: Steam Volume of Soot Blowers
Decreased by 22,323 kg
All
Test
Group 1
Test
Group 2
Test
Group 3
For all coal categories, it was confirmed that the response of automatic control of boiler against the electric
load shift was good when all soot blowers of the furnace were used only.
As to the temperature difference on the surface, the values were all within the controlled limit and good
results were obtained.
5. Effectiveness of the Measures

(1) Reduction of Steam Consumption used by the Soot Blowers
Table 11: Effects of Improving Soot Blower Operation
Before
After
2 hours and 45 minutes
45 minutes
Blowing time
Response of the main
steam temperature
Response of the reheated
steam temperature
Steam consumption
Results
Curtailed by 2 hours
No problems
No problems
No problems
No problems
24,240
1,917
Reduced by 92%
a. Reduction of Annual Steam Consumption
Reduction of 1,451,000 (kg) of annual steam consumption achieved.

(equivalent to 130 kl/year of crude oil)
Calculation Formula of Converting Steam Consumption to Crude Oil Consumption
(kl/time)
(Calculation Conditions)
Enthalpy of the sot blower steam source: 3,140 (kJ/kg)
Calorific power of crude oil: 38.2106 (kJ/kl)
Boiler efficiency: 90%
Number of times of changing the electric load: Once in two days or 65 times a year (except for summer
and winter time)
140
6. Summary
For all coal categories, use of furnace soot blowers in low electric load conditions only in low electric load
conditions did not reveal any problems in increasing the electric load, and the automatic control of boilers
functioned well. We were successful in reduction of soot blower steam consumption in response to the
change of operation mode of the coal thermal power generation system.
7. Future Plans
To anticipate future diversification in coal procurement, we will attempt to achieve a stable power supply and
reduce costs through energy saving after examining all operating conditions. At the same time, we will
raise the mind toward energy saving and address measures against it.
141
3 Maintenance an Efficiency Control of Thermal Power Plants

3.1 Maintenance management of aged thermal power plants
Introduction
The time (nominal life) when degradation in function and performance of the major equipment constituting a
thermal power plant appears remarkably and recovery of function and performance requires costs overstepping the
bounds of maintenance for ordinary operation is about 30 to 40 years.
For small- to medium-capacity machines constructed from the 30s to the 40s of the Showa period, almost 30
years have elapsed since they begun commercial operation, and, with respect to large-capacity machines
constructed and brought into operation from the middle of the 40s, 20 years or more have elapsed, whereby aging
of thermal power plants as a whole is proceeding.
On the other hand, although we are pushing ahead with the development of new sources responding to the
growth of electricity demand (maximum electricity demand), we have problems such as difficulty of site selection,
more distant locations, longer periods for development, etc.
For this reason, renovating and renewing these aged thermal power plants efficiently and having them show
continuous activity as valuable leading sources in areas of high demand constitute important issues from the
viewpoint of securing supply capacity and cost reduction.
3.1.1 How to carry out maintenance of aged thermal power plants (increasing longevity)
How to carry out maintenance of aged thermal power plants leads to studies and judgments being carried out
from comprehensive viewpoints such as a source program into the future including nuclear, hydro, etc.,
positioning and role in terms of a power generation program, outlook regarding the renovation costs required to
upkeep function and soundness, trends in fuel costs according to power generation efficiency and fuel class,
outlook for the introduction of alternative sources, trends in technological development, etc. to define the direction.
However, the current course of action is broadly divided into the following two items (Fig. 3.1.1):
(1) Maintaining operation through the renewal of deteriorated plant equipment (increasing longevity)
This is a direct extension of matters that we have implemented conventionally as measures against age
deterioration, and plans continuance of operation (increasing longevity) for about 60 years (within the
range where substantial renovation of civil and construction equipment such as piles and foundations is
not required).
(2) Maintaining operation through repowering, replacement, etc. (increasing longevity)
(3) Planning the continuance of operation (increasing longevity) through repowering, replacement, etc.
allowing an increase in the scale of output, improvement of power generation efficiency, improvement
of operational function, environmental betterment, etc. is to be carried out in conjunction with the
renewal of deteriorated plants (The target is mainly small- to medium-capacity plants).
3.1.2
Maintaining operation through the renewal of deteriorated plant equipment (increasing

longevity)
The actual service life of plant equipment differs from its nominal design life and it is significantly dependent
on good or poor operation and maintenance. With respect to thermal power plants, for the purpose of keeping
their function and performance at an established level, the scope of inspection, method and frequency are defined
on an equipment-by-equipment basis as a standard, and patrols, routine checks, periodic inspections, and service
and maintenance (repair, replacement, etc.) are performed according to such standard.
Further, as to aged thermal power plants, in addition to these items, precise inspection for the pressure part of
the boiler, turbine rotor, casing, major valves and rotor power generator, remaining life assessment, renewal of
deteriorated equipment and portions, addition of equipment function to respond to demand-supply operation, and
strengthening and enhancement of durability are planned simultaneously.
[Background]
Developing
program
Power generation
[Background]
Long-term operation
program
[Needs]
[Measures to
increase longevity]
increasing longevity
(prolonging life)
Maintaining operation
through the renewal of
deteriorated equipment
[Measures to
increase longevity]
[Destination]
Stable supply
Cost reduction
Repowering
Replacement
(addition)
Fig. 3.1.1: How to carry out the maintenance of aged thermal power plant (increasing longevity)
142
Maintenance of
aged thermal power
plant
Operation control
Operation
Monitoring of
operation status
Enhancement of operation control
and supervisory function
Reduction of load on equipment
Early detection of problems
Routine inspection/test
Patrol
[Example]
Monitoring of life consumption of hightemperature thick part of boiler and turbine
Diagnosis of boiler combustion
Monitoring of vibration of large rotating
machine
Trip test of safety device
Routine replacement of auxiliary machine
Vibration of auxiliary rotating machine
Operation status of auxiliary machine
Opening of control valve
Daily simplified
maintenance
Inspection & repair
program
Maintenance
Long-term
operation program
Securing of soundness of
plant equipment
Upkeep of function and
reliability level
Securing of economics
Experience of and information on

maintenance for aged thermal power
plant
(Problems, renewal of equipment,
renovation)
Renovation technology (modernization
technology)
Inspection technology, remaining life
assessment technology
Increasing longevity program
administration support system
Renovation program
[Example]
High-temperature pressureresistant part of boiler and
turbine
High-speed rotor of turbine
Insulation of generator
Periodic inspection,
service, maintenance
Precise inspection,
diagnosis of plant
Improvement of
proof stress
Improvement of
function
[Example]
Renewal and renovation of
deteriorated equipment and parts
[Example]
Improvement of control
performance, strengthening of
supervisory function
Automation, improvement of control
performance
Track record of operation
Fig. 3.1.2: Maintenance of aged thermal power plant

(continuance of operation through renewal of aged equipment (increasing longevity))
For this reason, even if the plant reaches its nominal design life, there is still considerable practical operation
life of a major plant, and, as to the reliability of the entire plant as well, it is understood from long-term experience
of operation and maintenance that continuance of operation (increasing longevity) may be possible at relatively
low cost.
Basically, although this is a direct extension of matters that we have implemented conventionally as measures
against aged deterioration, for the purpose of maintaining stable operation while securing the economics, it is
necessary to push ahead with understanding and preserving (recovering from deterioration) the function,
performance and soundness of plant equipment more efficiently than conventionally, and it is requested that plant
diagnosis (deterioration diagnosis, remaining life assessment) technology, renovation technology, trouble
information, etc. be used to further push ahead with critical classified renovation according to the operation period
and operational method. [Fig. 3.1.2]
From here, we introduce developments in operation and maintenance of aged thermal power plants in the past,
renewal conditions of aged machines, devices and portions, inspection technology and remaining life assessment
technology, examples of large renovation for maintaining operation (increasing longevity), acceleration of the
time necessary for periodic inspection that tends to become longer with aging, a work program support system for
critical classified renovation, status of efforts to cope with the increase in longevity of aged thermal power plants
in U.S.A., etc.
3.1.2.1 Operation & maintenance status of aged thermal power plants (from the 50s to the early 60s of
the Showa period)
Aged thermal power plants were originally designed to operate continuously (operation to cover the base load).
10 thousand kW
1992
(September)
50 Showa period = 1975
1970 (September)
1960 (January 36)
Time
Fig. 3.1.2.1-1: How electricity is used in a day (example)

143
Table 3.1.2.1-1: Precise inspection (representative
Equalizing pool type

Water reservoir-type hydro
Pumped-storage
hydroelectric power
example)
Plant
Pumped-storage
power
Oil
Portion to be
inspected
Rotor
Steam
turbine
Moving blade
LNG, LPG and
other gases
Casing
Coal
Boiler
Generator
Superheater
and reheater
tube
Drum
Main steam
pipe
Reheat steam
pipe
Rotor
Transformer
Main body
Electric
motor
Rotor
Nuclear
power
Run-off river-type hydro

(Time)
Fig. 3.1.2.1-2 How electricity is used in a day

(representative example)
Inspection method
Visual inspection with bore scope
Ultrasonic testing
Magnetic particle testing
Ultrasonic testing
Measurement of lifting amount of
stud part
Structure examination of
representative point (macro)
Ultrasonic testing (weld point)
Tube removal examination from a
representative point
Radiographic test
Ultrasonic testing
Visual inspection with bore scope

Ultrasonic testing
Magnetic particle testing
Oil leak test
Dissolved gas analysis
Liquid penetrant detection test
Insulation diagnosis
Base load operation was carried out at the initial stage of construction. However, because of subsequent changes
in the demand-supply structure, that is to say, an increase in demand (maximum electricity demand), a widening
of the gap in demand-supply between day and night, and an increase of the segment share of nuclear power
generation, base load operation handed over its role to nuclear power and large-capacity thermal machines. As a
result, the operation pattern has changed to the operation of a middle-sized thermal power plant positively bearing
adjustment between demand and supply, i.e., the operation pattern under which load change, reduction of
minimum load, frequent start up and shut down, etc. are performed.
Table 3.1.2.1-2 Remaining life diagnosis

Plant
Boiler
Portion to be inspected
Diagnosis portion
Remaining life diagnosis

technique
Select the portion whose design
Destruction inspection
Furnace evaporation tube
temperature is 450 or more and
(Conduct a creep breaking test to
Superheater tube
the harshest (shortest design life)
evaluate the result by means of the
Reheater tube
portion in terms of design out of
Larson-Miller method.)
the target portions shown on the
Structural examinations
Boiler tube
Boiler header
Furnace evaporation header
left.
Superheater header
(Take the time when cumulative
Reheater header
operation time reaches 100,000

hours as a guideline.)
Steam turbine
Axle
Select the portion whose design
Non-destructive inspection
High-pressure axle
temperature is 450 or more and
Hardness measurement
Medium-pressure axle
the harshest (shortest design life)
Material degradation measurement
portion in terms of design out of
Metallic structure test
Casing
High-pressure internal casing
target portions shown on the left.
High-pressure external casing
(Take the time when cumulative
Medium-pressure internal casing
operation time reaches 100,000
Medium-pressure external casing
hours as a guideline.)
Major valves
MSV CV
RSV
ICV
144
Table 3.1.2.1-3: Examples of improvement in medium-capacity machines

[Improvement in durability of plant]
Improvement of suspended superheater of boiler (Fig. 3.1.2.1-3)
Improvement of shape of disk base part of steam turbine rotor (Fig. 3.1.2.1-4)
Reduction in stress of steam turbine casing (improvement of shape) (Fig. 3.1.2.1-5)
Improvement of spray at exhaust chamber of steam turbine (Fig. 3.1.2.1-6)
[Expansion of operation controllability and supervisory function]
Improvement and enhancement of supervisory function for those
that have high frequency of control at start up and shut down
that have simultaneous operation
that have difficulty in adjustment
Making the control of the boiler burner remote or automatic
Making the control of the drain valve and auxiliary machines of the boiler and turbine remote
Automatic start up of turbine from central operating panel (TSC)
Making the oil temperature control on the turbine bearing automated from a central operating panel
Making the injection of feed water and chemicals automatic from a central operating panel
Installation of furnace gas thermometer
Installation of turbine bearing a metal thermometer
For the purposes of securing the reliability and performing strict demand supply adjustment operation such as
DSS (daily start up and shut down), etc. of the plant equipment designed originally based on the premise of base
load operation given that aging progresses, we have basically planned :
An operation pattern that will contribute to demand-supply adjustment sufficiently and where start-up and shutdown loss is minimized
Securing of strength and allowance of a plant sufficient to cope with thermal stress, repeated stress arising from
start up, shut down, load change, etc. and creep damage associated with secular use
Improvement of operability and enrichment of supervisory function so that the operator can cope with the
situation within limited time and simultaneous operation
Early detection and handling when there is an abnormal condition in the plant
Establishment of optimum operation pattern through operation testing
Precise inspection and remaining life assessment for plants whose cumulative operation time has exceeded
100,000 hours (Table 3.1.2.1-1, 2)
Improvement of plant durability (Table 3.1.2.1-3, 4)
Improvement of operability and controllability, enhancement of monitoring function (Table 3.1.2.1-3, 4)
Disk
Curvature
radius
Big
Processed point
Curvature
radius
Big
Small
(a)Processing example
Fig. 3.1.2.1-3: Improvement of suspended superheater

of boiler
(b) Example of new shape
Fig. 3.1.2.1-4: Improvement of shape of disk base part

of steam turbine rotor
Casing corner part

Steam guide
Processing diagram of corner part

Casing
Diaphragm
Nozzle
Packing casing cone
Final-stage blade
Fig. 3.1.2.1-5: Reduction in stress of steam turbine

casing (improvement of the shape of casing)
Fig.3.1.2.1-6: Improvement of spray at exhaust chamber

of steam turbine
3.1.2.2 Renewal status of plant equipment in aged thermal power plants

The Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society (Kanto affiliate) conducted a survey on the renewal status of
plant equipment for thermal power plants (commercial thermal, joint thermal and private thermal) whose
cumulative operating hours exceeded 100,000 hours in 1991 on a nationwide scale, and the results of such survey
have been summarized as the Report of a fact-finding survey on the renewal of thermal plants that have for a
long time (January 1993).
145
Table 3.1.2.2-1: Examples of improvement in largecapacity machines (Constant-pressure supercritical oncethrough system)
[Improvement of plant durability]
Improvement of superheater header part of boiler (Fig. 9)
Processing of membrane-end part of boiler (Fig. 10)
Improvement of structure of surrounding wall tie-bar of boiler (Fig.
11)
Improvement of passing-through part at boiler tube wall (Fig. 12)
Improvement of support system for main piping of boiler (Fig. 13)
Reinforcement of start system valve of boiler (Fig. 14)
Reinforcement of feed water control valve of boiler (Fig. 15)
[Improvement of controllability and enhancement of supervisory
function]
Improvement of controllability to plan the improvement of
controllability at start up/shut down and when the load changes
Digitization of APC control
Automation of boiler automatic burner
Expansion of automatic start-up control range of turbine
Improvement of controllability on the drain level of feed water
heater
Bringing auxiliaries to group control (master)
Addition of life supervisory function for thick pressure-resistant part
of boiler
Automation, enhancement of supervisory function and man-machine
communication
[Before improvement]
[After improvement]
.
(a) Bringing header tube nozzle to flexible structure
Corner R processing
Nozzle
(b) Corner R processing of header tube nozzle part
Fig. 3.1.2.2-1 Improvement of superheater header

part of boiler
Membrane bar
Tie-bar clip
Membrane bar
Water-cooling
wall tube
Tie-bar
Tie-bar
R processing of membrane bar stop-end part
Fig. 3.1.2.2-3 Improvement of structure of surrounding

wall tie-bar of boiler
Fig. 3.1.2.2-2 Processing of membrane-end part of

boiler U band
Header
Outlet header of reheater

Tube leg
Stop-end refresh processing

(padding + R processing)
Header
Old toe
Wall
New toe
Torque bracket
Tube leg
A-part
Improvement of structure of tube leg at wall passing-through part
Fig. 3.1.2.2-4: Improvement of passing-through

part at boiler tube wall
Shear lag
(a) Current structure
(b) Improved structure
Fig. 3.1.2.2-5 Improvement of support system for main

piping of boiler
Z-type valve
Angle valve
Fig. 3.1.2.2-6: Reinforcement of start system valve

of boiler
146
The following are the reasons for renewal according to the equipment of each plant, renewal rate and equipment
whose renewal due to deterioration and damage exceeds 20% extracted from such report:
(1) Boiler plant related (Fig. 3.1.2.2-8)
Furnace tube
Renewal rate:
About 36%
Renewal time:
From less than 40,000 hours to 200,000 hours
The renewal peak falls within the range of 100,000 to 200,000 hours.
! Superheater 1st
Renewal rate:
About 25%
Renewal time:
From less than 40,000 hours to 200,000 hours or more
Reason for renewal: As many renewals have been performed after 120,000 hours, conceivable reasons for
renewal are creep damage, external high-temperature corrosion and ash erosion.
" Superheater 2nd to 4th
Renewal rate:
2nd About 56%
3rd About 66%
4th
About 70%
Renewal time:
2nd: From less than 40,000 hours to 200,000 hours or more
3rd and 4th: From 60,000 hours to 160,000 hours
Reasons for renewal: As there are many renewals for those whose main steam temperature is 550C or
more, for those for WSS (weekly start up and shut down) operation and for heavy
oil-fired ones, conceivable reasons for renewal are creep damage and hightemperature corrosion.
# Superheater weld joint with dissimilar materials
Renewal rate:
About 47%
Renewal time:
From less than 40,000 hours to 180,000 hours.
The renewal peak falls within the range of 80,000 hours to 160,000 hours.
Reason for renewal: As there are many renewals for those whose main steam temperature is high and for
heavy oil-fired ones, conceivable reasons for renewal are creep damage, thermal
stress fatigue and high-temperature corrosion.
Multistage pressure reducing
Single-seat globe valve
Multistage pressure-reducing valve
Fig. 3.1.2.2-7: Reinforcement of boiler feedwater control valve

$ Reheater 1st & 2nd
Renewal rate:
1st About 60%
2nd About 62%
Renewal time:
Renewals are distributed widely at 60,000 hours or more.
The renewal peak falls within the range of 120,000 hours to 160,000 hours for the 1st
superheater and within the range of 100,000 hours to 120,000 hours for the 2nd
superheater.
Reasons for renewal: From the viewpoint of the number of start ups, steam temperature, conceivable
reasons for renewal are creep and thermal stress fatigue.
% Reheater weld joint with dissimilar materials
Renewal rate:
About 60%
Renewal time:
1st From 60,000 hours to 180,000 hours
2nd From 60,000 hours to 120,000 hours
147
Names of renewed equipments
Reasons for renewal: From the fact that there are many renewals of those whose steam pressure is high for
both the 1st and 2nd reheater, and in the case of the 1st reheater, there are many
renewals of those for DSS operation, a conceivable reason for renewal is thermal
stress fatigue.
& Valves
Renewal time:
Form less than 40,000 hours to 180,000 hours
Reasons for renewal: From the fact that there are many renewals of those with many start ups, a
conceivable reason for renewal is seat leak.
' Electrostatic precipitator (discharge electrode, collecting plate, hammering device, charging equipment
(P/P))
Renewal rate:
Discharge electrode About 57%
Economizer tube
Furnace tube
Superheater 1st
Superheater 2nd
Superheater 3rd
Superheater 4th
Superheater Mixed fitting
1st reheater 1st
1st reheater 2nd
1st reheater Mixed fitting
2nd reheater 1st
2nd reheater 2nd
2nd reheater Mixed fitting
1st superheater inlet header
1st superheater outlet header
2nd superheater inlet header
2nd superheater outlet header
3rd superheater inlet header
3rd superheater outlet header
4th superheater inlet header
4th superheater outlet header
1st reheater inlet header
1st reheater outlet header
2nd reheater inlet header
2nd reheater outlet header
Economizer inlet header
Economizer outlet header
Main steam pipe
Main steam pipe TY piece
Reheat steam pipe
Reheat steam pipe TY piece
Degradation
damage
Damage
prevention
Regulation
Boiler circulation pump
Drum safety valve

Furnace outlet safety valve
Superheater outlet safety valve
Reheater outlet safety valve
Start-up system line safety valve
PCV
High-pressure system valves
Start-up system valves
Fuel oil pump
Coal pulverizer
Stoker
Mill exhauster
Fuel oil tank heater
Fuel oil tank bottom plate
Forced draft fan
Induced draft fan
Gas recirculation draft fan
Gas-mixing draft fan
Discharge electrode for electrostatic precipitator
Electrostatic precipitator collecting plate
Electrostatic precipitator hammering device
Electrostatic precipitator charging equipment (P/P)
EP ash-handling ash flow pump
EP ash-handling blower
EP ash-handling ash feed pipe
Air compressor for control
Auxiliary air compressor
Air compressor for soot blower
NOx removal plant catalysis
Bottom ash-handling jet pump
Bottom ash-handling ash flow pipe
Duct expansion
Desulfurization system absorber
Desulfurization system oxidation tower
Desulfurization system G/G heater
Desulfurization system pump
Desulfurization system fan
Renewal rate (%)

Fig. 3.1.2.2-8: Reason for renewal and renewal rate by boiler system equipment
148
Performance
upgrading
Collecting plate: About 46%

Hammering device: About 39%
Charging equipment (P/P) About 29%
Renewal time: From less than 40,000 hours to 180,000

hours or more
The renewal peak falls within the range of 100,000
hours to 120,000 hours.
( Duct extension
Degradation
damage
Damage
prevention
Regulation

Medium-pressure external casing
Low-pressure external casing
High-pressure internal casing
Medium-pressure internal casing
Low-pressure internal casing
High-pressure external casing high-temperature bolt
Medium-pressure external casing high-temperature bolt
High-pressure internal casing high-temperature bolt
Medium-pressure internal casing high-temperature bolt
High-pressure rotor
Medium-pressure rotor
Low-pressure rotor
High-pressure-stage rotating blade
Medium-pressure-stage rotating blade
Low-pressure-stage rotating blade
High-pressure-stage stationary blade
Medium-pressure-stage stationary blade
Low-pressure-stage stationary blade
Main steam stop valve valve box
Control valve valve box
Reheat steam stop valve valve box
Intercept valve valve box
Combined reheat valve valve box
Main steam stop valve high-temperature bolt
Control valve high-temperature bolt
Reheat steam stop valve high-temperature bolt
Intercept valve high-temperature bolt
Combined reheat valve high-temperature bolt
High-pressure rotor thrust bearing
Medium-pressure rotor thrust bearing
Low-pressure rotor thrust bearing
High-pressure rotor journal bearing
Medium-pressure rotor journal bearing
Low-pressure rotor journal bearing
Mechanical governor-mechanism set
BFPT external casing
BFPT internal casing
BFPT high-temperature bolt
BFPT rotor
BFPT rotating blade
BFPT stationary blade
Booster feed water pump
Feed water pump
Condenser tube
Condenser body expansion joint
Condenser electrochemical protector
Condenser cleaning device
Vacuum pump
Ejector
Condenser pump
Circulating water pump
Sea water cooler
High-pressure feed water heater
Low-pressure feed water heater
Feed water system valve
Main steam system valve
Reheat steam system valve
Renewal rate (%)

Fig. 3.1.2.2-9: Reason for renewal and renewal rate by turbine system equipment
Renewal rate: About 63%
Renewal time: From less than 40,000 hours to 180,000 hours or more
There are many renewals of those with DSS, WSS and high-sulfur heavy oil.
(2)
Turbine system related (Fig. 3.1.2.2-9)

Internal casing High-pressure internal casing
Renewal rate:
About 12%
Renewal time:
As the number of renewed units is few, a peak does not appear clearly.
In the range of 120,000 hours to 180,000 hours, there is small growing trend.
149
Performance
upgrading
! High-temperature bolt (bolt that tightens horizontal flange of casing)

Renewal rate:
For high-pressure internal casing: About 58%
For high-pressure external casing: About 39%
For medium-pressure internal casing: About 51%
For medium-pressure external casing: About 22%
Renewal time:
For high-pressure internal casing
Many renewals were performed within the range of 80,000 hours to 140,000 hours.
For medium-pressure internal casing
For medium-pressure external casing
Reason for renewal: As many renewals were performed for those with many start ups and shut downs,
conceivable reasons for renewal are high-temperature creep and fatigue.
" Rotor (high-pressure, medium-pressure)
Renewal rate:
High-pressure axle About 14%
Medium-pressure axle About 34%
Renewal time:
There are many renewals associated with improvement of performance.
# Rotating blade
High-/Medium-pressure-stage rotating blade
Renewal rate:
High-pressure stage About 40%
Medium-pressure stage About 64%
Renewal time:
There are many renewals associated with performance upgrading.
Low-pressure-stage rotating blade
Renewal rate:
About 35%
Renewal time:
$ Main steam valve valve box
Renewal rate:
Main steam stop valve About 15%
Control valve About 15%
Renewal time:
Main steam stop valve
Control valve
Many renewals were performed within the range of 120,000 hours to 180,000 hours
% High-temperature bolt (bolt that tightens upper bonnet of steam valve)
Renewal rate:
Main steam stop valve About 53%
Control valve About 52%
Combined reheat valve About 69%
Reheat steam stop valve About 72%
Intercept valve About 63%
Renewal time:
Control valve
Combined reheat valve
Reheat steam stop valve
Intercept valve
Reasons for renewal: Many renewals were performed for those whose steam temperature is high, and those
with many DSS and WSS, so conceivable reasons for renewal are high-temperature
creep and fatigue.
& Turbine bearing
Renewal rate:
Low-pressure rotor thrust About 22%
High-pressure rotor journal About 37%
Low-pressure rotor journal About 25%
Renewal time:
Low-pressure rotor thrust
High-pressure rotor journal, low-pressure rotor journal
Although renewals were performed within a wide time period range, relatively many
renewals were performed within the range of 80,000 hours to 140,000 hours.
' Condenser Tube, body expansion joint
Renewal rate:
Tube About 66%
150
Renewal time:
Body expansion joint About 36%

Tube
Many renewals were performed from the initial stage of after operation start.
Body expansion joint

( Feed water heater
Renewal rate:
(3)
"
High-pressure feed water heater About 33%

Low-pressure feed water heater About 24%
Renewal time:
High-pressure feed water heater
Many renewals were performed with the range of 100,000 hours to 120,000 hours.
Low-pressure feed water heater
Many renewals were performed with the range of 80,000 hours to 120,000 hours.
Electric plant related (Fig. 3.1.2.2-10)
Generator Rewinding of rotor
Renewal rate:
About 27%
Renewal time:
Relatively many renewals were performed within the range of 100,000 hours to
160,000 hours.
There are many renewals of those with DSS.
Reasons for renewal: A conceivable reason for renewal is insulation degradation of the winding.
Exciter Motor, AVR
Renewal rate:
Motor About 23%
AVR About 53%
Renewal time:
Motor:
160,000 hours.
AVR:
The number of renewed units increases suddenly from 80,000 hours and continues to
180,000 hours.
Reasons for renewal: Generally, many renewals were performed on large-capacity units and those for DSS.
Conceivable reasons for renewal are insulation degradation of the winding or aging
of the equipment.
High-voltage motor Rewinding of stator coil
Renewal rate:
Outdoors About 43% Indoors About 39%
Renewal time:
140,000 hours.
There is a trend of increasing renewal of those for DSS.
Reasons for renewal: Conceivable reasons for renewal are insulation degradation of the winding.
Control center
Renewal rate:
About 28%
Renewal time:
Many renewals were performed at 100,000 hours or more.
There is a trend of increasing renewal of those for DSS.
Reasons for renewal: A conceivable reason for renewal is deterioration of major parts (NFB, thermal relay,
conductor, etc.)
Supervisory control panel Central electric supervisory panel, protective relay panel
Renewal rate:
Central electric supervisory panel About 19%
Protective relay About 25%
Renewal timing:
With respect to the protective relay panel, there is a trend of increasing renewal from
120,000 hours.
Reasons for renewal: Conceivable reasons for renewal are aging of the relay, drop in reliability and type
change for the purpose of improving operation accuracy (from the
electromagnetic/mechanical to stationary type).
Power supply system Storage battery, rectifier, uninterruptible power supply system
Renewal rate:
Storage battery About 81%
Rectifier About 48%
Uninterruptible power supply system About 22%
Renewal time:
The number of renewed units increases suddenly from 80,000 hors or more.
Reasons for renewal: For the storage battery, a conceivable reason for renewal is deterioration of the
electrode plate, separator, etc.
For the rectifier, renewal was performed due to deterioration and in conjunction with
replacement of the storage battery.
For the uninterruptible power supply system, conceivable reasons for renewal are
deterioration and renewal associated with capacity increase, and system change
(making the control system redundant , making the control system free from
instantaneous disconnection) for improvement of reliability
151
Degradation
damage
Damage
prevention
Regulation
Performance
upgrading
Replacement of generator stator

Rewinding of generator stator
Replacement of generator rotor
Rewinding of generator rotor
Generator hydrogen gas cooler
Generator stator cooling system
Generator hydrogen gas shaft seal oil system
Generator lead bushing
Exciter
Generator for exciter
Motor for exciter
Rectifier for exciter
Exciter AVR
Cooling system for exciter
Isolated-phase bus support bushing
Isolated-phase bus wall passing-through bushing
Outdoor high-voltage motor
Rewinding of outdoor high-voltage motor stator coil

Outdoor high-voltage motor rotor
Indoor high-voltage motor
Rewinding of indoor high-voltage motor stator coil
Indoor high-voltage motor rotor
Set of metal-clad panel
Metal-clad circuit breaker body
Set of power center panel
Power center circuit breaker body
Set of control center panel
Central electricity supervisory control panel
Protective relay panel
Power supply system storage battery
Power supply system rectifier
Uninterruptible power supply system
Main transformer lead bushing
Main transformer-cooling system
House transformer main lead bushing
House transformer-cooling system
Starting transformer main lead bushing
Starting transformer-cooling system
Special high-voltage switch circuit breaker
Special high-voltage switch disconnecting switch
Special high-voltage switch support bushing
Special high-voltage switch wall passing-through bushing
Special high-voltage OF cable
Special high-voltage CV cable
High-voltage power cable
Low-voltage power cable
Control cable
Renewal rate (%)

Fig. 3.1.2.2-10 Reasons for renewal and renewal rate by electric plant equipment
& Main transformer Cooling system
Renewal rate:
About 30%
Renewal time:
The number of renewed unit increases suddenly from 80,000 hors or more.
Reasons for renewal: Conceivable reasons for renewal are corrosion of elements and oil leak.
' Cable High-voltage cable
Renewal rate:
About 49%
Renewal time:
There are many renewals performed at 100,000 hours or more.
Cable with high renewal rate
Breakdown by insulation class by class: Butyl rubber 70%
Cross-linked polyethylene 27%
Breakdown by plant condition: Air/Culvert 48%
Pipe line 35%
152
Degradation
damage
Damage
prevention
Regulation
Performance
upgrading
Unit interlock
Auxiliary machine interlock
Combustion control unit
Feed water control unit
Steam temperature control unit
Burner control unit
Governor control unit
Tb monitor vibration diagnosis system

TB monitor shaft vibration meter
Tb monitor shaft eccentricity meter
Tb monitor shaft position meter
Tb monitor revolution meter
Tb monitor difference expansion meter
Tb monitor cam position meter
Unit computer
Data logger computer
Environmental data-processing computer
Fuel control computer
Water quality control analyzer
Fuel analyzer
Exhaust gas NOx analyzer
Exhaust gas SOx analyzer
Exhaust gas O2 analyzer
Exhaust gas CO analyzer
Exhaust gas dust analyzer
Leak oil monitor analyzer
Flammable gas monitor analyzer
NH3 monitor analyzer
Waste water COD analyzer
Waste water PH analyzer
Feed water system actuator
Fuel system actuator
Starting bypass system actuator
Air system actuator
Exhaust gas system actuator
Air dryer for control
Air pressure-reducing system for control
Feed water flow transmitter
Main steam flow transmitter
Spray flow transmitter
Fuel oil flow transmitter
Fuel gas flow transmitter
Main steam pressure transmitter
Fuel oil pressure transmitter
Fuel gas pressure transmitter
Drum-level transmitter
Deaerator-level transmitter
Feed water flow element
Main steam flow element
Fuel oil flow element
Fuel gas flow element
Conveyor scale
Renewal rate (%)

Fig. 3.1.2.2-11 Reasons for renewal and renewal rate by instrumentation control plant
(4)
Instrumentation control plant related (Fig. 3.1.2.2-11)

Control unit
Renewal rate:
Unit interlock About 18%
Auxiliary machine interlock About 14%
Combustion control unit About 68%
Feed water control unit About 66%
Steam temperature control unit About 67%
Burner control unit About 44%
Governor control unit About 32%
Renewal time:
Renewal of any of equipment was performed within the range of 60,000 hours to
160,000 hours.
Reasons for renewal: For renewal due to degradation damage, conceivable reasons for renewal are failure
153
due to deterioration of the signal conversion unit, indication mechanism, etc. of each
controller and increasing difficulty in procuring parts because of discontinuance of
production of similar equipment.
For the renewal due to performance upgrading, many renewals were performed due
to nationalization of imported products or due to change from an air or mechanical
system to an electric or digital type, and it is conceivable that many renewals had the
objective of conversion to APC or full automation, etc.
! Turbine monitor
Renewal rate:
Vibration diagnosis system About 57%

Shaft vibration meter About 67%
Shaft eccentricity meter About 65%
Shaft position meter About 57%
Revolution meter About 49%
Difference expansion meter About 60%
Cam position meter About 56%
Renewal timing:
Renewal of any equipment falls within the range of 40,000 hours to 180,000 hours.
Reasons for renewal: There are many renewals due to degradation damage and damage prevention.
Conceivable reasons for renewal are failure attributable to the deterioration of each
sensor, conversion amplifier, reorder, etc. or increasing difficulty in procuring parts
because of discontinuance of production of similar equipment.
" Computer
Renewal rate:
Unit computer About 59%
Data logger computer About 32%
Environmental data-processing computer About 41%
Fuel control computer About 22%
Renewal time:
Unit computer
Within the range of 60,000 hours to 180,000 hours
Reasons for renewal: Conceivable reasons that there are many renewals due to degradation damage are
failure attributable to the deterioration of the calculation unit, each sensor, memory,
typewriter, etc. or increasing difficulty in procuring parts because of discontinuance
of production of similar equipment.
# Analyzer
Renewal rate:
Water quality control analyzer About 71%
Fuel analyzer About 48%
Exhaust gas NOx analyzer About 79%
Exhaust gas SOx analyzer About 78%
Exhaust gas O2 analyzer About 82%
Exhaust gas CO analyzer About 29%
Exhaust gas dust analyzer About 34%
Leak oil monitor analyzer About 9%
Flammable gas analyzer About 49%
NH3 analyzer About 35%
Waste water COD analyzer About 30%
Waste water pH meter About 35%
Renewal time:
The renewal of the water quality analyzer, fuel analyzer and exhaust gas NOx
analyzer falls within the range of 20,000/30,000 hours to 180,000 hours.
The renewal of exhaust gas SOx analyzer, exhaust gas O2 analyzer, exhaust gas CO
analyzer, flammable gas analyzer, NH3 analyzer, waste water COD analyzer and
waste water pH meter falls within the range of 40,000 hours to 80,000 hours.
failure attributable to deterioration of the calculation unit, each sensor, memory,
typewriter, etc. or increasing difficulty in procuring parts because of discontinuance
of production of similar equipment.
$ Actuator
Renewal rate:
Feed water system actuator About 37%
Fuel system actuator About 29%
Starting bypass system actuator About 17%
Air system actuator About 36%
Exhaust gas system actuator About 37%
Renewal time:
The renewal of feed water system, air system and exhaust gas system actuator falls
within the range of 60,000 hours to 180,000 hours.
154
occurrence of many failures attributable to deterioration of the control mechanism,
positioner, etc. or increasing difficulty in procuring the parts because of
discontinuance of production of similar equipment.
% Air source for control, air dryer, air pressure-reducing system
Renewal rate:
Air dryer About 42%
Air pressure-reducing system About 17%
Renewal time:
The renewal falls within the range of 40,000 hours to 140,000 hours.
Reasons for renewal: Conceivable reasons for renewal are occurrence of many failures as a result of
deterioration owing to change of the control mechanism, tower, etc. or increasing
difficulty in procuring parts because of discontinuance of production of similar
equipment.
& Transmitter
Renewal rate:
Feed water flow transmitter About 65%
Main steam flow transmitter About 61%
Spray flow transmitter About 61%
Fuel oil flow transmitter About 50%
Fuel gas flow transmitter About 45%
Main steam pressure transmitter About 63%
Fuel oil pressure transmitter About 54%
Fuel gas pressure transmitter About 44%
Drum-level transmitter About 60%
Deaerator-level transmitter About 57%
Feed water flow element About 12%
Main steam flow element About 8%
Fuel oil flow element About 22%
Fuel gas flow element About 7%
Conveyor scale About 33%
Renewal time:
Renewals of feed water flow, spray flow, fuel oil flow, fuel oil pressure, drum level,
and deaerator-level transmitters fall within the range of 60,000 hours to 180,000
hours.
Renewals of main steam flow and main steam pressure transmitters fall within the
range of 40,000 hours to 200,000 hours.
Reasons for renewal: With respect to degradation damage and damage prevention, conceivable reasons for
renewal are occurrence of many failures due to deterioration of each sensor, signal
converter, etc. or increasing difficulty in procuring parts because of discontinuance of
production of similar equipment.
With respect to performance upgrading, conceivable reasons for renewal are
performance upgrading of equipment and shift of control equipment to the electric
type or digital type.
3.1.2.3 Inspection technology/remaining life assessment technology

Although the strength design of a boilers pressure part to be used under
high temperature and high pressure is performed based on the 100,000-hour creep strength of the material to be
used, from the facts that units whose cumulative operation hours reach 100,000 hours are starting to appear, and
problems with thermal power units with years of service such as breakage of the steam turbine rotor, cracks in the
steam turbine casing, etc. were reported in U.S.A., etc., from about the beginning of the 50s of the Showa period,
interest in the assessment of soundness, recovery from deterioration and renovation technology for the major
structural portions of major equipment in thermal units with years of service has grown.
For thermal power generation technology, technical advances such as upsizing, higher temperature and pressure,
etc. moved forward rapidly after World War II, and the age deterioration phenomenon itself was worldwide
unknown area. For this reason, at present, virtually every technology developed and having become operational,
such as deterioration characteristics of the material with years of service, mechanism of age deterioration,
inspection technology and inspection equipment for deterioration diagnosis, remaining life assessment technology,
renovation technology for recovery from deterioration, deterioration progress supervisory technology, etc., is
unknown and not yet developed, constituting technical issues that we must address. From the 50s of the Showa
period toward the 60s, inspection and assessment technology and remaining life assessment technology coping
with deterioration phenomena that became obvious with time were developed and became operational, and at the
present time, the focus of its development has shifted to labor saving, automation, broader use of robots, etc. In
addition, development and practical use of operation supervisory/diagnosis technology for the purposes of
strengthening and enhancing the operation supervisory aspect is being pushed forward.
155
[1] Boiler equipment

Age deterioration phenomena that became obvious in major structural parts of boiler plants (representative
examples)
(1) Long-duration high-temperature creep, high-temperature oxidation/steam oxidation
Final SH, RH pipe damage
In particular, downgraded portion of points subjected to material change, in-furnace points subjected to
material change
(2) Repeated fatigue due to thermal stress
Damage of evaporation pipe
Cracks originating from weld zone of fittings adhered to pipe
Damage originated from weld zones of burner, wind box, inspection hole mounting frame
Cracks originating from weld zone of slit-type fin
Crack due to corrosion fatigue from internal surface of pipe at nose, deflection arch and deflection parts.
SH, RH pipes
Crack originating from weld zone of fixing spacer fixture
Evaporation pipe, SH and RH pipes (non-heated part)
Crack originating from toe part of stub weld
Leak of boiler combustion exhaust gas
Seal structural part at intersection part between boiler nose part wall and furnace back wall-suspended pipe
Corner part of side wall part of front and rear wall pipes at heat recovery part
Header guard of RH, Eco, etc. of heat recovery part
Header around furnace bottom and seal structure part of ceiling wall passing-through part at GR port guard
Tube bending part such as TV, inspection hole, burner, manhole, etc.
(3) Repeated fatigue due to long-duration high-temperature creep, thermal stress
Superheater, reheater header
Crack at weld zone of nozzle
Main steam piping
Crack originating from internal part of weld zone
Crack at weld zone of branch piping nozzle
Inspection technology and assessment technology having became operational (representative example)
Boiler tube diagnosis UT system
(Target: Superheater, reheater)
Major piping diagnosis robot (target: major steam pipe)
Stack casing inspection robot
Remaining life assessment by means of destruction test
(targets: evaporation pipe, economizer tube, superheater tube, reheat tube)
Remaining life diagnosis by means of stress analysis
(Targets: T & Y pieces of major piping, weld zone of tube-adhered fixture, fin-mounting area of tube, support
lug part of tube, header stub)
Remaining life assessment by means of non-destructive test (A parameter method, void area rate, crystal grain
deformation)
(Targets: drum, header, header stub)
[2] Turbine equipment
Age deterioration phenomena that became obvious in the major structure of turbine plant (representative
example)
Breakage of high-pressure rotor
Surface crack at base R part of high-pressure rotor 1st-stage wheel
Bending of medium-pressure ROBIN rotor
Crack at low-pressure rotor wheel stud part
SCC of low-pressure rotor shrink-fit wheel part
Lifting of high-pressure part rotating blade
Erosion and crack on rotating blade of low-pressure part
Crack on final-stage rotating blade racing wire
Nozzle erosion
Crack on rotating blade tenon
Surface crack on corner part of high- & low-pressure housings
Crack on medium-pressure housing (origin: repaired weld zone)
Breakage of the high temperature bolt and damage to the bolt screw thread.
Crack on major valve casing (origin: repaired weld zone, internal defect)
Inspection technology having became operational (representative example)
Rotor center hole ultrasonic flaw detection technology
Rotor center hole magnetic particle flaw detection technology
156
Rotor center hole hardness-measuring technology

Rotor center hole replica-sampling technology
Rotor & casing embrittlement diagnosis technology
Blade stud part inspection technology
Tenon ultrasonic flaw detection technology
Rotor wheel ultrasonic flaw detection technology
High-temperature bolt (stud bolt) ultrasonic flaw detection technology
Remaining life diagnosis technology having been commercialized
Rotor, casing, major valve body (crack occurrence assessment, crack propagation assessment)
Rotating blade (lifting)
Hydraulic jack
Side top header support structure
Step rod
(!85)
Support
beam
Hoisting
bar (!140)
U bolt
(!100)
Side wall
Front wall
Rear wall
Boiler, front
Oil jack
Boiler steel
frame
Collector
beam
Side wall top
header
Jack down
Fig. 3.1.2.4-1
Concept in
dismantling of
furnace wall by
means of jack
down construction
method
In furnace
Burner wind box
(3) Electrical equipment

Age deterioration phenomena having become obvious (representative example)
Crack on end ring (18Mn-5Cr steel) of generator rotor
Wedge crack on generator rotor
Generation of copper powder of generator rotor coil
Drop in insulation of generator rotor coil
Drop in insulation of generator stator coil
Water leakage from generator stator coil
Inspection technology and life diagnosis technology having become operational (representative example)
Ultrasonic flaw detection technology for end ring of generator rotor
Measurement of looseness of wedge of the generator rotator
Generator stator-winding diagnosis
Generator rotator diagnosis
Analysis on dissolved gas in oil of major transformer
High-voltage motor insulation diagnosis
High-voltage cable insulation diagnosis
(4) Measurement & control equipment
Diagnosis technology having become operational (representative example)
Control system diagnosis system
Standard maintenance tool
(5) Operation supervisory, diagnosis technology (representative example)
Operation support system (alarm guidance)
On-site problem detection system
Boiler combustion diagnosis system
High-pressure feed water heater tube leakage detection system
Patrol support by means of trend supervisory on operation data and alarm
Simplified vibration diagnosis of rotating auxiliary machines (pump, blower)
Valve control by means of handy terminal
Portable ultrasonic leak detector (high-pressure heater, drain valve)
Leakage detector by means of infrared camera (boiler casing)
Boiler wall thick part life diagnosis (main steam pipe T piece, circulation pump casing)
3.1.2.4 Large-scale renovation examples (renovation of boiler furnace)

For the purpose of responding to electric power demand-supply adjustment, from about the mid-50s of the
Showa period, modification of machines designed for the base load to the DSS model was made, and full-scale
high-frequency start-up & shut-down operation has been performed.
As the number of start ups and shut downs increases, many cracks on the boiler tube and leakages started to
157
appear in all areas of boilers, and, for this reason, inspection and repair result in longer time and higher cost. In
particular, heavy damage is found in the metallic substance weld zone of furnace pipe walls, furnace headers and
nozzle weld zones at the reheater header due to fatigue and creep, and fundamental measures are becoming
necessary.
In the future, as these portions are important components of boilers, it is impossible to take fundamental
measures through partial renovation. In addition, from the viewpoint that cost and work will be enormous,
complete blanket renovation of furnace evaporation pipes, headers, etc. is starting to be carried out.
Generator output
Main steam temperature
Main steam pressure
Fig. 3.1.2.4-2
Outline drawing of
renovation work for
Himeji No.2
thermal power Unit
No.2 boiler.
2nd superheater
pipe (replaced)
Reheat pipe
(replaced)
Furnace
evaporation pipe
(replaced)
Steam separator
(added)
1st superheater
Control unit
r(replaced)
Change of control system
Evaporator
Furnace-side
casing
(replaced)
Fuel
Economizer
Furnace
Burner
valve
Feed water
Boiler circulation
pump (added)
Air
Together with this renovation, partial renovation of an accessory plant was performed so that such boilers also
have cutting-edge performance. Further, for the purposes of shortening the renovation construction work period
and securing safety in construction work, the development and introduction of new construction such as jack
down construction (Fig. 3.1.4.2-1) are sought.
(1) Examples of structural improvement measures associated with renovation
(1) Modify the boiler from the skin casing structure to the membrane wall structure to plan a reduction in
thermal stress.
(2) Modify the boiler from a weld construction consisting of the furnace wall and tension plate to a slide
structure to plan the reduction in thermal stress.
(3) Cause the header nozzle part to have sufficient flexibility to plan the reduction in thermal stress.
(4) Modify the furnace wall passing-through part to the double-sleeve structure to avoid a concentration of
stress.
(5) Make the root of the nozzle and weld zone at the fine end smooth to relieve the concentration of stress.
(2) Renovation work examples
In the KANSAI Electric Companys Himeji No.2 thermal power plant Unit No.2 (325 MW), a subcritical pressure
boiler that began commercial operation in 1964, from 1992 to 1993 blanket replacement of the boiler was carried
out. This unit was originally oil fired; however, in 1980, modification to convert it to LNG fired was made and
since then, this boiler has served as base thermal power. Since its start of commercial operation, this plant has
operated for about 170,000 hours (number of start ups and shut downs: 662), and in addition to normal age
deterioration, due to the fact that this plant has been used for DSS operation from 1985, life consumption due to
low-cycle fatigue advanced in all areas of the boiler, minor problems occurred frequently, and the time required
for inspection and repair increased. Then, as a result of study of a repair program according to the increasing
longevity program, as it is more advantageous to replace the furnace water wall part completely than to repeat
minor repairs in terms of cost, then it was decided to carry out total replacement. Further, together with
renovation, performance upgrading including improvement of thermal efficiency and acceleration of the time
required for start up is planned through modification from a constant-pressure to a variable-pressure operation
method. (Fig. 3.1.2.4-2).
3.1.2.5 Technology and construction method for shortening of the term of periodic inspection work
In addition to the peak in the summer season, for the purpose of responding to firm growth of demand in the
winter season, the timing of periodic inspections tends to be concentrated in spring and autumn. On the other hand,
the term of periodic inspection work tends to become longer due to the increase in the amount of repairs
associated with aging of plants, and in the future, as the aging of large-capacity machines will also proceed,
further efforts to shorten the term of periodic inspection work are sought.
As a method to plan the shortening of the term of periodic inspection work, in addition to the effective
classification and planning of repair work associated with aging, improvement of construction method that
includes the following are also pursued.
Improvement of work efficiency through mechanization and broader use of robots
Improvement of work efficiency through labor-saving tools
Cutback in amount of works through blanket replacement of large parts (service, repair, etc.)
In addition, measures will be also be implemented from the viewpoint of the plant (Table 3.1.2.5-1), including:
Earlier start of work through forced cooling stop of the turbine
Improvement of workability through scale-up of manholes
158
Table 3.1.2.5-1 Improvement examples for shortening of the term of periodic inspection work
Examples
Adoption of forced cooling system for turbine
Adopt a high-performance oil-flushing system.
Have gas turbine rotor spares.
Have steam turbine rotor spares.
Adopt a gas turbine static blade-sealing alignment system.
Adopt a casing-tightening hydraulic bolt.
Modify from MHG to EHG.
Have one set of EHG parts spares.
Additionally install an overhead traveling crane.
Making the overhead traveling crane faster.
Develop scaffolding at the furnace bottom part.
Adopt a mobile clinker hopper.
Adopt a turbine rotor dry horning unit.
Adopt a hydraulic torque wrench.
Install a lifting unit for dismantling of major valves.
Adopt a hydraulic bolt for coupling.
Improve in-furnace scaffolding.
Install a floor for carry-in of boiler materials.
Install a shutter at the boiler sound isolation wall opening.
Conduct dismantling and inspection work on the electric valve with greater efficiency.
Contrive dismantling and assembling jigs for the coil-end cover of the generator.
Adopt an ultrasonic expansion-measuring instrument
Turbine blade clearance-measuring device
Adopt a laser-type centering measuring device.
Adopt a turbine casing lifting-level supervisory unit.
Install a crane for light parts.
Rotor center hole horning unit
Adopt a hydraulic jack for dismantling of housing.
Adopt a jig for groove alignment of the boiler-cooling wall pipe.
Upsize the boiler manhole.
Develop an internal surface inspection system of the boiler header part.
Outline
Introduce the outside air into high- and medium-pressure casings through the injection of cooling
air or by means of vacuum pump to shorten the cooling time.
Use the flushing system with a fine-mesh filter.
Have the gas turbine rotor of the combined-cycle generator as a spare to replace it at periodic
inspection.
Have the steam turbine rotor for geothermal heat as a spare to replace it at periodic inspection.
Although alignment at replacement was performed at the manufacturers factory, alignment has
become available through installation of the system at site.
Change the high-pressure turbine casing-tightening bolt from the shrink-fit type to the hydraulic
tension type.
Have one set of EHG parts as spares to replace them at inspection.

Install an overhead traveling crane additionally.
Make traveling and hoisting speed faster to plan effective use of the crane.
Carry in one set of folded stages from the furnace bottom to extend it on the furnace bottom.
Change the clinker hopper to the mobile type to facilitate carry-in of scaffolding.
Change the work form from manual work to work with the horning unit to plan greater efficiency of
work.
Adopt the hydraulic torque wrench for crossover pipe flange-tightening work at low-pressure casing.
Adopt a simplified lifting unit for lifting work of the main check valve, etc. to plan greater
efficiency of work.
Tighten the coupling by means of a hydraulic tension bolt.
Change the scaffolding from steel pipe scaffolding to steel fit scaffolding.
Install an out-furnace stage for carry-in of in-furnace scaffolding and for material storage space.
Install an opening at the sound isolation wall of the boiler to facilitate carry-in of materials, etc.
Change the power supply connection of the electric valve to the connector system.
Fix the bottom cover to the jig and then cause it to rotate to facilitate removal.
Measure expansion of bolts by means of the ultrasonic measuring instrument.
Insert the sensor into the clearance between the turbine blades to perform automatic measurement to
process its data.
Measure turbine alignment by means of a laser to calculate the corrected value automatically.
Monitor parallelism of the housing to be lifted by installing an ultrasonic-type distance sensor at 4
corners to measure it.
In addition to an overhead traveling crane, install a crane for lifting light parts.
Unit that performs horning of the turbine rotor center hole automatically.
Cause the measuring sensors installed at 4 corners of the housing to synchronize with the hydraulic
jack to lift it horizontally.
Jig for groove alignment of boiler water-cooling wall pipe.
Upsize the bore of the boiler manhole to plan greater efficiency.
Insert it through the header inspection hole to make observation by means of TV and observation
with an optical microscope.
159
3.1.2.6 Support system for creating a work plan for increasing longevity
In order to continue stable operation of an aged thermal power plant after 20 years or more from its construction
and start of operation. While maintaining the economics and its function, identifying the function, performance
and soundness of equipment and presentation (recovery from deterioration) are performed more efficiently than
conventionally.
For this reason, a support system to create a work plan for increasing longevity that takes plant reliability and
economics into account has generally been introduced and made use of.
Creation of a work plan for increasing longevity is performed along each step of flow in Fig. 3.1.2.6-1.
Selection of critical equipment (Fig. 3.1.2.6-2)
Assuming that the service period will be 60 years, the operation time, 400,000 hours and the number of start
ups and shut downs, 5,000, select equipment for which remaining life control is believed to be necessary out of all
equipment comprising the unit. Assess the probability of the occurrence of failure, effect of failure on output when
it occurs, term of recovery work and cost, safety (social influence level), etc. comprehensively by means of the
FMEA technique.
! Investigation of the background of accidents and failures
Collect and organize the records of accidents and failures regarding the selected critical equipment, and
investigate the failure mode, life consumption factor, etc. during a long-term service period.
" Breakdown and defragmentation of equipment (selection of critical points)
Select critical equipment.
Investigate history of accidents and failures.
Break down and defragment equipment.
Select the critical portion.
Select remaining life calculation measures.
Calculate the unit life consumption rate.
Operation history
Future operation conditions
Marginal processing value
Calculate remaining life.
Unit price table
Create a long-term maintenance program list.
Carry out profit calculation.
Create a work program list for increasing longevity.
Fig. 3.1.2.6-1 Flow in creation of work program plan list for increasing longevity work
Equipment
Measuring device
Electric device
Boiler system
Turbine system
Effect-level assessment
Life
consumption
factor
Initial
failure
mode
Final
failure
mode
Rotor
Creep, lowcycle fatigue
Progression of
manufacturing
defect
Burst
External casing
Crack
Leakage
Internal casing
Crack
Leakage
Nozzle chamber
Crack
Leakage
1st blade ring
Creep
Deformation
Axial inclination
Abnormal
vibration
High-pressure turbine
Equipment
Probability
of failure
occurrence
Effect on
output
Degree of difficulty of
recovery from failure
Term of
recovery
Recovery
cost
General assessment
Safety
Score
Critical
equipment
(100 points or
more)
Fig. 3.1.2.6-2: Example of critical equipment selection

160
Break down the selected critical equipment to the group that conceivably has the same structure, function, and
design condition, and then defragment them based on the detailed structure to select Point to which maintenance
control should be performed based on life assessment.
# Selection of critical portion (Fig. 24)
Critical point
Critical portion
:
:
Dummy groove
Heat group groove
bottom
Initial failure mode : Crack
Life consumption factor:
Low-cycle fatigue
Low-cycle fatigue +
High-cycle fatigue
High-pressure stage
: Center hole
Critical point
Critical portion
: Control stage bottom
Creep + Low-cycle
fatigue
:
Critical point
Critical portion
:
Initial failure mode :
Rotor body
Central part and others
Deformation
Deterioration of
characteristics
Life consumption factor :
Creep, softening,
embrittlement
Ultrahigh-pressure stage
Governor side
GEN side
Control stage
Critical point
Critical portion
Rotating blade
High-pressure finalstage blade groove

1st tooth blade groove
shoulder corner
Stress corrosion crack,
corrosion fatigue
Outlet side
Inlet side
(a)
Critical point: Ultrahigh-pressure 1st-stage blade grove

(a) Critical portion
: Blade groove shoulder
corner
Initial failure mode
: Crack
Life consumption factor: Creep, High-cycle fatigue
creep + high-cycle fatigue
(b) Critical portion
: Contact surface at rotating
blade root
Initial failure mode
: Crack
Life consumption factor : Fretting fatigue
(b)
Fig. 3.1.2.6-3 Example of critical portion in high-pressure turbine rotor

Expand the critical points to the portion level further to extract the portions where occurrence of failure is possible
during a long-term service period to select the portions that are the target of remaining life control as a critical
portion from them.
$ Selection of remaining life calculation method
Remaining life calculation methods can be divided broadly into following 4 methods:
Theory analysis method (non-destructive diagnosis method)
Destruction test method
Statistical method
Trend control method
Out of these 4 methods, select the most adequate method corresponding to the initial failure mode and life
consumption factor.
% Calculation of life consumption unit rate
Using the respective methods, obtain the amount of life consumption per 1,000 hours of operation (!c) or amount
of life consumption per one start up and shut down (!f).
Calculate unit life consumption rate.
Calculate remaining life.
Future
operation
conditions
FEM analysis
Limit processing
value
Consumed life
Temperature
difference
Computer
Output
Processing
limit
Consumed life
Remaining life
Stress
Life assessment curve
Life
consumption
unit life
(Year)
Repetitions
Life consumption unit life
Operation
history
161
Fig. 3.1.2.6-4: Calculate remaining

life.
Table 3.1.2.6-1 Example of plan list for increasing longevity

Fiscal
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
System
Boiler related
Turbine related
Electric related
Measurement related
Total
2226
712
12
12
3002
83
85
62
1
14
15
35
35
37
2
10
83
168
77
50
74
93
268
95
406
20
789
3356
1203
828
70
5457
(Unit: million yen)

2006
2008
2010
17
103
374
44
21
54
300
419
17
70
116
320
523
494
Uniform annual cost of renewal
Uniform annual cost of maintenance cost
Optimum renewal fiscal year
Fiscal year in A.D.
Fig. 3.1.2.6-5 Example of profit calculation result

& Calculation of remaining life (Fig. 3.1.2.6-4)
(1) Calculation of consumption life
! = !c
Cumulative operation time

+ !f " Cumulative number of start ups and shut downs
1000
(2) Establishment of marginal processing value

The marginal processing value is a consumption life value that determines:
start timing of inspection
implementation timing of re-diagnosis
implementation timing of repair and replacement
And it is established in accordance with the equipment and portion.
(3) Establishment of future operation conditions
Based on the power generation plan, the annual estimated operation hours (Ta) and estimated number of
start ups and shut downs (Na) are assumed to calculate the future operating conditions by multiplying such
number by life consumption unit.
(4) Calculation of remaining life
Remaining life indicates the years until the unit reaches limit processing value and is calculated by means
of:
Remaining life (years) =
Limit processing value $ consumption life

!c " Ta/1000 # !f " Na
'
Creation of long-term maintenance program list

A long-term maintenance program list represents the maintenance cost within the assumed service period on a
year-by-year basis, and the maintenance cost is calculated from the cost required for inspection, diagnosis, repair
and replacement on a portion-by-portion basis and the quantity of the corresponding portion.
(1) Entry of unit price
Study the most adequate inspection, diagnosis, repair and replacement methods on a portion-by-portion
basis to select its unit price from unit price list that this system has to enter it.
(2) Creation of long-term maintenance plan list
There are 2 types of long-term maintenance plan list, on a portion-by-portion basis and equipment-byequipment basis, and clearly shows the fiscal year when inspection, diagnosis, repair and replacement are
required and the respective costs.
( Implementation of profitability calculation (Fig. 3.1.2.6-5)
Study the selection whose renewal of equipment or partial repair is required, and select the most economical
renewal timing in the case of equipment renewal, as well as the optimum replacement range combining mutual
equipment.
) Creation of longer life work plan list (Table 3.1.2.6-1)
With respect to all critical equipment, calculate the maintenance cost required within the future assumed service
period, and an increasing longevity work plan list is obtained by summing such costs.
162
3.2.1 Causes of damage to boiler equipment

(1) Trend of damage
An example of analysis of the ratio of aged deterioration damage for each component of a boiler and the
damage ratio of its pressure-retaining parts by each cause are shown in Fig. 3.2.1-1. Such pressure-retaining
components as the furnace wall, super-heater, re-heater, economizer, piping, etc. account for 67% of the entire
boiler equipment. Thermal fatigue, corrosion fatigue, and creep damage account for 83% of the causes of total
damage. As measures to improve the reliability of thermal power generation plants, it is important to prevent such
fatigue, corrosion fatigue, and creep damage from occurring to such pressure-retaining components.
Others
7%
Others
14%
Non-pressure-retai
ning components
4%
Fan
10%
Valves
5%
Furnace
wall
31%
Ratio of occurrence
of failure for each
component of boiler
equipment
Piping
16%
Wear
5%
Corrosion
5%
Creep
15%
Cause of damage to
pressure-retaining
components
Thermal
fatigue/
corrosion
fatigue
68%
SH/RH/ECO
20%
Fig. 3.2.1-1 Ratio of the components becoming defective/ratio of cause of damage

Deterioration
of materials
Overheating
Drop in bearing force

caused by use for a long
period of time
Change in material quality
Defective materials
Swelling out
Deformation
Creep
rupture
Rupture by
spouting
Clogging inside the piping

caused by foreign
materials
Imbalanced flow of fluid
within the piping
Adherence/growth of scale
within the piping
Corrosion by high
temperature
Corrosion
Corrosion by low
temperature
Corrosion of the inner
surface of tank caused by
filled water
Excessive increase
in load stress
caused by the
decrease in
effective thickness
Rupture
caused by
static stress
Leakage
Wear
Erosion by ash
Wear by high-velocity air
flow within the component
Fatigue
Thermal fatigue
Mechanical fatigue
Occurrence/growth
of crack(s)
Rupture
caused by
fatigue
Corrosion
fatigue
Fatigue occurring under

the environment of the
inner surface of the tank
caused by filled water
Occurrence/growth
of crack(s)
Rupture by
corrosion
fatigue
Fig. 3.2.1-2 Cause of damage to boiler equipment

(2) Cause of damage
The types of damage generally experienced with the pressure-retaining components of the boiler equipment are
shown in Fig. 3.2.1-2 for convenience.
3.2.2 Example of damage and measures to improve bearing force
Examples of typical damage experienced so far and measures taken to improve the bearing force are explained
below.
163
(1) Creep and creep rupture

Each pressure-retaining component of boiler equipment has been designed to have a creep rupture strength of
100,000 hours or longer. However, should the component be overheated beyond the designed temperature range
for any reason, or should any decrease in thickness advance, creep damage may advance within a very short
period time resulting in rupture. Typical causes of damage found in the examples are summarized as follows:
Overheating due to an extreme decrease in flow rate within the piping caused by clogging with of
foreign matters or by peeling off or accumulation of steam oxidation scale.
Temperature rise at the piping wall caused by the growth of scale adhered to the inner surface of the
pipes of the furnace evaporation piping, or the growth of porous-type scale with low heat
transmission efficiency
For the accumulation of steam oxidation scale within the stainless steel piping of the super-heater, etc. and
accumulated at the U-bend, it is considered effective to suppress the scale from growing if fine-grade steel is
employed or the inner surface of the piping is shot blasted. Creep damage includes creep created over
considerably long hours because the inner-pressure stress increases by the decreased thickness caused by
high-temperature corrosion, etc. A lot of damage has been found caused by the scale adhering to the inner surface
of the pipes of furnace evaporating piping. Standard water quality control of the supply water and tank water and
implementation of proper acid cleaning is an important task. To determine the timing of acid cleaning, monitoring
of the pipe wall temperature by a pulling-out check of the pipes at the time of regular inspection or by using a
Cordal-thermocouple (embedded thermocouple) is available.
(2) Thermal fatigue
Thermal fatigue occurs by the repeated effects of high thermal stress that is generated by the temperature
differences among the member materials. The thermal fatigue generated by the start/stop operation of boiler
equipment or by load fluctuation is a type of low-cycle fatigue in general. The surface of the broken part by
thermal fatigue is uneven and rougher than that caused by mechanical fatigue where high-cycle fatigue is
accompanied by vibration, etc. The surface of the cracked part is normally open to some extent. The causes
generating thermal stress vary depending on the structure of each component of the boiler equipment. Examples
of portions where thermal fatigue occurs and measures to reduce the stress are shown in Table 3.2.2-1 in a
concrete fashion.
(3) Corrosion fatigue
In the case of the inner water supply system of furnace, economizer, etc., such corrosion fatigue as cracking
generated not only from the outside of the piping but also from the inside has been experienced. Corrosion fatigue
is a phenomenon in which fatigue cracks are generated and grow because the strength against fatigue declines
remarkably to a larger degree than the same in an air atmosphere, when the metal receives stress repeatedly in a
corrosive environment. It is basically generated on the portion where thermal stress, etc. is large.
As a typical example of the relationship between thermal fatigue and corrosion fatigue, the tension plate and
welded portion of the furnace wall are shown in Fig. 3.2.2-1.
At the portion where the tension plate has been welded directly to the furnace wall, thermal stress is generated
by the temperature difference between the tension plate and the furnace wall in the direction of the piping axis and
to right angles of the piping axis. The maximum stress is generated on the welded portion of the tension plate on
the external face of piping. Thermal fatigue cracks are generated on the toe of the weld where stress concentrates.
On the other hand, stress is generated on the rear side of the weld on the inner surface of the piping. The stress
on the inner surface of the piping is smaller in general than that on the outer surface.
164
Table 3.2.2-1 Portions where thermal stress is generated and measures to reduce the stress
Portion
Portion where fatigue damage

occurs
Cool water
Furnace wall
Furnace wall seal box weld

Concentration
of stress
Tool box
Fixtures mounted on furnace

wall
Tension plate
Mechanism of generation of
stress
If the boiler water temperature
should change upon boiler
start/stop operations, temperature
difference occurs between the
furnace wall and the sub-wall or
between the sub-wall and the rear
smoke duct wall, which generates
stress on the fin edge of the
furnace wall.
furnace wall piping and the seal
box, by which stress concentrates
at the corner.
Measures to reduce stress

Arrange the fin edge in a large
arch shape
R-machining of fin edge
R-machining
(9) 2 A h
Arch
Change the shape of the seal box

corner to an arch.
Bend the seal box side in 2 steps.
2-step
bending
R corner

furnace wall piping and the
mounted fixture, which generates
stress on the welded portion.
Change the structure of the

furnace wall piping and mounted
fixture to a sliding structure.
The entire portion tends to deform

due to the temperature difference
between the front- and rear-end
bards at the ceiling hole, but is
locked by the ceiling piping,
resulting in the generation of
stress on the welded portion. Due
to the temperature difference
between the end bar and the skin
casing, cracking occurs on the
skin casing.
Due to the temperature difference
between the wall piping
surrounding the rear smoke duct
and hopper, stress is generated on
the skin casing, resulting in
cracking.
Change the structure of the

ceiling piping and end bar to a
sliding structure.
Change the skin casing to a 2-step
bent type.
Tension plate
Slide
End bar
Welded portion
Piping on
the ceiling
End bar and skin casing for

the hole of the ceiling
Deformation
Skin casing below

economizer
165
2-step-type skin
casing
End bar
Piping on
the ceiling
Change the skin casing to 2-step

projected bellow type.
Damage caused by heat fatigue
Damage caused by corrosive fatigue

Generation of
high stress
Generation of
high stress
Low expansion
Low expansion
Tension plate
High
expansion
High
expansion
Fig.9 Typical example of

heat and corrosive fatigue
Tension plate
Fig.10 Generation status of

incompatiblility at the end
portion of straight-finned
economizer
Table 3.2.2-1 Portion where thermal stress is generated and measures to reduce the stress
Portion

occurs
Nozzle of super-heater and

re-heating pipe head
Piping on
the ceiling
Coefficient of
linear thermal
expansion
Joint welded by dissimilar

metals
Inconel welding
electrode
Present
style
Improved
style
SUS rod
SUS steel
Cr-Mo steel
Saddle spacer welding

portion
Fixed
Welded portion of
small-diameter nozzle of pipe
header
Welding-type
saddle
Deformation
(29) Pi i
ti
Piping
reaction
force
stress
Temperature difference occurs
between the nozzles during
start/stop operations, and bending
stress is generated on the welded
portion that has been locked
between the nozzles and ceiling
hole.
Due to the difference in the
carbon content, carbon migrates
to the metal to be welded from
low-alloy steel, yielding a
decarbonized layer as a result,
and the strength on the low-alloy
side declines. By the difference in
thermal expansion between the
austenitic stainless steel to be
welded and the low-alloy base
steel, thermal stress is generated
on the portion welded. Because of
its high temperature, creep
damage also occurs.
Within a structure supported by a
spacer fixed by welding to the
hanging pipe of the
horizontal-type
super-heater/re-heater, thermal
stress is generated on the
spacer-welded portion due to the
temperature difference between
the upper and the lower pipes.
If the air vent pipe and drain pipe
of pipe header are the type of
such structure as being locked in
the housing hole, thermal stress is
generated at the welded portion of
the nozzle of pipe header.

Change the nozzles to the
flexible type.
Flexible
By using Inconel-family welding

electrodes and by reducing the
linear expansion difference,
reduce the stress. Prevent the
strength from declining by
preventing the carbon from
migrating.
Welding at factory
using Inconel welding
electrodes
Employ a flexible spacer.

Slide
Fixed
Flexible saddle
spacer
Change the small-diameter pipe

to a flexible type. The form of
nozzle of pipe heater should be
butt welding type.
Flexible bending
piping
Hole to
be fixed
166
Portion
Welded portion to fix the
anchor plate

occurs
Portion where
cracking occurs
Filler plate
Tie bar
stress
between the anchor plate and
furnace wall piping occurring by
start/stop operations of a boiler,
stress concentrates at the welded
portion of the anchor plate.

Separate the anchor plate to fit it
by full arc welding and make the
size smaller.
Anchor plate
Stand-off
Stopper
Filler plate
Driber
Anchor plate
Stand-off
Membrane-edge connecting
waterwall and cage walls
Membrane
Portion
where
cracking
occurs
Waterwall
pipe
Stopper
Desuper-heater main
body
Support
Base pipe
Protection cylinder
Fitting of liner
(Welding type)
Measures against damage to

main piping support lag
Spray
nozzle
Liner
Forepart of
the tank
Welded liner of
super-heater/desuper-heater
Support
ring
Weldi

between the waterwall and cage
piping occurring by start/stop
operations, stress concentrates at
the connection and membrane
edge.
Refresh the connection membrane

edge and provide R-machining to
the welding stop end.
By the ON/OFF injection from

the spray nozzle of the
super-heater/desuper-heater, the
liner is bumped and stress
concentrates at the liner-welded
portion.
Change the structure of the spray

nozzle and improve the method of
fixing the liner by changing to the
pin type.
Waterwall
pipe
Desuper-heater main body

Support
Protection
cylinder
Improved
structure
(pin type)
Spray
nozzle
Pin
Portion where
cracking occurs
Main
piping
Membrane
Pin
Stopper
Portion where
cracking occurs
Support
lag
Temperature difference occurs on

the supports inside and outside
the thermal insulator, and excess
stress concentrates at the
support-welded potion.
Change the support lag to shear

lag.
Hanging
bolt
Shear
lag
Main
piping
Thermal
insulation
material
Thermal
insulation
material
Band
Ceiling hole

between the crown and the
piping, stress concentrates
causing cracking to occur.
Crwon
Use a sleeve through the ceiling

hole and avoid direct welding of
the crown to the piping.
Crown
To add a
sleeve
Ceiling
piping
Ceiling
piping
Connection of loop pipes

Tie rod
Sliding spacer
When there is a temperature

difference at operation start,
cracking occurs at the portion
where a linkage fixture has been
installed due to stress
concentration.
Hanging loop
pipe
Use a sliding spacer at the portion

where high temperature is
transmitted and to avoid any
locking. Change the tie lag in the
rear heat transmission portion to
an oval-shaped lag to soften the
concentration of stress.
(Single lag)
Inner casing of ceiling

enclosure
The corner casing cannot absorb

the expansion force from 3 sides,
and cracking causes gas leakage.
Use a corrugated-type expansion

at the corner.
Corrugated-type
expansion
Pipe header
at furnace
front wall
167
(Oval lag)
Pipe header
at furnace
side wall
However, in a corrosive environment, strength against fatigue declines, which causes cracking at the inner face
within a pipe by corrosion fatigue.
As a characteristic of a cracked surface caused by corrosion fatigue, many cracks are accompanied by pits
caused by the corrosion along the cracks.
As basic countermeasures, such actions to soften the thermal stress are considered important. In such a case, it
is required to change the tension plate support to a sliding type and improve the structure so that the thermal stress
may be softened.
Examples of other corrosion fatigue are introduced below:
Straight fin end of economizer piping (Fig. 3.2.2-2)

The occurrence of cracking was experienced at the straight fin end of the economizer piping, caused by thermal
stress accompanied by intermittent water supply in order to keep the drum at a constant level at the operation start
of the boiler.
Cracking has started from the inner surface of the piping. Corrosive fatigue is the cause.
Ligament of the pipe header at the inlet of the economizer (Fig. 3.2.2-3)
The occurrence of cracking was experienced at the ligament of the pipe header at the inlet of the economizer
due to the same cause as above. This was also caused by corrosion fatigue.
(4) Mechanical fatigue
In the case of mechanical fatigue, the cracking is a type of transgranular cracking in general. The ruptured face
has a fine fatigue face, and no extension by rupture was detected.
Pipe header at the

inlet of economizer
Pipe header at
outside furnace
Nozzle at outside furnace
Fig. 3.2.2-3 Example of corrosion fatigue of the inner ligament of the pipe header nozzle at the inlet of the
economizer
(5) High-temperature corrosion
The surface stainless steel pipe affected by high-temperature corrosion has been damaged by corrosion in a
pockmarked fashion. The corroded portion is composed of an oxide layer a polysulfide layer a carbonized
layer base metal from the outer piping surface. From the viewpoint of microstructure, the corroded and
carbonized structure of grain boundary is found. A drop in expansion as well as a drop in strength can be
detected.
168
Table 3.2.2-2 Classification of measures to improve bearing force

Phenomenon
Creep
Fatigue
(including creep
fatigue)
Corrosion
Wear
Cause
Measures
Subject portion
Aged strength drop

by creep at welded
portion
Assessment of
remaining life by replica,
ultrasonic testing, TDFD,
ELFOSS, UT inspection
Pipe header of super-heater/re-heater,

main-/high-temperature longitudinal
re-heating steam piping, around welded
portion, elbow/Y-piece-welded portion
Restriction on
elongation by heat
Add flexibility
Pipe header stub, finish of sealing

Expansion of casing
Piping-supporting fixture, back-stay
prevention fixture
Sliding
Shape the stress
concentrates
R-machining, chamfering,
change of shape
Fin-end portion, pipe header lid at the

corner of the burner wall box, expansion
for the smoke duct
Thermal shock
Change of shape, improvement

of material, improvement of the
shapes of seat and piping
Desuper-heater spray, small-diameter

piping with main piping (drain pressure
tank)
Dissimilar metal
welding (SUS/Cr-Mo)
Inconel solvent
Joint of different piping material, fixture of

different material
Corrosion fatigue
Change of structure and

shape, water quality
control
Fixture welded to furnace wall piping,

ligament at the inlet of the economizer
High-temperature
fatigue, oxidation
Improvement of bearing
force of material, addition
of extra welding
Super-heater, re-heater
Furnace wall
Oxidation of steam
(SUS piping)
Fine-particle SUS material

Inner face shot blast
Super-heater, re-heater
Coal ash, soot blow
Protector, pipe thermal

spraying
Furnace wall, super-heater, re-heater
(6) Low-temperature corrosion

The AH element, seal plate, etc. are main damaged caused by low-temperature corrosion. It has been reported
that the expansion at the AH outlet, damper, etc. were affected by sulfuric acid corrosion when HS oil had been
used.
In addition, such an example was reported where corrosion was generated on the outer surface of the furnace or
the furnace wall of the rear smoke duct caused by condensed sulfuric acid in the steam-condensed water while the
boiler was kept at standstill.
(7) Measures to improve bearing force
As explained above, the components composing the boiler equipment receive various types of damage
depending on the environment of use, most of which are combinations of several damaging factors. With respect
to such damage, various measures to improve the bearing force, which are classified and detailed in Table 3.2.2-2,
have been taken.
3.2.3 Technology to assess the remaining life
The methods to assess the remaining life of boiler equipment can be divided into the following 3 types:
Stress analysis method such as the finite element method, etc.
Destructive test method
Non-destructive test method
Except the stress analysis method, it is not possible to assess the remaining life if you use only any one of above
methods. Assessment of remaining life is carried out by combining the methods.
(1) Stress analysis method
This is a method of obtaining the life consumption by calculation based on the equipment subjected to
169
assessment, the geometric shape of the part, the operation history such as temperature, stress, etc., the strength
against creep rupture, and the properties of the materials. The finite element method using a computer makes it
possible to analyze the stress of a complex structure.
With respect to the properties of the material to be used for the analysis, it is required to include the safety ratio
in the laboratory data to some extent considering possible variations of the properties. Therefore, the assessment
result leans towards the safe side.
With respect to such operation history as the temperature, stress, etc. to be used for the analysis, calculation is
performed by dividing the operation history into several typical patterns. In order to cope with the recent complex
operation history, the remaining life is sometimes assessed by installing a life-monitoring device at the pipe
header at the outlet of the super-heater, water separator, boiler circulation pump, etc.
(2) Destructive test method
This is a method of estimating the remaining life through various types of destructive tests by taking out test
specimens from the components actually put under operation. This test method is usually employed for
components (typically, the boiler tube) from which test specimens can be easily taken out. The advantage of this
method is that the remaining life of a given material can be assessed directly, including its history at the time of
manufacture, even if the temperature or stress history of the material in the past is not made clear. The
disadvantage is that sampling is required, the portion where the test specimen has been taken out needs to be
repaired, and time and expense are required for creep rupture testing, fatigue testing, etc.
As a measure making it possible to perform destructive testing by using much smaller test specimens,
destructive testing through a miniature test is available. As shown in Fig. 3.2.3-1, its effectiveness has been
verified.
Conventional test specimen
Miniature test specimen
Miniature test specimen
Stress (MPa)
Conventional test
specimen
Time of rupture
Comparison of strength against creep rupture between a conventional
test specimen of 1 Cr 0.5 Mo Steel and a miniature test specimen
Fig. 3.2.3-1 Miniature creep rupture test
(3) Non-destructive test method

The advantage of the non-destructive test method is that any critical component with respect to the stress can be
assessed in a short time without sampling. This test is used together with the assessment of remaining life through
stress analysis.
This method varies depending on the material quality or state of damage to the subject component. In Table
3.2.3-1, the non-destructive assessment method for creep damage and fatigue damage is shown.
170
Table 3.2.3-1 Non-destructive method of assessing the remaining life of components affected by creep/fatigue damage
Subject
damage
Creep
damage
Method of assessing remaining life
Method as described
Low-alloy steel
in Attachment 3 of the
Electricity Utilities
Welded
Base metal
Industry Law
portion
Base metal
Welded
portion
Deposition intergranular distance

method
Hardness-measuring method
Structure comparison method
AC electric resistance method
Void (cavity) area ratio method

Void density method
A-parameter method
!
!
!
!
!
!
Crystal grain deformation method

Carbide structure-measuring method
!
!
!
!
Ultrasonic method
Fatigue
Steel
!
!
Structure-quantifying method
CMA density spectrum method

Microscopic-crack method
!
!
!
!
!
!
Creep damage
(a) Deposition intergranular distance method
This method is used for the assessment of creep damage of low-alloy steel base metal. Low-alloy steel is a
material whose strength against creep has been raised by depositions and shows ductile creep damage. When used
for many hours in a high-temperature atmosphere, the intergranular distance of this disposition becomes larger
and, at the same time, resistance against deformation declines, causing the creep to accelerate. This phenomenon
is represented by the creep distortiontime curve in general. The change depends on the temperature and stress of
the subject component. By measuring the intergranular distance between particles of disposition, the creep
distortion at the time of assessment can be obtained. Therefore, the behavior of creep distortion thereafter can be
predicted, and the creep remaining life can be assessed. The intergranular distance of disposition is obtained by
image processing of the replica taken out from the subject component using an electrolytic discharge-type
scanning electron microscope (Fig. 3.2, 3-2).
Disposition
Scanning
line
Replica
Point
Scanning-type electron
microscope
Creep rate constant
Mean free-path
Average intergranular
distance ("m)
Fig. 3.2.3-2 Disposition intergranular distance method
171
(b) Hardness-measuring method

The crystal grains of 9 Cr base metal steel are very fine, and this base metal has a hard structure of initial
hardness. Different from low-alloy steel, no metallic structural change can be detected even when creep damage
grows. However, its hardness tends to drop gradually.
Therefore, by measuring the hardness and referring to the master curve that indicates the relationship between
the hardness and the amount of damage, the life consumption ratio can be assessed (Fig. 3.2.3-2).
Vickers
hardness
The amount of creep damage
Fig. 3.2.3-2 Hardness-measuring method
(c) Structure comparison method

This method is very effective for the assessment of components affected by low-alloy steel welding heat that
indicates fragile creep damage. Comprehensive assessment of life is carried out by comparing the standard
structure corresponding to the life consumption ratio by taking out the replica/extracted replica from the
component subjected to assessment and by using 3 parameters of deposition distribution pertaining to mechanical
damage such as creep voids or microscopic-cracks generated as the creep damage grows, optical microscopic
structure pertaining to the change in the distribution of the metallic structure, or carbide using various types of
microscopes and the change in the shape or size of the deposed carbide.
As shown in Fig. 3.2.3-3, the factors for assessment of respective damage are divided into 3 steps or 4 steps. By
combining them, the life consumption ratio is estimated comprehensively within a range of 8 categories. For
example, when mechanical damage is IID, the microscopic structure is IIIM, and deposition distribution is IIP, the
comprehensive damage category of the life consumption ratio by creep rupture is estimated to be E, namely 50
60%.
By combining various factors for assessment of life, assessment with high precision becomes possible in the
entire range covering the first half and second half of life.
172
Extracted replica
Replica
Component surface
(etched surface)
Optical microscope
Scanning-type electron
microscope
Micro-crack
Creep cavity
Metal structure
Damage factors
Mechanical
damage
Microscopic
structure
Analysis electron
microscope
Deposition
distribution
Comprehensive
damage
category
Disposition
Life consumption
ratio by creep
breakage (%)
Fig. 3.2.3-3 Structure comparison method
(d) AC electric resistance method

This method is effective for the assessment of creep damage of components affected by welding heat
(hereinafter referred to as the HAZ portion) of low-alloy steel and 9 Cr steel.
Material damaged
by creep
Voltage drop ratio defined by

initial value
Material not
used yet
Life consumption ratio by creep breakage (%)
Fig. 3.2.3-4 AC electric resistance method
The creep damage of the component affected by welding heat from these steels is a type of fragile damage and
generates creep voids at the grain boundary. As the generation of voids increases, the electric resistance tends to
become stronger (Fig. 3.2.3-4). The amount of damage is assessed by using the electric resistance ratio of unused
material and the electric resistance ratio of the component being assessed, and by referring to the master curve
indicating the relationship with the amount of damage. Assessment accuracy has been improved by making it
173
easier to grasp the level of damage proximate to the surface by using an alternative current. In addition, it is
required in this method to spot weld a platinum wire to the subject component. If an electrode has once been
installed, building of a scaffold, thermal insulation, removal/restoration of the exterior plate, and polishing of the
subject component for inspection are not required thereafter. Therefore, the costs for inspection can be reduced. In
addition, it is possible to make measurement at any time during operation. This method can also be used for
monitoring the main piping, etc.
(e) Void (cavity) area ratio method
As shown in Fig. 3.2.3-5, voids are generated at the grain boundary when the HAZ portion of low-alloy steel or
9 Cr steel is affected by creep damage. The number of voids increases as the damage grows. The voids become a
crack after growing/combining (namely, the area of voids increases), and finally result in the rupture of the
component material. In this method, the ratio between the total area of voids generated within the observation
visual field and the total observation visual area is defined as a void (cavity) area ratio. Using this ratio together
with the master curve prepared by its correlation with the degree of creep damage, the life is assessed in this
method (Fig. 3.2.3-5).
Replica
Cavity area ratio S0
Scanning-type
electron microscope
W elding metal (570$C)

Regression curve
99% reliable section
99% reliable section of
creep damage ratio
Creep damage ratio #c
Fig. 3.2.3-5 Void (cavity) area ratio method

Incidentally, the behavior to generate voids is different in such low-alloy steels as 2.25 Cr-1 Mo steel, etc. and 9
Cr steel. It is required to use the master curve suitable for the respective type of steel.
(f) Void density method
The ratio between the number of voids in the observation visual field and the observation area is defined as
cavity density. Referring to the master curve indicating the relationship between the cavity density and the amount
of damage, assessment of the life of the component subjected to assessment is carried out in this method.
(g) A-parameter method
This is a method to be used for the assessment of creep damage at the HAZ portion of low-alloy steel. This
method was developed by English researchers. Creep voids generated as creep damage grows are generated at the
grain boundary. Draw an optional scanning line in the metal structure of the subject component. The ratio of the
number of grain boundaries where voids have been generated against the number of grain boundaries that
intersect this scanning line is defined as the A-parameter. The life of the component subjected to assessment is
assessed in this method by referring to the master curve indicating its relationship with the amount of damage (Fig.
3.2.3-6).
174
Amount of creep damage (%)

Relationship between A-parameter and life
consumption ratio by creep rupture
Fig. 3.2.3-6 A-parameter method
(h) Crystal grain deformation method

The base material of low-alloy steel used for boiler equipment has been made considerably soft considering
easiness of machining and welding. Therefore, level of generation of voids when receiving creep damage is lower
than that of the HAZ portion, but instead plastic deformation generates easily. Under such circumstances, the
crystal grain is expanded gradually to be long and narrow in the applied stress direction and becomes uniform.
The level of this uniform style is quantified by the standard deviation of the frequency distribution of the
maximum-diameter angle (an angle created by the direction of the maximum diameter of the crystal grain and the
direction of applied stress). This is a method of assessing the life using this standard deviation and the master
curve prepared by the correlation with the degree of creep damage (Fig. 3.2.3-7).
Crystal
grain
Direction of stress
(a) New material
Frequency
Direction of stress
(b) Material damaged

by creep
Deformation
coefficient Sm
(standard deviation)
Deformation count Sm (degree)
Frequency
Maximum
diameter
Piping material (500-650$C)
Applied to the assessment of creep damage of Cr-Mo steel

base metal
Method of assessing the remaining life focusing on the fact
that the crystal grain deforms as the creep damage grows
Heat transmission pipe material (570-600$C)
Regression curve
99% reliable section of creep
damage ratio +/- 0.09
Formal
distribution
Creep damage ratio #c

[Relationship between deformation
coefficient and creep damage ratio]
Fig. 3.2.3-7 Assessment of creep damage to Cr-Mo steel base metal through the crystal grain deformation method
(i) Carbide structure-measuring method

The base metal of low-alloy steel used for a boiler and the HAZ portion makes such structural changes as
deposition of carbide, condensation/large sizing, etc. as the creep grows. The structure of carbide also changes. At
the initial stage of life, there is a lot of Cr-enriched carbide represented by M
. However, as the damage grows,
C
it changes to Mo-enriched carbide such as MC. This method focuses on such structural changes of carbide. In
this method, life is assessed using the master curve prepared in the correlation between the weight ratio of Mo/Cr
and the degree of creep damage.
The Mo/Cr weight ratio is obtained by taking out very a small amount of specimen from the component
subjected to assessment, extracting carbide by dissolving it in a suitable device, and measuring the weight of Cr
and Mo by high-frequency plasma emission-analyzing apparatus. Figure 3.2.3-8 shows an example of the master
curve of this method, which shows stress dependency.
(j) Ultrasonic method
Upon the incidence of ultrasonic waves into the component, rear scatter noise is generated. Because the noise
characteristics correspond to the number of generated voids and/or microscopic-cracks of the damaged component,
it is quantified to specify this as a parameter to assess creep damage (noise value). Taking the noise wave after the
175
incidence of ultrasonic waves from the component surface to the 1st bottom echo, and by carrying out power
spectrum analysis, the area within a certain frequency range is calculated to define it as the noise value. The
assessment flow in the ultrasonic method is shown in Fig. 3.2.3-9.
Mo/Cr weight ratio
steel
HAZ-reproduced component with SR
: Application of reaction
Creep life ratio t/tr

(Carbide structure-measuring method)
Fig. 3.2.3-8 Carbide structure-measuring method
(a) New material (unused)
No fine cracks are detected.

Frequency (MHz)
(b) Material damaged by creep
PC
Frequency
analyzer
Certified curve
Noise value
Frequency (MHz)
Fine cracks are

detected.
st
1 bottom echo
Component for
assessment
Comparison of noise between

component for assessment
and unused material
Noise value ratio
Search
unit
Life assessment
Noise value
Amplitude (dB)
Pulse receiver
Oscilloscope
Noise
analysis
Amplitude (dB)
Data measurement of
component for assessment
Life ratio
Fig. 3.2.3-9 Life assessment flow in ultrasonic method
(k) Other methods to assess creep remaining life

In the remarks column of Attachment 3 as explained above, it is stated that the Application of any other
method than the above is permitted on the condition that it is recognized (by a committee with participation of
people of experience or academic standing) to have accuracy equivalent to the above methods. Various methods
other than the above have been developed. The names of such methods are mentioned below.
a) Structure-quantifying method
The following 2 means are included:
MC deposition ratio
Spheroidizing ratio of carbide
b) CMA (Computer-aided X-ray Microscopic-analyzer)

Density spectrum method
Fatigue damage
(a) Microscopic-crack method (Replica method, MT copying method, etc.)
The methods for life assessment against creep damage as explained above are the methods of assessing the life
against fatigue damage to the carbon steel, base metal, or HAZ portion.
If these components receive fatigue damage, microscopic-cracking of a level that can be observed by replicas
only at the initial stage of fatigue life occurs, grows, and finally grows to a crack that can be detected by a
non-destructive test such as PT, MT, etc. Therefore, the life can be assessed by detecting such microscopic-cracks
by a replica. Figure 3.2.3-10 shows life assessment curves.
176
Magnetic powder
copying film
Magnetic powder
Oxidation scale
Maximum length of crack measured by

MT copying method (mm)
Magnetic
field
Carbon steel welding stop end
Average value curve
99% reliability curve
Crack detection
boundary
Low-alloy steel welding stop end

Average value curve
99% reliability curve
Crack
detection
boundary
Maximum length of crack measured by

MT copying method (mm)
Life consumption ratio by the generation of

macro-cracks (%)
Life consumption ratio by the generation of

macro-cracks (%)
Fig. 3.2.3-10 Microscopic-crack method (MT copying method)
3.2.4 Development and automation of inspection technology

With respect to the regular inspection of boiler equipment, the use of high efficiency, high-precision assessment
devices has been required under such circumstances where the inspection process needs to be simplified,
inspectors are getting old, 3K jobs (dirty, dangerous, and tough jobs) need to be eliminated, and damage needs to
be quantitatively assessed corresponding to a requirement to rationalize aged boiler maintenance in line with the
liberalization of electric power. In Table 3.2.4-1, various types of inspection methods and related automation are
shown.
(1) Type IV cracks of high-temperature thick wall pipe of large diameter
Cracks occurring to the boiler pipe header and to the welded portion of the thick wall main piping of large
diameter are classified according to the locations of occurrence and are shown in Fig. 3.2.4-1. The cracks
frequently experienced as creep damage are Type III and Type IV damage and are respectively characterized as
damage to the rough-grain areas and fine-grain areas of the HAZ portion.
177
Table 3.2.4-1 Various types of inspection methods and related automation

Method of inspection and
Subject
Damage to material
Automation
detection
Furnace waterwall (1) Thermal fatigue of
PT, MT
Automatic inspection
piping
piping external metals UT from outside furnace
device using a
multi-sensor within the
(2) Inner piping corrosion High-frequency array UT
furnace
fatigue
Spiral UT
Coil of
(1) Creep
Replica method, hardness Void recognition device by
method
image processing
super-heater,
re-heater, and
(2) Fatigue
PT, MT
economizer
Replica method
(microscopic method)
(3) High-temperature
Inner piping UT
Automatic-measuring
robot
corrosion, wear, and
thickness decrease
(3) Steam oxidation scale High-precision UT
method
(4) Wear of horizontal
High-velocity laser
Automatic inspection unit
method
heat-transferring
piping
Inner piping UT
UT thickness gage for
narrow portion
Pipe header and
(1) Type IV crack, inner
TOFD method
Image-processing device
main piping
crack
Electronic focus sector
scanning
Ultrasonic noise method
W elding material
Base material
Base material
Transmitter
Surface
wave
Diffracted
wave
Receiver
Wave diffracted on
the crack top
Wave diffracted on
the crack bottom
Type I: Crack in welded metal

Type II: Crack classified as Type I, which has expanded from
the welded portion to the portion affected by heat
(HAZ)
Type III: Damage to the rough-grain area of the portion
affected by heat (HAZ)
Type IV: Damage from the fine-grain area of the portion
affected by heat (HAZ) to the range of the partially
transformed area
Fig. 3.2.4-1
Classification of damage to a welded portion
Wave reflected
on the bottom
Crack
Diffracted
wave
Direct reflection wave (same as conventional one)
Fig. 3.2.4-2 Principles of TOFD method
Type III damage (damage in a rough-grain area) appears on the external surface of a pipe, whereas Type IV
damage (damage in a fine-grain area) occurs within a thick wall pipe and expands toward the surface. Impure
substances contained in the steel play an important role in Type IV cracks.
(2) Inspection method for Type IV cracks
Typical inspection methods for Type IV cracks occurring within a pipe having a thick wall are explained below.
The inspection method is used alone or jointly with other methods.
TOFD method
As an inspection technology able to assess Type IV cracks occurring from the inside of a thick wall precisely
and quantitatively, the TOFD (Time of Flight Diffraction) method has been developed and put to practical use,
which is an ultrasonic wave flaw detection method using 2 search units for transmission and receipt. A comparison
with the conventional angle beam method is shown in Fig. 3.2.4-2.
The conventional method was in principle designed so as to catch reflecting echoes from a defect. Therefore,
there were some cases where inspection was not possible depending on the direction of the crack. It was also
178
difficult to capture the defect size in a quantitative manner.

On the other hand, the TOFD method catches the wave diffracted from the tip end of a crack. Therefore, it is
not affected by the direction of the defect. In addition, it can assess the length (depth) of a crack based on the
transmission time of the diffracted wave. As a result, inspection in a precise and quantitative fashion has become
possible.
Electronic focus sector scan ultrasonic testing

The principles of measurement by ELFOSS UT are shown in Fig. 3.2.4-3. This device can perform wide-angle
scanning by focusing an ultrasonic wave beam through the delay circuit to improve resolution and defect
inspection accuracy. Two search units are used for the TOFD method, whereas this device has such a characteristic
that inspection of the narrow portion is made possible because wide-angle flaw detection is performed by only 1
search unit.
Trigger pulse
for activation
Delay circuit
Vibrator
Angle of
deflection
Focus
Electronic focusing by
delay circuit
If the activation timing of
the vibrator is
changed with the
same interval in the
right and left
directions, an
ultrasonic wave
beam focuses. In
addition, the focal
depth can be freely
set by the duration of
the timing.
Sector scan by delay

circuit
If the activation timing of
the vibrator is changed at
the same interval, the
ultrasonic wave beam is
deflected. In addition, the
deflection angle can be
freely set by the duration
of the timing.
Electronic focus sector

scan
If the timing and duration
of the activation of the
vibrator is changed from
time to time, the direction
can be changed
continuously by focusing
an ultrasonic wave beam.
Fig. 3.2.4-3 Principles of ELFOSS UT

Ultrasonic noise method

As explained in the section on the method of assessing remaining life pertaining to creep damage, such features
as noise intensity rises in the case of a material with voids or microscopic-cracks being utilized in the ultrasonic
noise method. Early assessment has become possible for Type IV damage occurring within the welded joints of
high-temperature thick wall pipes of large diameter. In addition, by scanning the search unit in the right-angle
direction against the weld line and by installing a time gate in the direction of plate thickness, map images of the
damaged portion can be obtained through divided measurements as shown in Fig. 3.2.4-4.
179
Scan a search unit and apply gate by

splitting the corresponding time width.
Clarification of the points of damage

for image processing
Direction to move search unit (mm)

Time split gate
Scanning
Portion affected by
weld heat
Deposited metal
portion
Plate thickness
direction (mm)
Deposited metal
Base material
portion
Portion affected
Portion affected
by weld heat
by weld heat
Base material
Base material
Example of flaw detection result

The noise value is displayed on a color map.
Fig. 3.2.4.-4 Image processing of flaw detection results through the ultrasonic noise method
3.2.5 Chemical cleaning

(1) Purpose and timing of chemical cleaning
Purpose of chemical cleaning
The purpose of carrying out chemical cleaning of boiler equipment is to remove any and all foreign materials
and scale adhering to inner face of the evaporation piping during construction or operation of the boiler, thereby
preventing any problems from occurring to the boiler, to recover its efficiency and maintain it under good
conditions.
The purpose of chemical cleaning performed during the construction of boiler equipment is to remove any and
all mill scale adhered during the manufacture of the boiler piping and fat and oil adhered during installation, to
remove any foreign materials entered such as sand, etc., and to prevent any problems from occurring during
operation thereafter.
Although impure substances brought into the boiler equipment when installing a condensate demineralizer or
improving water treatment are reduced, these substances still remain as scale adhering to the inner piping due to
the following causes:
(a) Intrusion of corrosive substances through the water supply system and their adherence to the water supply
system
(b)
Condensation and deposition of dissolved salts
(c)
Corrosion of the materials of the boiler piping
Such impure substances cause overheating of the piping materials, generation of scaling, formation of local
cells, or corrosion due to condensed salts and lead to future swelling out or explosion of the piping.
As shown in Table 3.2.5-1, the thermal conductivity of scale largely varies depending on its chemical
ingredients. Because the size of scale is smaller than that of piping materials, adhered scale blocks thermal
conduction causing overheating or heat loss of piping materials.
Table 3.2.5-1 Thermal conductivity of metal and scale
Type
Thermal conductivity (W/mK)
Mild steel
45 ~ 70
Scale containing silicate as its major ingredient
0.2 ~ 0.5
Scale containing iron oxide as its major ingredient
0.9 ~ 2.3
Fat and oil
0.1
Water
0.6
The water vapor oxidized scale generated in the steam system peels off during operation and accumulates in the
U-shape pipe of the super-heater piping, resulting in its explosion. Its fragments may fly over to the turbine and
damage the blade.

180
Timing of chemical cleaning

For the timing of chemical cleaning after the start of operation of boiler equipment, the boiler manufacturer
specifies the standards of cleaning depending on the amount and thickness of adhered scale. On the other hand,
the operators at electric power companies also specify their own respective standards. The standards commonly
used for cleaning are shown in Table 3.2.5-2. The value mentioned there is only a general guideline. Therefore, it
is desirable if an independent cleaning timing is established. In addition, this value should be determined based on
the portion where the maximum amount of scale adheres to individual boiler equipment. Full care should be paid
to any change in the portion where the maximum amount of scale adhered due to a change in the boiler operation
method or fuel change.
Table 3.2.5-2 Amount and thickness of adhered scale for which chemical cleaning is required
Normal pressure
Beyond boundary
8Mpa class
12Mpa class
18Mpa class
pressure
Type
90 ~ 135
75 ~ 105
!
Coal-fired boiler
!
400 ~ 450
250 ~ 350
!
Coal/oil
90 ~ 120
75 ~ 105
60 ~ 90
mixture-fired
!
300 ~ 400
250 ~ 350
200 ~ 300
boiler
75 ~ 105
60 ~ 90
45 ~ 75
24 ~ 36
Oil-fired boiler
250 ~ 350
200 ~ 300
150 ~ 250
80 ~ 120
Gas-fired boiler
Same as above
Same as above
Same as above
Same as above
Note 1) The upper row in each column indicates the amount of adhered scale (mg/cm), the and lower row indicates the scale
thickness ("m).
Note 2) The amount of adhered scale is the value at the flame side (180q of the inner evaporation piping.
Note 3) The amount of a once-through boiler of 18 Mpa class or smaller shall be 2/3 of the value shown in above table.
Note 4) Even if the actual values are less than above, it is recommended to carry out chemical cleaning when the boiler has been
operated for 50,000 hours or longer.
(2) Nature of scale

The scale adhered to new boiler equipment is mostly mill scale (magnetite: FeO )generated during the course
of pipe manufacturing. On the other hand, the nature of scale largely varies depending on the quality of the supply
water or refill water, treatment of the supply water or boiler water or materials of low-/the high-pressure supply
water heat transmission piping of a heater between the steam condenser and the boiler. Even with the same boiler,
the amount and ingredients of scale vary depending on the sampling position or whether it is the flame
side/furnace material side. Table 3.2.-3 shows examples of analyzed scale ingredients in the evaporation piping
and steam system. Its characteristics are outlined below:
(a) With respect to boilers A, B, and C using a heater of copper alloy steel in the water supply system, the scale
contains copper.
(b) With respect to boilers B and C, such refractory scale as white ZnAl
O(zinc aluminate) or NiFeO(nickel
ferrite) called spinel scale may be generated if zinc (Zn), Aluminum (Al), and/or nickel (Ni) is contained.
(c) The scale of boilers D, E, and F using a heater for the steel piping in the water supply system is mostly iron
oxide (FeO
).
(d) Boilers D, E, and F are of same high-pressure, once-through type, but the boiler water treatment for boilers D
and E is AVT (all volatile treatment) to remove FeO(magnetite). As shown in Photo 3.2.5-1, the scale has
a corrugated surface.
181
Table 3.2.5-3 Examples of chemically analyzed scale ingredients
ZnO
Al2O3
NiO
MgO
CaO
P2O5
Cr2O3
MoO
MnO
Refractory
by acid
H
I
Right-side wall pipe

Front wall pipe
Front wall pipe
Front wall pipe
Front wall pipe
Front wall pipe
Secondary
super-heater
Re-heater
Main steam pipe
Cu
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Pipe specimen
Chemical content
Fe3SO4
Boiler
Average
adhering
amount
(mg/cm2)
65.3
25.4
20.4
24.1
23.4
9.6
38.4
58.3
33.0
73.0
97.5
97.9
97.9
1.9
34.5
2.8
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
1.1
15.1
10.0
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
0.7
0.9
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
14.5
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
10.3
<0.1
0.8
<0.1
<0.1
13.3
<0.1
1.7
0.1
0.2
10.6
0.3
4.9
-
1.8
-
0.7
0.5
2.1
0.2
1.9
<0.1
0.7
<0.1
65.9
<0.1
<0.1
11.3
<0.1
17.8
1.5
1.7
0.3
125.0
125.3
95.4
88.1
<0.1
<0.5
<0.02 <0.1
<0.5 <0.5
<0.2
<0.5
<0.5
<0.4
<0.5
<0.5
1.8
3.3
0.9
0.8
0.4
<0.5
1.3
-
Note 1) A: Boiler for own power generation (VU-60) 6.8 MPa

60 t/h
B: Forced circulation boiler (Mitsubishi) 19.2 MPa
860 t/h
C: Natural circulation boiler (Hitachi) 17.2 MPa
1,135 t/h
D: Once-through boiler 26.3 MPa
1,640 t/h
E: Pressure-variable once-through boiler (AVT) 25.0 MPa
2,300 t/h
F: Pressure-variable once-through boiler (CWT) 25.0 MPa
2,300 t/h
G: Once-through boiler (super-heater piping: SUS316HTB) 26.9 MPa 1,500 t/h
H: Pressure-variable once-through boiler (re-heater piping:STBA24) 25.0 MPa
2,300 t/h
I: Once-through boiler (main steam piping:STBA24) 25.0 MPa
1,900 t/h
Note 2) A F: Adhered amount on flame side
G I: Adhered amount around entire circumference
Outer
layer
Inner
layer
Base
material
Photo 3.2.5-1: Corrugated scale of AVT treatment

boiler
Photo 3.2.5-2: Steam-oxidized scale

(x 100 magnification)
With respect to boiler E, fine-grain FeOfrom CWT (combined water treatment) adheres to the magnetite, and
the scale has smooth surface.
(e) Boilers G, H, and I generate vapor-type scale. Cr-Mo steel (low-alloy steel) has been used for these
boilers. Two-layer scale, called steam-oxidized scale; one in the neighborhood of piping materials with a
high content of chromium and the other at steam side with a high content of iron oxide are generated as
shown in Photo 3.2.5-2.
182
Final washing
with water
Prevention of
rust by
neutralization
Washing with
water
Cleaning with
acid
Washing with
water
Cleaning by
degreasing
Cleaning with
ammonia
Flushing
Table 3.2.5-4 Operation of a boiler and required cleaning process
During construction
Copper content: high
After
Copper content: low
operation
Copper content: none
Remarks
: Implement.
Implement if necessary.
(3) Cleaning method

Cleaning process
The cleaning method varies depending on the operation of the boiler equipment or the ingredients of the scale.
Typical cleaning processes are shown in Table 3.2.5-4.
(a) Boiler during construction
The main purpose of cleaning is to remove mill scale, oil and fat, and/or foreign materials. In these years, the
degreasing process is mostly omitted by adding degreasing agent during acid cleaning.
(b) Boiler after operation
i) Starting from acid cleaning of the scale mainly containing ferrous, hardening ingredients and/or a small
amount of copper, copper-dissolving/-enclosing agent is added during acid cleaning if copper is
contained.
ii)
Before acid cleaning, ammonia cleaning is performed as pretreatment in order to dissolve the copper
content.
In lieu of the above i) and ii) cleaning, chelating cleaning is sometimes carried out. Its cleaning process is:
Ferrous removal
cooling
copper removal/rust prevention
washing with water
(4) Planning and implementation of cleaning

Planning of cleaning includes understanding the overall structure of the subject boiler, studying the cleaning
specifications through investigation of scale, selection of a method of treating wastewater, and planning the
implementation method. The planning procedures are shown in Fig. 3.2.5-1.
183
Investigation of the subject of cleaning

! Specifications and materials of the unit
! State of evaporation amount, pressure,
operation hours, etc.
! State of water treatment control such as
quality of supply water, quality of boiler
water, chemicals used, etc.
! Practical experiences in cleaning
! Type of fuel
Planning of cleaning specifications and

requirements
! Planning of cleaning process
! Planning of treatment of wastewater and
exhaust gas
! Approval of power source, water supply
source, heat source, etc.
! Preparation of cleaning flow and work
procedures
! Checking of the safety and sanitary level
related to construction and training
Investigation of scale
!
!
!
!
Scale ingredients
Amount of adhered scale
Scale generation rate
Deterioration level of the material
Implementation
Inspection
! Visual inspection
! Amount of corrosion to be checked
by a test piece
! Amount of scale removed by
cleaning
Dissolution test
! Scale dissolution test
! Material deterioration test
! Investigation of customers
environmental conditions such as
wastewater standards, etc.
! Availability of wastewater treatment
equipment at customer side
! Experimental wastewater treatment
Summary
Study of wastewater treatment system
! Report of cleaning implemented

! Advice regarding maintenance and
water treatment method
! Checking of operation after cleaning
Fig. 3.2.5-1 Flow of chemical cleaning planning for boilers

Guideline for implementation
Items to be considered when planning a guideline for implementation are given below:
(a) Outline of the unit subjected to cleaning
(b) Scope of cleaning and amount of cleanser
(c) Handling of components not subjected to cleaning
(d) Relationship between actual construction and temporary construction, size, quantity
(e) Types of cleaning chemicals, density and cleaning conditions
(f) Cleaning process and criteria for determining the completion of cleaning
(g) Method of checking and inspecting the effect of cleaning
(h) Method of receiving waste cleaning fluid and procedures to treat it
(i) Utilities (pure water, steam, power, air, etc.)
(j) Flow of each process, temporary storing place, and piping route
(k) Outline and detailed process
An example of the cleaning system for typical-type boiler equipment is shown in Fig. 3.2.5-2.
184
Actual construction line
N2 gas
Pressure gage
Flow meter
Side wall
Front/rear
walls
Side wall
Water
supply line
Temporary construction
Temporary
level gage
Steam drum
Sampling
Thermometer
Mixing header
Mixing heater
Inspection nipple
Draw
pump
Hydrazine pump
Pure water
Circulation pump
Steam
Chemicals
injection pump
Tank
Blower
Ejector
Fig. 3.2.5-2 Flow of cleaning system of the natural circulation-type boiler

Actual construction line
Main steam piping
Temporary construction line

Level gage
Pressure gage
Main closing
valve of turbine
Flow meter
Thermometer
N2H4 tank
SH Water-filling pump
Sampling
Cage
N2H4 pump
Steam
separator
Evaporator
Steam
separation
tank
Water-sealing pump for the components not subjected to cleaning

Test piece seat
Ceiling wall
Blow line
Steam
Mixing heater
Cold
water
Chemicals
tank
Ejector
Circulation pump
Chemicals
injection pump
From tank-lorry
Economizer
High-pressure supply
water super-heater
Main supply water piping
To blow line
Fig. 3.2.5-3 Flow of cleaning a once-through boiler
185
Pure water
Number of delivered units (unit)
3.2.6 Circulation Pump

(1) Preventive maintenance of circulation pump
Circulation pumps for boilers have been employed for boiler equipment having a capacity of 150 MW or more
since around 1955. The circulation pump is divided into the injection type and the glandless type (canned motor
type, submerged motor type). Currently, about 400 units of these 2 types of pumps are operated for domestic
thermal power generation. Many non-conformance events occurred at the initial stage of introduction. As a result
of structural improvement and completion of the details for inspection items thereafter, such non-conformance
events have been drastically reduced and the reliability has been largely improved. However, 30 years have
already passed since the installation of some circulation pumps as shown in Fig. 3.2.6-1. Some of them are being
replaced gradually, but more than half of them have been used for 15 years or longer. The preventive maintenance
of such units has become a critical issue. (The descriptions from the next section are examples of circulation
pumps made by Fuji Electric.)
Total number
of units
30 years or 25 ~ 29
longer
years
20 ~ 24
years
15 ~ 19
years
10 ~ 14
years
5~9
years
0~4
years
Fig. 3.2.6-1 Years of operation after delivery
Pump case
(Renewal cycle: 35 40 years)
Generation of
cracks
Motor case
Expansion of in-low
clearance
Deformation of gasket
Uneven tightening
Warming shortage
Overlapping of thermal
insulation materials
Impeller (Renewal cycle: 25 30 years)

Generation of
Abnormal vibration
cracks
Abnormal sound
Abnormal vibration
Steam leakage, water
leakage
Cavity abnormal
temperature rise
Renewal cycle of journal bearing

Sleeve plate: 8 12 years
Pad: 16 20 years
Abnormal
Abnormal wear
sound/abnormal
Lift/peeling off of
vibration
bearing material
Heat exchanger
Accumulation of
Cavity temperature
scale
rise
Fatigue/corrosion
Water leakage
of welded portion
Stator (Renewal cycle: 25 30 years)

Wear of press ring
Abnormal sound
Loosening,
Abnormal vibration
dislocation,
Shortened life of
corrosion, or wear
coil
of steel core
Rotor (Renewal cycle: 25 30 years)

Deflection of
Popping out of
ammeter
rotor bar
Corrosion/wear of
Abnormal sound !
steel core
Abnormal vibration
Renewal cycle of coil winding

PVC: 8 years
XLPE: 12 16 years
Renewal cycle of thrust bearing

Thrust plate: 8 12 years
Pad: 16 20 years
Abnormal wear
Abnormal
Lift/peeling off of
sound/abnormal
bearing material
vibration
Wear of coil wire

!
Slipping down of coil
!
Loosened cleat wire
!
Deterioration of
insulation materials
Fig. 3.2.6-2 Deterioration of main parts and renewal cycle
186
Insulation drop
Ground
fault/unstable life
Non-conformance events
As explained above, non-conformance events have been reduced to date, and the reliability of the circulation
pump of boiler has been largely improved. However, there still remain many plants for which no structural
improvement has been implemented so far. It is required therefore to recheck the non-conformance events in the
past and reflect their results in the completion of details of inspection items and on the plan for repair.
Non-conformance events of major parts are outlined in Fig. 3.2.6-2, which shows the deterioration phenomena
and renewal cycle of major parts (renewal cycle with addition of the effect of the bearing force improvement plan
to the past experiences).
Guideline for implementation of preventive maintenance and inspection
Inspection items are divided into general inspection items and special inspection items. General inspection
mainly involves visual inspection, whereas non-destructive testing is the main item of special inspection, which
should be started from the 10th year after the start of operation to obtain remaining life assessment data.
Concretely, the target regular inspection cycle should be set at 4 years, and a long-term plan of details for
checking/inspection items and details for repair items should be developed Items to be implemented should
be confirmed at the start of the respective regular inspection.
Concept of measures for improvement of bearing force and examples of implementation
Measures for improvement of bearing force of the circulation pump of boiler equipment are promoted under the
2 concepts below, aiming to respond to any change in the operation method of power generation plants
(conversion to WSS/DSS), extension of the inspection cycle, and prolongation of operation life:
(a)
Improvement of structure, materials, and work method
(b)
Enrichment of inspection items (early detection of non-conformance and early countermeasures)
Typical examples of implementation are shown below:

i) Forged pump case
The conventional pump case was a cast product of the volute type. As a measure to improve the bearing
force of the pump case, a spherical-shape forged pump case has been employed for about 15 years.
Compared with the volute-type cast pump case, the spherical-shape forged pump case is simple in its
configuration and the reliability of its materials is high. It is suitable for a plant with frequent start/stop
operations in a high-temperature, high-pressure atmosphere (plants using DSS, etc.)
ii)
The motor stator coil has been changed to cross-linked polyethylene wire.
Coils manufactured before 1980 were made of PVC wire, which involved the issue that the rewinding
cycle was short because hardening/fragility of the insulation coat was accelerated due to reduction of
the plasticizer.
iii) Employment of a single-basket-shaped stator of the closed slit type

The double-basket-shaped stator of the open slit type was used as a standard stator in the past. DSS
operation (repeated transient vibration torque and/or thermal stress at the start of operation) was not
considered in its structure. As a measure for DDS operation, a single rotor of the closed slit type has
been employed.
iv) Implementation of special precise inspection
Visual inspection is more than enough for the initial stage of plant operation (within 10 years). However,
after 10 years when the renewal cycle timing of parts approaches, special precise inspection mainly
composed of non-destructive testing is carried out in addition to visual inspection. Through early
detection of and early action against any non-conformance by determining the timing of renewal, the
life of parts can be prolonged.
187
3.2.7 Fan
(1) Measures to improve reliability and guideline for maintenance and inspection
The present time is called a maintenance age. The number of social systems and production systems subjected
to maintenance are accumulating at a continuously increasing speed. According to a certain trial calculation, the
ratio of costs for maintenance was 10% of social capital investment during the 1970s, whereas it increased to 30%
during the 1990s and to 50% by 2020. Under these circumstances, maintenance costs keep increasing; how to
cope with this in a quantitative manner, how to improve cost efficiency keeping improvement of reliability, and
how to select the type of acceptable maintenance have become serious issues.
Because the fans installed at power generation plants are kept in operation for a long period of time from the
start of operation until the time they are disposed of, the accumulated number of units has been increasing. It is
required to make clear what inspection items are to be applied to these fans and to implement them under a
controlled cycle and implement feedback and feedforward without any reserve. Because efficiency and
rationalization of maintenance costs is directly linked to the management, it is required to develop a general image
of maintenance, determine what is presently missing, and implement these items in a well-planned manner.
Axial fan
As boiler capacity becomes larger, the rotating-type variable axial fan suitable for large-capacity boilers with
reduced power consumption under partial load has been widely used as a ventilating fan for power generation
equipment other than FDF, IDF, PAF, BUF, and high-temperature GRF. Control for improvement of reliability is
further required, because the structure of the rotating-type variable mechanism is complex and the number of parts
is larger than the same of the centrifugal fan.
As a result of measures taken for the improvement of reliability [1] with consideration paid to the problems
with axial FDF experienced over a period of 15 years since 1970, the employment of axial fans started, and the
problem occurrence ratio has been suppressed to its minimum. However, in view of the facts that the installation
of axial fans increased from 1985 onward when many thermal power generation plants were constructed, and that
its usage has expanded, it is desirable to carry out precise inspection of fans used for many years in order to
further secure their reliability.
Centrifugal fan
Although the reliability of centrifugal fan has been improved, many fans have already been in use for 20 years
or longer. It is required to plan and implement measures to improve their reliability further taking into account any
aged deterioration or any change in operation from what was expected at the start of operation.
Because the operation of thermal power generation plants corresponds to the peak power generation capacity,
the number of start/stop operations has increased, which, as a result, requires the improvement of the bearing force
of impellers, bearings, and couplings.
(a) Stress change occurs at the impeller caused by the change in RPM due to start/stop of operations.
Especially with GRF, low-cycle fatigue occurs due to repeated thermal expansion caused by temperature
fluctuation. If you start the operation of GRF at room temperature, the temperature of the intake gas
rapidly changes and the vibration becomes several times larger for some time than the vibration
experienced under stable, steady operation. This is an effect of the difference in thermal expansion
caused by the temperature difference among the components of the impeller. When the temperature of
the impeller becomes stable after continuing operation in a stable gas temperature atmosphere, the
amplification of vibration gradually lowers and the operation becomes stable. In particular, when a
riveted joint is used, this phenomenon frequently appears. Therefore, if a riveted structure has been used
for the impeller, it is recommended to change it to a welded structure and remodel the connection of the
impeller to the shaft/hub to a reaming bolt connection structure from the rivet-fixed type. Because the
effect of thermal distortion concentrates on the riveted structure, non-destructive testing needs to be
carried out for the components concerned when the fan is not in use or regular inspection is carried out.
In the case of the structure of the axisboss shrink fit, any vibration that may be caused by the decrease
in the shrink-fit margin or loosening due to the transitional difference in temperature distribution is of
concern. It may be required to increase the shrink-fit margin or change to an integrated rotor of the
axisboss.
If the level of adherence of the mating portion of the axisboss shrink-fit structure changes as the time
passes, that the vibration may become stronger or the torque transmission ability may drop are concerns.
Ultrasonic waves can be used to test the level of such adherence. Figure 3.2.7-1 shows the inspection
principles when a clearance is available for testing.
(b) Any fatigue damage that occurs to the face of the tooth at the gear coupling due to start/stop operations
is also a concern. Complete inspection is required. It is recommended to change to a tooth face with
improved bearing force or to a flexible coupling having no contact with the face of the tooth.
188
(c) Stress occurring at the impeller is strong. When carrying out non-destructive testing at regular
inspection, such a case is found where the portions and number of occurrences of damage increase as
time passes. In case there is concern that complete reliability may not be secured through regular
inspection or repair only, it is required to change to an impeller of a type whose generated stress has
been reduced by increasing its wall thickness or improving its welding quality.
Precise inspection of large-sized fan
Large-sized fans are disassembled and maintained at each regular inspection. Items subjected to precise
inspection of the respective parts of the centrifugal fan that can be implemented for such aged deterioration
phenomena as corrosion, wear, cracking, etc. are shown in Table 1. Because problems with large-sized fans can
lead to operation stop of the unit or to load limit, it is recommended to carry out full assessment at respective
regular inspection, etc.
The fan is equipped with attachment devices other than the main unit such as the lubricating device, silencer,
measuring apparatus, etc. It is required to secure the reliability of these devices as well as securing the reliability
of the main unit. For inspection of the main unit, disassembling, which requires many processes, is necessary.
Because fewer processes are required for disassembling inspection of attachment devices, it is recommended to
carry out regular maintenance once a year.
Impeller
Impeller hub
Shaft
Mating portion
Hub
Assess the output of the echo from

the hub bottom (Bn) and from the
shaft bottom (W).
Shaft
Transmitted
wave
Sensor
Fig. 3.2.7-1 Assessment of the degree of adherence of hub/shaft
(2) Cause of life consumption

As the causes of consumption of life of the fan, corrosion, wear, fatigue, etc. can be mentioned.
Because power generation plants are located near the sea, corrosion caused by salt needs to be taken into
consideration. For the intake of atmospheric air by FDF and PAF, it is required to assess the strength of the
silencer against corrosion. Caution is required to be paid to the pit generation of aluminum alloy used for the
rotating blade of the axial fan caused by salt corrosion and clogging created between slide clearances. With
respect to IDF and BUF, because drain with strong corrosive features is generated when the moisture contained in
the gas condenses while the gas temperature drops when the fan is not in use, it is required to make assessment in
this respect.
With respect to wear, there is a record of a survey conducted in USA. As a result of a large-scale survey to
clarify the cause of problems conducted by EPRI s! t! in order to improve the reliability of coal-fired thermal
power generation plants, it was found that IDF was one of the most serious causes for drops in operation
efficiency.
The main cause of problems with IDF was wear caused by the fly ash contained in the exhaust gas. Researches
of the following items are presently under way in order to improve the wear resistance of IDF:
(a) Characteristics and level of wear of the fan at power generation plants and related costs required for
countermeasures against it
(b) Improvement of computer models to estimate the wear damage to the fan
(c) Assessment of the effect of relative wear by various types of fly ash
189
(d) Assessment of the cost for the armor system of the blade-shaped centrifugal fan that can be replaced on
site
The researches are mainly focused on the centrifugal blade-type fan, which cannot in most cases be applied
directly to the axial fan, which is the mainstream in Japan.
Axial-type IDF, many of which have been introduced in Japan from around 1985, have already been used for
10 years or longer. It is considered that such study will become necessary as the same EPRI conducted for wear.
Fatigue is divided into low-cycle fatigue caused by start/stop operations and high-cycle fatigue occurring during
normal operation. It is required to fully assess the rotating blade of the axial fan because damage to it is highly
expected. A study is required to be conducted for low-cycle fatigue if the frequency of start/stop operations has
increased in the course of the change in the operation method to more than when the unit was initially installed.
3.2.8
Corrosion of boiler equipment occurring in its water zone and countermeasures against it
Introduction
The purposes of controlling thermal power generation plants by establishing a reference value for each item of
water supply, boiler water, and steam is to prevent any problems from occurring to the equipment composing the
thermal power generation plant caused by corrosion and/or scale due to the quality of water used and to continue
the operation of the plant in a safe and smooth manner. As the pressure and temperature of the main steam rise
higher, the thermal efficiency of the plant becomes higher. However, the plant is likely to be affected by corrosion
or scale, and the level of such effect becomes higher. Therefore, water quality control is an important task that
affects the thermal efficiency and operation efficiency of the unit.
While the water treatment engineering of boiler equipment has remarkably advanced in these years, accidents
often occur from thermal power generation plants caused by the water used by aged equipment or DDS
operation. Those staff responsible for water quality and the staff in charge of operation and maintenance of the
plant are required to understand the importance of water quality control and endeavor to improve it.
Problems arising from water are roughly divided into issues of corrosion, fragility, (cracking) and scale. As
shown in Fig. 3.2.8, most of the problems relating to water occur when multiple causes are combined. Upon
occurrence of any problem, its cause must be analyzed and assessed in detail to establish adequate
countermeasures.
An outline of various types of problem and their causes, handling, and preventive measures is given below.
Attack by ammonia
Defective design and construction
Erosion of turbine
Inadequate materials
Defective design of orifice
Oxidization of steam
Clogging
Clogging with foreign

materials
Insufficient flow rate
Rise in differential
pressure
Uneven thermal load

Defective operation maintenance
Defective storage
Defective water treatment
Adherence of scale
Corrosion of entire unit
Thermal conduction
was blocked
Corrosion of partial unit
Alkali corrosion
Carry over
Fragile crack caused by

hydrogen
Leakage of seawater
Drop in efficiency
Opening by
swelling-out
breakage
Crack caused by stress
Defective control of
combustion
Fig. 3.2.8 Problems and related causes

(1) Problem caused by adhered scale and countermeasures against it
Problem caused by overheating
In the period in which raw water was used for refilling, hard contents contained in the raw water were deposited
on the evaporation unit as white scale of calcium carbonate, which caused overheating problems of the
evaporation piping due to its thermal resistance. Currently, due to advanced technology in the manufacture of pure
water, dissolved contents from the materials in the condensed water supply system change to scale and adhere to
the evaporation unit.
The main ingredients of the scale are magnetite (FeO), copper, etc. By carrying out chemical cleaning of the
190
boiler equipment at an adequate timing, it is very seldom that the evaporation piping is damaged by overheating
due to the thermal resistance of the scale itself.
Cross section of scale
Appearance of the portion

of leakage
Photo 3.2.8-1 Example 1 of problem caused by overheating due to adherence of scale

The causes of problems by overheating due to scale adhering to the evaporation piping occurring in these years
are considered to be as follows:
(a) Due to improper water control, very soft magnetite scale is generated and grows to form a steam layer in
the clearances among the scale layers.
(b) A steam layer is formed in the portion in which the scale has been peeled off from the steel face and
lifted due to the temperature fluctuation caused by start/stop operations of the boiler equipment under a
condition where a relatively large amount of scale has adhered.
(c) If the amount of Cu, ZnO, CaO, etc. has become very large within a given scale layer when the
composition of scale largely fluctuates due to the change in quality of the supply water, the scale is
peeled off from that portion, film boiling occurs there, and a steam layer is formed as a result.
(d) When any scale remains in the chemical cleaning process of boiler equipment and any clearance is
created between the piping materials and the scale, that portion becomes a hot spot and a steam layer is
formed there. Almost all of these problems occur after the operation of the plant has started.
Photo 3.2.8-1 shows an example in which the scale has swelled out and broken open in an oval shape within the
furnace of the evaporation piping (STB42) located on the upper side of the burner. This is a case where heat
conduction is blocked when soft-type scale (200 250 m) has adhered to the inner face of the piping, peeled off
within the layers, and lifted and opened due to the excessive rise in the metal temperature of the piping. In the area
surrounding the opening, many cracks are generated in the pipe shaft direction. As countermeasures against this,
the generation of soft-type scale is suppressed by the removal of scale through chemical cleaning, reduction of
melted oxygen in the condensed water and in the drain system of the low-pressure supply water heater,
deoxidization at the time of starting operation, etc.
[Metal]
(Scale thickness 0.33 0.49 mm)
Appearance of the portion
of leakage
Cross section of scale
Photo 3.2.8-2 Example 2 of problem caused by overheating due to adherence of scale

Photo 3.2.8-2 is an example of a case the scale was overheated, swelled out, and opened within a very short
period of time (creep breakage in a short time); as a result, the unit was operated under such a condition that the
amount of scale adhered to the inner piping exceeded the amount for which chemical cleaning was required
(thickness 450 m, amount of adherence 85 mg/cms), the scale layers adhered to the inner piping were peeled
191
off and lifted, and heat conduction was blocked by the steam layers generated between the scale layers. As
countermeasures against this, it is required to capture the level of scale growth by regular pipe sampling
inspection and determine the adequate timing of chemical cleaning.
Corrugated scale
At a plant where volatile matter treatment is undertaken as a method of treating supply water, there are many
experiences where the scale adhered to the inner evaporation piping of a furnace shows a corrugated pattern.
Especially with respect to the supercritical sliding-pressure once-through boiler, the average rate of flow in the
piping becomes higher. Therefore, scale with this corrugated appearance increases the break-through resistance of
the furnace, which may cause problems in operation. The cause of the generation of such corrugated scale has not
yet been clarified. The scale is considered to be generated under such a condition that chemical factors and fluid
dynamics factors have been combined. Namely, dissolution and deposition of the component materials in a
high-temperature, high-pressure atmosphere as chemical factors and cyclic structural change of turbulent
boundary layers as fluid dynamic factors are considered combined, whereby such corrugated scale was generated.
Photo 3.2.8-3 shows an example of the corrugated scale generated within a supercritical sliding-pressure
once-through boiler. In this case, the amount of adhered scale is not so great that chemical cleaning is required,
but problems in operation have occurred because the break-through resistance became stronger due to the shape of
such scale. As countermeasures, the scale is removed by chemical cleaning in order to reduce the break-through
resistance. Thereafter, it was clarified that the generation of such corrugated scale could be suppressed by
changing the supply water treatment to oxygen treatment, according to certain European literature ! z{!and the
test results of oxygen treatment verification carried out in Japan zs!. This oxygen treatment method has the
advantage of a reduction in running costs, including the prevention of such corrugated scale from being generated.
Therefore, this oxygen treatment method is currently being rapidly introduced to once-through boilers in Japan.
Direction
of flow
Adhered scale (inside of furnace)
Photo 3.2.8-3 Adherence of corrugated scale

Scale adhering to the components
There is such a case where an increase in break-through resistance and fault movement is caused by the
considerable amount of magnetite scale partially adhering to such components as the orifice for flow rate
adjustment at the inlet of the evaporation piping of the forced circulation boiler, the spray water control valves of
the super-heater and re-heater, the drain control valve of the supply water heater, the flow meter for the supply
192
Iron concentration (g/l)
water (flow nozzle), and the high-pressure supply water system (strainer of the water supply pump, rectifying
cylinder of the high-pressure supply water heater, heater piping), etc. This scale adheres to portions where there is
no thermal load, which however is present in the evaporation piping. It is considered that the adherence of scale is
a phenomenon that occurs when chemical factors, fluid dynamic factors, and static electric factors (charged
grains) are combined.
Temperature ("C)
Fig. 3.2.8-1 Solubility curve of magnetite

Because the main ingredient in the chemical factors is magnetite and scale is generated at portions with such
high temperatures as 180 or more, and as one can reason by analogy from the solubility curve zs! in Fig.
3.2.8-1, the portion where scale has adhered becomes oversaturated by the degree of solution of magnetite under
such temperatures and becomes an area where fine grains of magnetite are created. As fluid dynamic factors, the
scale has adhered to the portion whose boundary layers proximate to the metal surface are thinner than other
portions in the high rate of flow in the area in which the flow path has become narrower. This indicates that the
scale adheres to such portions with high probability of the created magnetite fine grains colliding with the metal
surface. As static electrical factors, when such oxide as magnetite is submerged into water, the surface of the oxide
is charged and comes to have electrical potential (zeta potential) by certain type of static electrical phenomenon.
The intensity level of this electrical potential is related to the characteristics of the grain surface. If the grain size
becomes smaller, the characteristics of the surface become stronger. Namely, the activity of the surface becomes
especially strong immediately after the fine grains of magnetite are created. Because scale is generated to such
portions where the various factors above are combined, the scale does not always adhere to the same portions of
similar plants.
Photo 3.2.8-4 shows an example of a unit that has become uncontrollable due to adhered and solidified
magnetite scale in the high-velocity portion of the stem throttle of control valve for the spray water of the
super-heater.
Photo 3.2.8-5 shows an example of scale containing copper as its main ingredient selectively adhered and
solidified at the orifice inlet of the water drum where the flow rate has been reduced. In this case, the copper
content dissolved from the supply water heater equipped with copper alloy piping due to a failure in the supply
water treatment was brought into the boiler and selectively adhered to the orifice.
193
Photo 3.2.8-4 Example of scale adhered to control valve
Scale
Orifice
Photo 3.2.8-5 Example of scale adhered to orifice

Such a failure in supply water treatment can be avoided by improving the treatment system. The adherence of
magnetite scale as mentioned above occurs even in such area where supply water treatment has been carried out
properly. Even by changing the conditions of the portion to which the scale has adhered (for example, change in
the pH, hydrazine density, etc.), only the adhering portion changes its location to some extent, and it does not lead
to any satisfactory solution. As a measure to resolve this issue of scale adherence, oxygen treatment, which has
been employed as a countermeasure against corrugated scale, is effective.
Photo 3.2.8-6 shows an example of improvement for the removal of magnetite scale adhered to the rectifying
cylinder of a high-pressure supply water heater at a power generation plant where oxygen treatment has been
adopted. Such problems as efficiency drop, vibration, etc. caused by magnetite scale adhered to the impeller of the
water supply pump have also been resolved by oxygen treatment.
194
Volatile matter treatment
Oxygen treatment
Photo 3.2.8-6 Example of scale adhering to rectifying cylinder of high-pressure supply water heater
(1) Corrosion at the furnace water-wall tube of coal-fired boilers
Corrosion
It has been known from long ago that strong corrosion occurs at the furnace wall of coal-fired boilers by flame
impingement (flames hit the waterwall piping directly in the neighborhood of the burner zone)!z!
In such a case, it is considered that the area exposed to flames is locally placed under low oxygen partial
pressure, because a lot of unburned carbon, FeS, etc. are contained in the adhered ash. As shown in the chemical
formula below, FeS contained in the adhered ash reacts with the Fe contained in the waterwall piping to yield
FeS. Because FeS contains more grid defects than such oxides as FeO, the protective capability of the coat
becomes poorer, causing strong corrosion.
Recently, many cases are found such as the 2-step-type combustion process being employed for many boilers
for power generation as a measure to satisfy low NOx yield. In such a process, the area in the neighborhood of
burner zone becomes an atmosphere of low oxygen partial pressure containing HS. Figure 3.2.8-2 shows the
impact of air ratio on the balanced structure of gas when Datong (Chinese) coal containing 0.63% S is burned at
1300. When the air ratio is 0.8 or less, it is obvious that a lot of reduced contents such as H, CO, HS, etc. is
contained in the combustion gas. In particular, when such coal containing a lot of S content is used as fuel, the
HS density becomes higher, creating a severe corrosive environment. Corrosion of the furnace waterwall piping
caused by high-temperature sulfide becomes a critical issue. Coal combustion gas is composed of CO, CO, HO,
HS, COS, N, etc. As a result, the environment has become a family of so-called C-H-O-S. The critical factors of
corrosion are oxygen partial pressure and sulfur partial pressure in the atmosphere. In an atmosphere where the
oxygen partial pressure is high, oxidation plays a leading role in the corrosion of materials, whereas in an
atmosphere where the sulfur partial pressure is high, sulfuration plays a leading role. In an atmosphere where
oxidation is the leading player, the protective characteristic of the oxidized coat becomes excellent, resulting in a
negligible level of corrosion. On the other hand, in an atmosphere where sulfuration is the leading player, the
protective characteristic of the sulfide coat becomes remarkably poor, resulting in strong corrosion.
With respect to the corrosion occurring in an atmosphere of low oxygen partial pressure and high sulfur partial
pressure, it is considered that the reaction mentioned below is the leading player.
195
Datong coal (S content: 0.63%)

Combustion gas temperature: 1300"C
Air ratio
Fig. 3.2.8-2 Impact of air ratio on the balanced structure of combustion gas at 1300

H2S + Fe Fes + H2 ...........................................................................................................(7)
2CO + SO2 + Fe
FeS + 2CO2 ..........................................................................................(8)
This corrosion gradually grows to complete corrosion in general. At a portion where repeated thermal stress is
strong, the corrosion may grow in a groove shape in the direction of the circumference (which is called
elephant-hide alligator-skin cracking).
Other than the above corrosion, it has been reported that corrosion involving such vitriols as XSO, XSO
(X: Na or K), etc. contained in the adhered ash or pyrosulfate can occur when the SO density in the combustion
gas is high z!. However, cases of corrosion of the waterwall piping by these alkali compounds are not reported
very frequently.
In UK where coal containing lot of Cl is used, acceleration of corrosion of waterwall piping caused by HCl
contained in the combustion gas has been reported. Because the coal currently used in Japan contains a very small
amount of Cl, no corrosion caused by HCl contained in the combustion gas has been reported to date. From the
standpoint that poor-quality coal may be used in future as fuels to be used diversify, it will be required to capture
well the influence of HCl on corrosion.
196
Examples of corrosion and countermeasures

A cross section of corrosion of the furnace waterwall piping of a coal-fired boiler that occurred in which the
2-step combustion process has been employed in order to reduce NOx is shown in Photo 3.2.8-7. The flame side
has been evenly corroded, and the amount of corrosion was 0.15 2.00 mm/year.
Flame side
Photo 3.2.8-7 Cross

section of corroded
potion of furnace
waterwall piping
Photo 3.2.8-8 includes EPMA photographs of corrosive scale. The scale in the outer layer is composed of FeS,
whereas the inner layer is composed of a mixture in which FeO is the main content. It is typical corrosion in an
atmosphere of low oxygen containing a considerable amount of HS. In the neighborhood of the waterwall piping
surface where strong corrosion occurred, it is indicated that the content of HS in the combustion gas was 300
ppm, H was 1.5%, and CO was 6.1%, and the air ratio at the moment of combustion was 1 or less.
An example of groove-shape corrosion of the waterwall piping is shown in Photo 3.2.8-9. The appearance of
the corrosion is similar to that occurring at heavy oil-fired boilers. The causes of such groove-shape corrosion
are considered to be follows. Namely, the oxidized coat on the piping surface has cracked by repeated thermal
stress arising from any combination of adhered substances to the inner piping (FeO), condensation of air
bubbles, or local falling off of scale from the surface of the furnace piping. It is considered that corrosive gas
entered through the cracks and that the corrosion was accelerated at this gas-entered portion zs!.
Considerable actions to prevent corrosion of waterwall piping are as follows:
(a) Measures to be taken in the design
(b) Selection of materials
(c) Employment of surface treatment
The most effective action is the use of coal with a lower S content. Such actions as employment of low-NOx
burners, use of fined coal to promote complete combustion, increase in the oxygen partial pressure on the piping
surface by filling boundary air (to create an air curtain along the waterwall piping) over the waterwall piping
surface, etc. are also considered effective z! z!.
Photo 3.2.8-10 shows the EPMA observation result of the scale on the piping surface before and after filling of
boundary air. By filling of air, the scale mainly containing sulfide has changed to scale mainly containing oxide.
As measures against groove-shape corrosion, suppression of the generation of substances adhering to the inner
portions through thoroughgoing water treatment or prevention of air bubbles from condensation by employing
rifle pipes is considered effective s{!.
197
Na: X-ray image
Fe: X-ray image
S: X-ray image
C: X-ray image
Cl: X-ray image
O: X-ray image
K: X-ray image
Photo 3.2.8-8 EPMA observation result of corrosive scale on waterwall piping
Photo 3.2.8-9 Appearance of groove-shape corrosion of waterwall piping in the neighborhood of the burner
With respect to the materials, use of the double piping system composed of an outer pipe made of materials
excellent in corrosion resistance such as SUS 347 H, SUS 310 S, etc. and an inner pipe made of carbon steel is
considered sz!. These materials have been already put to practical use where the materials are exposed to severe
combustion gas containing HS and HCl ss!.
For surface treatment, chromizing treatment by raising the Cr density by having Cr diffuse and penetrate is
effective for prevention of corrosion also. In addition, thermal spray coating of corrosive materials by plasma
thermal spray is effective for prevention of corrosion. Thermal spray process using 50 Cr 50 Ni as its material
has been put to practical use.
In the case of thermal spray, however, entry of gas into the layer of the metal/thermal spray cannot be avoided.
This process has not yet been put to practical use as a permanent countermeasure.
198
O: X-ray image
Before filling
boundary air
S: X-ray image
Fe: X-ray image
After filling
boundary air
O: X-ray image
S: X-ray image
Fe: X-ray image
Photo 3.2.8-10 EPMA observation result of corrosive scale adhering to waterwall piping before and after filling
boundary air
199
3.3 Water Chemistry for the Boiler

3.3.1
Transition and Summary of Water Treatment Technology
The current water treatment technology we use in Japan derives from the U.S., introduced together with the
so-called new type of thermal power system.
3.3.1.1 Transition of 170K-Class Water Treatment
A 170K-class unit was imported and installed at Osaka Power Plant. The boiler used was a forced circulation
type made by Combustion Engineering. Water treatment using the 170K-class unit showed a series of problems,
and the method used for water treatment changed several times.
(1) Initial Criteria for Water treatment
The initial criteria under which water quality was controlled in Osaka Power Plant are shown in Table 1.
Caustic treatment was used, in which sodium hydroxide and sodium phosphate were injected into the boiler water.
(2) Hide-Outs and Turbine Scales
Power generating efficiency decreased due to the hide-out of phosphate ions in the boiler water (and subsequent
increase in pH), and also due to deposition of sodium phosphate scales to the turbine blades (See Table 3.3.1-1).
Consequently, the downwash of the scale at the time of turbine start up contaminated the condensate water . To
eliminate the hide-out, disodium salt was used and the phosphate ion concentration was maintained at 0.2 - 2.0
ppm, which was the upper limit that Osaka Power Plant was able to manage.
However, hide-outs still existed and it was relatively difficult to control pH at an appropriate level.
1) Low Phosphate Treatment
In early 1961, a test for treating water with low phosphate treatment started. Following the results, monobasic
sodium salt was used, but since it failed to reduce the pH to the threshold limit value of GA1, i.e. 8.5 to 9.5, the
value remained to be 9.5 to 10.0.
In September 1961, Mr. Grabowski of C.E. made a presentation at the New Nagoya Power Plant and Thermal
Power Division of Kansai Electric Power Company, Inc. and showed that reducing boiler corrosion does not
necessarily require increasing pH, but the key is to protect the magnetite protection coating. He also pointed out
that Coordinated Phosphate Treatment requires the pH value to be maintained at the 9.5 to 10.0 level only (as
experienced by a boiler manufactured by C.E.) and suggested keeping the concentration of phosphate ions on the
concentration curves of trisodium salt and pH.
Table 3.3.1-1: Example of Analysis of Depositions on the Turbine Blades at Osaka Power Plant (Unit: %)
Ignition Loss
SiO2
Fe2O3
Na2O
CuO
High Pressure Moving Blade 1st to
4.1
1.5
36.4
38.2
3.1
4th stages
* Medium Pressure Static Blade
10.0
16.0
14.5
49.0
1st to 4th stages
* Medium Pressure Moving Blade
20.3
23.7
15.1
58.4
6.4
3rd to 5th stages
Medium Pressure Moving Blade
24.2
23.9
1.7
19.8
49.7
6th to 8th stages
Medium Pressure Static Blade 8th
17.0
12.3
2.6
48.7
41.8
to 9th stages
10.4
2.9
3.7
61.3
40.1
stage
13.3
3.1
1.7
53.5
42.3
stage
Medium Pressure Moving Blade
22.1
9.0
1.4
34.8
63.9
13th stage
Low Pressure Static Blade 1st to
2.1
1.9
5.0
84.7
5.8
3rd stages
Low Pressure Moving Blade 2nd
2.2
1.9
7.2
54.5
6.7
stage
(Blade composition: 12 stages for High Pressure and 13 stages for Medium Pressure and 6 stages for Low Pressure)
* As shown in the original document
200
PO4
45.6
23.8
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.8
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
Ratio of silica contained in steam to that in water (%)
2) All volatile Treatment

Mr. Grabowski also showed a method involving the use of volatile chemicals to treat boiler water. He noted (1)
the use of volatile chemicals requires thorough monitoring of any condenser leakage and assurance of pre-boiler
system operation, (2) if a leakage occurs, phosphate salts must immediately be injected, (3) the phosphate salts
work effectively against the leakage of sea water at a concentration of 5ppm or above, below which they are
ineffective and (4) after reaching the cationic conductivity of 0.5S/cm, the phosphate salt must be kept at 10 to
15 ppm.
He also instructed that the cationic conductivity of boiler water be maintained at 2 to 3S/cm during normal
operation and to feedwater at a pH of 8.8 to 9.2.
Water Quality
Requirements
Average pH
Silica (ppm.)
Pressure (psig)
Fig. 3.3.1-1: Impact of Pressure, pH and Concentration of Silica in Water to the Ratio of Silica under the Steam
Generation Volume of 5lb/h and in Static Condition
Acceptable Concentration of Silica in Boiler

Water (SiO2, ppm.)
1 Distribution ratio by Jacklin & Bronar
5 Coulter, et al: pH 7.8 - 9.0
(Silica Concentration in Steam:

0.02 ppm.)
Drum Pressure (kg/cm2G)
Fig 3.3.1-2: Curve of Acceptable Silica Concentration in Boiler Water
201
Silica (ppm.)
Acceptable silica concentration in boiler water in

order to retain silica concentration in steam to 0.02
ppm or below
All volatile
treatment: pH:
approx. 9.0
Pressure (psig)
Silica Concentration (SiO2 ppm)
Fig. 3.3.1-3: Acceptable Silica Concentration in Boiler Water (by C.E.)

(3) Shift of Criteria for Condensate water and Make-up water
The reference pH value shown by Gilbert for condensate water and make-up water at Osaka Power Plant was
8.6 to 8.8. The value depends on the volume of ammonia generated by the decomposition of hydrazine. However,
an increase of hydrazine injection caused a surge of pH to nearly 9.0. Gilbert explained that ammonia would
attack the copper alloy condenser tube if the pH value of ACD was high. In this case, the value should be kept to
8.8. However, the company also explained that if the pH of ACD were below 9.8, the pH of the condensed and
make-up water might be around 8.6 to 9.0.
So as criteria for pH and hydrazine concentrations, the ceiling was set to 0.05 ppm for hydrazine and 8.9 for pH
respectively, so that they can be maintained at these levels, even when there is a load variation. As it is difficult to
limit the hydrazine concentration to 0.01 ppm or below in a stable manner, and as there is concern regarding the
accuracy of the analysis, the lower limit of hydrazine concentration was set as 0.01 ppm.
(4) Silica and Silica Purge
In order to avoid bad influence to a turbine by silica scales, it is necessary to limit the volume of silica
contained in steam. As for the limit, the following three reports were issued in the U.S.:
1) Experience shows silica in steam should be contained to 0.03 ppm or below to avoid any scales being
deposited to the turbine.
2) No deposits was found in the low- and medium-pressure turbine blades of a turbine with 150MW, 170k and
550 C when the silica concentration in the high pressure turbine exhaust was retained to approx. 0.01 to
0.02 ppm.
3) Experience shows no silica is deposited on turbine blades when the silica concentration is kept at 0.02 ppm or below.
Indicates silica concentration should be kept
below this line during normal operation to
avoid any deposits.
Indicates silica concentration can reach this
line when a turbine is restarted after regular
repair or when it is rapidly operated.
However, the concentration should be
closer to the real line and close attention
should be paid to the concentration of silica
in moisture.
Drum Pressure (kg/cm2 C)
Fig. 3.3.1-4: Boiler Pressure and Maximum Permissible Silica Concentration Limit in Boiler Water
202
Table 3.3.1-2: Maximum Permissible Total Soluble Solid Material in Steam (Unit: ppb)
Material
NaCl
Na2SO4
Na3PO4
NaOH
SiO2
Total
Permissible
Concentration for
Continuous Operation
400
400
60
30
8
898
Permissible
Concentration for
Conditioned Operation
2000
2000
150
60
20
4230
Permissible
Concentration for
Intermittent Operation
4000
4500
300
150
45
8995
Table 3.3.1-3: Example of Measurement for Drum Carry-Over in the U.S.

Name of Power Plant
Load
Drum Pressure
Na
Concentration of Boiler Water
Concentration in Steam
Carry-Over Ratio
NaCl
Concentration of Boiler Water
Maximum Carry-Over Ratio
Chestexfield
170 MW
2600 psig
7.5 ppm
0.0021 ppm
0.028%
9.4 ppm
0.057%
Ashtabula
2500 psig
10.6 ppm
0.0029 ppm
0.027%
15.3 ppm
0.047%
Referring to the above reports, the concentration of silica was set to 0.02 ppm or below.
The tolerance of silica concentration in boiler water depends on the ratio of silica distribution in saturated steam.
It also depends on pressure and pH, as shown in Fig. 3.3.1-1. Based on the distribution ratio, Fig. 3.3.1-2 is drawn
and C.E used Fig. 3.3.1-3.
In Fig. 3.3.1-2, the silica concentration is 0.18 to 0.19 ppm under the pressure of 186 to 188k and a pH of 7.8 to
9. From these data, the silica concentration was set as 0.2 ppm.
As the silica concentration in boiler water tends to rise when the boiler starts operation, due to the silica scale
deposited on the turbine low-pressure blades being washed away by wet steam, a silica purge must be
implemented to raise pressure by blowing the boiler, while ensuring the silica concentration is limited to within
the designated value. This is the main cause of delays and increased load when starting the drum type boiler.
Therefore, looser values were set, as shown in Fig. 3.3.1-4, for the concentration of silica when starting a boiler.
The silica-washing device installed in a drum manufactured by Babcock-Hitachi K.K. showed a remarkable
ability to reduce the silica concentration in steam, doubling the permissible concentration of silica in the boiler.
(5) Total Soluble Solid Materials
As for the total soluble solid materials, the following reports were issued in the U.S.:
1) Fig.3.3.1-2 shows the permissible concentration for continuous operation (the maximum concentration that
does not cause significant silica deposit after operating a turbine for 8,000 hours), the permissible
concentration for conditioned operation (the maximum concentration after repeated stopping and restarting
or under such operation conditions as variable pressure operation) and the permissible concentration for
intermittent operation (the maximum concentration that does not cause any silica deposits for a relatively
short turbine operating period). The permissible concentration for continuous operation is approx. 1 ppm.
2) No significant silica deposits were observed in the concentration range of 0.1 to 0.2 ppm.
3) In order to operate a turbine without any washing for an extended period, the silica concentration must be
controlled to 0.05 ppm or below.
Experience at Himeji No. 2 Power Plant showed that deposits were rarely seen when a turbine was operated
with cationic conductivity of 0.3S or below. This corresponds to a silica concentration of 0.05 ppm.
Based on the above, the cationic conductivity and the silica concentration were determined as 0.3K-S/cm or
below and 0.05 ppm or below, respectively.
In order to determine the limit value for the total solid materials in the boiler water, the carry-over ratio of the
drum should be considered. With this in mind, the following data is issued:
1) The design value is 0.25%.
2) The value measured in the U.S. is 0.05% or so, as shown in Table 3.3.1-3.
3) The value measured in Himeji No. 3 Power Plant was approx. 0.15%.
Based on the above, the value was determined as 0.2%, taking safety into consideration, and the total solid
materials in boiler water was set as 25 ppm.
As the measurement of water quality under the all volatile treatment is 5K-S/cm, or 10K/S/cm at worst, the
total solid materials in boiler water was determined as 10 ppm.
203
Ignition
First stage low temperature reheated steam

Second stage low temperature reheated steam
Fourth steam
Normal values
Combined
feeding
Time (h)
Fig. 3.3.1-5: Trend of Hydrogen Concentration

after chemical cleaning
Time
No. 2 bearing vibration increased

by three-hundredth.
Loads decreased by 3MW.
High temperature reheated steam (ppb)
Fig. 3.3.1-6: Hydrogen Concentration when Two First

Stage Blades of Curtiss Turbine Flied Apart
Time
Permittivity of
Cation-Exchange Resin
Condensate
t
Exit of WW
Entrance of ECO
Second stage low temperature
reheated steam
KC-floc used
OH- in Boiler Water (ppm) (as CaCO3)
Fig. 3.3.1-7: Electrical Conductivity and Hydrogen when

Water Starts to Pass Through a Filter
Throttle Pressure (kg/cm2)
: Crater-shaped corrosion observed at least once

!: No crater-shaped corrosion observed
This is a chart indicating the relationship between the alkali level of
hydroxy-ions in boiler water and pressure. The safe and unsafe domains for a
boiler showing crater-shaped corrosion are indicated as a dotted line.
Fig. 3.3.1-8: Relationship of Alkali Level and

Crater-shaped Corrosion
204
(6) Hydrogen
As for hydrogen, it only indicates the corrosion condition of a tube and no measures can be taken based on it .
The generation of hydrogen can be determined as stable, because it remains commensurate with the surface
area, regardless of the volume of steam generated. Thus, it seems normal that the hydrogen concentration doubles
when the flow decreases by half.
As seen in the example where the hydrogen concentration is 2 to 4 ppb under stable operation, the chemical
reaction of iron and water continues to a certain extent, even under stable operation. This means the magnetite
coating undergoes a cycle of damage and recovery to a certain extent.
Increased hydrogen generation tells that the following events are happening:
1) The magnetite coating incurs significant damage. : E.g.: After chemical cleaning, the magnetite coating is
removed and thus hydrogen increases, returning to the normal level as the coating is formed (Fig. 3.3.1-5).
2) A new steel surface has appeared. : E.g.: Iron powder is generated by the flying apart of turbine blade; a
new metal surface appears on it, on which a chemical reaction progresses rapidly (Fig. 3.3.1-6).
3) The metal temperature has surged abnormally. : There is a report that the hydrogen concentration increased
by about 10 ppb when a reheating pipe caused creep damage for a relatively short period.
4) Organic materials (sugars) inputted have been decomposed (Fig. 3.3.1-7): There is a report that fine resin
leaked out from a condensate demineralization tower when water was introduced into it immediately after
replenishing the resin.
(7) Malfunctioning of Boilers in the U.S.
Table 3.3.1-4 indicates the result of investigations by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
on 116 boilers in the U.S. from 1950 to 1959. As stated in the table, 40% of boiler showed some pipe damage,
while 28% of boilers caused crater-shaped corrosion, which is considered alkali corrosion. Fig. 3.3.1-8 shows the
relationship between crater-shaped corrosion and hydroxy-ions, expressly showing how the concentration of the
latter may decline as pressure goes up.
205
Table 3.3.1-4: Outline of 116 Boilers in Use

No. of Boiler
Manufacturer
A
B
C
D
E
Pressure (kg/cm2)
63 or below
64-91
92-126
127-155
156 or above
Capacity
90 or above
90-225
225-337
337-450
450 or above
Overheat Temperature ( C)
427 or below
427-496
496-552
552 or above
Reheating Temperature ( C)
496 or below
496-552
552 or below
No reheating
Fuel
Fine charcoal powder
Gas
Oil
Others
42
49
14
8
3
36
42
12
7
3
13
21
53
26
3
11
18
46
22
3
6
33
26
28
23
5
28
23
24
20
0
15
80
21
0
13
69
18
0
68
3
46
0
59
2
39
72
36
4
4
62
31
3.5
3.5
7
4
5
7
18
28
18
11
7
8
3
6
3
4
6
16
24
16
9
6
7
3
101
15
87
13
Deaeration unit
Used
Not used
Final treatment of makeup
water
Deionizer is used.
Steam evaporator is used.
Boiler water treatment
Sodium sulfite
Hydrazine
Caustic soda
Phosphate
Potassium salt
Organics
Condensate water treatment
Morpholine
Cyclohexylamine
Ammonia
Problems
No corrosion losses
observed to pipes
Crater-type corrosions
89
27
77
23
50
66
43
57
80
41
81
111
3
13
69
35
70
96
3
11
76
12
12
65
10
10
70
60
32
28
(20 to 23% are of
fluidity
hindrance.)
Burnout due to overheat

Bubbles observed
Overheat at the top of
pipes
Orifice
Others
Pitting corrosion of
header
Pitting corrosion of
suspending metals
Corrosion of separation
tube
Attachment to header
Corrosion of feed heater
Turbine attachments
(chain grate-fed charcoal and coal)
Year of Operation
Before 1950
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
Economizer
Used
Not used
No. of Boiler
5
2
1
4
2
1
13
11
5
13
9
4
11
8
(Water-soluble
9)
Carry-over of silica
Acid washing
With acid washing
No acid washing
With initial acid washing
No initial acid washing
Total number of acid
washings
Once
34
82
45
37
29
71
44
(Initial acid
washing 22)
Twice
14
(Initial acid
washing 7)
Three times
21
(Initial acid
washing 13)
Four times
2
(Initial acid
washing 2)
Five times
1
(Initial acid
washing 1)
For users, chemical cleaning to prevent any damage, for manufactures, designs to avoid hot spots or fluidity
hindrances, for consultants, the removal of dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide from the
pre-boiler, curtailment of dissolving iron and copper and research into controlling the pH level are requested.
206
Concentration of NaOH (ppm)
Temperature of Boiler Water and Pipe

Materials ( F)
Concentration
Mother Water of
Boiler Water
Temperature
Concentrated
boundary Film
Number
of Cases
Year
Example
Overheat
Ash
Corrosion
Corrosion
Fatigue
Ash
Corrosion
Stress Corrosion
Brittleness against
Hydrogen
Alkali Corrosion
Fig. 3.3.1-9: Heat Transmission Film and Concentrated

Film at the Heat Transmission Surface
Fig. 3.3.1-10: Accidents Occurring to Power Generation Boiler Pipes
(8) Alkali Corrosion

Sodium hydroxide was used to control pH in the boiler water. As Fig. 3.3.1-9 indicates, a boundary film was
formed around the boiler pipes of the heat transfer surface where boiling occurred. The sodium hydroxide in the
boiler water increased in concentration because it was left on the heat transfer surface as the water boiled up. As
sodium hydroxide has high solubility, it was not deposited on the surface, but instead, a film of highly
207
concentrated sodium hydroxide formed. According to an example of calculation , a 100k-class boiler containing
100 ppm of sodium hydroxide shows the temperature of inner surface of a pipe is increased by 5F when it is
heated at comparatively low heat flow rate of 25,000 BTU/ft2h, boosting the sodium hydroxide concentration by
10%.
Another report shows that the temperature of the inner surface of the pipe is increased by 30 C at some hot
spots . The occurrence of such hot spots is considered attributable to film boiling that is likely to occur due to the
enlargement of heat flux in a large-sized boiler, steam blanket, lack of flow rate, inappropriate burner positioning,
contact of flame due to insufficient combustion control, biased combustion and gas flow, inclusion of slabs in the
welded parts, blow holes and lack of fusion.
Sodium hydroxide can result in corrosion of steel at a concentration of 5%. When the concentration reaches 5%
or above, it dissolved the protective oxide layer, causing the inner metal surface to become exposed and corroding
it due to the reaction of water and steel. The hydrogen generated by the reaction penetrates into and damages the
steel.
In Japan, alkali corrosion cases were also reported. As Fig. 3.3.1-10 shows, statistically speaking, this has been
responsible for the highest proportion of boiler accidents having occurred to date.
The alkali corrosion is otherwise known as a caustic attack, or in the U.S., as crater-shaped corrosion, due to its
shape. These differ from conventional caustic embitterment.
After such accidents, the injection of sodium hydroxide was stopped. Thereafter, a new finding was reported:
namely that hideout of phosphate ions causes not trisodium phosphate but 2.65-sodium biphosphate at 689F and
2.85-sodium biphosphate at 572F respectively. This means 0.35 to 0.15 of trisodium phosphate in the system is in
the form of sodium hydroxide. It thus emerged that phosphate containing sodium less than 2.6 sodium
biphosphate should be used.
However, even if such phosphate is used, it was found that pH in boiler water increased past this level due to
trisodium phosphate. The cause was identified as a leakage of sodium from a deionized water system. In order to
avoid leakage, a double-bed operation was used to place the deionized water system just after regeneration to the
latter stage. Due to the fact that the movement of the system used at the latter stage to the front stage resulted in a
more significant leakage, a mixed type system was installed at the latter stage to use it dedicated to a polisher.
Thanks to such measurements, no further alkali corrosion has been reported since 1963.
(9) Shift to All volatile treatment
The No. 2 boiler of the Karita Power Plant (a 170k forced circulation boiler) started its operation in June 1959
showed alkali corrosion to evaporator tube at the 3,700th hour. This was attributable to sodium hydroxide and the
use of the chemical was stopped. The investigation showed that powder scale was attached to its turbine blades,
especially the final stage of the medium-pressure turbine, mainly consisting of sodium bicarbonate. Gilbert
suggested the use of sodium acid phosphate to maintain the pH level of boiler water and make-up water at around
8.5 to 9.5. The phosphate ion was dramatically reduced two days after feeding phosphate ions into the drum. As
this resulted in heightened conductivity of saturated steam and carryover to the turbine, the use of phosphate ions
was terminated in February 1960.
As the volume of hydrazine was maintained, the pH level of boiler water was lower by 0.4 to 0.5 than that of
make-up water, which was well below 8.5 and maintained at that level.
Regarding the risk of leakage within the condenser, trisodium phosphate is fed and a drum blow operation is
started. After repairing the leakage, the concentration of phosphate ions decreased to 0.0 ppm.
In the U.S, all volatile treatment was used due to the heavy carryover having occurred, and an ambiguous trial
just to maintain turbine operation started. For them, there was no choice other than the use of the treatment
method.
208
Table 3.3.1-5: pH Control Methods of the Pressure Boiler of 130kg/cm2 or above by C.E.
How to Adjust pH
(1) Caustic Based
pH10.5 to 11.0
(Caustic alkali and phosphate ions are used.)
(2) Low Caustic Control
pH10.0 to 10.5
(Same as above)
(3) Cordinated Phosphate pH Control pH10.0 to 10.5
(Coordinated phosphate treatment is used and caustic alkali is not used.)
(4) All volatile treatment: pH 8.5-9.0
(Hydrazine and ammonia treatment is used and no solid chemicals are used.)
No. of Boilers
37
8
29
21
(10) Chemicals Fed into the Drum

To avoid alkali corrosions, no free sodium hydroxide should exist and the pH should be minimized. However,
decreasing the pH level is not desirable in preventing oxygen corrosion and sodium hydroxide helps the removal
of magnesium as sludge during leakage into a condenser. To maintain pH at a certain desired level, the phosphate
ion concentration should be increased, but doing so can stain turbine blades. Therefore, where the increase of pH
is not abandoned, sodium hydroxide should be used to prevent the turbine blades from deposit. In order to avoid
both turbine scale and alkali corrosion, only volatile chemicals should be used, although doing so is not safe for
preventing the seawater leakage of the condenser.
There is no single medicine to cure all such difficulties. Thus, it was decided to implement a comprehensive
examination of conditions surrounding the boilers to decide which priority should be chosen and favored. Table
3.3.1-5 shows the experience of the U.S. in 1959.
(11) Problems in All volatile treatment
At the Kansai Electric Power Company, the use of volatile chemicals was applied to all units of 250KW or
above. However, there were reports of white laminated scales deposited in a boiler, as shown in Fig. 3.3.1-11, with
total thickness of 0.4mm and a total of around 11 to 12 white laminations. Each ingredient, especially the 11 to 12
layers of copper and zinc, corresponded to the number of white laminations. There were some 86 instances of
seawater leakage within the condenser, of which 10 were serious. This also corresponds to the number of white
layers. The total calcium and magnesium content was 1 to 4% in the form of CaO, which is several times larger
than other boilers. Rice associated the generation of hydrogen to decreased pH, due to leakage of the condenser,
causing accelerated corrosion. He also determined that the corrosion became uncontrollable when volatile
chemicals were used, and that no hydrogen corrosion would occur when coordinated phosphate treatment was
used. ONeal also commented that coordinated phosphate treatment was used in lieu of volatile chemicals to avoid
any hydrogen embitterment.
Base Material of Scale
Scale Thickness
All volatile
treatment
Approx. 15%
Ingredient
strength
Approx. 80%
Approx. 10%
Scale Thickness (when scanned in an oblique directions)
(Source: Kurosawa et al.)
Fig. 3.3.1-11: Microscopic Diagram of Scales on the Burner Side
209
Number of Boilers in Operation
Total
125K Class
170K Class
140K Class
Year
Percentage in the Entire Treatments %
Fig. 3.3.1-12: Trend of High Pressure Boilers
Sodium
hydrate
Sodium
phosphate
All volatile treatment

Potassium salt
treatment
Year
Fig. 3.3.1-13: Trend of Boiler Water Treatment

Dick revealed that all volatile treatment is not a panacea against water damage accidents, because there were
reports of significant water wall tube trouble occurring in some boilers subjected to all volatile treatment.
Decker disagreed with the use of all volatile treatment on drum type boilers, stating that such treatment was
rarely beneficial to them.
Every few years, an accident involving increased differential pressure to a forced circulation boiler with all
volatile treatment happens due to the attachment of scales to the orifice installed at the inlet of water pipes. This is
likely to occur just after chemical cleaning and the likelihood of such incident is based on how the initial
crystallization occurs. The scale present consists of mainly magnetite. As anti-scale measures, (i) removal and
cleaning, (ii) modification of the orifice shape, (iii) change of the orifice material to soft steel, and low phosphate
treatment were carried out.
Subsequently in 1970, of four heavy oil boilers of virtually the same design, two treated by volatile chemicals
were involved in an accident, while another, although not involved in an accident, was affected by a zinc scale
attachments on a considerable scale. On the other hand, boilers subjected to low phosphate treatment showed no
such zinc scale deposits. It was considered that the use of low phosphate treatment not only stops zinc deposits but
also decomposes part of the zinc oxide deposits into zinc phosphate.
Thus, conventional method of all volatile treatment was switched to phosphate treatment at boilers used mainly
by Electric Power Development Co. Ltd. Table 3.3.1-6 shows a comparison performance comparison featuring the
scale generation behaviors of 23 boilers before and after changing the mode of water treatment. As the table
shows, 4 units showed that phosphate treatment worked well in reducing the generation of scales. No unit showed
an increase of scale when phosphate treatment was used in lieu of all volatile treatment. Even taking into
consideration the change in operating conditions, phosphate treatment showed a reduction of scale generation. It
was therefore considered that phosphate treatment was applicable for restricting scale deposits in the generating
tubes of a boiler.
210
Table 3.3.1-6: Survey on Boilers whose Water Treatment Method was Switched from
All volatile treatment to Low Phosphate Treatment
When Phosphate
Materials for the Condenser
Treatment was
Started
Condensate water Part
Air Cooling Part
(Year/Month)
53.3
Aluminum brass
Nickel-plated
aluminum brass
48.1
Aluminum brass
Cupronickel
45.3
Aluminum brass
Cupronickel
51.5
Aluminum brass
Monel metal
Aluminum brass
Cupronickel
53.2 (50.6P"A)
53.5
Aluminum brass
Titanium
Unit
No.
Capacity
(MW)
Furnace
Type
Circulation
Method
36
375
Single
Natural
Start of
Operation
(Year/
Month)
47.11
65
66
67
70
78
156
156
350
156
156
Divided
Divided
Divided
Divided
Divided
Natural
Natural
Natural
Natural
Natural
39.8
41.2
44.1
39.6
48.4
86
87
250
250
Divided
Divided
Natural
Forced
42.7
43.7
49.4
52.6
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
88
250
Divided
Forced
44.1
52.2
Aluminum brass
89
90
106
108
265
265
350
265
Divided
Divided
Divided
Divided
Natural
Natural
Natural
Forced
42.5
44.9
47.2
35.10
47.5
50.10
54.1
54.11
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
BKCB
Aluminum brass
109
112
265
350
Divided
Divided
Forced
Forced
37.9
41.7
54.10
53.6
113
118
350
350
Divided
Divided
Natural
Forced
42.1
43.1
55.12
53.7
122
147
250
350
Single
Divided
Forced
Natural
45.6
44.9
54.1
53.6
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Titanium
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Cupronickel
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
148
168
169
181
350
250
350
400
Divided
Divided
Single
Single
Natural
Natural
Forced
Forced
45.1
46.1
48.1
52.9
55.12
51.3
53.12
56.3
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Cupronickel
Nickel-plated
aluminum brass
Nickel-plated
aluminum brass
Titanium
Titanium
Titanium
Nickel-plated
aluminum brass
Titanium
Titanium
Materials for the Feed Heater

Low Pressure Part
High Pressure Part
Aluminum brass
Monel metal
Copper arsenate
Copper arsenate
Aluminum brass
Copper arsenate
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Monel metal
Monel metal
Carbon steel
Monel metal
Alloy steel
Carbon steel
Alloy steel
Alloy steel
Aluminum brass
Alloy steel
Copper arsenate
Copper arsenate
Aluminum brass
Copper arsenate
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Monel metal
Copper arsenate
Copper arsenate
Monel metal
Alloy steel
Titanium
Aluminum brass
Copper arsenate
Aluminum brass
Alloy steel
Alloy steel
Cupronickel
Titanium
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Titanium
Cupronickel
Cupronickel
Titanium
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Alloy steel
Alloy steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Table 3.3.1-7: Corrosion Damage Reported in the U.S. on Drum Boilers (125k Class or above)
Periods
1955-1960
1961-1965
1966-1970
New damage
reported
48
39
27
Number of units in
operation
219
385
481
Ratio of annual
damage occurred
3.6%
2.0
1.1
* Corrosion newly discovered
(12) Water Treatment and Boiler Accidents in the U.S.

Fig. 3.3.1-12 shows statistics concerning high pressure boiler damage reported in the U.S. up to 1970. Fig.
3.3.1-13 also shows a shift of boiler water treatment methods. It shows that the use of sodium hydroxide keeps
declining, while that of sodium phosphate is on the rise. All volatile treatment peaked in 1963 (25%) and declined
thereafter, falling as low as 5% in 1970.
Table 3.3.1-7 shows the trend of boiler corrosion, in terms of year on year decline. However, even recently, 1%
of boilers used today are prone to corrosion damage. As Table 3.3.1-8 shows, 170k-class boilers tend to corrode,
even when volatile chemicals are used to treat the boiler water. This ratio is relatively high compared with other
classes, indicating why this type of treatment was declined.
However, a few cases of damage allegedly occurred due to the all volatile treatment not showing any evidence
of boiler water contamination. The users believed that the all volatile treatment maintained the deionized water at
the specified level. Experience supports the theory that it was the boiler design making it prone to corrosion)
although Klein considers such an idea to be illogical.
Boiler corrosion cases in the U.S. peaked in the early 1960s, when various reports were submitted by both users
and consultants. They reported that corrosion was caused by (i) basically inappropriate boiler design, (ii) contact
of flames, (iii) insufficient circulation of boiler water and (iv) excessive evaporation speed. A few users suggested
that strict control should be imposed to the heat load exposed to furnaces.
3.3.1.2 Appearance of Subcritical Pressure Once-through Boilers and the Necessity of Condensate
Water Treatments
As the type of boiler evolves from natural circulation to forced circulation to once-through types, stricter water
treatment technologies have been called for.
A once-through boiler requires departure from the conventional type of water treatment technology, because all
foreign matter introduced to the boiler, together with the feed water, tend to become deposits on boiler tube and
turbine blade.
A once-through boiler requires ultra pure water, which contains a concentration of solid substances as low as
211
just 5 to 500 ppb. In order to obtain such low concentrations, it is necessary to avoid mixing solid substances into
the feed water.
Generally speaking, the following are considered sources of solid substances into feed water :
! Solid substances derived from construction phase
! A mixture of cooling water into the system, due to leakage of the condenser
! Corrosion products derived from the feed water system
! Solid substances in supplementary feed
! Solution of resin from the deionized water system
Among them, leakage of the condenser occupies the largest part. To eliminate this, condensate purification
equipment is installed. This unit is relatively effective in removing dissolving metal.
When an equilibrium between the protective coating on the metal surface and the water contacting it is lost, due,
for example, to load fluctuation, and system start-up and stoppage, the volume of corrosion products contained in
feed water rapidly increases.
In order to maintain the stability of the metal surface during a system stoppage, the system should be carefully
protected while not in use, with the use of hydrazine water of high pH and nitrogen sealed in tubes.
At the same time, a clean-up operation should be implemented before the system restarts operation. As for the
solution of resin from the deionized water unit, resin slightly dissolves into water during the initial phase of the
unit start-up, until it reaches a stable condition, meaning fine-powdered resin mingles into the supplementary feed.
The effects thereof were not the subjects of research in 1959. In those days, it was considered that installation of a
fine pore filter before and after a condensate purification equipment was effective in removing fine powder resin.
As chemicals capable of solidifying must not be used, hydrazine, ammonia and amines should be used.
However, amines are not recommended because they decompose at high pressure.
Table 3.3.1-8: Damages to Boilers by Pressure and by the Water Treatment Method
Pressure
Sodium Phosphate Treatment
Sodium Hydroxide Treatment
Potassium Salt Treatment
Total
125k Class
5
12
41
5
63
140k Class
7
3
18
5
33
170k Class
11
8
4
23
Total
23
23
63
10
119
The No. 2 Boiler of the Himeji No. 2 Power Plant was imported from the U.S. and commenced comercial
operation in 1964. Table 3.3.1-9 shows the water quality standards, set based on actual operation performance.
This boiler uses hydrazine and ammonia injected into the outlet of its condensate purification equipment and
ammonia into the outlet of its deaeration unit.
(1) Condensate purification equipment
Condensate purification equipment normally consists of a mixed bed condensate demineralization tower and
filters placed in front of it. Some act as a polisher of supplementary feed.
The following three major objectives are associated with the use of condensate purification equipment:
1) To prevent damage to the entire system due to the leakage of a condenser
2) To purify the supplementary feed
3) To remove corrosion products from the feed water system
The secondary objectives include:
1) to purify various drain water before it enters into the system, and
2) to purify the system during the initial start-up and shutdown operations.
Contamination of ion-exchange resin by metal oxides and pressure loss of the condensate demineralization
tower impose significant impacts to the system when a high-speed ion exchange takes place. Due to this, a filter is
installed just before the tower to remove them and prevent the ion-exchange resin from deterioration.
As for appropriate materials to use for the filter, cellulose, diatomite, leaf-type and other fine pore filters are
recommended.
As for the condensate water condensate demineralization tower, although the impact of dissolved resin to the
tower has not yet been clearly identified, some say that the use of a filter, which puts after the demineralization
tower, can eliminate leakage from the tower. Himeji No. 2 Power Plant employs a combination of filters made by
United Filters, Inc. and Permutite Company. The label said the design conductivity was 0.2S/cm, and that design
silica, iron and copper concentrations were 7 ppb, 5 ppb and 5 ppb respectively, although these are not guaranteed
values.
The imported item of Himeji No. 2 Power Plant uses a horizontal leaf type pre-coat filter and Solka floc
212
BW-100 and -40 were used at a ratio of 1 to 1 as filtering agents. The agents heavily leaked out, were deposited on
the resin surface of the condensate demineralization tower caused pressure loss of the tower. The reasons for the
leakage were attributed to leaf-end gaps, the distance of leaf hubs, the non-parallel arrangement of the same,
variations in the water flow, an excessive design flow rate and the screen structure. The pressure loss exceeded the
design value, after pre-coating, it was attributable to the excessive flow rate and an overly small shaft and shaft
hole diameter. To eliminate the pressure loss, the system underwent renovation, but the loss still exceeded the
design value. So, other filter unit was added.
It is believed that the black carbon precipitated to the boiler tube when the filtering agent leaked in large
amount.
The condensate demineralization tower showed resin leakage, which was attributable to the gap of the disc
strainers, the distances between a disc strainer and the strainer plate and between the strainer plate and a bottom
plate.
In addition, sending resin to the regeneration tank led to massive amounts of residual resin accumulating at the
bottom of the tower, resulting in an insufficient regeneration process and imbalances between the cation and anion
resins. This was due to a structural defect at the bottom of the tower.
As the pressure loss of the condensate demineralization tower became abnormally high, resin with less than 60
mesh was filtrated using a filter (Permatite Q and S-1). The total annual fraction ratio came to approx. 45%, with
the ratio of damaged anion resin particularly high. As for the cause of the fractured resin, this was found to be
attributable to the relatively high design flow rate of 119m/h (51). Due to such experiences, a flow rate of 80m/h
was recommended.
However, despite such measures, the water purity showed no improvement. Even after investigation by a
Japanese condensate demineralizer manufacturer, no causes were identified. So, the staff was so desperate for help
that they used a sieve to remove small resins, whereupon the water purity showed improvement.
Table 3.3.1-9: Criteria for a Once-through Boiler
Pressure
Condensate water
Demineralized
Condensate water
Feed Water
ClO2
Electrical Conductivity
ppm
ppb
S
Subcritical
Pressure
0
40
0.2
Supercritical
Pressure
0
40
0.2
pH
9.0-9.5
9.2-9.7
O2
5
ppb
5
N2H4
ppb
5-30
5-30
0.2
0.2
Cationic conductivity #S/cm
10
10
Fe
ppb
5
3
Cu
ppb
20
10
SiO2
ppb
Values not shown in the form of a range (a ~ b) are the maximum allowable values.
213
(2) Cleanup
(Inlet of an economizer in front of a
boiler unit of Himeji No. 2 Power Plant)
Lowest Range
Time
Highest Range
Start of switchover to a high
pressure heater (second time)
B-Line Feed Water
Feed water rate increased

(200t/h " 260t/h)
Fig. 3.3.1-14: Example of Flow-Out of Suspended Particles after Increase

in the High Pressure Heater Flow Rate and Switchover of Lines
Picture 3.3.1-1: Suspended Particles in Condensate water

(during the clean-up process in supercritical pressure boiler)
The cleanup process basically aims to remove foreign matter from the lines swiftly, stabilize the metal surface
and regulate water quality to ensure the normal operation of the unit. In order to realize this, each system must be
separated and it must be cleaned up from condenser to the boiler, achieving and maintaining satisfactory water
quality level.
There are the following two ways of purifying water:
! Blowing down
! Condensate purification equipment
The aim of the blowing is to uplift water quality, when boiler water quality has deteriorated to such an extent
that it would damage a condenser.
After the blowing process, the water passes through a filter, bypassing a condensate demineralization tower, to
reduce the iron concentration at the outlet of the filter to 30 ppb or below. Subsequently, the water can be fed to
the condensate demineralization tower.
Suspended particles must be removed as far as possible via flushing before discharging them from the lines.
The flow rate is a decisive factor during flushing and cleanup. For this purpose, the flow rate should be
increased by using a single line system, or by adding shocks to the flow rate by switching lines reciprocally. Fig.
3.3.1-14 shows examples of a large volume of suspended particles flown out of the system via the addition of
shocks after switching to the high pressure heater.
The temperature of the boiler should be monitored to raise it in a phased manner by considering the relationship
between the temperature and the maximum allowable iron concentration. The flow rate must be retained as high
as possible.
(3) Analysis of Iron Concentration using a 0.45m Millipore Filter
Analysis of iron concentration must be done as swiftly as possible, as it is an indicator to determine the
appropriateness of each cleanup process. The accuracy is relatively unimportant. A technique involving filtrating a
certain volume of sample water to visually inspect the residues and compare its color with a standard specimen
was introduced by Gilbert.
The technique was developed by B&W. Firstly, a filter of 0.1m was used, but it soon emerged experimentally
that more than 90% of particles that cannot be removed via filtration of condensed and feed water can be
214
eliminated by a 0.45m filter. In Japan, as shown in Table 3.3.1-10, it was found that, when except a deaerator
tank, iron particles of 0.45m or above in size occupied more than 60% at the position requiring final assessment
and at the time measurement required just after starting up the plant.
These results were based on the plant being in continuous operation mode, with shutdown rarely occurring. The
successful results were attributable to the fact that large-sized particles detached from the boiler surface, etc., were
flown out temporarily into water in the lines when the plant started operation.
However, stopping the system frequently during the DSS operation gradually reduces the volume of such
particles of larger size. On the other hand, it was reported that the size of the needle-shaped corrosion products
generated in a condenser during plant stoppage and restart consisted of FeOOH of 0.02 to 0.1m and that other
products, such as magnetite, also detached from the boilers of which the size and shape were apparent in the form
of thin films of approx. 0.02m and square-shaped products of approx. 0.1m respectively. As the ratio of fine
particles of 0.45m in size or below newly generated from the system letup to restart tended to increase, it was
necessary to examine whether a filter of 0.45m should be continuously used or not.
Recently suggestions include, given the variability in the optical properties of FeOOH, Fe2O3 and Fe3O4, that
the color strength of these three products should be measured and quantified.
Table 3.3.1-10: Particle Diameter Distribution of Suspended Iron Oxides in System
Water when the System is Started
Specimen
Outlet of the
Condensate
pump
No. 4 Unit of Himeji No. 2

Sampling Iron Collected by a Millipore
Time*1
Filter*2
0.45
0.22
0.025
1
180
189
179
86
85
90
2
43
60
60
72
100
100
Sampling
Time*1
1
2
3
4
Deaerator tank
1
2
17
30
30
100
23
40
30
100
23
40
30
100
1
2
3
4
Inlet of an
Economizer
1
2
86
57
31
100
116
77
31
100
126
84
31
100
1
2
3
4
Outlet of
Furnace
1
2
86
57
31
100
116
77
31
100
126
84
31
100
1
2
3
4
* Sampling Time
[No. 4 Unit of Himeji No. 2]
1973.6
1: After boiler inspection
2: Cleanup at 117 C
[No. 2 Unit of Takasago]

1973.5
1: Acceptance of cleanup before
the ignition of the boiler
No. 2 Unit of Takasago

Iron Collected by a Millipore
Filter*2
0.45
0.22
0.025
288
293
309
92
94
99
189
196
207
91
94
100
261
273
277
93
98
98
228
238
239
94
93
99
13
16
27
43
53
90
16
17
26
59
55
90
18
18
30
58
58
97
8
18
29
26
58
94
33
37
47
62
70
89
16
12
31
35
47
91
17
17
27
45
49
77
28
32
40
61
70
87
25
28
43
58
65
100
19
27
40
48
68
100
24
24
24
100
100
100
23
23
23
100
100
100
2: Furnace fluid: 120 C

*2 The upper line of each column shows the concentration of iron collected by 0.45m, 0.22m
and 0.025m filters, while the bottom line shows the percentage of iron oxides of more than
0.45m, .22m and 0.025m in size relatively to the total iron.
No. 4 Unit of Kainan *3

Sampling
Iron Collected by a
Time*1
Millipore Filter*2
0.45
0.22
1
83
35
88
93
2
41
42
96
97
3
63
64
94
95
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
3
37
6
73
4
54
4
50
6
73
4
63
11
73
11
83
6
88
12
80
12
87
6
96
44
94
58
95
3
72
45
96
58
96
3
72
[No. 4 Unit of Kainan]

1973.8
1: Immediately before the ignition of the boiler
2: Inlet of Primary SH: 200 C
3: Inlet of Primary SH: 350 C
*3 The iron concentration values are rounded
off to the nearest whole number.
3.3.1.3 Emergence of a Supercritical Pressure Unit

The first supercritical pressure unit commenced commercial operation at Anegasaki Power Plant in Chiba
Prefecture in December 1967, followed by the No. 4 unit in the Himeji No. 2 Power Plant in March 1968. In the
U.S, the first supercritical pressure unit to commence commercial operation was the 315k Class Philio No. 6 unit
(125MW) in 1957. Based on the experience of this unit, a 246k Class, 538 C unit was developed after 1964, and
in 1966, such units occupied almost half of all power generation capacities developed for steam-power generation.
215
As in the U.S. a supercritical pressure unit started operation without identifying the movement of impurities in
water under supercritical condition, many troubles of copper scales to a high pressure turbine was reported due to
the copper dissolved in steam. The troubles became a synonym of a trouble peculiar to supercritical pressure unit,
that had not been experienced in subcritical pressure units. For example, Avon No. 8 unit experienced a copper
scale deposit of 1.5 to 2.3mm in thickness and 5.5 lbs. in weight during its three-year operation, and the load of
250 MW was decreased to 216 MW.
Subsequently came the introduction of a supercritical pressure unit aiming to meet the increased power demand
during periods of high economic growth. As the new unit handles supercritical pressure, completely different from
subcritical pressure, the latest water treatment system was employed to handle the latest water treatment
technology at that time.
There remained some challenges to be overcome in water treatment after the introduction of a supercritical
pressure unit. The following are the experiences of the No. 4 unit in the Himeji No. 2 Power Plant.
(1) Copper and Condensate purification equipment
As explained above, the concentration of copper must be minimized, as it deposits on turbine blades. Referring
to experiences in the U.S, 2 ppb was determined as a target for the copper concentration.
To eliminate copper, there are two methods; namely removing copper alloys from plant and using condensate
purification equipment.
For the former, steel pipes were used for the feedwater heater in lieu of copper alloy pipes. The No. 4 unit of
Himeji No. 2 Power Plant only used copper alloy for its low-pressure heater No. 1 and 2.
There was no alternative to the use of aluminum brass and copper dissolved from a condenser can be removed
by condensate purification equipment. However the condensate purification equipment manufactured by Graver
and installed as the No.4 unit of Himeji No. 2 Power Plant met the guaranteed value of 0.3S for electrical
conductivity, while the iron, copper and total dissolved solid material concentrations of 10 ppb, 3 ppb and 35 ppb
respectively were only the target values. The condensate demineralizer used was an external regeneration system.
With this in mind, the criteria for the copper concentration of the No. 4 unit of Himeji No. 2 Power Plant was
set to 3 ppb, although the actual concentration could be contained at almost 2 ppb. All the units installed in the
Power Plant thereafter used steel pipes for all feed heaters and the criteria was changed to 2 ppb, which was
successfully met thereafter.
Fluid Temperature (F)
Iron Deposition Volume (g/ft2)
Temperature
Deposition
Length of Generating Tubes (ft)
(Source: B&W reports)
Fig. 3.3.1-15: Iron Deposition to Generation Tubes

(2) Cold Cleanup at a Temperature of 177 C
The following two were preconditioned for boiler cleanup activities:
1) To minimize foreign substances slipped into boilers to minimize deposit generation and hence reduce chemical
cleaning
2) To shorten the cleanup time
The flow ratio of WW maintained by a BCP is said to accelerate the cleanup because the contaminant reverts to
the form of suspended particles and flows out from the boiler .
A cold cleanup refers to the initial cleanup process of a boiler previously used, which can literally also be cold.
For the No. 4 unit of the Himeji No. 2 Power Plant, C.E suggested that a cleanup be done while keeping the boiler
216
ignited. As Fig. 3.3.1-15, a result of experiments at B&W, shows, the iron starts depositing in a generating tube at
a temperature of 450F (232 C). Therefore at this temperature or below, iron deposited at the inlet of an
economizer need not be considered. In actual practice, a boiler is cleaned by keeping its temperature at 350F
(177 C) at the outlet of the WW to suspend foreign matter deposited on the wall of pipes, which is then removed
using a condensate purification equipment. The temperature at the outlet of the WW may be risen up to 400F. It
is reported that Breed and Philo experienced circumstances whereby most iron oxide contained in feed water went
through the boiler at an outlet temperature of 260 C to 288 C, and all of it was deposited on the pipe wall at a
temperature of 316 C or above.
The following are the criteria for giving final approval to a boiler that cleanup be completed at a temperature of
177 C:
Inlet of an economizer: Iron 50 ppb
Copper 20 ppb
Silica 30 ppb
Oxygen 10 ppb
Outlet of a WW:
Iron 500 ppb
If the iron concentration is 500 ppb or below at the outlet of WW when the deaeration feed water contains 50
ppb of iron, the contamination on the WW surface is minute. This is because it is said that experiences indicate
that iron will not separate out at the WW when the temperature at the outlet of the WW is 218 C at the highest.
Experiences also indicate that the permissible level of iron concentration at the outlet of WW may be up to 500
ppb, rather than 50 ppb, without sacrificing cleanup effects or boiler performances.
Lax water quality is allowed after cleanup so that units can be installed in juxtaposition to obtain a reasonable
flow rate. Moreover, since the cleanup does not take long, slightly deteriorated water quality will not cause any
scales to be deposited.
Based on experience, when the iron concentration comes to 50 ppb, both copper and silica concentrations
satisfy the limit values, and the acceptance of cleanup is determined by measuring the iron concentration at the
inlet of an economizer only.
If the iron concentration at the inlet of the economizer reaches 50 ppb, both copper and silica concentrations at
the same location should satisfy the limit values.
After the cleanup at 177 C, the temperature may be uplifted. During the temperature rise, the iron concentration
at the inlet of the economizer should be kept at 50 ppb or below. Beyond 177 C, even if the spillover of the
economizer is closed, the iron concentration can be maintained at this concentration or below. In the case that the
concentration exceeds this value, the spillover should be increased, whereupon, the iron concentration can be kept
at this level till combined input.
(3) Steel Pipe Heater and pH Rise
As a result of a test , when the pH of the feed water at the inlet of the economizer was uplifted to 9.5, the iron
separated out into the feed water system was significantly reduced. As for copper, no significant change was
observed after the pH uplifted to 9.5. So the value of 9.5 was determined for pH.
The reason that the pH was limited to 9.5 was because more ammonia should be used if the value exceeds this
level and because of curtailing chemical costs due to an increase in the number of regenerations and due to a
deterioration in the water intake capacity of a desalination tank.
3.3.1.4 Advancement of Condensate purification equipments
(1) Ammonia-Type Resin
Though the cation and anion resins contained within a condensate demineralization tower do not lose the
function of removing ions such as sodium, iron and copper for the former and chloride ions and silica for the latter,
they are prone to break down due to the ammonium ion exchange caused by a pH regulator.
Based on experience, an idea was proposed to use NH4 type ions as exchanger bases for cation resin to
optimally utilize the resin functions. In the U.S, a series of simulation tests was conducted at the end of 1966,
followed by the practical implementation of the method.
At the No. 4 unit of the Himeji No. 2 Power Plant, a series of tests using an actual unit was conducted from
1969 to 1970, following an experiment using a small-sized unit.
Consequently, it emerged that this method can withstand even a leakage occurring within the condenser.
However, the findings were attributable to the fact that during the test, the unit was handled with extreme care, the
ratio of regeneration was almost 100% and that due to this, the water quality at the inlet was excellent. With this in
mind, the design of actual units required thorough consideration of various points. This consideration was made
after the test and the method was implemented.
(2) Electromagnetic Filter
217
Ratio of Removal (%)
A pre-coat filter was in use for 20 years. The shortcomings were the fact that it took 2 hours to regenerate and
that dissolving a pre-coat agent requires handling by operators, because this did not take place automatically. In
addition, the pre-coat filter requires a pre-coat agent, resulting in a high running cost, and effluent sludge needs to
be treated.
An electromagnetic filter was first used in a Kiel Power Plant (320MW). At the Power Plant, condensate water
and a low pressure drain were treated at a temperature of 130 C, while the capacity of the electromagnetic filter
was disclosed in 1966, as shown in Fig. 3.3.1-16. As the system water temperature rose at startup, the magnetite
volume also increased. Alongside the same, the ratio of removing foreign matter was on the rise; 90% of total iron
and 97% of magnetite were removed successfully. However, as the concentration of total iron fell to 10 ppb, the
ratio was reduced to 80%.
After an electromagnetic filter had been developed in Japan, it rapidly spread to all newly installed units. The
filter generates a high gradient magnet field by subjecting a solenoid coil to a direct high density current. It shows
high removal performances against ferromagnetic and paramagnetic iron oxides when a filler is charged into the
tower, making it an electric magnet, in combination with the mechanical filtration of the filler. The water feed
filtration velocity (LV Value) is approx. 10 times higher for an electromagnetic filter than that for a conventional
filter, and the whole unit can be miniaturized. As it facilitates regeneration relatively easily, this helps save
significant amounts of both energy and labor. Moreover, no stand-by unit is required because flushing the unit
takes as little as 15 minutes, including the preparation time. In addition, no meticulous operation control is
necessary, the volume of effluents from of the unit is modest, no filtration auxiliary agents or other chemicals are
required and the volume of sludge can therefore be minimized.
However, the shortcomings, according to a report, include its inability to remove high levels of paramagnetic
-Fe2O3 and -FeOOH of fine powders and amorphous bodies, while its capacity to remove irons is slightly
worse .
Normal Operation
(0.3m/s)
Magnetite
Total iron
Heat up of a plant
Iron (pbb)
(Source: Condensate water of

the Kiel Power Plant)
Fig. 3.3.1-16: Performance of an Electromagnetic Filter
(3) Hollow Fiber Membrane Filter

The first thermal Power Plant to use a hollow fiber membrane filter was Goi Thermal Power Plant No.2 in April
1988 . In operating DSS, as the conventional pre-coat filters fell short in terms of responding to the requirement of
high speed condensate water purification and enhancement of boiler water quality, one of the three existing
pre-coat filter was replaced by a hollow fiber membrane filter so that all condensate water generated at system
start-up could be treated. The hollow fiber membrane filter is of polyethylene resin, with filtration holes of less
than 0.1 micron in diameter on its surface and removes foreign matter on the external surface of the fiber. The
foreign matter it captures is discharged from the membrane surface by backwashing filtrated condensate water
from the inside of the filter by vibrating the membrane fiber using air pressure.
As the operation needed only involves drawing water and backwashing, they can be remotely controlled from
the central control room.
Although the report states that the concentration of iron at the inlet reached 200 ppb, that at the outlet was kept
below the detectable limit, as always and the cleanup time was successfully curtailed by half to a third of the
original.
The bottleneck of this system, however, is the substantial initial cost required.
3.3.1.5 Introduction of an Oxygen Treatment Method
As indicated by the arguments thus far, water treatment technologies after the WWII have been solely reliant on
the U.S. However, on a global basis, methods of water treatment employed may also originate from outside the
218
U.S., e.g. from Europe, where methods unique to this continent are used.
In Germany, an oxygen treatment method was developed in the latter half of 1960s and registered in VGB in
1972. Due to the lack of any ammonia attack on the condensate water pipes, the iron concentration in feed water
can be retained, at least at a level equivalent to that of volatile chemicals and other benefits, and this oxygen
treatment method has penetrated all over Europe. Indeed, the former Soviet Union employed the method in the
mid-1970s for practical use. In Japan, the method has been applied to all boiling water reactors (BWR), in systems
where chemical treatment cannot be applied to the primary cooling system, and a good operational record has
been accumulated to date.
It was considered that, in order to apply the oxygen treatment method to thermal power plants in Japan, it was
necessary to more clearly identify its impacts on reducing scales, the effects of curtailing boiler differential
pressure, the influences on turbine materials, water treatment conditions when stopping and starting the system
and other aspects. For this purpose an oxygen treatment method assessment committee was established,
featuring the membership of 10 electric power companies and the Central Research Institute of Electric Power
Industry (CRIEPI). CRIEPI aimed to identify the above issues and commenced basic research into the practical
use of oxygen treatment method to a once-through boiler in April 1988. The research period was 2 years.
Joint basic research carried out by the 10 electric power companies and CRIEPI was primarily focused on the
following three examination items, and the committee was used as a venue for discussing and assessing in a
comprehensive manner.
(i) The impacts of oxygen on the anti-corrosive performance of boiler pipes against high temperature water
(ii) Impacts of oxygen on SCC and the corrosion fatigue of steam turbine materials
(iii) Assessment as to how the oxygen treatment method is used in plants outside Japan and the provision of
temporary guidance for the practical application of this method to an actual system
Various types of these tests, as well as a case assessment of how the method is used in overseas plants, were
summarized as shown below.
The oxygen treatment method was found to have at least equivalent scaling and anti-corrosion performances to
the all volatile treatment method. Case assessment showed that the oxygen treatment method had the effect of
curtailing a surge of boiler differential pressure and decreasing the generation of scales as well as no new system
reports being reported. With such affirmative results, it was confirmed that the oxygen treatment methods could
represent an ideal feed water treatment method to a once-through boiler.
3.3.1.6 Introduction of the Oxygen Treatment Method
The Chubu Electric Power Company Limited conducted an experimental research involving the application of
the oxygen treatment method to the No. 1 unit of its Chita No. 2 Thermal Power Plant jointly with Hitachi, Ltd.
(boilers) and Toshiba Corporation (turbines) in 1990. This was the first of its kind in Japan.
Some favorable results were obtained, including the curtailment of the differential pressure surge of boilers,
decreased BFP powers and prolongation of the chemical cleaning intervals of boilers. As no adverse effects of
corrosion and erosion were observed, the system was assessed as being applicable for practical use.
With such favorable assessments, the system will be introduced mainly to 18 once-through boilers of
supercritical pressure class or above.
The following chapters explain the result of the research, final assessments and introduction plans.
Application of the Oxygen Treatment
Method
Change of scale
characteristics
Decreased iron concentration in

the feed water
Curtailment of wave-shaped
scale production
Decreased iron volume fed to

the pumps
Curtailment of the differential

pressure surge of boilers
Curtailment of
pressure surge at the
outlet of a feed water
pump
Curtailment of
overheating to the
generating pipes
Decreasing
power
consumption of
the feed water
pumps
Decreased scale generation

velocity
Prolonged chemical cleaning

intervals
Enhanced cost
performance
Enhanced reliability
219
Fig. 3.3.1-17: Expected Effects of the Oxygen Treatment Method
Table 3.3.1-11: Research Plan

Item
FY1990
FY1991
FY1992
FY1993
Facility Design
and Construction
(Regular Inspection)
Feasibility Test
(Inspection of
Facility)
Analysis and
Assessment
Test to determine optimum

operating conditions
Analysis
Long-term running test
Intermediate
assessment
Analysis
Comprehensive
assessment
3.3.1.6.1 Characteristics of the Oxygen Treatment Method

The oxygen treatment method aims to prevent corrosion by generating a protective layer of trivalent iron oxide
(Fe2O3 or hematite) by infusing a minute volume of oxygen (20 to 200g/l) under an ultra pure water environment
(0.2S/cm or below) with pH between 6.5 to 9.0. Compared to an AVT protection layer of magnetite, hematite has
relatively lower solubility, finer particles and generates sleeker protection layers, meaning the performance as
shown in Fig. 3.3.1-17 can be expected.
There are two ways to use the oxygen treatment method; one is the neutral water treatment method and the
other, the combined water treatment method (CWT), where the pH environment is 8.0 to 9.0. During this research,
CWT was employed because it was once used before in Germany and because of its excellent performance in
terms of curtailing the separation of iron and copper.
3.3.1.6.2 Outline of Research
(1) Research Periods
April 1990 to September 1993
The work schedule is as shown in Table 3.3.1-11.
(2) Unit Subject to the Research
No. 1 unit of the Chita No. 2 Thermal Power Plant
(Supercritical pressure conversion and the once-through type with the output of 700MW)
(3) Research Items
a. To establish optimum water quality conditions
b. To establish an optimum mode of switching from AVT and CWT and vice versa
c. To establish optimum operation methods of condensate water and the desalination unit.
d. Assessment test of impacts on other units
(4) Research Facilities
a. Oxygen injection unit (Oxygen is fed from a cylinder to the outlet of a condensate water desalination unit
and of a deaeration unit.)
b. Low pH ammonia injection unit
c. Water quality monitoring system
3.3.1.6.3 Results of the Research
In line with the regular inspection for FY1990 (February 4 to 6, a series of facility installation works was
conducted, including an oxygen injection unit.
For approx. 1.5 months from the start of the units and after regular inspection, AVT was conducted to smoothly
transfer to CVT after the start of CWT.
Subsequently, on August 15, the system was completely transferred from AVT to CWT, whereupon, a series of
tests was conducted, including optimum water quality conditioning tests, long-term running tests and impact
assessment test to other units.
(1) Iron and Copper Concentration in Feed and Condensate water
a. Iron Concentration
220
(Legend)
(Legend)
Oxygen
Oxygen
Outlet of a
Outlet of an Outlet of a Outlet of a Outlet of an Main
Condensate Electromagnetic Condensate Deaeration Economizer Steam
water Booster Unit
water Pump
Filter
Pump
Outlet of a Condensate water

Pump
Outlet of an Economizer
Fig. 3.3.1.19: Relationship between pH, DO and Iron

Concentration
Fig. 3.3.1-18: Shift of Iron Concentration under the

Long-Term Running Test (pH: 8.5, DO: 100g)
(Legend)
Differential Pressure (kg/cm2)
During the research

period
Chemical
cleaning
During the past AVT

period
Regular Inspection
(Chemical cleaning)
Regular
Inspection
Start of CWT
Regular
Inspection
Number of Months
Fig. 3.3.1-20: Shift of Boiler Differential Pressure
1) When Converting to CWT

Just after the conversion to CWT, the iron concentration surged by more than 8 times or 24g/l at the inlet of an
economizer, compared to AVT. This transit phenomenon was also seen in copper concentration (tripled to 2g/l).
Both phenomena, however, disappeared within a few weeks.
The reason for this may be attributable to the fact that protection layers were not formed smoothly because of
decreasing pH (AVT9.6 CWT8.5) and the fact that the injection of oxygen was performed simultaneously when
the CWT was first started. In future, first oxygen should be injected to monitor the behaviors of dissolved oxygen
(DO) and iron while reducing pH step by step.
2) Long-Term Running (pH: 8.5, DO: 100g/l)
As shown in Fig. 3.3.1-18, compared to AVT, the iron concentration doubled to 8.8g/l at the outlet of a
condensate pump before injecting oxygen, due to the decreased pH, while after injecting oxygen, it reduced to
between a third and a half (3.1g/l!1.6g/l at the inlet of an economizer). The CWT thus seems relatively
effective in reducing the iron concentration of feed water and the volume of iron fed into boilers.
3) Relationship between pH and DO
As shown in Fig. 3.3.1-19, at the outlet of a condensate pump, as the pH increased, the iron concentration
tended to decrease, with a level equal or slightly higher than AVT. The same trend was observed in low pressure
feed heater drain, although no significant effects were observed in other systems.
There were also no significant relationships observed between pH and DO.
b. Copper Concentration
The copper concentration in CWT was at the same level as AVT, i.e. 0.6g/l. No significant relationships were
observed between pH and DO as well.
(2) Differential Pressure of Units
a. Differential Pressure of Boilers
The boiler differential pressure refers to the difference in the pressure lost between the inlet of an economizer to
221
a steam separation drain tank.

As shown in Fig. 3.3.1-20, the pressure surged by approx. 8kg/cm2 in 1.5 months for AVT, before the start of
CWT. It then became a decrease one month after the start of the CWT, whereas in 9 months, the differential
pressure had decreased to the same level as that after chemical cleaning was applied to the unit (30kg/cm2). The
trend continued thereafter, before ultimately reaching differential pressure equivalent to that at the commissioning
of the unit, i.e. 27.5kg/cm2).
Compared to AVT, the differential pressure showed a significant decrease to approx. 15 kg/cm2, which was the
same level as that of a unit 15 months after chemical washing.
Due to such reduced differential pressure of boilers and other factors, the BFP outlet pressure was reduced. The
volume of steam required for operating the BFP was reduced by 6.7 t/h for low pressure steam and 5.3 t/h for high
pressure steam, compared to AVT, as shown in Table 3.3.1-12.
This effectively shows that CWT is relatively effective in reducing the differential pressure of boilers and the
BFP power loss.
Table 3.3.1-12: Comparison of Steam Volume for Operating BFP (Unit: t/h)
1 AVT
2 CWT
Low pressure steam
125.3
118.6
High pressure steam
9.2
3.9
Note 1: For AVT, the figures are the mean values from Jan. 1987 to April 1990.
Note 2: For CWT. The figures are the mean values from Jan. 1991 to Jan. 1992.
1-2
6.7
5.3
(Legend)
Generation Speed (mg/cm2, 1,000h)
The unit used for this

research
No. 4 unit of the Ulsan
Thermal Power Plant
(2.5 years)
(1 year after the

start of CWT)
4 years
9.5 years
Fig. 3.3.1-22: Water Pipe Scale Generation Speed of the Unit used for This Research and
the No. 4 Unit of the Ulsan Thermal Power Plant
Generation Speed (mg/cm2, 1,000h)
(Legend)
Upper
part
Lower
part
(Coal economizer)
Furnace Furnace
material
side
side
(Water pipe: front

wall)
Furnace
side
Furnace Upper
material part
side
(Water pipe: side wall)
Lower
part
(Generation unit)
Fig. 3.3.1-21: Scale Generation Speed of Water Pipes, etc.

222
b. Differential Pressure of High Pressure Feed Heater

The differential pressure of a high pressure feed heater refers to the total differential pressure from the inlet of
No. 1 unit to the outlet of No. 3 unit respectively.
It shows the same trend as the differential pressure of boilers and in 10 months, it came down to 7kg/cm2 ,
namely, the same level as the unit immediately after chemical cleaning. Thereafter, the trend continued until the
differential pressure stabilized at approx. 6kg/cm2.
(3) Corrosion and Scale Deposition on the Units
Inspections for corrosion and scale deposition on boilers and turbine-related units were performed in line with
regular inspections.
The inspections were performed in three stages, the first involved inspecting the conditions of the AVT as a
basis of the assessment, and the second covered its conditions 1 year after the switchover to the CWT (CWT-1),
while the third was done approx. 2.5 years after the switchover to the CWT.
a. Major Units Related to Boilers
(a) Economizer and Evaporation Part (pipe observation test)
(i) Volume of Scales Deposited (Generation Speed)
As shown in Fig. 3.3.1-21, the speed of scale generation showed a time course decrease after switching over to
the CWT. In approx. 2.5 years, it reduced by between two thirds to a half (1!0.7mg/cm2, 1,000h at the front
wall of the water pipe on the furnace side). Compared to AVT, the decrease was relatively significant i.e. by a
between a half and a third (1.7!0.7mg/cm2, 1,000h at the front wall of the water pipe on the furnace side).
The trend for decreased scale generation speed is, as shown in Fig. 3.3.1-22, the same level as that shown at
the No. 4 unit of the Ulsan Thermal Power Plant of Korea Electric Power Corporation. Based on this, the
ultimate scale generation speed of a CWT is 0.5mg/cm2, 1,000h.
(ii) Scale Thickness
The scale thickness after switching to CWT showed a decrease in the same manner as the volume of scale
deposited. In approx. 2.5 years, it decreased to a level almost equivalent to that around a year after the
switchover. Compared to AVT, it showed a significant decrease by approx. a half to a quarter (0.06!0.03mm
at the front wall of the water pipe on the furnace side).
223
(iii) Surface Conditions of Scale

As Picture 3.3.1-1 shows, for AVT, the scale was in a waveform of crystals of 10 to 20 m in diameter.
Around a year after the switchover to CWT, the surface conditions of the scale changed into a shape of fine
powders of several m in diameter, and no waveform shape scales were identified. After approx. 2.5 years,
further progress was made in terms of miniaturization of the fine powder diameter.
Picture 3.3.1-1 Surface Condition of the Scales Deposited

in Water Pipes
224
Resin
Resin
Scale
Scale
Pipe
Wall
Pipe
Wall
Picture 3.3.1-2: Cross Section of Scales

Deposited in Water Pipes
Fig. 3.3.1-23: X-ray Analysis of Iron Compounds

(Water Pipes)
(iv) Cross Section of Scales

As shown in Picture. 3.3.1-2, in AVT, uneven distribution of scale thickness and many voids were observed.
The thickness, thereafter, was thinned and the surface was sleeker approx. one year after switchover to CWT and
the same trend was observed after approx. 2.5 years.
(v) Coarseness of the Scale Surface
Compared to AVT, the coarseness of the scale surface approx. one year after the switchover to CWT was
miniaturized by half (77!35m).
(vi) Chemical Composition of the Scale
As shown in Fig. 3.3.1-23, the X-ray analysis indicated that in AVT, most of the scales were in the form of
magnetite, while in CWT, they were a mixture of magnetite and hematite ( -Fe2O3).
It is considered that due to such qualitative and quantitative changes of scales in CWT, the differential pressure
of the boilers was reduced.
(vii) Solubility of Scales to Chemical cleaning Agents
A scale solubility test was conducted to confirm the solubility of scales generated in CWT into chemical
cleaning agents. Consequently, scales deposited in CWT were totally soluble to agents used for the chemical
cleaning of AVT (1.5% citric acid and 1.5% hydroxyacetic acid), even after approx. 2.5 years had elapsed.
The solubility of scale to chemical agents was the same for that deposited to CWT and AVT. No insoluble
scales were generated some time after the use of CWT was commenced.
(b) Stagnant Water (pipe observation test)
Generally speaking, in CWT, water containing oxygen must be there to supply oxygen. For this reason, there
225
was concern regarding corrosion in sections containing stagnant water.

In order to observe and assess the corrosion, a drain pipe close to the inlet of an economizer and close to the
inlet pipe of a horizontally-set superheater header were chosen as two representative locations where water tends
to be stagnant and oxygen is hardly supplied. Consequently, no significant differences emerged in the corrosion
performance of CWT and AVT.
Thickness and Volume of Scales (CWT/AVT) (Unit: %)
(Legend)
Main
Turbine
BFP
Turbine
High Pressure
Water Supply
Heater Flow
Rectification
Tower
BFP
Strainer
Rotator
at the
Inlet of a
BFP
Adjusting
Valve of
High
Pressure
Water
Heater Drain
Fig. 3.3.1-24: Thickness and Volume of Scales

Deposited on Major Components of a Turbine (Relative
Comparison)
Table 3.3.1-13: Results of Analysis on Scales Deposited on the Main Turbine (Unit: Fe: %, Others: mg/kg)
Fe
Cu
Cr
Ni
Mo
SiO2
Na
Cl
SO4
AVT
Medium-Pressure
Low-Pressure
Unit #9
Unit #15
64.1
61.1
9400
4900
9000
12400
1100
810
3300
3100
3600
13800
3300
5400
7
120
210
450
CWT-1
Medium-Pressure
Low-Pressure
Unit #9
Unit #15
62.1
64.1
4000
8200
10000
9400
2200
1500
2600
3800
4100
5900
1100
1500
4
<1
250
940
CWT-2
Medium-Pressure
Low-Pressure
Unit #9
Unit #15
61.4
62.9
800
5900
8400
9500
330
1000
2500
3600
3800
4800
500
560
24
17
93
220
(c) Instrumentation and Control Valves

A series of investigations were conducted on 11 types of spray control valves of a superheater.
As for corrosion and erosion performances, no significant changes emerged between AVT and CWT except for
erosion, as explained in 3.3.3.1.6-(3)-d Parts Using Stellite Materials observed on the spray control valves of a
secondary superheater.
Scales deposited on the water side showed a change from black magnetite to red-brown hematite, while on the
steam side, black magnetite was observed, although the volume had declined.
b. Major Turbine Components
(a) Main and BFP Turbines
The scales were colored from black or gray to a mixture of slight red or yellow-brown.
Though some scales were seen deposited on various parts of AVT, in CWT they were rarely seen. As shown in
Fig. 3.3.1-24, compared to AVT, the scales deposited on CWT were reduced to two fifths to one fifth for the
overall main turbine and to one tenth to one twentieth for the BFP turbines, as estimated.
The chemical composition of the scale was, as shown in Fig. 3.3.1-13, the same as those found in AVT, but a
significant decrease was observed in NaSO4 and SiO2. The results of an X-ray analysis showed an increase of
hematite, like the scale attached to the boiler generation pipes.
The form of the scale was, due to the use of CWT, observed in smaller crystal shapes.
As for the corrosion and erosion of blades, rotors, nozzles and enclosures, there were no significant differences
when generally compared to AVT. There was also no abnormality in the non-destructive inspection (PT, MT, UT).
(b) Turbine control valve
226
An investigation was conducted on seven kinds of valves including the main steam stop valve. As a result, there
was no significant difference when compared to AVT generally.
The maximum depth of erosion to a sub-valve of a main steam stop valve was 4 to 5 mm, which is equivalent to
that observed in AVT.
(c) Instrumentation and Control Valves
A series of investigations was conducted to 9 types of valves, including BFP overheat prevention valves.
Consequently, the drain control valve attached to a high pressure feed water valve No. 3 showed a significant
decrease in the volume of scales (while in AVT, valve sticks were observed due to the deposition of scales), of
which the thickness was one fifth or below compared to AVT (0.6 to 3.0 mm ! 0 to 0.5mm). The scale was soft
and easily removed and maintained.
As for corrosion and erosion performances, no significant changes emerged between AVT and CWT except for
erosion, as explained in 3.3.3.1.6-(3)-d Parts Using Stellite Materials observed on the BFP overheat prevention
valves.
Picture 3.3.1-3: Scales Deposited on the Flow Rectifying Tower of the High Pressure Feed Heater
Good
Bad
Ablation Volume (mm)
Fig. 3.3.1-25: Performances of a High Pressure

Feed Heater
Fig. 3.3.1-26: Wear Volumes of the Chrome

Plating
227
(d) High Pressure Water Feed Heater

The color of scales for both the inner water chamber and inner heating pipe, as well as the flow rectifying tower,
changed from black magnetite to red-brown hematite, while X-ray analysis also confirmed an increase in hematite
materials.
Meanwhile, the volume of scales was also subject to decrease. As shown in Picture 3.3.1-3, the hardened scales
that had been removed during regular AVT inspection were rarely observed. As shown in Fig. 3.3.1-25, the
volume of scales in CWT was one tenth or below (1,520!150g/year).
Due to the decreased scale, the differential pressure of a high pressure feed heater was decreased and, as shown
in Fig. 3.3.1-25, the heat transfer performance (TD: Temperature Difference at the End Parts) was increased by 0.3
to 0.5!C, compared to AVT.
As for the corrosion and erosion performances, no significant differences were observed between AVT and
CWT and a similar trend was observed for other types of heat exchangers (condensers and deaeration units).
(e) BFP
A series of investigations was conducted on a rotator and strainer. As shown in Fig. 3.3.1-24, the volume of
scales attached to the rotator was found to have decreased to approx. one fifth of that to AVT (460!100g/year
unit) and no waveform scales, as observed in AVT, were seen around the CWT periphery. As for the strainer, the
scales were around one sixth that of AVT (250!40g/year unit).
Regarding corrosion and erosion, as shown in Fig. 3.3.1-26, the wear volume of the chrome plating layer of the
driving part of the rotator showed an increase compared to that of AVT (0 to 0.06mm!0.02 to 0.35mm in terms
of the maximum volume at each stage). It was presumed that feed water containing oxygen had slipped into the
micro pin holes and micro cracks, causing corrosions in the gap between the base materials and their plating
layers and leading to removal of the layer.
In order to reverse the situation, the following corrosion tests were carried out using an actual unit and chrome
plating combined by electroless nickel plating was found to be effective.
[Test Procedures]
Location: Suction strainer of BFP
Materials: Base material (13 Cr)
Cr plating
Composite electroless nickel plating
Cr plating + electroless nickel plating
Thermal spraying of oxidized Cr
Periods: July 1992 to Jan. 1993 (for 6 months)
c. Stress Corrosion Cracking Test of Turbine Materials
In order to confirm the effects of CWT on turbine materials, a stress corrosion cracking test was conducted in
the following procedures. To compare the results, the No. 2 unit using AVT was subject to a similar test.
[Test Procedures]
Location: Low pressure 16th stage extraction steam chamber (dry)
Low pressure 17th stage extraction steam chamber (humidity: 2%)
Low pressure air discharge chamber (humidity; 7.5%)
Materials: Blade materials (12CrNiMoV steel)
Blade materials (12CrMoV steel)
Rotor materials (3.5CrNiCrMoV steel)
Stress added: 40kgf/mm2
60kgf/mm2
Exposure periods: CWT: 761 days
AVT: 674 days
The following results were obtained and no adverse impacts were considered to be imposed on the turbine
materials by CWT:
1) No stress corrosion cracks observed for both specimens
2) No significant differences in stress corrosion cracks were observed between AVT and CWT.
d. Parts using Stellite Materials
As there are some reports in Europe of CWT causing corrosions to stellite materials, a test was conducted to
confirm the corrosion performances of the stellite materials.
(a) Final Stage Blade of Main Turbine
Stellite materials (#6) are used at the tip of the blade to shield it against erosions. Although erosion was
observed there, the extent was not as significant as that previously found in AVT (0.05 to 1mm/year).
228
(b) Main Turbine Control Valve

There was erosion due to the past boiler scale observed at the skirt of a sub-valve of the main steam stop valve,
but its degree was relatively insignificant, like those used in AVT (about 5mm).
(c) BFP Overheat Prevention Valve
Some damage was observed at the seat of a turbine driving the BFP overheat prevention valve (stellite #12)
approx. 1.5 to 2.0 months after the start of CWT. The condition was significant compared to AVT and the interval
over which the damage occurred was significantly reduced. The phenomenon was considered to be due to the high
differential pressure attributable to carbonized stellite materials and erosion due to the high flow rate. Meanwhile,
the selective corrosion was considered to be attributable to the oxygen fed into the system.
To reverse the situation, the valve seat materials were changed from metal to Teflon seat. Thereafter, no
abnormalities were observed and the system has remained in good operating condition.
See the intermediate report (5) attached to this journal for details of the valve damage conditions, structural
comparisons and materials used.
(d) Spray Control Valve of a Superheater
About two years after the start of CWT, the seat of a secondary superheater spray control valve was subject to
some damage (stellite #6). This affected the corners of the stellite and extended all over the area surrounding the
flow path. In AVT, however, such damage was restricted to the base material side without involving the stellite
layer. The cause of the damage was considered to be the same as that affecting a BFP overheat prevention valve.
Picture 3.3.1-4 shows the conditions of the damage and its mechanism.
Methods of preventing such damage have already been established and employed by other power companies.
The author plans to employ multiple coatings on the stellite surface (ceramic coating) and will examine the
method in detail, including other coating methods.
Selective Corrosion of Carbonized
Cr-W due to Oxygen
Carbonized Cr-W
Co-Cr-W
crystals
Erosion of Co-Cr-W crystals due to the

High Flow Rate
Direction of
Flow
Damage Conditions
Carbonized Cr-W
Co-Cr-W crystals
Damages Caused by Erosion and

Corrosion
Microscopic Picture of a Cross Section of the

Damaged Part
Damage Mechanisms
Picture 3.3.1-4: Damages to the Secondary Superheater Spray

Control Valve
(e) Other Instrumental and Control Valves

No other problems were observed, even during PT tests, except for moderately selective corrosion at the stellite
part (#6) of the seat ring at the high pressure feed heater drain control valve.
229
e. Cautions in Operations
(1) How to Operate a Deaeration Unit
Based on experiences in Germany, the vent valve of a deaeration unit was kept closed from the onset of
switchover to CWT. This, however, caused an abnormal surge in the DO concentration (600 ppb or above) at the
outlet of the deaeration unit during the unit operation at low load. This was because, due to the closure of the vent
valve, the high concentration of oxygen, which was deaerated during high load operation, was stagnant in the
upper part of the unit, before expanding in volume, being scattered away and then redissolved in water due to the
decreased pressure inside the unit.
To reverse this situation, the vent valve was left open. This, however, caused deaeration and discharge of DO,
making the environment the same as AVT with low pH and causing the iron concentration at the outlet of the
deaeration unit to surge.
Due to such experiences, the vent valve was again left closed, and only reopened when the DO concentration
surged (intermittent operation).
(2) Increased Differential Pressure of the Electromagnetic Filter (EMF)
Once the use of CWF had commenced, the initial differential pressure after backwashing and regeneration of an
EMF occurred and its post-regeneration operation life was shortened (in 7 months, the operation life was
shortened to one tenth (or 2 days) compared to that used in AVT). The reasons for this are believed to include: (i)
the fact that CWT tends to have higher iron loads than AVT, (ii) an increase in fine particles of FeOOH (the
number of FeOOH particles of 1 m tripled or quadruplicated), which split into the depth of the element and (iii)
the fact that needle-shaped iron crystals reinforced the iron deposit layer, which could not be removed by a
backwash and regeneration process.
To reverse such conditions, jet washing of elements was employed and the elements were replaced with new
ones.
In order to implement permanent measures, the following items are subject to examination: (a) Decreasing iron loads at the inlet of an EMF (pH to be increased to 9.0 : effectiveness confirmed)
(b) Improvement of the regeneration methods
(c) Improvement of elements
f. How to Start and Stop the Unit
For several months after the use of CWT, the unit cleanup time tended to be longer than for AVT, due to
unstable hematite protection layers and for other reasons. This was successfully solved through measures to
improve the cleanup process, such as stabilization of the protective layers, lapping of the boiler and pre-boiler
processes and an improved flow rate and numbers of swinging, as shown in Fig. 3.3.1-14.
Fig. 3.3.1-14: Cleanup Time
Acceptance Assessment
Water
Treatment
Method under
Normal
Operation
Let-up
Time (h)
Hydrazine
Injected or
not
AVT
24.5
Injected
CWT
31.0
Injected
CWT
29.0
Not injected
Cleanup Time (h)

-10
-8
Deaeration
Unit
-6
-4
Pre-boiler
Circulation of Condensate
water
Circulation of
Deaeration Unit
230
-2
Boiler
Deaeration
Unit
Pre-boiler and Boiler

Pre-boiler and Boiler
Table 3.3.1-15: Optimized CWT Operation Method

Item
Normal Operation
Controlled Values and Operation Method

Item
Stop
*50 to 100
DO ("g/l)
*8.5 to 9.0
pH
0.2 or below
Cationic conductivity (S/cm)
* All control values referred to above are for feed water at the inlet of an economizer.
Start-up and Stop

Item
Water Treatment
Method
AVT
#$
CWT
Switchover Period
Storage
Leakage of seawater
Deaeration unit
Condensate water
desalination unit
Startup
Conventional method (AVT)
Minimum loads or above, and
Electric conductivity of 0.2S/cm or
below
Stop
At least 3 hours before the planned
time for disassembly of the unit
Reason: All water must be
circulated once during the period
between the switchover from AVT
and before shutdown of the plant.

When seawater leakage happens, CWT must be promptly switched over to AVT.
CWT: The vent valve of a deaeration unit must be subject to intermittent operation.
AVT: The vent valve of a deaeration unit must be kept open.
H shaped operation
An operation test without using hydrazine was conducted by stopping the unit (WSS), but no significant
differences in cleanup time and water quality were observed. However, hydrazine is a reducing substance and its
use renders the hematite protective layer unstable, which means it may be better to avoid this substance.
In addition, the unit was subject to a startup and stop test while CWT was used in DSS, and no deterioration in
water quality was detected.
The author is determined to continue studies and tests to establish optimum system operation when it is subject
to stop and startup.
Table 3.3.1-16: Problems Attributable to CWT and Measures
Problem
Damage to the BFP
overheat prevention valve
seat
Cause
Erosion caused by high differential
pressure and flow rate attributable to
the selective corrosion of carbonized
stellite
Emergency Measure
-
Damage to the valve seat

of a secondary superheater
spray control valve
Wear of Cr plating at the
sliding part of the BFP
rotator
Same as above (erosion due to high

flow rate)
The use of stand-by

inner valves
Permanent Measure
To change to a soft seat
(However, a large-sized valve
must be developed for
Kawagoe Thermal Power
Plants Nos. 1 and 2.)
The use of ceramic coating,
etc.
Erosion caused by corrosion between

a plate layer and its base materials,
attributable to oxygen having slipped
from the cracks, etc. of the plate layer
High iron load and an increase in iron
oxide fine particles having slipped
into the depth of the element
Recoating of Cr
plating during the
regular inspection
period
Chemical cleaning of
elements
Increase of EMF
bypassing
Others
The use of homogeneous and

defectless electroless Ni
plating between a Cr plating
layer and its base materials
To decrease the iron
concentration at the inlet of an
EMS (pH: 9.0)
To improve elements
Others
Surge of differential
pressure of EMF (clogged
elements)
3.3.1.6.4 Assessment
Based on the results of these studies and findings in and out of Japan, an assessment was made.
As a result of the assessment, it was found that CWT can be applied to actual units, and is more reliable and
economical than AVT. The assessment details are explained below.
(1) Optimized CWT Operation Method
The author believes Fig. 3.3.1-15 shows the optimized CWT operation method. In this case, no hydrazine will
be used in startup and stop, and neither will any switchover from AVT to CWT take place.
(2) Technical Assessment Comparing to AVT
a. Corrosion of Components
231
Similarly to AVT, the author believes CWT will not have any particularly adverse impacts on the corrosion and
erosion of components.
Moreover, the author also believes that, due to the problems associated with parts using stellite, no basic issues
arise that could deny the CWT applicability. Permanent measures against foreseeable problems are shown in Table
3.3.1-16, while measures for the seat of a BFP overheat prevention valve have already been established. For other
parts, examinations are ongoing.
b. Powers to BFP, etc.
The author believes that the time course increase of steam used for driving BFP found in the acceptance
performance test of the unit using CWT (total amount of heat of low pressure and high pressure steam) can be
substantially decreased to approx. a third compared to AVT, because of the reduced differential pressure of boiler
and of scales deposited.
The author also believes that the functional loss of a high pressure feed heater can be reduced to approx. two
fifths compared to AVT, because of the reduced deposition of scale.
c. Frequency of Chemical Cleaning of Boilers
As shown below, as regards the frequency of chemical cleaning of boilers using CWT, the author believes, in
the case of the No. 1 unit of the Chita No. 2 Thermal Power Plant, that this can be extended from the current 1.5
years to 9.5 years, while for other once-through boilers of supercritical pressure or above, the current 1.5 to 4.5
year period can be significantly extended to 10 to 15 years.
In line with the extension in chemical cleaning frequency, the author believes that regular inspection periods
can be shortened and the disadvantageous transfer of loads eliminated.
(i) Assessment in terms of Boiler Differential Pressure
The interval of chemical cleaning for the unit used in this study, which uses AVT, was 1.5 years due to an
increase in the boiler differential pressure. After switching over to CWT, this increase was eliminated, which
meant the interval of chemical cleaning was extended.
Fig. 3.3.1-27 shows the trend of boiler differential pressure experienced by the Ulsan Thermal Power Plant of
Korea Electric Power Corporation after switching to CWT. The operation time till the pressure rose to the
acceptable limit was 9.5 years, whereupon chemical cleaning took place.
It is considered that the trend of the boiler differential pressure surge of the unit used in this study tends to
follow a path of gradual increase compared to that experienced in Ulsan Thermal Power Plant. However, with
certain allowances taken into consideration, it is estimated that it will take 9.5 years for the unit used by this study
to reach the allowable limit for differential pressure. The author, therefore, believes that the interval of chemical
cleaning for the unit can be extended from 1.5 to 9.5 years.
(ii) Assessment based on the Volume of Scales Deposited on Generation Pipes
The acceptance criteria for the chemical cleaning of boilers employed by this company is around 30 to
45mg/cm2 of scale deposited on generation piles unless other problems, such as abnormal boiler differential
pressure, are observed.
As indicated in 3.3.1.6-(3) Main Components of Boilers, the speed of the scales generated will be
0.5mg/cm21,000h.
Thus, the chemical cleaning intervals calculated from the scale generation speed are 10 to 15 years, based on
the conditions of the unit utilization ratio of 70% (30 to 40mg/cm2 0.5mg/cm2 1,000h 365 days 24 hours
0.7).
Based on the above arguments, in the case of other once-through boilers of supercritical pressure or above, for
which no boiler differential pressure need be considered, the author believes that the interval can be extended
from the current 1.5 to 4.5 years to 10 to 15 years.
d. Vibration of BFPs
In the case of the unit used in this study, BFPs were not subject to any vibration, even when using AVT, and
anti-vibration measures remained unconfirmed during the switchover to CWT. However, in the absence of any
waveform scales and the fact that the volume of scales was reduced to approx. one fifth compared to AVT, the
author believes that CWT can represent the ultimate measure against the vibration of BFPs.
e. Environmental Aspects
The use of CWT can eliminate chemicals used to treat feed water and regenerate condensate water desalination
units as well as effluents generated from the chemical cleaning of boilers, thus reducing effluent contamination
loads.
Based on these aspects, CWT can be considered an environment-friendly feed water treatment method.
232
Boiler Differential Pressure (kg/cm2)
(Legend)
The unit used in this
study
No. 4 unit of the Ulsan
Thermal Power Plant
Chemical cleaning
Time
Fig. 3.3.1-27: Differential Pressure of Boilers for the Unit used in this Study
and the No. 4 unit of the Ulsan Thermal Power Plant
(3) Cost Performance Comparison with AVT

The author believes that the use of CWT can help reduce costs significantly for BFP power losses, and function
on the chemical cleaning of boilers and chemicals for the treatment of feed water.
The time course trend of costs for the use of CWT used by the unit under testing is estimated to be around a
quarter of that incurred when AVT was used, as shown in Table 3.3.1-17.
On the other hand, the ratio of profitability (annual earning % investment amount % 100%), an indicator used to
assess investment results, is 86%, and an effective cost-benefit effect can be expected from the use of CWT.
3.3.1.6.5 Introduction Plan

Based on the results and the assessment of this study, CWT was officially used at Chita No. 2 Thermal Power
Plant in October 1993 when this study was completed, and a plan for introducing CWT to other once-through
boilers was formed.
(1) Applicable Units
For the following reasons, there is scope to apply CWT to all 18 units of supercritical and advanced ultrasuper
critical once-through boilers:
a. 14 out of 18 boilers show increased power loss of BFP, due to a surge of differential pressure and problems
such as vibration of BFPs arising from iron scales, for which the CWT can be an anticipated solution.
b. The cost-benefit calculation of using CWT shows that for all units, an effective cost-benefit can be
expected (Ave. ratio of profitability: 66%)
(2) Periods of Introduction
CWT will be introduced starting from FY1994 for periods of 5 to 6 years in a phased manner, from units where
the technical and economical merits of its use will be considerable.
233
Table 3.3.1-17: Annual Cost of the No. 1 Unit of the Chita No. 2 Thermal Power Plant
Item
Cost of Power Loss for BFPs
Cost of Functional Loss for High Pressure
Feed Heater
Cost of Installing a Boiler Chemical
cleaning System
Cost of Loss Transferred in relation to the
above
Cost of Chemicals for the Treatment of
Feed Water
Cost of Operating a Condensate water
Desalination Unit
Total
AVT
CWT
100
33
100
40
100
16
100
16
100
17
100
32
100
28
Economization
Ratio
Remarks
Incremental increase of steam used for driving the
BFPs (actual)
Deterioration of heat transfer performance (actual)
67
60
AVT: Once in 1.5 years

CWT: Once in 9.5 years (estimated)
Transfer days: 4 days/time (actual)
84
84
AVT: Ammonia and hydrazine

CWT: Ammonia and oxygen
AVT: 56 times (actual)
CWT: 21 times (actual)
83
68
72
3.3.2 Water Control and Management of Thermal Power Plants

Since the water-steam cycle, the vital artery for a thermal power plant, does not stop instantly in the event of
any abnormality, meaning any accident in the cycle tends expand to become a long-term problem for the system, it
should be served carefully and meticulously while in static condition as well as during daily inspections.
Each type and purpose of use of a plant has its own control criteria, of which the water quality criteria and
treatment methods are delineated in JIS B 8223 Boiler feed water and boiler water, (hereinafter referred to as
JIS) although different water treatments are required depending on the environment where a plant is situated and
when it was installed. Each water control staff member strives hard to investigate, test and try to uplift
technologies of the most appropriate water treatment methods.
This chapter describes the current status, challenges and future prospects of water treatment implemented in the
fields based on those perspectives.
Table 3.3.2-1 Raw Water Quality Monitoring Items and Measurement Frequencies
Analyzing Item
Daily
!
Turbidity
pH
Conductivity
Ca2+
Mg2+
Fe2+
Alkali ions
Frequency
Weekly Monthly
!
!
!
!
!
!
(Na+ and K+)
ClSO42HCO3-
!
!
!
CO32NO3Free carbon dioxide

SiO2
!
!
!
!
Total iron
Residual chlorine
COD
Colloidal silica
Water temperature
Remarks
(CO2)
By
calculation
!
!
(Cl2)
!
!
!
3.3.2.1 Water treatment of Makeup Water

3.3.2.1.1 Water treatment of Raw Water Sources
Raw water sources used by a thermal power plant include potable water and industrial water, which originate
from rivers, ponds, lakes and underground water. Depending on the location of the thermal power plant, a water
conversion system is used to convert seawater to fresh water, while effluents are also sometimes collected and
recycled as a water source. The types and concentration of impurities contained in raw water depend significantly
on the particular source of the water is taken or the season in question. It is necessary to understand the quality of
raw water, not only in order to design a makeup water treatment system, used to remove impurities in raw water
and maintain water quality suitable for makeup water, but also to use the system in a stable manner. Table 3.3.2-1
234
shows a list of water quality monitoring items generally applied for maintaining and controlling the system, and
their measurement frequencies. The frequency must be increased whenever significant fluctuation is observed in
the quality of raw water, or a new water source is employed.
Table 3.3.2-2: Turbidity Assessment Indicators
Water Quality
Indicator
MF
MFC
Measurement Method
Characteristics
Refers to the time required to filtrate a liter of water using a

0.45m membrane filter (HAWP 047 TYPE HA made by
Millipore Corporation) under reduced pressure of
500mmHg.
Calculated using the following formula after the measuring
times t1 and t2 required to filtrate 0.5l and 1l of water
respectively under the reduced pressure of 500mmHg, and
using the same measurement instruments as those used to
measure the time of MF.
Easy to use, but vulnerable to water temperature

and considerable size differences in filters. No
linear relationship with the volume of
contaminants contained in sampled water
Has a linear relationship with turbidity, can
measure consistently from raw seawater to
processed water, and is a relatively newly proposed
indicator.
+t
(
MFC - 2 ln ) 1 , 1&
*t2 '
FI
(=SDI)
Calculated using the following formula after pressurized

filtration of 500ml of sampled water at 2.1kg/m2g using a
0.45m membrane filter (HAWP 047 TYPE HA made by
Millipore Corporation) to measure the filtration time (T1).
The filtration time (T2) is then measured by continuing
filtration for 15 minutes after measuring T1, whereupon the
same filter is used to filtrate a further 500ml of sampled
water.
FI -
PI
PN
Turbidity
SS
Highly sensitive to detect low turbidity and known

as an inlet water quality indicator for a hollow
fiber reverse osmosis module. As the turbidity
intensifies, its sensitivity tends to drop. For
seawater, normally T2=, or FI=6.67.
100 + T1 (
)1 , &
15 * T2 '
Calculated by using the following formula after

measurement in the same manner as FI.
+ T(
PI - 100)1 , 1 & - 15 . FI
* T2 '
Means the total water volume (l) filtrated under a certain

stable pressure environment using a membrane filter.
Measured using a scattering light type or an integrating

sphere type turbidimeter.
Calculates the volume of impurities based on a change in
the volume of sample water filtrated through a 0.45m
membrane filter and the weight of the filter.
Has the same characteristics as FI. PI=100%

means the filter is totally clogged, and 0% means it
is entirely unclogged.
Easy to use, but needs a statement that the values
are subject to change depending on the
measurement environment (filtration pressure and
the type and size of filter used).
Can conduct rapid and inline analysis, but tends to
be less sensitive for low turbidity.
Requires considerable sample water for low
turbidity measurement, and is unsuitable for rapid
analysis.
3.3.2.1.2 Control of Pre-Treatment Unit to Maintain its Performance

There are two aims of pre-treatment: one is to protect the ion exchange resin, reverse osmosis membrane and
ion exchange membrane, etc., used for the desalination unit and another is to remove colloidal matters that cannot
be removed via an ion-exchange reaction. The methods generally used for the unit include the coagulating
sedimentation filtration method and the coagulation filtration method. In order to maintain the unit in good
operational condition, it is essential to form a stable floc, for which aluminum coagulation agents are generally
used. Although previously, aluminum sulfate was frequently used, quite recently, polyaluminum chloride (PAC)
and electrolytic aluminum have come into widespread use, since they have excellent coagulation performance and
are less inclined to decrease pH. As an auxiliary agent for floc formation, organic polyacrylamide polymers, with
bentonite to make the floc heavier, are used. Floc formation has many elements to take into consideration, such as
the turbidity of the raw water, alkali level, pH and water temperature. It is, therefore, necessary to determine
optimum coagulation conditions, including the volume of coagulation agents used, selection of auxiliary agents
and pH by implementing a jar test, etc. Inappropriate floc formation will cause residual impurities in the raw water,
and colloidal matters and aluminum (residual coagulation agent) infiltrating in the filtrated water. Colloidal silica
is also contained in the boiler makeup water like ionic silica. When it is channeled into the water and steam
systems, it will become scales deposited onto the low-pressure turbine. Similarly, colloidal aluminum tends to be
deposited on high-pressure turbines in the form of aluminum oxide or sometimes zinc aluminate scales, which
cannot be easily washed away by boiler chemical cleaning. Colloidal silica is controlled by monitoring the silica
concentration in boiler water, and in the event of any anomaly, a comprehensive inspection of the raw water,
filtrated water and deionized water must be conducted.
Table 3.3.2-3: Troubles and Measures for the Pre-Treatment Unit
235
Deterioration of the processed water quality
Phenomenon
Cause
Inappropriate use of chemicals
Coagulation agent
Coagulation auxiliary agent
pH adjuster
Incomplete regeneration of a filtration unit
Incomplete water collection unit under the

filtration unit
Defects to the backwashing trough of the
filtration unit
Wear or decreased filtration materials
Channeling of filtration layers
Mad balls
Floc strength
Decrease in
amount of
obtaining
water
Insufficient opening of the valves

Slime inside the filter layers
or accumulation of foreign matter
Miniaturization of the filtration materials
Measures or Check Item

Conduct a jar test to check that the coagulation conditions are
appropriate.
Operate the unit under the appropriate injection ratio and filtrate water
coming out from the coagulation sedimentation tank and the coagulation
tank using a No. 5 filter. If the filtrated water is normal, then the problem
lies on the filtration unit, as explained in the next chapter.
Check whether impurities remain in the filtration unit when the normal
course of regeneration process is done. If necessary, extend the
backwashing time.
Check whether there is any shortage in the backwashing air and water
flow.
Check the air dispersion conditions when air backwashing is run. If
necessary, open the lower manhole to check it.
Check whether effluents from the backwashing process are evenly
collected.
Consider the replenishment of filtration materials.
Check whether any impurities and organic slime are found in the
filtration layers.
Repeat the water and air backwashing processes several times.
Remove the mad balls and replace part of the filtration materials.
Check whether the differential pressure is appropriate for operation by
examining the differential pressure surge from the start of sampling
water and the quality of the processed water.
Insufficient working air pressure
Damage to valves
Operate air backwashing using a filtration material cleaner.
Remove foreign matter having accumulated in the upper part of the filtration
material, if it hinders the discharge of effluents from backwashing.
Replace the filtration materials on the surface of the filter layers
A slurry circulation type coagulation sedimentation unit requires the maintenance of slurry concentration at an
optimum level, while a sludge blanket type needs the sludge blanket to be kept stable. For both types, the key is
how to adjust the volume of chemicals used as well as that of the sludge discharged from the units. Even without
any dramatic fluctuation in the turbidity and alkali level of raw water, the water temperature varies seasonally,
with a lower water temperature leading to a deterioration in floc formation performance. Experience states that the
threshold temperature is at 10!C or so. If the temperature descends from this level, an auxiliary agent should be
increased to facilitate the floc formation. In the case of a coagulation filtration unit, high water temperature
excessively increases the size of the floc formed and when this happens, the volume of the auxiliary agent should
be decreased. When a separation membrane is used for the desalination unit, the water quality, including the
turbidity and FI (Fouling Index) at the outlet of a pre-treatment unit, must be maintained within the criteria
determined for them. Table 3.3.2-2 shows some examples of turbidity assessment indexes.
In many cases, the problems of a pre-treatment unit are mainly caused by insufficient regeneration of filter
layers due to contamination, which can sometimes be the result of mad balls and mechanical failure of the unit.
When problems involving the filtration unit surface, these can be identified by a deterioration in the quality of
processed water and reduction in the cyclic sampling volume. Table 3.3.2-3 shows the major problems anticipated
to occur with the pre-treatment unit and their measures.
3.3.2.1.3 Control of Deionized Water Generation Unit for Maintaining its Performance
As makeup water for a high pressure boiler requires highly pure demineralized water, the quality of the makeup
water must be controlled. Water treatment items for this purpose include electrical conductivity and silica, and an
indicator and recorder with an alarm are installed at the anion tower of a deionized water generation unit and at
the exit of a polisher to continuously monitor these items. Table 3.3.2-4 shows some examples of water quality
criteria for makeup water used at thermal power plants. The actual values measured by each company, as indicated
in the table, are 1.0S/cm and 0.01mg/l or below for conductivity and silica respectively.
The following items are examples of daily control items, which should be monitored daily at a fixed time if the
values are measurable:
! Operation cycles and collection volume per cycle
! Volume of regeneration agents used and stored
! Temperature when chemicals are injected to regenerate the anion exchange resin
! Inner pressure of each ion-exchange resin tower (before and after regeneration)
! Conductivity of water sampled at the inlet of a deionized water generation unit
! Conductivity of processed water
! Silica concentration in processed water
236
Ion-exchange resin should be controlled once a year to measure the total volume of resin replaced and volume
of neutral salt decomposed. At the same time, check the volume of ion-exchange resin remaining in each tower
and inspect whether the resin is finely-divided or not. As for the replenishment of ion-exchange resin, the volume
of resin to be replenished for cation resin is 5% -10% per year, including those finely divided, provided that no
swelling and/or contamination is observed. In the case of anion resin, the volume to be replenished comes to 10%
to 20% per year in general, because it is subject to aging besides the pulverization.
The troubles a deionized water generation unit may encounter mainly include decreased collection volume and
deterioration of the quality of processed water (incl. high conductivity and silica concentration). These problems
are often associated with pre-treatment unit troubles. Table 3.2.2-5 shows the cause of the troubles and their
measures as well as check items.
Table 3.2.2-4: Examples of Criteria set by Each Electric Power Company for
Water Quality at the Outlet of a Circulation Boiler Makeup Water Desalination Unit
Company Name
Pressure Category
(kgf/cm2)
Item
Conductivity (S/cm)
Silica (mg/l as SiO2)
A
100 Class
5 or below
0.05 or
below
130 Class
B
170 Class
100 Class
1.25 or below
0.015 or
below
130
Class
5 or below
0.01 or
below
0.1 or
below
0.05 or
below
C
170
Class
100
Class
3 or
below
0.02 or
below
5 or
below
0.1 or
below
130
Class
170
Class
1.0 or below
0.015 or below
Table 3.2.2-5: Troubles (reduced collection volume and decreased purity of processed water)
of a Deionized Water Generation Unit, Their Causes and Measures
Root Cause
Change in Raw Water
Quality
Cause or Phenomenon of Trouble

! Increased total ion volume in raw water
! Change in the percentage of Na, HCO3 and SiO2
! Increased organic substances and total iron volume
Oversampling
! Inappropriate water flow rate

Failure of a flow meter
Slippage of a flow meter due to the small volume
of water passing through
! Deteriorated water quality
Failure of a meter
Failure of a communicator
Sampling failure
Incomplete
regeneration
! Insufficient regeneration level

! Inappropriate concentration of chemicals
(Insufficient volume or excessive dilute solution
used)
! Insufficient dispersion of regeneration agent
Clogged or damaged chemical feed pipe
Decreased chemical feed speed (dispersed
unevenly)
Channeling of resin layers
237
Measure
! Conduct a total analysis of the raw water and file the data every
month (Conductivity must be measured and recorded every
month).
! Check the water sources.
! Adjust the ratio of water intake from various water sources.
! Compare the data with that of an instantaneous flow meter.
! Operate by uplifting the water flow.
! Refer to the instruction manual attached to the instrumentation
unit.
! Compare the data with that of a portable water quality meter,
etc.
! Connect a resistance box attached to the unit to a cable in lieu
of a communicator. If the values coincide with each other, then
the communicator is damaged.
! Refer to the instruction manual attached to the instrumentation
unit.
! Sampling valve is too far closed or totally closed.
! Sampling valve is too open.
! Damages or water leakage to the communicator case.
! Regenerate the volume specified in the instruction manual. (Or
increase the level of regeneration)
! Feed chemicals at an appropriate concentration.
! Repair the damaged pipe.
! Failure of a chemical feed pump
! Clogs of ejectors and nozzles
! Excessive decrease of the diluted water flow rate
! Backwash for more than 30 minutes.
! Check and remove clogs from the lower water collection and
dispersion unit.
Root Cause
Incomplete
regeneration
Cause or Phenomenon of Trouble

! Insufficient extrusion
!Insufficient flushing
! Shortage in chemical injection time

! Inappropriate temperature for chemical injection
Flow-out of
ion-exchange resin
Contamination of
ion-exchange resin
Channeling
! Fluidization of resin layers when chemicals are

injected upward
! In the case of a multiple-layer system, a mixture of
mild/strong acid resins and basic resins
! Increased backwashing speed
! Flow out of resins due to excessive backwashing
speed
! Breakage of the lower water collection and
dispersion unit
! Flow out of resins to the outlet of an ion-exchange
resin tower
Fractured resins due to oxidizing substances
Fractured resins due to pressurization
! Existence of iron oxides and manganese in raw
water
(This contaminates mainly cation resins.)
! Existence of organic substances in raw water
! Compressed resin layers
The raw water is highly turbid.
Pulverization of resins due to chemical fracture
Pulverization of resins due to a high flow rate
operation or the internal pressure surge of a tank
during operation
Insufficient or failed backwashing
! Failure of lower and upper distributors
Low flow rate

sampling
(when only the purity
of processed water is
decreased)
Leakage from a valve
(when only the purity
of processed water is
decreased)
Deterioration of the
ion-exchange resin
function
! The sampling water flow rate is 5m/h or below.

This normally results in the leakage of ions from
an anion resin tower deteriorating.
Measure
! Measure the specific gravity of regeneration effluents
(to confirm whether the extrusion force is sufficient or not)
! Analyze the washing effluents
(to confirm whether the concentrations of Cl" of the H tower
and Na+ of the OH tower are the same as those in their inlet
position)
! Make the total time for chemical injection and for extrusion at
least the same as those designated
! Make the temperature of chemical injection as 35r5!C
(if the temperature is lower than this, silica will leak out and if
it is higher, then the resin performance will be deteriorated)
! Readjustment of chemical injection volume and slip water
volume
! Replacement of the mixture of resins in the middle position
! Check the backwashing speed
! Check the water temperature
! Repair the damaged parts
! Conduct a functional test of resins (coarseness distribution,
etc.)
! Check the pre-treatment unit.
! Backwash thoroughly, or conduct air backwashing to

completely remove turbidity from the resin layers.
! Remove residual chlorine in the raw water.
! Operate at an appropriate flow rate.
! Backwash thoroughly. (Backwash for approx. 30 minutes, and
stop it just before the outflow of resins from the tank.)
! In the case of a heavily uneven surface on the resin surface,
check and improve the upper water distributor so that water can
be distributed evenly.
! Inspect and repair it.
! Operate the unit at a high flow rate as much as possible.
! Don t operate the unit below the minimum flow rate.
! Valve failure
! Inspect and repair or replace it.
! Even in the case that there are no hazardous

substances in the raw water, the resin function
generally tends to slowly deteriorate.
! Excessive temperature of chemicals
(Never raise the temperature above 45!C.)
! Replenish resins as designated.

! Measure the degree of functional deterioration and replenish
the resins.
! Keep the chemical temperature at an appropriate level.
3.3.2.2 Boiler Water treatment

3.3.2.2.1 Objectives and Methods of Water treatment
The degree and types of corrosions caused by water and steam and damage inflicted by corrosion products on
feed water systems, boilers and turbine systems vary depending on the materials used and the temperature. This
chapter outlines the type of damage caused to each component and how to prevent it.
(1) Condensate Water
Steam used in a turbine is converted back to water using a condensing unit and the loss is replenished by
feeding ion-exchange water as makeup water. The condensing unit of most plants uses copper alloy cooling water
pipes, due to their good heat conductivity and anti-corrosion properties. As Fig. 3.3.2-1 shows, copper solubility is
lowest at a pH of about 9 and in the actual unit, the relationship is similar. For a unit using copper alloy for the
feed water system, the pH of condensate water is around 8.8 to 9.0, which is a zone within which the dissolution
of copper is mostly restricted. For a unit using steel pipes, the pH reaches 9.3 to 9.6, making it difficult to curtail
the dissolution of copper. In an environment where dissolved oxygen exists, the dissolved copper forms complex
copper ammonium ions, which means the dissolution persists. In order to prevent this, titanium pipes are used for
238
Iron Solubility
Iron Concentration
the air cooling zones of a condensing unit and nickel plated copper alloy cooling water pipes are laid around the
exterior of the unit.
Solubility
Iron Concentration
in Feed Water
Temperature
Fig. 3.3.2-2: Behavior of Iron in Feed Water and Condenser
Saturation solubility
of Cu(OH)2 in
deionized water
Solubility
Saturation solubility
of CuO in deionized
water
Fig. 3.3.2-1: Relationship between the Solubility of Copper and pH
Concentration
(Iron)
(Copper)
(Nickel)
Fig. 3.3.2-3: Shift in Metal Ion Concentration due to a Change in the Feed Water pH
(2) Feed Water

Feed water refers to the water run from the outlet of a condensed pump to the inlet of an economizer, between
which lies a heat exchanger. The temperature moves from 20 to 260 and various materials are used in these
areas, such as iron, copper and nickel alloys. In the process of feed water, the method used to prevent impurities in
water channeled to the boiler, to prevent the generation of scales in the latter, as well as how to avoid corrosion are
very important. Fig. 3.3.2-6 shows the JIS criteria. The level of dissolved salts and other impurities contained in
239
water is close to zero under normal operation, thanks to the upgraded performance of a deionized water generation
unit. However, in the case of seawater leakage, dissolved salts slip into the system. Depending on which materials
are used for the feed heater pipes, namely copper alloy or steel, the means used to control pH to prevent corrosion
of the materials vary. In the case of copper alloy, the pH control mainly targets copper and the value is limited to 9
or so, because dissolved copper ions accelerate the corrosion of iron. The slight volume of ammonia generated by
thermal decomposition of the hydrazine used as a deoxidizer is used to control the pH. Fig. 3.3.2-2 shows a
behavior model of iron in condensate water and feed water systems. The higher the temperature rise, the more iron
ions are generated. Around a high pressure feed heater, the iron ion concentration goes beyond the iron solubility
curve meaning ion deposits are generated. The iron is then deposited in the high temperature zones of high
pressure feed heaters, economizers, boilers and other units. In order to prevent such scales from being deposited, it
is important to minimize the iron ion volume. Fig. 3.3.2-3 shows a change in the iron ion concentration in a course
of a shift in the pH of feed water. As indicated, the pH should be kept high. Fig. 3.3.2-4 shows the solubility of
magnetite (Fe3O4), a corrosion coating. In the high temperature zone, the curve bottoms out at a pH level of
around 10. As iron ions tend to accelerate its oxidization under the existence of dissolved oxygen, hydrazine is
added to the feed water to remove oxygen, so that the generation of dissolved oxygen can be minimized.
N2H4+ O2+2H2O
A unit using steel pipes is subject to a control pH at around 9.5. Ammonia is directly added to the outlet of a
condenser or deaeration unit as a pH adjuster, and hydrazine is added at the outlet of a deaeration unit as a
deoxidizer respectively.
(3) Boiler Water
Most substances dissolved in boiler water are separated out as the temperature rises, due to the low solubility
and known as scale and sludge. This scale and sludge has low thermal conductivity, causing thermal efficiency to
deteriorate and corroding the boiler generation pipes. With this in mind, the generation of scales and sludge must
be avoided as far as possible. As shown in Fig. 3.3.2-3, the pH of the boiler water must be retained high to prevent
corrosions of generation pipes. Silica contained in boiler water flows out to the steam side and is separated out on
the turbine blades as scales, causing the efficiency of the unit to deteriorate. Therefore, silica concentration must
be minimized as far as possible.
Table 3.3.2-6: Feed Water Quality
Feed Water
Category
[Drum Type]
Max. Operating Pressure (MPa or kgf/cm2)
Evaporation Rate of the Heat Transfer Surface
(kg/(m2 h))
Types of Makeup Water
pH (at 25!C)
Hardness (mgCaCO3/l)
(mg/l)
Dissolved Oxygen (mgO/l)
Iron (mgFe/l)
Copper (mgCu/l)
Hydrazine (mgN2H4/l)
Conductivity ("S/cm) (at 25!C)
10 - 15
(100 - 150)
-
15 20
(150 200)
-
Ion-exchange water
8.5 9.6
0
Ion-exchange water
8.5 9.6
0
0.007 or below
0.03 or below
0.01 or below
0.01 or above
0.5 or below
0.007 or below
0.02 or below
0.005 or below
0.01 or above
0.5 or below
15 - 20
(150 - 200)
20 or above
(200 or above)
Volatile
Oxygen
Substance
Treatment
Treatment
9.0 9.6
6.5 9.0
0.25 or below
0.2 or below
0.007 or below
0.02 0.2
0.01 or below
0.01 or below
0.002 or below
0.002 or below
0.01 or above
0.02 or below
0.02 or below
Feed Water
Category
[Once-through Type]
Treatment Method
pH (at 25!C)
Dissolved Oxygen (mgO/l)
Iron (mgFe/l)
Copper (mgCu/l)
Silica (mgSiO2/l)
Volatile
Substance
Treatment
8.5 9.6
0.3 or below
0.007 or below
0.02 or below
0.003 or below
0.01 or above
0.02 or below
240
Oxygen
Treatment
6.5 9.0
0.2 or below
0.02 0.2
0.1 or below
0.05 or below
0.02 or below
Iron Ion Concentration (mol/kg)
Fig. 3.3.2-4: Relationship between the Magnetite Concentration and pH

Fig. 3.3.2-7 shows the JIS criteria. For a drum type boiler, sodium phosphate is used in the boiler intermittently
to control the pH of boiler water. Substances dissolved in the boiler water, such as silica and chlorine ions, are
removed by blowing the boiler water, while in the case of a once-through boiler, all substances dissolved in the
boiler water are separated and deposited as scales, since it lacks any air-water separation mechanisms. This means
the pH of a once-through boiler is controlled by using ammonia, a volatile chemical, and by installing a
desalination unit at the outlet of a condensate water generation system to remove dissolved substances from the
condensate water.
Category
Fig. 3.3.2-7: Boiler Water Quality Criteria

Evaporation Rate of the Heat Transfer Surface
(kg/(m2 h))
Types of Makeup Water
Treatment Method
Boiler Water
10 - 15
(100 - 150)
-
15 - 20
(150 - 200)
Ion-exchange water
Ion-exchange water
All volatile
treatment
8.5 9.6
-
Sodium phosphate
treatment
8.5 9.8
-
pH (at 25!C)
Oxygen consumption (pH at 4.8) (mgCaCO3/l)
Sodium phosphate
treatment
8.5 9.8
-
Oxygen consumption (pH at 8.3) (mgCaCO3/l)
60 or below
2 or below
0.1 3
-
20 or below
1 or below
Total residue on evaporation (mg/l)

Chlorine ion (mgCl/l)
Phosphate ion (mgPO43-/l)
Sulfurous acid ion (mgSO32-/l)
Silica (mgSiO2/l)
60 or below
20 or below
2 or below
1 or below
0.1 3
0.3 or below
8.5 9.6
-
0.2 or below
Fig. 3.3.2-8: Steam Quality Criteria

Item
Criteria
0.3 or below
0.02 or below

Silica (mgSiO2/l)
Table 3.3.2-9: Facility Outline of Unit Nos. 1 to 4 Units of the Nishi Nagoya Thermal Power Plant
Unit
Output
Operation started in:
Boiler type
Turbine steam pressure
No. 1 Unit
220 000 kW
July 1970
Reheating natural
circulation type
169 kg/cm2G
No. 2 Unit
220 000 kW
December 1970
Reheating natural
circulation type
169 kg/cm2G
No. 3 Unit
375 000 kW
July 1972
Reheating natural
circulation type
169 kg/cm2G
No. 4 Unit
375 000 kW
September 1972
Reheating natural
circulation type
169 kg/cm2G
(4) Steam
Impurities contained in steam are those carried over from the boiler water, which cause corrosion of superheater
systems and the deposition of scales onto turbine blades. Such impurities include chlorine ions, sodium, silica and
copper. Fig. 3.3.2-8 shows their JIS criteria.
241
As success in steam quality control is significantly dependent on the boiler water quality, for a drum type boiler,
the conductivity of boiler water and its silica content, and - for a once-through boiler - those of feed water at the
inlet of an economizer should be carefully monitored.
3.3.2.2.2 Water treatment of a Drum Type Boiler

Table 3.3.2-9 shows an outline of facility of unit Nos. 1 to 4 of the Nishi Nagoya Thermal Power Plant. The
following are the explanation of water treatment of a drum type (reheating natural circulation) boiler:
(1) Water treatment under Normal Operation
Fig. 3.3.2-5 shows the water treatment system for a drum type boiler.
Table 3.3.2-10 shows the water treatment values.
a. Water Treatment of Condensate water and Feed Water
The method of water treatment for condensate water and feed water depends on the materials used for a high
pressure feed heater, but as for the Nishi Nagoya Thermal Power Plant, its unit Nos. 1 to 4 use copper alloys and
hydrazine is used for water treatment. Under normal operation, thin hydrazine (0.5% N2H4) is added to the outlet
of the condensate pump in order to maintain the pH of the feed water (at the entrance of an economizer) at 8.8 to
9.0. Since, under normal operation, the conductivity at the inlet of a deaeration unit is commensurate with the pH
at the inlet of an economizer, hydrazine is added based on the feed water volume after the measurement of the
same. The conductivity at the inlet of a deaeration unit is 1.3 to 2.0 when pH is maintained at a level of 8.8 to 9.0
and the pump stroke comes to 15 to 20%. Under normal operation, the water quality of each system is maintained
at the normal values as shown in Table 3.3.2-10.
To high pressure
turbine
To medium- and
low-pressure turbines
From high pressure
turbine
Drum
Deaeration unit
Flush
tank
Condenser
Deaeration unit water

tank
Conden
sate
water
pump
Ground
steam
condenser
Flush valve
Flush pipe
drain tank
Makeup
water
tank
Makeup water
pump
Flooding pipe of boiler
Sampling point
Fig. 3.3.2-5: Water Treatment System Diagram of a Drum Type Boiler
b. Boiler Water Treatment

Controlling the pH at the inlet of an economizer at 8.8 to 9.0 makes the pH of boiler water 8.7 to 8.9 or so. As
the unit uses hydrazine only to control the pH, the boiler water lacks any alkali elements, while its lack of any
hardness removers (sodium phosphate), also makes it vulnerable against the infiltration of corrosion products
from feed water or impurities (Ca and Mg, etc.) brought into boilers from seawater leakage. Accordingly, for a
unit frequently started and stopped, sodium tertiary phosphate (2% Na3PO4) is added to the boilers at the stroke of
242
30% to maintain the pH in the boilers at 9.0 to 10.0.

c. Frequency and Method of Off-the-System Blows
Even under normal operation conditions, corrosion products generated from condensate water and feed water
systems and pipes are concentrated in boilers. As there was a report that a generation pipe of a unit similar to this
ruptured due to the detachment of scales containing zinc, for boilers in Nishi Nagoya Thermal Power Plant, an
off-the-system blow process is applied to 20 to 25 t of boiler water every two days when the units have been in
operation continuously for a week. The off-the-system blow is always performed as necessary, whenever the units
are in continuous operation, when the concentration of corrosion products (Cu, Zn, Ni and Fe) in the system is
high and when the conductivity of the boiler water is high.
(2) Water treatment at Start-up and while the Unit is not used
a. Stop Time Water treatment
Various methods of chemical injection and storage are used, depending on the necessity to apply anti-corrosion
measures to the system, requirements for the early startup of power supply and cost performance.
Table 3.3.2-10: Water treatment Values at Normal Operations
Item
Specimen
Makeup Outlet of a makeup water tank
water
(Nos. 3 and 4)
Water in condenser
Water at the outlet of the

condenser
Water
Water at the inlet of low
pressure No. 3 feed heater
Water at the inlet of the
deaeration unit
Water at the outlet of the

deaeration unit
Feed
water
Water at the inlet of an
economizer
Boiler
water
Drum water
Conductivity
"S/cm
Conductivity
"S/cm
pH
Conductivity
"S/cm
Total iron
Total copper
Dissolved
oxygen
"g/l
"g/l
Conductivity
"S/cm
Total iron
Total copper
Dissolved
oxygen
Total iron
Total copper
"g/l
"g/l
Criteria
Measurement
Method
Measurement
instrument
Measurement
instrument
Anytime
Measurement
instrument
Once a year
Once a year
Measurement
instrument
Measurement
instrument
Once a year
Once a year
"g/l
"g/l
"g/l
pH
Conductivity
"S/cm
Total iron
Total copper
Hydrazine
"g/l
"g/l
"g/l
pH
Conductivity
"S/cm
Silica
"g/l
Phosphate
ion
Total iron
Total copper
"g/l
Control Item
Unit
"g/l
All volatile
treatment
1.5 >
Phosphate
Treatment
Same as left
Normal Operation
Value
ANN
Value
0.5 1.0
1.5
0.15
0.5
8.6 9.0
Same as left
8.8
0.3 >
Same as left
0.15
0.3
(10 >)
(5 >)
Same as left
Same as left
10
3
*
*
40 >
Same as left
10
40
12
(10 >)
(10 >)
Same as left
Same as left
10
5
*
*
Anytime
7>
Same as left
Once a year
Once a year
Measurement
instrument
Measurement
instrument
Once a year
Once a year
Anytime
Measurement
instrument
Measurement
instrument
Measurement
instrument
*
*
*
*
10
5
*
*
8.6 9.0
Same as left
8.9
8.9 9.0
0.3 >
Same as left
0.15
0.3
10 >
10 >
(10 30)
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
10
5
10
*
*
*
8.6 9.0
8.6 9.5
8.7
8.6 9.5
Anytime
"g/l
"g/l
0.3 >
15 >
1.5
0.2 >
0.2 >
0.05
0.2
3>
03
Once a year
*
(50 >)
20 50
Once a year
*
(20 >)
5 - 15
Measurement
Conductivity
0.03 >
*
0.1
Steam at the inlet of
"S/cm
instrument
Steam
superheater
Silica
Anytime
0.02 >
*
0.005
"g/l
Note 1: The figures in parentheses refer to the values that should be maintained.
Note 2: The figures prefixed with refer to the value after the treatment of cation resins.
Note 3: The pH level of the boiler water is 8.5 to 9.0 after all volatile treatment and 8.5 to 9.5 after the injection of sodium tertiary phosphate.
243
*
*
0.3
*
b. Startup Water treatment

Just after the startup of units, water quality tends to be subject to considerable fluctuation and is under threats
such as seawater leakage and other water quality problems and measurement instrument failures. If these
problems are left unattended, a serious accident will occur. For this reason, water quality targets, blowing
procedures and chemical injection procedures are established for each stop time period. A standard startup
command (operation) sheet shown in Fig. 3.3.2-6 is used to confirm the water quality for each stage to control the
startup water quality, while the standard patterns for dissolved oxygen, silica concentration and conductivity of
water are as shown in Fig. 3.3.2-6. As for the conductivity in particular, a standard pattern for each stop time
period is formed, which is accessible when a recorder is located in the central control room. This pattern is subject
to a comparison check with the current values by a power plant staff member so that the trend can be monitored
and controlled.
c. Off-the-System Blowing
This type of blowing is always implemented till the water quality at the inlet of an economizer and saturated
steam descend below the criteria and till the conductivity shows a falling trend of 0.5 to 0.6S/cm. (See Fig.
3.3.2-11)
d. Control of Silica Concentration in Steam
It is known that silica deposits are hardly formed on turbine blades when its concentration is below 0.02mg/l.
The silica concentration in steam can be controlled indirectly by managing the level in boiler water. After opening
the system for regular inspections, dust, which is allegedly the source of dissolution of silica slips into the system,
is often carried to a boiler via feed water pipes, where it is then deposited as ionic silica under an environment of
high temperature and pressure. Thus, especially just before system startup after regular inspection, it is vital to
implement the replacement of water and continuous blowing of boilers as practically as possible to reduce silica
concentration in the system, so that silica can be purged completely and swiftly.
244
Command by the deputy manager
Preparation for Preparation

startup
for ignition
Ignition Temperature up
Pressure
up
vacuum up
Preparation for the startup of turbines
Switchover of burners
Startup of turbines
Turning on of a
disconnect
switch
Parallel in
Switchover within
the plant
Load dispatching
operation
Check item
Operation item
Main steam pressure
Operation check
Preparation for ignition
Ignition and
temperature/pressure up
Startup of condenser
Water quality check
Start up of the feed pump
Start injection of hydrazine
Water quality check
Parallel in
Preparation for the startup of turbines
Water quality check
Up of vacuum
Water quality check
Startup of turbines
[Dissolved Oxygen]
(Condensate water)
The concentration of dissolved oxygen falls alongside the
vacuum up in the condenser.
(Feed Water)
The dissolved oxygen concentration declines alongside the
surge of pressure of the deaeration unit.
Condensate water
Feed water
245
[Silica]
When turbines are started, silica scale deposited on the low
pressure blades comes off. (Part of the silica scale comes
from the dead space of the pre-boiler system.)
The silica concentration comes down as the blow
operation starts.
Boiler water
Water quality pattern
[pH]
(Feed Water)
Due to the injection of hydrazine at system ignition, the pH
level rises.
(Boiler Water)
Due to the injection of hydrazine at system ignition, the pH
level of the feed water rises, as well as that of the boiler
water.
[Conductivity]
(Condensate water)
When the system is subject to a parallel off, the
conductivity of the condensate water rises due to the
influence of carbon dioxide gas contained in the air, but
falls as the degree of vacuum increases.
(Feed Water)
Similar to condensate water, the level falls as the degree of
vacuum increases. However, the downward curve tends to
be moderated for about 1 hour from the parallel in point
because of contamination of the feed water, condensate
water and the whole system.
(Saturated Steam)
For about 1 hour from the juxtaposition point,
contamination of boiler water is conspicuous. Due to this,
the level of conductivity tends to peak due to a carryover
and for other reasons, before subsequently following a
moderate downward course.
Feed water
Boiler water
Condensate water
Feed water
Saturated steam
Fig. 3.3.2-6: Standard Startup Command (Operation) Sheet and Startup Water Quality
Up loads (100MW)
Load dispatching operation
Water quality check

Up loads (220MW)
Fig. 3.3.2-11 Methods of Blow Except the Boiler Water System at Startup
Boiler water blow is implemented until water quality of the eco inlet, the boiler, and the
saturated steam is at the standard value or less, and the conductivity at the CP outlet
shows a declining trend (0.5 to 0.6"S/cm).
Silica
Conductivity
Eco inlet
or less
Boiler water
or less
Saturated steam
or less
Boiler water blow stop
(ANN of silica and conductivity
Conductivity
CP outlet
high have to be reset.)
0.5 or less
Shall be on a down note.
The silica concentration in boiler water sometimes exceeds the standard value (0.2mg/l) when the boiler is
sealed (steam sealing) after the unit shut down. The cause seems to be the fact that when the boiler is stopped and
sealed, silica scale separates from the turbine blades, etc., is channeled to the boiler and concentrated when it is
started. To reverse such situation, the following measure is implemented while the boilers are sealed in order to
avoid boiler blow loss and gaining load up during the early stages. When the level of water in a condenser goes up
while the boilers are sealed, the silica concentration in condensate water is measured. If the value is 0.02 mg/l or
more, water is added to the condensate water after total blowing, whereupon the system is started. Following the
implementation of the measure, no abnormal silica concentration up was reported.
(3) Water treatment at Seawater Leakage
It is essential to detect any seawater leakage at an early stage to implement measures. The means of controlling
water quality depends on the seriousness and conditions of the leakage, with appropriate water control measures
sought. For this purpose, conductivity is measured within the condenser, at the outlet of the condensate pump, the
inlet of an economizer and in the boiler water. When the value is found to be high, seawater leakage is present.
Two lines of cation resin towers are installed at the front stage of the condenser and the conductivity meter at the
outlet of the condensate pump, so that the letup time for replacing the resin can be minimized, in the case of
emergencies such as seawater leakage. How to inject chemicals and how to blow boiler water are determined as
controlling water quality in the event of seawater leakage. Also, in a leakage, a process which requires prompt and
correct action is decided. For this purpose, a seawater leakage accident control sheet (Fig. 3.3.2-7) is used to cover
such items as operation method, actions done and restoration.
(4) Water treatment Values and Monitoring
Water quality during the normal operation time is monitored and checked for each specimen, using
pre-determined control items and the measurement frequency. All measurement values can be monitored by the
CRT and recorders of the central control room, where staff members are stationed to monitor during the normal
system operation. In the case of an accident, an alarm is activated. Accidents are handled referring to the measures
defined in Water Quality ANN Messaging Procedure (Fig. 3.3.2-12).
As water quality requires monitoring of long-term trends, a daily control sheet is formed. Appropriate and
stable operations of the unit are assured and good water treatment methods are established by collecting total
measurement data of iron and copper concentration and in-house inspection results obtained from a regular
inspection and other measures to ensure that water is appropriately treated.
3.3.2.2.3 Water treatment of Supercritical Pressure Through a Flow Boiler

There are two types of once-through boiler, a subcritical once-through boiler and a supercritical
once-through boiler. The basics of water treatment for both types of boiler are the same, with minor differences.
In this chapter, the methods employed by unit Nos. 1 to 4 of the Sodegaura Thermal Power Plant are explained.
Table 3.3.2-13 shows the basic unit configuration of the Sodegaura Thermal Power Plant.
246
3. Causal
investigation
2. Operation just after

the accident
1. Occurrence of an
accident
Conductivity high ANN turns on.
Causal investigation
Accident handling
(1) Conductivity surges in the order

of condensate water, feed water
and boiler water.
(2) Check the conductivity of the
confluence points of desalinated
water.
Point of leakage
(1) Caustic silver check
(2) Switchover of thermometer
takeout points
(1) Boiler water blowing

(2) Injection of sodium tertiary
phosphate
Seawater temperature at the inlet of

condensing water generation unit at 20!C
or below (See Note 1)
Vacuum of condenser at 690mmHg or
above
If these can be maintained:
Load: 220MW
One-side operation of condenser
Water Quality Target of Boiler Water during Seawater

Leakage
Boiler water
S/cm of
recovery
water
0.3S/cm or below
(1) pH of boiler water: 8.0 or

below
(2) Saturated steam
conductivity: 1S/cm or
above
Stop the unit.
15 or below
Restoration
measures
Repair completed
(1) Condenser restored to

normal
(2) Boiler steam flushing (See
Note 2)
(3) Restriction of load lifted
(1) Conductivity of condensate

water, feed water and boiler water
(2) Degree of vacuum of condenser
(3) Temperature of the air discharge
chamber
(4) Conductivity deteriorated in the
order of condensate water, feed
water and boiler water
Higher than 0.3S/cm
3 or below
Conductivity
("s/cm)
Seawater temperature at the inlet of the

condensing water generation unit at 20!C
or below (See Note 1)
Vacuum of condenser at 690mmHg or
above
If these can be maintained:
Load: 200MW of below
4. Restoration
measures
(1) Degree of vacuum of condenser

(2) Temperature of the air discharge chamber
(3) Vibration of turbine, position of lids and
axis, difference in the temperature of
metals
(4) Conductivity deteriorated in the order of
condensate water, feed water and boiler
water
(1) Stop addition of sodium tertiary

phosphate when the chlorine ion
concentration in the boiler water
goes below 0.2 ppm.
(2) Stop the blowing of boiler water
As low as possible
Turbine E-STOP push button ON
Note 1:
In order to avoid any stress corrosion cracks of SH and RH pipes, boilers should be subject to vapor washing when the unit is restored from seawater
leakage (at the turbine rotation of 3,600 rpm).
Note 2: Considering the working environment while only one condenser is in operation, the vacuum is set as 690 mmHg or above (according to a test result in
1980).
Reference information: The conductivity of condensate water was once seen to surge due to pinhole damage of the exterior housing of a condenser water pump.
Fig. 3.3.2-7: Accident Handling Sheet for Seawater Leakage
(1) Water treatment during Normal Operation

a. Water treatment
As for the water control of a once-through boiler, in order to minimize the separation out of metals, due to the
corrosion of materials used in the system, it is necessary that the pH and dissolved oxygen concentration should
mainly and always be retained within the controlled values. For this purpose, ammonia and hydrazine are added
continuously to the outlet of the condensate water pressure surge pump. The ammonia aims to control the pH to a
level of 9.3 to 9.6 and for this purpose, the conductivity at the inlet of the deaeration unit is maintained at a
constant value and the condensate water flow rate is controlled in proportion to the ammonia injection ratio. For
hydrazine, the chemical is added at the rate proportional to the feed water flow rate to control the concentration of
dissolved oxygen at 7g/l or below by controlling the residual hydrazine concentration at the inlet of an
economizer at 10g/l or above. See Table 3.3.2-14 for the details of other water treatment criteria under normal
operational conditions.
b. Analysis Items and Frequency of Analysis
Table 3.3.2-15 shows the analysis items and the frequency analysis.
c. Control of the Condensate water Desalination Unit
A once-through boiler is unable to conduct the off-the-system blowing of boiler water under normal
operational conditions. In order to remove impurities infiltrating the system from outside, a condensate water
desalination unit is installed to remove corrosion products produced from within the system and other
impurities originating from outside the system due to the seawater leakage of a condenser. The condensate
water desalination unit is an ammonex type of the outside regeneration type. It functions quite similarly to a
separate regeneration type system in reducing the regeneration time and reduction of nitrogen in effluents and
is maintained and controlled considering the items shown below.
a). To check the area where resin layers are detached
The water regeneration tank of a mixed bed system, most of the causes leading to the deterioration of water
quality are derived from the movements of resin layers detached, the tank is subject to checking after scrubbing.
247
Table 3.3.2-12: Check Sheet for Unit Nos. 1 to 4 Water Quality When ANN is Transmitted
1. Silica and Dissolved Oxygen
* Whether silica and dissolved oxygen concentration tend to be high
or not is checked by referring to the checksheet.
Check Item
Description
Cause
Silica
concentration is
high.
Makeup water
1.5S/cm or above for the makeup
c
water
10g/l or above at the outlet of the
makeup water desalination unit
Load
Load surged
(when silica is purged)
i
Measurement
The ANN of a measurement
d
instrument
instrument is transmitted.
The dissolved
oxygen
concentration is
high.
Load
Load decreased
e
Deaeration unit
Check the inner pressure of the
f
system.
Switchover of
Check whether any O2 is leaked or
g
the condensate
not by switching the condensate
pump
pump
Drain pump
Check whether any O2 is leaked or
g
not at the drain pump seal.
Measurement
The indication does not change
d
instrument
after switching the specimen
water.
2. High conductivity/CondenserHigh conductivity/Seawater
leakage at startup
Check Item
Description
Cause
Check the
The conductivity of the
relationship of the
condensate water and water in the
following:
system suddenly surges from the
a
Condensate water, normal level, followed by feed
feed water, boiler
water, boiler water, saturated
water, saturated
water. The makeup water is intact.
steam and
The conductivity of the makeup
makeup water in
water surges, followed by others
c
the system
such as condensate water.
Chloride ions
Adding caustic silver changes the
a
water turbid in white.
Measurement
Their conductivity fluctuates
d
instrument
separately.
3. Abnormal pH Level
Check Item
Description
Feed water pH
High (or low)
Boiler water pH
High
Low
Makeup water
There is considerable conductivity of
makeup water.
Chemicals
Chemical
Chemical concentration and type
concentration
Failure of pumps
Switchover test of injection pumps
Addition of
chemicals
Stroke and valve operations
Cause and Measures
Cause
a. Seawater leakage
Cause
b d
bdh
abd
c
Measures
See the section of seawater
leakage.
See Accident Action Procedure.
b. Adjust the injection volume.
a.
b. Excessive (too small)

hydrazine injection
c. Abnormal quality of
makeup water
Leakage of regeneration
agent of a desalination unit
and sampling after breakage
d. Fault of measurement
instruments
e. Decreased loads
f. Deteriorated deaeration
unit
g. O2 leakage from
condensate pump and drain
pump
h. Excessive addition of
sodium tertiary phosphate
i. Surge of loads
c.
In the case of abnormal quality of

makeup water, blow the water in
the makeup water tank.
d. If adjusting the flow rates and

temperature does not work,
inform Chemical G.
g. Seal the leakage.
h. Adjust the volume.

i.
Blow the boiler water.

See the section explaining the
relationship of silica in boiler
water and pressure.
b). Regeneration Process Check

The entire regeneration process is subject to a detailed check once a year to confirm the conditions of the flow
rate and the volume of chemicals added, to determine abnormalities at their early stage and to plan suitable
countermeasures.
c.) Confirmation of Functions of Ion-Exchange Resins
Performance of exchanging neutral salts, chemical reaction speed and other aspects are checked once a year.
Table 3.3.2-13: Facility Outline of Unit Nos. 1 to 4 Units of the Sodegaura Thermal Power Plant
Unit
Output
Operation started in:
Boiler type
Boiler capacity
Steam pressure
Steam temperature
Fuel used
(MW)
(t/h)
(kg/cm2)
(!C)
No. 1 Unit
600
August 1974
Reheated
once-through
type
1 900
246/42.1
538/566
LNG
No. 2 Unit
1 000
September 1975
No. 3 Unit
1 000
February 1977
No. 4 Unit
1 000
August 1979
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
3 110
246/40.1
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
3 170
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
d. Replenishment of Resins
Referring to the results of the performance check, resins are replenished to maintain the function of a
condensate water desalination unit at the appropriate level. The volume of resins replenished annually is 10% for
248
cation exchange resin and around 20% for anion exchange resin.
Table 3.3.2-14: List of Water Quality of Supercritical Pressure Through the Flow Boiler at Normal Times
Specimens taken
Makeup water
Outlet of a condensate
pump
(CP out)
water desalination unit
(CBP out)
Outlet of a
desalination unit
(Dea out)
Inlet of an economizer
(Eco in)
Analysis item
Conductivity
Silica concentration
Conductivity
Criteria
< 0.5 "S/cm
< 30 "g/l
< 0.5 "S/cm
Conductivity
Sodium concentration
Total iron concentration
Total copper concentration
< 0.15 "S/cm

< 5 "g/l
< 5 "g/l
< 2 "g/l
< 7 "g/l
Dissolved oxygen
concentration
pH
Conductivity
Hydrazine concentration
9.3 to 9.6
< 0.25 "S/cm
< 5 "g/l
< 2 "g/l
< 10 "g/l
< 20 "g/l
Table 3.3.2-15: Analysis item and Frequency

Specimens taken
Makeup water
water desalination unit
Inlet of a desalination
unit
Outlet of a desalination
unit
Inlet of an economizer
Analysis item
Conductivity
Iron concentration
Cooper concentration
Sodium concentration
Conductivity
Dissolved oxygen concentration
Frequency
Once a month
Once a month
Once a month (once a week)
Once a month (once a week)
Once a month (-)
Once a month (once every three days)
Once a month (once every two weeks)
pH
Conductivity
Main steam
pH
- (once every two weeks)
Conductivity
Items in parentheses indicate the frequency of analysis within six months of the start of operation.
Table 3.3.1-16: List of Storage Methods when the Plant is Subject to Shutdown
Stop time
Boiler
Within 56 hours
Hot banking
Within 72 hours
Storage after filling

water +N2 pressurization
More than 72
hours
(Hydrazine: 20 to 30
mg/l)
Dry storage after sealing
N2
(RH: Dry storage)
Deaeration unit
Condenser
In circulation mode
Retains the ordinary

water level.
Normal water level +

Steam sealing
[or N2 pressurization]
(Hydrazine: 20 to
30 mg/l)
Dry storage after
sealing N2
Retains the ordinary

water level.
Dry storage
Feed water heater

Steam side
Feed water side
Storage in vacuum
Retain the shutdown
condition or in steam
status.
sealing
N2 pressurization
Storage by filling
water
Dry storage after

sealing N2 or dry
storage
(Hydrazine: 20 to
30 mg/l)
Storage by sealing N2
or by filling water
(Hydrazine: >300
mg/l)
(2) Water treatment at Startup and while the Unit is not used
a. Water treatment while the Unit is not used
The most important thing in water treatment while the unit is not used is to minimize the inclusion of exterior
air inside the system to prevent corrosion. The following three measures are conducted for this purpose:
(1) Hot banking that puts a boiler under a pressurization condition to eliminate the inclusion of exterior air
(2) After a boiler has cooled down, a high concentration of hydrazine is infused to minimize the area
contacting with air, while also helping remove the dissolved oxygen from the contact area.
(3) After a boiler comes to a stop, boiler water is purged and blown out by pressurized nitrogen while keeping
the boiler temperature at 100 or above to keep it in a dry condition.
249
Fig. 3.3.2-16 shows how to store the plant when it is not in use. The table categorized the storage method by the
period of storage. In the case that the planned short time storage is subject to change in the longer storage period,
the storage method for the plant must be changed. Sampling racks are stored by closing the valves and after filling
with deionized water.
b. Water treatment at Startup
Before starting the plant, it is subject to a cleanup process by dividing the system into 3 blocks of condenser,
feed water system and boilers respectively. The controlled items for this purpose include, for a cold cleanup
process, iron and mill scales, etc., with those that are generated during the time the plant is not in use analyzed. To
check the iron concentration, two methods are used; the membrane filtration and automatic measurement methods.
The former compares the color of the filter after filtration of sample water with the standard color, while for the
latter, an iron meter of the particle counting method or the scattered light method is used. The control criteria of
the iron concentration is set as 300 g/l or below as a target, while Fig. 3.3.2-17 shows other water control criteria.
In addition, the injection of ammonia and hydrazine, etc. is possible to combat corrosion of the system and
maintain the quality of water in the systems at the appropriate level. In injecting chemicals, Mode PB on the
sampling rack is selected. Fig. 3.3.2-18 shows a worksheet of a chemical feed unit.
In the Sodegaura Thermal Power Plant, a patterned operation is used for the blowing time and chemical
injection in order to control iron concentration, etc. at the appropriate level. The pattern was formed based on the
experience of the plant. More recently, more plants have been able to automatically control and operate water
treatment and chemical injection using a computer. In the Sodegaura Thermal Power Plant, the iron concentration
of feed water at the inlet of an economizer after ignition of the plant is controlled to 50g/l or below as a target.
The criteria for collecting drain water generated by each process is, 300g/l or below for iron collected by a
condenser, and 50g/l or below for that collected by a feed water system.
250
Table 3.3.2-17: List of Water Quality of a Supercritical Pressure Through a Flow Boiler at its Startup
Startup process
Surge of condenser vacuum
Sampling at:
-
Analyzing item
-
Water feed to a condenser desalination

unit
Pre-boiler system blow stop
CP out
Water feed to boilers
Dea out

pH
pH
Conductivity
Boiler system blow stop

Ignition
CP out
WW out or SH
out
Eco in
WW out
Humidified circulation
Drain water
collection
Aeration to turbines - 1/2 loads
Collection by condenser
Collection by condensate
water and feed water systems
Eco in
WW out
Eco in
pH
Conductivity
pH
Conductivity
Conductivity
pH
Criteria
Condenser Vacuum
> 680 mmHg
< 300 "g/l
< 10 "g/l
< 300 "g/l
< 10 "g/l
9.2 to 9.6
< 100 "g/l
< 50 "g/l
< 300 "g/l
< 10 "g/l
9.2 to 9.6
< 1.0 "s/cm
< 50 "g/l
< 10 "g/l
< 10 "g/l
< 30 "g/l
9.2 to 9.6
< 1.0 "g/l
9.2 to 9.6
< 1.0 "s/cm
< 50 "g/l
< 10 "g/l
< 10 "g/l
< 30 "g/l
< 1.0 "s/l
9.2 to 9.6
< 50 "g/l
< 10 "g/l
< 30 "g/l
< 300 "g/l
< 50 "g/l
Conductivity: Cationic conductivity after going through cation resin.
(3) Water treatment at the Seawater Leakage of Condenser

a. Determination of a Leakage
In order to detect any leakage of seawater at an early stage, two methods are normally employed; a salinometer
installed closer to a condenser, and checking the cationic conductivity of the condensate water by sampling it at
the sampling rack (after it has passed through the cation exchange resin). However, the method of measuring the
cationic conductivity tends to show a high rate, because of the condenser hot well water generated when a vacuum
break occurs at the startup time and the influence of the carbonate ions generated by carbon dioxide dissolved in
makeup water, the conditions of which are quite similar to that shown at seawater leakage. Accordingly, it was
necessary to analyze the existence of chlorine ions. The shortcomings of this method are (i) the fact that the
quantification limit is high, i.e. 0.01 mg/l, making it difficult to detect minute leakages and (ii) it takes about an
hour for the analysis, meaning the method cannot be used for startup operation. Therefore, in this plant, a sodium
meter (of ion electrode method) is installed at the outlet of a condensate pump to be used in combination with the
salinometer for detecting seawater leakage.
251
Table 3.3.2-18: Chemical Injection Workflow Sheet

Plant process
Water treatment values
Circulation of
condensate water
PB process
Normal operation
Stop
Fe: 300 ppm or

below
N2H4: 10 ppm or
below
Sampling rack mode
Circulation of the Circulation of the Circulation of

deaeration unit
pre-boiler
the boiler
Hot banking
DO: 50 ppb
or below
10 ppb or above
Circulation Circulation Circulation Circulation Aeration of

Lamping
of
of the
of the
of the
the main
end
condensate deaeration pre-boiler
boiler
steam pipe
water
unit
High
pressure
heater
Low
pressure
heater
Normal storage and

plant not in use:
N2H4: 10 ppm or
above
Normal Delamping Parallel off

operation
Storage method
Hot
banking
Ordinary
storage
Stop
Kick signal
Ammonia pump
Stroke length
control
Injection of a high
concentration of hydrazine
for 4 hours
Program control with the

conductivity at the outlet of
a demister as a preceding
signal
Constant value control of conductivity at the inlet of a deaeration unit with the
conductivity at the outlet of a demister as a preceding signal
RPM control

conductivity at the outlet of a
demister as a preceding signal
Injection of a
constant volume
In proportion to the condensate water flow rate

As above
Stroke length
control

signal
Constant value control of conductivity at the inlet of a deaeration unit with the
conductivity at the outlet of a demister as a preceding signal
RPM control

signal
Injection of a
constant volume
In proportion to the condensate water flow rate
Stroke length
control
In proportion to the condensate water flow

rate
Ammonia
In proportion to the condensate water flow

rate
In proportion to the feed water flow rate

In proportion to the feed water flow rate
In proportion to the
condensate water flow
Injection of a constant
volume (CONC)
In proportion to the
condensate water flow
Injection of a constant
volume (CONC)
Open
Hydrazine
Chemical injection locations
Hydrazine pump
As above
Stroke length
control
Open
Open
Fig. 3.3.2-19: Measures to be Taken upon Leakage of Condenser Pipes

Specimen
Outlet of a
condensate pump
Outlet of a
condensate water
desalination pump
Conductivity
(S/cm)
[Cationic
conductivity]
< 0.5
0.5 to 3.0
< 0.1
0.1 to 3.0
> 3.0
> 0.3
> 0.15
> 0.1
Chlorine
Ion
(mg/l)
Determination
of Leakage
Normal
Minute
leakage
Significant
leakage
Significant
leakage
How to Operate a
Desalination Unit
H Type:
NH4 Type:
H Type:
NH4 Type:
H Type:
-
1
2
2
1
3
Measures to be Taken at Leakage

Repair the leakage while operating only one
condenser, after confirming the location of
the leakage using a salinometer.
Stop the unit.
Stop the unit
b. Operation of a Condensate water Desalination Unit

Table 3.3.2-19 shows the measures to be taken after identifying the occurrence of a seawater leakage to a
condenser pipe and determining its severity. Immediately after detecting cationic conductivity exceeding
0.5S/cm, a stand-by water feed tower of a desalination unit is switched on, one NH4 type water intake tower that
is currently taking water is shut down under the system configuration of two H type water intake towers and one
NH4 type water intake tower. When the leakage deteriorates further to exceed 3S/cm, an examination starts to
stop the unit while all towers are switched to H type water intake towers. By the time that cationic conductivity at
the outlet of a desalination unit exceeds 0.15S/cm, the desalination unit will have been in break condition (a
status where the exchanging function is lost), the unit is stopped immediately.
When such abnormalities are detected, while the leakage is limited to 0.5 to 3S/cm, the loads to the plant is
decreased and one of the condensers is stopped to detect the location and seriousness of leakage and a repair
process will start. The resins that are exposed to the seawater leakage contain salts in seawater and hence the ratio
of sodium and chlorine contained in them are higher than in normal times. In such cases, the resins are subject to
regeneration based on the degree to which such ions are absorbed.
252
To the outlet of
HPHTR
From HP 1HTR
From HP2HTR
To the
boiler
blow
tank
LP-HTR
Drain P
To the boiler
blow tank
Drain tank
Steam A
and B
253
From the
outlet of
CBP
To the boiler blow tank
To the
startup
LP.HP HTR Drain
effluent pit
Fig. 3.3.2-8: Water Treatment Flow Chart of the No. 1 Unit of Kawagoe Thermal Power Plant
To the startup
collection pit
3.3.2.2.4 Water treatment of an Ultrasupercritical Pressure Once-through Boiler

The method used by an ultrasupercritical pressure once-through boiler to control water quality is basically the
same as the conventional supercritical pressure once-through boiler. This chapter explains how water quality is
controlled at the Kawagoe Thermal Power Plant. Fig. 3.3.2-8 shows the water treatment flow chart.
(1) Water treatment in Normal Operation
a. Frequency and Method of Chemical Injection
Aiming to keep the pH of the feed water at the inlet of an economizer at 9.6 as a target, ammonia is injected
continuously and automatically to the outlet of a condensate water booster pump in proportion to the flow rate of
the condensate water and with monitoring of conductivity (ammonia concentration) at the inlet of a deaeration
unit.
In addition, in order to keep the hydrazine concentration of feed water at the inlet of the economizer at 20g/l as
a target, hydrazine is injected continuously and automatically to the outlet of a condensate water booster pump in
proportion to the flow rate of the condensate water and with monitoring of hydrazine concentration of the feed
water at the inlet of the economizer to retain it to 35S/l.
b. Operation Control of a Condensate water Desalination Unit
In this plant, the condensate water desalination unit is operated continuously without limiting the inflow of
water into the unit. The unit consists of two prefilters (electromagnetic filtration system) and four mixed bed
condensate demineralization towers (with one standby).
In principle, all condensate demineralization towers are of NH4 type and water collection stops when the
towers are filled by a pre-designated volume of water and when water quality deteriorates. Table 3.3.2-20 shows
the pre-designated volume of water and the water treatment values of this desalination unit.
(2) Water treatment at Startup and while the Unit is not used
a. Pattern of Stoppage and How to Store each Component
Table 3.3.2-21 shows the stoppage pattern and how each component is stored.
b. Sampling Rack at the time of Stoppage and How to Store Chemical-Related Measurement
Instruments
As soon as the systems of each sampling point stops, a shut-off valve installed at the inlet of the sampling rack
automatically closes. The chemical-related measurement instruments are in standby condition, ready to start
measurement, just the same as when the system is in operation. No transfer of deionized water takes place in the
sampling rack.
c. Cleanup
Table 3.3.2-22 shows the scope of the cleanup and the water treatment criteria.
d. Monitoring of Water Quality
Water quality is monitored by a continuous water quality measurement instrument. When each system
component starts working, a valve installed at the inlet of the sampling rack automatically opens. As for the iron
concentration, a scattered light/transmitted light ratio turbidity meter that can monitor colloidal iron is used by
automatically switching the measurement point.
Fig. 3.3.2-20: Designated Water Volume of the Condensate water Desalination Unit
and Water treatment criteria
Designated collection
volume
Water treatment (outlet
water quality)
NH4 Type
H Type
Conductivity
Sodium ion concentration
384 000
35 000
0.15
5.0
(m3)
(m3)
("S/cm)
("g/l)
e. Drain Collection
Drain is blown to the outside of the system at the same time with the startup of the feed water heater. Drain of
the low-pressure feed water heater is collected to the condenser when the iron concentration becomes 500 "g/l or
less. Moreover, when the iron concentration becomes 50 "g/l or less, it is collected to the condensate water pipe.
Similarly, drain of the high-pressure feed water heater is collected to the condenser when the iron concentration
becomes 50 "g/l or less. When the iron concentration becomes 50 "g/l or less, it is collected to the deaerator.
254
Fig. 3.3.2-21: Stoppage Patterns (Category) and How to Store each Component
Stoppage
Category
Component
Stop time
Boiler stop
condition
Condenser
vacuum
Within 72 hours
Normal stop
Forced cooling
Normal stop
72 hours to 1 week
Forced cooling
1 week or longer
Normal stop
Forced cooling
Retained
Destructed
Retained
Destructed
Retained
Destructed
Retained
Destructed
Boiler body
Hot bank
When the pressure is
decreased
Pressurized sealing of
N2
Same as left
Pressurized sealing
of N2
Same as left
Hot bank
After decreasing the
pressure, the boiler is
filled with 100mg/l of
hydrazine for storage.
Storage after
filling 100mg/l
of hydrazine
Hot bank
After decreasing the
pressure, the boiler is
Pre-boiler
Valve is closed like

during normal
operation.
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Like the case of a
boiler, the pre-boiler is
Storage after
filling 100mg/l
of hydrazine
Same as left
Like the case of a boiler,
the pre-boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
Deaeration unit
Hot bank
When the pressure is
decreased
Pressurized sealing of
steam or N2
Same as left
Pressurized sealing
of N2
Same as left
Hot bank
Like the case of a
Storage after
filling 100mg/l
of hydrazine
Hot bank
with 200mg/l of
Low pressure feed water heater

during normal
operation.
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Like the case of a
Storage after
filling 100mg/l
of hydrazine
Same as left
with 200mg/l of
From condenser to the inlet of the low

pressure feed water heater
Cleanup
Circulation continued
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Like the case of a
Storage after
filling 100mg/l
of hydrazine
Same as left
with 200mg/l of
Shell side of feed water heater
Retained under
vacuum condition.
during normal
operation.
Pressurized
sealing of N2
Same as left
Retained under
vacuum condition.
Same as left
Pressurized
sealing of N2
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
After decreasing
the pressure, the
boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for
storage.
After decreasing
the pressure, the
boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for
storage.
After decreasing
the pressure, the
boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for
storage.
After decreasing
the pressure, the
boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for
storage.
After decreasing
the pressure, the
boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for
storage.
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Superheater and reheater
255
Table 3.3.2-22: Scope of Cleanup and Water Quality Criteria

Cleanup process
Condensate
water
Blowing
Circulation
Deaeration
unit
Blowing
Circulation
Pre-boiler
Boiler
Blowing
Water quality
measurement
point
Outlet of a
condensate
pump
Outlet of a
condensate
pump
Outlet of a
deaeration
circulation
pump
Outlet of a
deaeration
circulation
pump
Pre-boiler
cleanup pipe
pH
9.8
Water quality criteria for approving the cleanup process

Dissolved
Cationic
Total iron
Hydrazine
oxygen
conductivity
concentration concentration
concentration
(S/cm)
(mg/l)
(mg/l)
(mg/l)
1.50 or
0.500
below
9.4
to
9.7
0.15 or
below
9.5
to
9.7
0.50 or
below
9.5
to
9.7
0.50 or
below
9.5
to
9.7
0.50 or
below
Circulation
Pre-boiler
cleanup pipe
9.5
to
0.7
0.50 or
below
Blowing
Outlet of a
water separator
0.50 or
below
Circulation
Outlet of a
water separator
9.5
to
9.7
9.5
to
9.7
0.50 or
below
0.200
0.050
(Outlet of a
condensate water
booster pump)
0.500
0.10 or
below
0.200
0.050
0.500
0.10 or
below
0.200
0.050
0.500
0.10 or
below
0.200
0.050
Scope of
cleanup
Remarks
From a
condenser
to the inlet
of a low
pressure
feed water
heater
From a low
pressure
feed water
heater to a
deaeration
unit
From the
outlet of a
deaeration
unit to a
high
pressure
feed water
heater
From the
outlet of a
high
pressure
feed water
heater to a
boiler
3.3.2.3 Water treatment When Condenser Pipes are Subject to Leakage

Most thermal power plant use seawater as the cooling water for their condenser and this is frequently channeled
into the system through condenser pipes or joints between them and the pipe boards due to their corrosion and
erosion (seawater leakage). The seawater, having infiltrated into the system, causes the following damage to each
part of the unit:
(1) Corrosion of materials due to the decreased pH of the boiler water caused by magnesium chloride
(2) Heat transmission failure due to the scales consisting of Ca and Mg on the generation pipes
(3) Contamination and corrosion of superheater pipes and turbine blades due to the carryover of salts
(4) Corrosion of SUS materials due to the chlorine ions contained in the temperature reduction spray water of a
superheater.
As measures to avoid seawater leakage, several methods are possible, including the prevention of foreign
matter brought into a condenser, the installation of an electrolytic protection unit on the seawater side of a
condenser, a coating of anti-ion and -oxide layers inside condenser pipes and the use of titanium pipes. As for
protective maintenance measures against system aging, an eddy current flaw detector (eddiography) is used during
regular inspections.
3.3.2.3.1 Confirmation of Leakage
A seawater leakage can be detected by the enhanced conductivity of condensate water. In the case of a drum
boiler, it can be identified by increased chloride salt concentration, although in the case of a minute leakage, it is
difficult to identify the leakage with such measures. Generally, the leakage is detected by transforming salts into
acids via cation exchange resins. When salts are transformed into acids, the conductivity jumps up to 8 to 10 times.
For this purpose, a cation exchange resin tower is installed before an conductivity meter of condensate water,
basically. In order to detect seawater leakages as early as possible, most units take out condenser hot well water to
measure its salt concentration using a salinometer, in combination with the conductivity meter, so that seawater
leakage can be detected, even when the conductivity meter fails. The double monitoring system is relatively useful
in detecting seawater leakage.
Fig. 3.3.2-9 shows an example of the salinometer installation.
The conductivity meter shall be monitored constantly by installing the alarm system and the recorder because
the phenomenon of seawater leakage may be continuous but it can also be temporary, in which case it only lasts
for a few minutes to over ten minutes.
256
3.3.2.3.2 How to Detect the Leakage Location in One Condenser Operation

It is desirable that the unit be shut down and damaged parts identified and repaired as soon as seawater leakage
occurs. However, most cases involve the need for identification and repair of damaged parts in parallel with the
unit in operation. As a unit installed with a salinometer and condenser hot wells can be selectable, in which a
condenser system leakage occurs, condenser A or B can easily be identified by an operator by referring to its
operation manual. There may be several ways to detect a leakage. A 1000MW class boiler has a large-sized
condenser with a number of thin pipes installed on it. The first thing to do is to identify the location of the leakage.
In this class, firstly, a circulation pump is stopped, and then a transparent vinyl tube is connected to the pump
pressure detector so that it rises vertically against the top of the condenser. While checking the water level in the
transparent tube, seawater is blown gradually to estimate the leakage part by referring to the indications of a
salinometer and a sodium meter. After the total blowing, an operator enters into the seawater side system and
pastes a thin polyethylene film to the surface of the pipes. The location of a pipe where the film is sucked has a
hole as a source of the leakage.
In the case of a minute leakage, it is difficult to identify it via single condenser operation. In many case a
leakage stops unknowingly to the operators. In this case, what is generally practiced is conducting a water
pressure test after stopping the unit. Makeup water of a low concentration fluorescent solution is put into the
condenser steam side and left for a period ranging from several hours to about one day. Subsequently, ultraviolet
rays are cast from the seawater side to detect which part reacts against the rays.
3.3.2.3.3 Water treatment at Seawater Leakage
As explained above, seawater slipped into feed water due to a leakage can cause various damage to boiler and
turbine systems, so it is important to stop the leakage and remove salts from the feed water.
Sampling
Sampling
valve
Resin tower
Conductivity
meter
Flow meter
Resin tower
Sampling
Sampling
valve
Return valve
Condensate water
pump
Fig. 3.3.2-9: Example of Salinometer Installation
(1) Drum Type Boiler

Among the salts contained in seawater, MgCl2 can produce Mg(OH)2 sediments and HCl as shown in the
following chemical formula, causing a significant deterioration in the pH level of boiler water and accelerating
corrosion of the materials.
MgCl2+2H2O Mg(OH)2+2HCl
As soon as seawater leakage occurs, boiler blowing on a par with the volume of leakage starts and in order to
uplift the pH value slightly higher than the criteria of water quality, an appropriate volume of sodium phosphate is
injected. The phosphate ions have the effect of preventing the deposition of hard scales of Ca and Mg, and also
work to discharge such scales out of the system via the help of the boiler blowing. In the case of a unit where feed
water is sprayed to a superheater and reheater to reduce their temperature, the volume of the feed water is reduced
when seawater leakage is detected. When the chlorine ion concentration in condensate water rises to 0.5mg/l or
above, the spraying is stopped. Table 3.3.2-23 shows the actions taken to a 175MW drum type boiler.
(2) Once-through Boiler
When a condensate water desalination unit reaches its peak capacity, a once-through boiler stops its operation.
257
For this reason, when seawater leakage is detected, its remaining capacity is checked immediately. During normal
operation, an ammonia type sampling is switched to H type sampling, on a par with the volume of leakage, and
the standby tower starts operation. With these measures, loads are reduced as soon as possible to contain the
volume of seawater slipping into the system. Table 3.3.2-14 shows the actions taken for a 1,000MW class boiler.
3.3.2.4 Water treatment During a Regular Inspection

A large-sized industrial use boiler tends to have a longer interval till the next regular inspection and its
restoration will take also longer, from the process of filling water to restarting it. During that time, the water
quality must be maintained in good condition. When such boiler is subject to a stop for regular inspection, a boiler
is subject to blowing at as high a temperature as possible to remove any residual liquid in it, so that it can be
stored in dry condition.
Generally speaking, 60% to 70% of the total process is subject to water pressure tests. Pre-restoration, each
component is kept in such condition that pressure-related tests can take place. Firstly, a deaeration unit is flushed
with water and then filled with water drawn directly from a makeup water tank, to which approx. 100mg/l of
hydrazine is added. Subsequently, a commissioning test is conducted to a feed water pump. The next process
involves filling the boiler with water and adding 100mg/l hydrazine. After the water pressure test, nitrogen is
blown into the boiler to purge the water. The water containing hydrazine purged out from the boiler is then
decomposed by adding sodium hypochlorite. The concentration of this chemical is also kept to a minimum for
environmental purposes.
As for the storage of the unit till the next startup, the general practice is that the water used for the pressure test
is blown out. If the unit is subject to an immediate start, boiler pipes are sometimes filled with water for storage.
Table 3.3.2-23: Example of Actions when Seawater Leakage Happens to a Condenser (Example)
Surge of Conductivity
at the Outlet of CP
(S/cm)
1/2 load
Lower than
6
Rated
load
Lower
than3
6 or above
3 or
above
10 or
above
5 or
above
20
10
Actions Taken
Actions for Operation
1. To strengthen
monitoring by
monitoring
instruments
2. Determination of the
location and degree of
leakage
3. Examination for
starting operation and
inspection plans
1. One condenser
operation
(To stop damaged
condenser and to
operate the intact
condenser
continuously at the
1/2 load)
2. To confirm that the
conductivity at the
outlet of CP, etc., has
decreased
1. Reduction or stop of
the spray flow rate for
a superheater and
reheater
2. To reduce load
1. To stop the unit in
principle
Water Quality Treatment

Blowing
Chemical Injection
1. Continuous blowing
a. To be done
immediately after
detecting seawater
leakage
b. Intermittent blowing
depending on the
leakage conditions
(manual inspection,
etc.)
2. Blowing of condensate
water
a. To be done
depending on the
leakage conditions
1. Continuous blowing
To be done
continuously
2. Rapid blowing
To be done in the case
that water quality check
revealed it necessary
(Openness: 10% to
15%)
3. Blowing of condensate
water
To be done
continuously
(Fully open in
principle, but subject to
adjustment depending
on conditions)
1. Total boiler blowing as
necessary
1. Chemical injection
to boilers
a. To inject 10l of
sodium tertiary
phosphate to the
drum when
continuous
blowing starts
b. To inject an
appropriate
volume of sodium
tertiary phosphate
so that the pH
level of boiler
water can be
maintained at
around 9.5
2. Chemical injection
to feed water
a. To switch
hydrazine
injection from
automatic mode
to manual mode
(Target: pH of
feed water to be
around 8.8)
* As seawater
elements causes
an uplift of
conductivity, it is
not possible to
control the pH
level by adjusting
it.
Others
1. To close the
condensate water
return valve
connected to a
distilled water
tank
2. To conduct a
water-pressurized
leak check
1. To check and
repair the
damaged
condenser while
operating the
intact one
(Inspection using
a vinyl sheet)
Cl-Concentration
of Condensate
water
0.3 ppm or
above
0.5 ppm or
above
1. To check and
repair the
damaged
condenser
1.0 ppm
3.3.2.5 Water treatment of Component Cooling Water

The component cooling water system (bearing cooling water system) can be roughly divided into circulation
and non-circulation temporary cooling types. The former can further be divided into a open circulation type, in
258
which water heated up in a heat exchanging process is evaporated in a cooling tower to be cooled by discharging
evaporative latent heat for use in recycling, and a closed circulation type, in which heated water is cooled down in
a cooling water cooler using seawater. A large capacity power generation plant in Japan uses the closed circulation
type, which can then be categorized into systems where bearing cooling water tanks are installed and those using
stand pipes. Recently, the latter has been frequently used because of the ease of water treatment.
These component cooling water systems incorporate an oil cooler that cools down the lubricants used for
turbine rotors, etc., a hydrogen cooler that is used for cooling generator and a coolant cooler. These units are made
of aluminum brass. Controlling the water quality of such component coolants should involve consideration of the
selection of an appropriate coolant circulation method and the use of steel, copper and copper alloys. Based on
such views, the water treatment of component coolants involves the introduction of anti-corrosion agents into the
coolants, in order to prevent the corrosion of the heat exchanger cooling pipes as well as other pipes, in turn, to
prevent scale deposits on the heat exchanger and avoid deterioration of its heat exchanging function.
3.3.2.5.1 Temporary Cooling Type Cooling System

A temporary cooling type is used where river water is accessible. Cooling water containing heat is normally
discharged into the river untreated, because the use of high concentration anti-corrosion agents is not practical for
cost reasons. However, polymer phosphate and silicate anti-corrosion agents of 2 to 5 mg/l are sometimes used,
mainly to prevent the generation of carbon steel rust and corrosion of the peripheral area arising from the same. In
using these chemicals, it is necessary to secure a flow rate of at least 1 m/s to obtain favorable results.
Table 3.3.2-24: Example of Water Quality Treatments to a High Hardness Cooling Water System
Operation Condition of Cooling
Tower
Chemicals Used
Partial Filtration of Circulation

Water
Water Quality
Treatment Periods
Results of Effects using a Test
Piece
Result of a Regular Inspection
Volume of circulation water:

Water volume retained:
Temperature difference in a cooling tower:
Concentration :
20,000 m3/h
13,000 m3
8!C
2.5 times
Initial injection:
Anti-corrosion agent:
Kurizetto S370 (polymer phosphate series)
400mg/l
Anti-scaling agent:
Kurizetto T225 (polymer series)
200mg/l
Normal operation:
Alkali treatment agent:
Kurizetto S113 (phosphate - polymer series)
40mg/l
Chlorine treatment:
0.5 to 1.0mg/l(Cl2) 3 h/day
Slime control agent:
Polyclin A496 (nitrogen compounds - polymer series)
50mg/l month
Sand filtration:
3% (against circulation water volume)
Makeup water
2
8.1
350
170
180
20
31
7
Turbidity (degree)
pH (at 25!C)
Conductivity (S/cm)
Calcium hardness (CaCO3 mg/l)
M alkali level (CaCO3 mg/l)
Chloride ion (Cl-mg/l)
Sulfate ion (SO42-mg/l)
Silica (SiO2 mg/l)
7 years
Corrosion rate (SPCC) [mdd]
Circulation water
5
9.0
1 000
380
400
63
79
18
3 to 4
A small volume of scales and sludge was observed in several low speed heat exchangers, but other heat
exchangers were in good condition without any corrosion scales, slime and sludge damage.
3.3.2.5.2 Open Circulation Type Cooling System

As the cooling water in an open circulation type cooling water system partially evaporates in a cooling water
tower, the dissolved salts are concentrated in the circulation water. In order to obtain favorable functions of a
coolant, it is necessary that water volume of a forced blowing be adjusted to control the concentration of salts in
the circulation water, and that the quality of circulation water, as well as the concentration of chemicals, such as
anti-corrosion and anti-scaling agents, be kept at a constant level.
In an environment with high calcium hardness i.e. 150mg/l(CaCO3) or above, the alkali level is sufficient and
the pH level is high, i.e. 8 or above in cooling water, calcium phosphate anti-corrosion coating can easily be
formed and the concentration of anti-corrosion agents in water can be retained to 5 to 6 mg/l(T-PO4) to perform
their intended result. However in such an environment, where the calcium hardness, M alkali level and pH are all
high, it is necessary to add polymer series anti-corrosion agent of a sufficient concentration to avoid calcium
phosphate series anti-corrosion coating and calcium carbonate from forming scales in the high temperature area.
As the quality of makeup water shows a relatively low hardness and low M alkali level, in most cases, this type of
treatment is applied by high concentration operation of water cooling system (5 times or above). This works well
in view of preventing environmental pollution because it can reduce the volume of blowing water and
phosphorous discharged outside the system.
259
Unlike highly hard water, water with low calcium hardness tends to require an increased concentration of
anti-corrosion chemicals and it is necessary to raise the concentration of anti-corrosion agent to 10 to 15
mg/l(T-PO4) under the calcium hardness of around 100 mg/l(CaCO3) and 15 to 20 mg/l(T-PO4) in the case of 50
mg/l (CaCO2). This is because the phosphate series anti-corrosion agent is influenced by dianoinic metals, such as
calcium ions, and because the combined use of phosphate and zinc salts with a strong coating forming
performance can achieve good anti-corrosion performance, even if the concentration of anti-corrosion chemicals
is kept to a low level. In a low hardness cooling water system, scales such as calcium phosphate can be formed in
a high temperature zone, and anti-scaling agents, such as acrylic acid series polymers and maleic acid series
polymers, are generally used in combination with these chemicals. In an open circulation type cooling system,
operation under a high concentration of chemicals to save the volume of water can thicken nutrients contained in
the water and within such an environment, microbes can pullulate and slime be formed relatively easily. In order
to prevent this, measures are taken by sterilizing the microbes and adding anti-slime agents that are effective in
curtailing the reproduction of the same. For such purposes, the hypochlorites and cyanurates previously used have
been recently replaced by carbonyl series compounds with no corrosion effects. Tables 3.3.2-24 and 3.3.2-25 show
examples of water quality treatment at open circulation type cooling systems.
Table 3.3.2-26 shows the water quality analysis items and frequency of analysis that are usually used for the
operating control of an open circulation type cooling system, while Table 3.3.2-27 shows the significance of these
water quality analysis items.
Table 3.3.2-25: Example of Water Quality Treatments to a Low Hardness Cooling Water System
Operation Condition of Cooling
Tower
Volume of circulation water:

Water volume retained:
Temperature difference in a cooling tower:
Concentration :
Initial injection:
Chemicals Used
Partial Filtration of Circulation

Water
Water Quality
Treatment Periods
Results of Effects using a Test
Piece
Result of a Regular Inspection
5 000 m3/h
2 400 m3
12!C
3 times
Kurizetto S370 (polymer phosphate series)

Kurizetto S611 (zinc salt series)
400mg/l
100mg/l
Normal operation:
Kurizetto S603 (phosphonates, phosphates and zinc salts)
50mg/l
Anti-scaling agent:
Kurizetto T225 (polymer series)
30 mg/l
Chlorine treatment:
Polyclin A411
0.3 to 1.0mg/l(Cl2) 3 h/day
Sand filtration:
3% (against circulation water volume)
Makeup water
2
7.2
100
24
23
5
6
6
Turbidity (degree)
pH (at 25!C)
Conductivity (S/cm)
Calcium hardness (CaCO3 mg/l)
M alkali level (CaCO3 mg/l)
Chloride ion (Cl-mg/l)
Sulfate ion (SO42-mg/l)
Silica (SiO2 mg/l)
8 years
Corrosion rate (SPCC) [mdd]
Circulation water
7
7.9
254
72
47
18
15
15
3 to 5
Corrosion, scale and slime were hardly observed and the result was very good.
Table 3.3.2-26: Water treatment Items and Analyzing Frequency for Operation Control of an Open Circulation
Type Cooling System (Standard)
Frequency of Analysis
Makeup Water
Circulation Water
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a day
Once a week
Once a day
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a month
Once a month
Once a day
Analysis Item
Turbidity
pH
Conductivity
M alkali level
Calcium hardness
Chloride ion
Sulfate ion
Silica
Total iron
Residual chlorine
CODMin
Anti-corrosion agents
(degree)
(at 25!C)
(S/cm)
(CaCO3 mg/l)
(CaCO3 mg/l)
(Cl-mg/l)
(SO42-mg/l)
(SiO2 mg/l)
(Fe mg/l)
(Cl2 mg/l)
(O mg/l)
(mg/l)
There are several ways to monitor the effectiveness of an anti-corrosion agent, the representative methods of
which include (1) measuring the corrosion speed of a test piece, (2) measuring the corrosion speed using a
corrosion measurement device using a polarization resistance method (an electrochemical method), (3) confirming
the conditions of corrosion and erosion depth on the heat transfer surface of a pipe using a heat exchanger for
260
monitoring purposes. The use of a test piece or a corrosion measurement device to measure the corrosion speed
cannot confirm the corrosion conditions on the heat transfer surface, in which case a heat exchanger for
monitoring purposes can be used. However, this method is not generally used, because the conditions of pipes
cannot be confirmed during test periods (normally 1 to 3 months) and because it requires significant plant and
operation control costs.
Table 3.3.2-27: Significance of Each Water Quality Analysis Item
Item
pH
(at 25!C)
Conductivity
(S/cm)
Turbidity
(degree)
M alkali level
(CaCO3 mg/l)
Calcium hardness
(CaCO3 mg/l)
Chloride ion
(Cl-mg/l)
Sulfate ion
(SO42-mg/l)
Silica
(SiO2 mg/l)
Ammonium ion
(NH4+/l)
Consumption of oxygen
[CODMin ]
(O mg/l)
General microbe count
(pcs/ml)
Total iron
(Fe mg/l)
Concentration of
anti-corrosion agents and
anti-scaling agents
(mg/l)
Significance
Measured to obtain the trend of corrosion behavior and scale formation of water. The pH level of circulation water
is normally controlled at 7.0 to 9.0. Where the level is decreased to 6.5 or below, it must be raised by the addition
of alkali agents. In this case, the appropriate pH level is 8.0 to 9.0.
Measured to determine the trend of salt concentration dissociated into water as ions. Generally speaking, water
quality with high conductivity tends to be bad and is frequently a cause of corrosion damage.
Measured to determine the volume of suspended matter in water. Since the presence of such suspended matter in
the system can cause deterioration of efficiency and erosion damage to a heat exchanger, the turbidity of the
circulation water should be retained as low as possible.
There is a certain degree of connection between pH and the degree of alkali. The M alkali degree is an indicator of
the trend of calcium carbonate forming scales.
This indicator is important to control the concentration of circulation water and to determine the trend for the
formation of scales by calcium and other compounds such as calcium carbonate.
This is generally used as an indicator for controlling the concentration of circulation water. For a system where
chlorine treatment is performed, this indicator is used in combination with others, such as conductivity, calcium
hardness and silica concentration, etc. Water containing high chloride ions tends to have strong corrosive
performances.
Water containing a high concentration of sulfate ions tends to have a strongly corrosive performance. As for HAVC
coolants, the inclusion of sulfur acid gas contained in the air into the system causes a high concentration of sulfate
ions and decreases the pH level, forming a highly corrosive environment.
Silica is one of the causes of scale formation.
Water containing a high concentration of ammonium ions is highly inclined to generate slime. For a system using
copper series materials, ammonium ions and copper react with each other to form a complex ammonium ion salt,
which is a cause of corrosion.
A system with a high consumption of oxygen tends to cause slime, meaning appropriate slime control measures
must be implemented.
It can be an indicator to know the generation of slime. It can also be used to judge the effectiveness of the
microbicide.
The total iron content in the circulation water includes iron ion and colloidal ion derived from the makeup water as
well as other iron generated by corrosion of the system. The existence of iron can cause secondary corrosion,
meaning the total iron concentration must be kept as low as possible.
It is necessary to constantly maintain the concentrations of anti-corrosion and anti-scaling agents at an appropriate
level. In the case of significant fluctuations, effective anti-corrosion and anti-scaling performances cannot be
expected.
3.3.2.5.3 Closed Circulation Type Cooling System

A closed circulation type cooling system does not incorporate any cooling towers, and thus thickening of
chemicals due to the evaporation of water cannot take place. The main problem affecting this type of cooling
system is corrosion. In order to prevent corrosion, polymer phosphate series agents, nitrate series agents and
molybdenum salt series polymer agents are used, as shown in Table 3.3.2-28.
As cooling systems with bearing coolant tanks have a large area, where the coolants come into contact with the
atmosphere, and also generally tend to have significant cooling water leakage, substances that cause the pH level
to fluctuate, such as carbon dioxide, can enter into the system quite easily from the air, and the volume of
anti-corrosion agents consumed tends to be high. For such reasons, filtrated water is used as a coolant for cost
saving purposes, and a polymer phosphate series anti-corrosion agent is used. The polymer phosphate reacts
against copper to form dark green Cu2O CuPO3. Similarly to basic copper chloride, this compound does not form
a continuous layer, has high solubility and can have significantly adverse effects to the system. Due to this, it is
necessary to use benzyxotriazole and a derivative of trithio cyanuric acid in combination with the above agents,
because these substances show a strong anti-corrosion performance against copper and copper alloys. The
concentration of the polymer phosphate anti-corrosion agents is 100 to 200 ppm for initial injection. After the
initial injection, the concentration is kept at 20 to 40 ppm. The concentration of anti-corrosion agents is controlled
in such a manner that after understanding the relationship of the agent and conductivity, the agent is added by
monitoring the conductivity of the coolant.
A coolant system incorporated with a stand pipe, where the coolant is circulated without being exposed to the
air, meaning no carbon dioxide and oxygen will enter the system from the exterior air. The leakage of coolant is
small and consumption of anti-corrosion agents to form anti-corrosion layers can be minimized. For these reasons,
this type of system is superior to other types having a coolant tank, in terms of controlling water quality.
Conventionally, filtrated water was used as a coolant. However, recently, deionized water has been used for this
purpose due to the enhanced plant reliability. Nitrate salt is used to prevent corrosions, but sometimes hydrazine is
261
also used in a one-off manner for this purpose. As nitrate salt anti-corrosion agents cannot expect anti-corrosion
performance equivalent to that of polymer phosphate series agents, a special agent to prevent corrosion to copper
must be used in combination. In addition, as nitrite salts can cause decreased concentrations, due to the act of
microbes (nitrification due to action of oxidative bacterium against nitrate salts such as nitrobactors), it is
necessary to use an inhibitor in combination with the agents or to use deionized water containing less uncertain
elements. In the case of the nitrate salt series agent, after the initial injection of 200 to 300ppm of this agent, the
concentration is kept at a level of 60 to 130 ppm. In the case of hydrazine, the initial concentration is 20 ppm,
following which the concentration is maintained at 5 to 10 ppm when the concentration reaches a stable stage,
whereupon a good anti-corrosion performance can be obtained. The frequency of administering anti-corrosion
agents ranges from once a week to once every two weeks to obtain good water treatment.
Table 3.3.2-28: Outline of Anti-Corrosion Agents for a Closed Circulation Type Cooling System
Anti-Corrosion
Agent
Polymer Phosphate
Series
Applicable Water System
Corrosion Rate
Retention period: Within 10

days
Makeup water: Industrial water
Fresh water
Carbon steel: 5 to 20 mdd

Copper and copper alloys:
1 mdd or
below
Nitrate Salt Series
Retention period: 10 days or

more
Softened water
Deionized water
Carbon steel: 1 mdd

1 mdd or
below
Molybdate
Polymer Series
Retention period: 50 days or

more
Softened water
Deionized water
Carbon steel: 10 mdd

1 mdd or
below
Remarks
As this agent facilitates the discharge of corrosion products
outside the system, a corrosion speed of 5 to 20 mdd may
be acceptable.
Use polymer agents in combination with it to reduce the
generation of scales on heat transmission surfaces.
As this agent does not allow the easy discharge of corrosion
products outside of the system, a chemical that ensure
favorable anti-corrosion performance must be used.
As the maximum temperature of bearing coolants is 40!C
or below, which is within the optimum growing
temperature for microbes oxidizing nitrate salts (generally
15 to 30!C), it is necessary to use its inhibitor in
combination with it.
When this agent is used in a system in which no or
insufficient anti-corrosion treatment is performed, iron
oxides existing in the system can be washed away turning
the color of the coolant red. In such systems, it is necessary
to flush it before starting injection of this chemical.
3.3.3 Future Prospects

With unit size subject to rapid growth since the introduction of large-sized components after WWII, a daily
water treatment method has almost been established following the era of trials and errors. However, many
problems still remain to be solved depending on the location of a thermal power plant, in order to further advance
the method of water treatment.
The first involves how to raise the reliability of supplying sufficient energy. Considering recent advancements
of society and economic growth, it cannot be said that sufficient energies are guaranteed. Under current conditions,
where it is increasingly difficult to build a new power plant, currently available systems should be used as long as
possible. The issues to be solved in order to ensure the patterns of water treatments, established based on the
experiences of thermal power plants to advance into stricter and more assured means of water treatment, include
raising the accuracy of the devices used to monitor water quality as well as measures against seawater corrosion of
condenser pipes, in terms of materials.
The second issues to be solved include (1) a reduction of carbon dioxide emissions that is considered to be a
cause of global warming, (2) shortening the system operation time to maintain and uplift the heat efficiency of
boilers from the viewpoint of energy saving and the appropriate use of energies, (3) the introduction of such
methods as oxygen treatment to prevent scale attachment to boilers and (4) reduction in the ammonia volume used
for the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus from effluents.
The third issues include plant maintenance. Water treatment is a decisive factor in preventing the corrosion of
components. With this in mind, it is important to occasionally conduct a water quality inspection to assess the
quality of water in the system and to determine the volume of oxygen and metal ion concentration, in order to
conduct appropriate anti-corrosion measures.
262
3.4 Turbines and Auxiliary Machines

3.4.1.
Maintenance of Steam Turbines
Maintenance of steam turbines includes minor repairs (for example, retightening of a gland packing for a
valve) during a patrol and major repairs during periodic maintenance, among which replacement or improvement
of a faulty part may be included. There are two kinds of maintenance, one is daily repair to be effected whilst
the turbine remains in operation or the electric generation is stopped and another is periodic maintenance where
the electric generation is periodically stopped for a long time.
3.4.1.1
Daily Repairs
Daily repairs consist of (1) repairs and adjustments of faulty parts as regular repairs, (2) regular inspections,
adjustment and investigation of equipment such as important instruments and of vibration of the rotating devices
in advance as preventative maintenance, (3) improvement of a part to prevent recurrence of a failure that has often
occurred. [1] Speed, [2] sureness, [3] safety and [4] low cost are taken into consideration when a repair
operation is effected, and an elaborately prepared plan in terms of processes and application procedures should be
prepared especially for a part that may have a critical effect on the operation of the unit and also when the repair is
carried out with operation of the power unit stopped.
3.4.1.2
Periodic Inspections
Voluntary inspection of a steam turbine used for electric generation should be periodically performed in
compliance with the Electricity Utilities Industry Law.
This inspection is called the Voluntary Periodic Inspection, and overhauling of a steam turbine is effected
with operation of the power unit subject to a long time planned stop.
This inspection became voluntary in 1995 and the regulation stipulates that the inspection should be effected
every four years from 1999. However, this four year period may be extended depending on the operating
conditions.
3.4.1.3
Content of Periodic Inspections
During this periodic inspection, major repairs and improvements that cannot be effected at other times are to
be carried out besides overhauling of the main body and the major accessories in accordance with the established
plan. Table 3.4.1-1 shows examples of the maintenance of the parts and the equipment.
Table 3.4.1-1: Maintenance of a Steam Turbine During Periodic Maintenance
1. Main body of a turbine
(1) Turbine wheel
Cleaning by honing
Detailed and precision inspection and
repair of the disk, the rotating blades and
the shaft
Measurement of run-out and centering of
the shaft
Inspection and repair of the coupling bolts
(2) Ejection Holes and Partitions
Cleaning by honing
Detailed and precision inspection and
repair of the stationary blades and
labyrinths
(3) Casing
Measurement of the Cleaning of the
inside and the outside of casing, detailed
and precision inspection
Measurement of the level of the
horizontal flange
Measurement of the alignment of the
casing
Maintenance of the bolts, hardness test
(4) Bearings
Adjustment of the contact of the white
metals
Measurement of the bearing gaps
2. Equipment attached to the turbine body

(1) Main Valves
(MSV, CV, RSV, ICV, SMV)
Maintenance and precision inspection
of the inside and the outside of the
valves, the valve rods, the valve seats,
and the valve casings
Measurement of bend and the gaps of
the valve rods
Inspection of the bolts exposed to high
temperature
(2) Speed Governor and Emergency
Stopping Device
Inspection of the speed governor
mechanism and the piping for the
control oil
(3) Turning Device
Detailed and precision inspection of the
gears and the bearings
Inspection of the clutch mechanism
263
3. The turbine lubricating oil device

(1) MOP, BP, AOP, TGOP and EOP
Overhaul, repair and detailed and
precision inspection
(2) Main Oil Tank and Oil Cooler
Cleaning and oiliness test of the inside
of the tank
Cleaning of the oil cooler piping and the
water chamber
(3) Oil Cleaner
Cleaning of the inside and replacement
of the filter
Overhaul and repair of the attached
pump and the fan
3.4.1.4
Special Maintenance
Accumulated operating hours of many of the then new and advanced thermal power plants in Japan that were
the motive power for the rapid development of the Japanese economy are reaching one hundred thousand hours or
more. It is time for them to be thoroughly inspected in a systematic manner.
Desirable items to be inspected are listed below.
(1) Rotors of high, medium and low pressure turbines
a. Center hole......................... Visual inspection by means of a bore scope, magnetic particle test, liquid penetrant
test and ultrasonic test
b. Surface of the rotors .......... Hardness test at the designated points, structural examination by means of a
microscope, liquid penetrant test of general surface, magnetic particle test, hardness
test
(2) Blades
a. Embedded portion.............. Inspection to check whether the roots of the first and second stage rotors of the high
and the medium pressure turbines that are exposed to high temperature have lifted
Ultrasonic test of the rotating blades in each of the high, and the medium pressure
stages
b. Shroud tenon...................... General inspection to check whether it lifted and how it lifted
(3) Main steam check valve... Liquid penetrant test of the inside and outside surface, magnetic particle test,
ultrasonic test, hardness test and structural examination by means of a microscope
(4) Turbine casing.................. Penetrant test of the inside and outside surface, magnetic particle test, structural
examination by means of a microscope
3.4.1.5
Content of the Periodic Inspection
Content of the periodic inspection for a steam turbine is summarized as follows.
264
Table 3.4.1-2: Major Items of the Periodic Inspection
Legend
Operation : Inspection
No.
1
Place to be Inspected
Inspection Method
Number of
Tested Samples
Inspection
Frequency
100% inspection
Every two years
V T: Visual Inspection
P T: Penetrant test
M T: Magnetic particle test
Remarks
U T: Ultrasonic Test
R T: Radiographic test
Illustration and Reference Point
Usual inspection
(1) Casing
a. Corners and the inside
surface of each pipe
seat
V T, M T
In our experience, cracks are liable to occur

due to concentration of heat stress in the
corners, the inside of a pipe seat and places
where thickness of the material markedly
changes.
The inside
of a pipe
seat
A corner
b. Nozzle chamber
(a) The inner and the
outer surfaces
V T, M T, A mirror
for inspecting the
inside of a pipe
100% inspection
Every four years
(1) Removing the nozzle plate, carefully check

the base part of the nozzle vane, the corners of
the nozzle chamber, the welded part, etc.
(2) Carefully check the shape of the internal
threads of the nozzle plate fixing bolts.
(b) The welded

connecting part
M T, U T
100% inspection
Every four years
It is a matter of concern that self-excited

vibration of the nozzle chamber occurs with
increased clearance between the casing and the
nozzle chamber causing too much stress in the
welded base part resulting in a crack there.
(c) Profile
Dimensions
(Deformed amount)
100% inspection
Every four years
It is necessary to monitor the total deformed

amount of the nozzle chamber since it is one of
the parts of a steam turbine that is subject to
the severest conditions and creep deformation
may occur after a long time operation.
(d) Fitted part
Dimensions
(Clearance)
100% inspection
Every four years
It is necessary to monitor the clearance

between the casing and the nozzle chamber
every year since it may increase due to
repeated knocks caused by vibration generated
by vapor flow.
(e) Vane
Dimensions
(Eroded amount)
100% inspection
Every four years
Increased eroded amount causes unfavorable

influences such as decreased turbine efficiency,
weakened strength of the rotating blades, etc.
It is necessary to carefully monitor a turbine
unit with which starts and stops are frequently
repeated especially because it may suffer from
outstanding increase in the eroded amount.
A welded
connecting part
M T, U T
Deformed amount of the profile

Measurement of the dimensions
a, b and c
Measuring point
Eroded amount
265
The inside of the nozzle

chamber
V T, M T, A mirror to
inspect the inside of a pipe
No.
Inspection Method
Number of
Tested Samples
Inspection
Frequency
100% inspection
Every two years
Remarks
c. The spot-faced part of

the horizontal joint
V T, M T
The corners and the spot- faced part are liable

to cracking.
d. The inlet sleeves
V T, M T,
Dimensions
100% inspection
Every two years
Carefully observe tearing-off, scoring and

cracks on the border of an area to which stelite
is coated. The maintenance of dimensions of
bearing seal ring and seal ring is also
important.
e. Hole Plug for the

balance hole
M T, Dimensions,
Shape of the screw
threads
100% inspection
Every two years
The Hole Plug should be carefully inspected so

that it may be easily removed and installed as
needed. Inspection of the male and the
female threads should be assuredly effected
since its coming off during operation may
result in a serious accident.

Inlet Sleeve
Spot faced portion
Hole Plug Stopper

Outer Casing
f. Balance tube
g. Welded part
h. Key
M T, U T
(Wall thickness)
V T, M T
100% inspection
100% inspection
V T, Dimension
(Clearance)
100% inspection
a. Welded outer surface of

the seat for the
extraction tube
V T, M T
100% inspection
b. Main Steam Inlet Piping

Drain Pipe Base
The outer surface:

V T, M T
The inner surface: A
mirror to inspect the
inside of a pipe
Every two years
Every two years
Every four years
Cracks in the welded part and the extent of

reduction in the wall thickness of the inner part
of the vent should be controlled.
Cracks are liable to occur in the welded part of
the pipe base and also to the trace of the
welding for repair effected when it was
manufactured among the wide welded area.
It is also desirable to concentrate the inspection
on the welded part of the Low Pressure Casing
Stay.
It is necessary to control the clearance to be
appropriate at all the keys accessible for
inspection so that expansion and shrinking of
the casing may not be constrained.
Hole Plug
Hole Plug head

clearance
Inner Casing
Inspect the male and the female

threads of the Hole Plug
Inner
Casing
(2) Casing Connecting Tube
100% inspection
Every four years
Every four years
Cracks occur because the shape is so

complicated and the wall thickness is so
variable that heat stress is caused.
Remove Pipe Base and the welded part of
Drain Pipe and observe the inside of Main Pipe
and the welded part of Pipe Base by means of a
mirror to inspect the inside of a pipe.
Effect M T on the outer surface.
266
Outer
Casing
The welded outer

surface of the seat for
the Extraction Tube
Main Steam Inlet Piping

Drain Pipe Base
No.
Inspection Method
Number of
Tested Samples
Inspection
Frequency
Remarks
(3) Rotor
Rs
a. The R portion of the

outer surface
V T, M T
100% inspection
Every four years
The small size parts near the inlets of the high

pressure and the medium pressure steam and
the bottom of the dummy groove require
inspection.
b. Shoulders of the
grooves in the rotor of
the medium pressure
turbine where the
blades are embedded
V T, U T
100% inspection
Every two years
In case the T root is used to embed the first

stage blade of the medium pressure, check
whether any cracking occurs in the inside by
the outer surface(U.T) of the wall of the groove
for the blade.
c. The outside diameter

of Rotor
(High and medium
pressure turbine rotors)
Dimensions
d. Hollows where the side

entry turbine blades are
embedded
e. Pump Shaft
The area around

the steam inlet
Every four years
Whether creep deformation has occurred can

be determined by change in the rotor outside
diameter. In this method, measuring points
should be fixed to grasp the yearly change in
the outside diameter.
V T, M T, U T
100% inspection
Every four years
Apply the same method as that used for the

root of the rotating blades.
V T, M T
100% inspection
Every four years
It is desirable to remove the vane of the main

oil pump and to measure the part with the least
cross section and some other parts.
The shoulder part of the first stage

blades of the medium pressure turbine
The outside
diameter of the rotor
Hollows in the rotor in which

the entry blades are embedded
A crack
(An area in which the blades are embedded)
Erosion
Lifted amount
(4) Rotating Blades

a. Tenon, Shroud Ring
b. Welded parts of the

stubs
c. Portions that make the

profile
(1) V T, M T,
Measurement of
the lifted
amount of the
shroud ring
100% inspection
Every four years
Lifting of the shroud may be caused by heat

due to sheering or touching of the tenon This
problem is common in rotating blades.
(2) Measurement of
the eroded
amount of the
tenon
100% inspection
Every two years
In the event of serious erosion, part of the

caulked tenon is lost. This problem should be
observed. A unit that is subject to frequent
starts and stops should be observed carefully.
V T, P T
100% inspection
Measurement of the
eroded amount
100% inspection
Every four years
Every two years
In some cases, fine cracks occur in an area of

the rotating blade of the low pressure turbine to
which the metal is welded. Especially for an
old blade where TIG welding was yet to be
used, special observation is required.
The rotating blades near the main inlet and the
reheat inlet are liable to be eroded. It is
necessary to grasp secular changes in the
profile by means of mold transferring using a
standard gauge and compound as an additional
means.
267
Tenon
Shroud
Tenon
Shroud
Rotating
direction
Shroud ring cracks

Cracks
Cracks in the welded part of the stub

Erosion of the part making the profile
Cross-section
of a blade
d. The blade root area of
the side entry blade
Inspection Method
V T, M T, U T
Number of
Tested Samples
Inspection
Frequency
100% inspection
Every four years
Remarks
Both for the blade and the disk, the highest
stress is experienced at the corner on the first
tooth. The inspection is to be effected by
means of M T and U.T according to necessity.
However, in case the inspection has to be
carried out in a limited space such as the high
or medium pressure stage, P.T will be used.
A crack in the blade root
e. An area of the blade in

the low pressure stage
on which stelite is
deposited.
(a) Eroded amount
VT
100% inspection
Every two years
According to the erosion, the condition is to be

classified as follows and recoating should be
effected according to a planned schedule.
(1) The surface is somewhat rough.
(2) The surface is pitted.
(3) The erosion has reached the base metal.
Special care should be paid to the leading
blades of a group since they are liable to be
eroded.
(b) Separation and

cracking
PT
100% inspection
Every two years
Immediately recoat any cracked blade or where

separation has propagated to a wide area.
(c) Bonding condition
R T (or U.T)
All the recoated

blades
When recoated
Make sure without fail that they have been

well bonded because the bonded condition
when the coating is effected is very important.
100% inspection
Every two years
(5) Stationary blades

(Blades near the main
steam inlet and the
reheated steam inlet)
The blade
base metal
Erosion
Measurement of
eroded amount
Silver
solder
Separation
A crack
An image taken during R.T showing
incomplete fused spray of stelite
Erosion
Blade Ring
The end of the outlet for the stationary blade is

liable to erosion because of steam oxidation
scale and flowed-in drain.
Baffle Plate
The steam outlet
No.
Welded outer surfaces
The steam inlet

Valve seat
(6) Major valves

a. Inner corners, welded
area
V T, M T
100% inspection
Every time when

overhauled
Cracks are liable to occur around the welded

areas of the baffle plate and of the valve seat
lip and the trace of the welding for repair when
the unit was manufactured.
b. Welded outer surface
V T, M T
100% inspection
On and after the

5th year
Every eight years
Cracks are liable to occur around the welded

areas of the structural members and the trace of
welding for repair when the unit was
manufactured.
Main Steam Stop Valve
Hardness of the flange surface
268
The point where hardness is measured
No.
Inspection Method
Number of
Tested Samples
Inspection
Frequency
Remarks
c. Valve Seat
V T, M T (P T)
100% inspection
Every time when

overhauled
Cracks are liable to occur in a part coated by

stelite. A stelite deposited part should be
inspected by means of P.T.
d. Flange surfaces of the

main body
(Only for the Main
Steam Stop Valve)
Hardness
Representing
points
On and after the

5th year
Every two years
It is desirable to measure the hardness of the

Main Steam Stop Valve that is exposed to the
severest conditions among the valves and to
monitor secular changes in order to grasp the
tendency of its softening due to creep.
VT
100% inspection
Every time when

opened
M T (Fluorescent
magnaflux)
About 1/4 of the

installed bolts
Every four years
Hardness
About 1/4 of the

installed bolts
Every four years
(7) Bolts exposed to high

temperature and high
pressure
a. Bolts
b. Inner threads for the

stud bolts
Observe damage to the threads and cracks

in the bottoms of the threads. Usually, the
stud bolts must not be unscrewed.
UT
100% inspection
Every two years
Hammering test
100% inspection
Every time when

opened
Carry out the hammering test before loosening

the nut and immediately after the unit is
opened to determine symptoms of damage to
the inner thread. In the event that a bolt
becomes shaky or the depth of a stud bolt in
the inner thread becomes shallower over time,
it is considered that the damage to the inner
threads has worsened.
Dimensions
About two
representing
bolts per area
Every four years
Checking of the
thread profile
- ditto -
Every four years
For a unit of which the service time has

exceeded 8~10 years, measure the internal
and the pitch diameters every four years.
For the profile of the threads, copy the
profile by means of compound and
periodically observe secular change of the
cross section.
269
Actual profile
Standard profile
Checking of the profile of the female threads
No.
2
Inspection Method
Number of
Tested Samples
Inspection
Frequency
Remarks
Secular deterioration check

(1) Rotors
a. The center hole
V T, P T, M T, U T
Dimension
(inner diameter)
All the planes
Once at 100,000
hours in service
and every ten
years thereafter
For a rotor where a blind hole is drilled in the

center, another of which defect was found
during the inspection of the center hole
effected when it was manufactured and others
of a unit that has been operated with frequent
starts and stops, it is desirable to inspect in a
short cycle of period.
b. Grooves for the blades

(For the T root and the
double T root types)
V T, M T (or by P.T)
Rotors of the 1st

to 5th stages in
the high pressure
turbine
Rotors of the 1st
and 2nd stages in
the medium
pressure turbine
Once at 100,000
hours or so in
service
For a rotor having semicircle rotating blade

fixing metals, it is desirable to sample some
rotating blades and inspect them since it is a
matter of concern that cracking will occur in
the rotor side of the seating surface of the
metal and also in the corner of the jaw in the
groove for the blade in the rotor.
Also for a rotor that is equipped with a flat
fixing metal since it was manufactured, it is
desirable to check its secular deterioration by
an inspection method such as U.T from the
outside (for the 1st stage of the medium
pressure turbine) because cracking may occur
in the jaw of the groove for the blade in the
rotor.
Blades
Rotor
Caulking Piece
A crack
A crack
(2) Rotating Blades

a. Blade root
(For saddle shape
blades)
Rotating Blade
V T, U T,
Measurement of
lifted amount
100% inspection
8th to 10th year

and every four
years thereafter
Effect U.T and monitor the lifted amount of the

blade root in order to control the creep
deformation due to prolonged service under
high temperature and the stress corrosion
cracking of the stopper pin.
Stopper Pin
A crack
Lift
b. Portion representing
the profile
steam and the reheat
steam inlets)
Measurement of
hardness
(by means of X-ray
diffraction or other
methods)
Several
representative
rotors
8th to 10th year

and every four
years thereafter
It is desirable to control softening of the

material used for the rotating blades every four
years since the material may possibly be
deteriorated after prolonged service under high
temperature and this can be detected by
measurement of the hardness. X-ray
diffraction is available for the measurement of
hardness as an inspection method without
making any dent in the blade.
270
Rotor
Measurement of
hardness of the surfaces
representing the profile
No.
(3) Stationary blades
steam and the reheat
steam inlets)
Inspection Method
Measurement of
inclination amount
of a blade row
Number of
Tested Samples
100% inspection
Inspection
Frequency
8th to 10th year
and every four
years thereafter
Remarks
It is a matter of concern that creep deformation
occurs to the stationary blades in the 1st stage
of the high or the medium pressure turbine
after prolonged exposure to steam of high
temperature and high pressure so that
difference in elongation between the rotor and
the casing is constrained.
Steam
Amount of inclination
(4) Bolts exposed to high

temperature and high
pressure
Destructive test
One or two
representative
bolts per material
Every four years
Select the place where the severest operational

condition is realized and perform tests such as
examinations of structural transformation,
creep, low cycle fatigue, mechanical, etc.
271
3.4.2
Maintenance of Condensers
3.4.2.1
Inspection and Measures
Table 3.4.2-1 shows content of the maintenance and inspection to be effected at the periodic inspection.
Table 3.4.2-1: Content of the Maintenance and Inspection to be Effected at the Periodic Inspection
Item
Timing of
Maintenance
Purpose or Method
Inspection
Method
Countermeasure/Improvement
The inside of the

cooling pipes
Inspection as to whether or not

clogging of the pipe with
foreign matter, corrosion or
erosion has occurred
When the water

chamber is opened
VI
ET
Clean it with a brush or something

similar.
Install a stop plug in pipes that water
cannot pass through due to clogging.
Effect anti-corrosion or anti-erosion
treatment and install a stop plug as a
precaution.
Replace the clogged pipe with a new one.
The outer surface

of the cooling pipe
Inspection of erosion and

damage
When the main body

is opened
VI
Install a stop plug in the damaged pipe.

Effect the anti-erosion treatment.
Replace the damaged pipe with a new
one.
The surface of the

pipe plate

and how marine creatures and
dirty matter adhere
Checking of the connecting
part of the cooling pipes
When the water

chamber is opened
VI
Clean it with a plastic scraper, deck

brush, etc.
The inside of the

water chamber

a swell, separation, damage or
a pin hole has appeared on the
rubber lining
and how marine creatures and
dirty matter adhere
When the water

chamber is opened
VI
PHT
Repair the damaged part.

Clean it with a plastic scraper, deck
brush, etc.
The inside of the

main body shell
Inspection of erosion and

damage caused by steam and
drain attack, and inspection of
the burned out part
any scale or dust has been
deposited.
When the main body

is opened
VI
PT
Replace the eroded part with a new one,

and install a protective cover.
Clean the hot well.
The pressureresistant portion of

the main body shell

any cracking has occurred in the
shell plate, welded part, or
fixing part of the nozzle stub
When the main body

is opened
VI
PT
WT
Repair the damaged part.
Connecting piece
the rubber
expansion joint
Inspection of deterioration of
the rubber expansion joint by
viewing from the inside of the
body
Once a year after the

five cumulative
years since the first
steam extraction
VI
ST
WT
Replace them with new ones after about

ten years.
The extraction
steam pipe
expansion joint

damage, breakage, adhesion.
etc. has occurred
Once a year after the

five cumulative
years since the first
steam extraction
VI
PT
Repair the damaged or broken part.

Establish a schedule to replace it with a
new one after 20 years.
The feed water

heater outer cover
(Lagging)

damage, breakage, etc. has
occurred
When the main body

is opened
VI
PT
Repair the damaged or broken part.
V.I.: Visual Inspection

W.T.: Leak Test by Filling Water
E.T.: Eddy Current Test

S.T.: Hardness Test
P.T.: Liquid Penetrant Test

P.H.T.: Pin Hole Test
3.4.2.2
Cleaning of the Water Chamber and the Surface of the Pipe Plate
Negligence in cleaning of the water chamber and the surface of the pipe plate allows marine creatures to
adhere to them and strongly propagate on them so that the cooler pipes are so persistently clogged, requiring too
much labor to remove them. Therefore, cleaning of the water chamber and the pipe plate shall also be scheduled
whenever a planned shutdown or opening of the water chamber is expected.
272
3.4.2.3
Cleaning of the Inside of the Cooling Pipes
Cleaning of the inside of the cooling pipes is important to maintain the performance of the condenser, and
Table 3.4.2-2 shows the method of cleaning. However, it is necessary to check the properties and condition of
the scale deposited on the inside wall and to select an effective method since it may be different according to such
properties and condition. When the pipe is clogged with foreign matter, remove it first, and then carry out the
cleaning.
Table 3.4.2-2: Cleaning Methods for the Inside of a Cooling Pipe
Cleaning Method
Properties of the Scale
Washing out with a

nylon brush
Algae-containing
scale
Feed the nylon brush through the pipe by pressurized water from a pressure
feed-type water gun.
The water gun pressure should be about 0.6 ~ 0.8 MPa.
Attach a rubber guide to the tip of the water gun in order not to damage the tip
of the cooling pipe.
Wet the nylon brush in advance.
Feed the nylon brush against the direction of the flow of the cooling water.
Take a precautionary measure using a protective sheet so that the brush does
not directly touch the rubber lining in the water chamber on the opposite side.
Method and Procedure
Cleaning with a ball

purge-type cleaner
Slimy scale
Feed by pressurized water several granulated balls per pipe that are used by a
ball cleaning equipment through the pipes with a water gun.
Feed the balls against the direction of the flow of the cooling water.
Cleaning with a
rotary tube cleaner
Scale containing a
small amount of algae
Feed by pressurized water a rotary tube cleaner with a water gun.

Wet the tube cleaner in advance.
Feed the cleaner in the direction of the flow of the cooling water at first, and
afterwards, feed it against the direction of the flow.
Cleaning with a
chemical detergent
Hard scale
Use a neutral cleanser; never use a chlorine- or acid-containing detergent.

Do not effect this treatment until it is ensured that the discharged rinsing water
has been completely neutralized to be harmless to the environment.
3.4.2.4
Leak Test of the Cooling Pipes
In the event that leakage from a cooling pipe is found, it is necessary to exactly identify from which pipe
among thousands or ten of thousands of pipes the leakage is occurring. Figure 3.4.2-1 shows the methods of
checking.
Point of leakage
Point of leakage
Rubber
plug
Wrapping sheet
(4) Water-filling method
(1) Wrapping sheet (very thin plastic film) method
Point of leakage
Manometer
Black light
Rubber
plug
(5) Fluorescent agent method
Rubber packing
(2) Water manometer method

Foam
Point of leakage
Point of leakage
Transparent
acrylic resin
Foam
cap
Rubber packing
Point of leakage
Application of
soapy water
A vacuum meter
(3) Foam method
Rubber plug
Vacuum-breaker
Vacuum pump
(an ejector)
(6) Vacuum pump method

Check valve
Compressed air
Figure 3.4.2-1: Methods for Leakage Check of the Cooling Pipes
273
(1) Wrapping sheet (very thin plastic film) method

This method makes it possible for the unit to be operated with a single system. One end of the pipe plate is
blocked by a rubber plug, and the other end is covered by wrapping sheet or both ends are covered by the
wrapping sheet, and leakage is detected by a hollow in the sheet.
(2) Water manometer method
This method makes it possible for the unit to be operated with a single system. One end of the pipe plate is
blocked by a rubber plug, and a water manometer is connected to the other end by pressure welding. Sucking up
of a water column of the manometer shows that there is leakage from the pipe. This method can detect even a
pin hole, but it takes time to check all the pipes since the test needs to be effected pipe by pipe.
(3) Foam method(8)
This method makes it possible for the unit to be operated with a single system. Foam is sprayed on the
surface of the both opened pipe plates from a fire extinguisher-type spray gun. If the foam sinks into the inside
of the pipe, it means there is leakage from the pipe. This method can detect a relatively small hole, but has a
little difficulty to detect a hole in the expanded part of a pipe.
(4) Water filling method
This method can be used when operation of the unit is stopped and should be effected after it is ensured that the
water-filling support is in good condition. Any leakage shall be checked after the main body is completely filled with
demineralized water and left without being touched for 48 hours or longer. Moisture in the water chamber may cause
dew formation, making detection difficult. This method can detect leakage from a pipe and a joint portion of a pipe.
(5) Fluorescent agent method
The procedure for this method is the same as that of the water-filling method explained above, except that a
whitener of the diaminostilbene-type fluorescent agent is added to the filling water. This agent decreases surface
tension and increases osmosis of water to make it easier to detect leakage compared with the usual water-filling
method. The leaking point radiates light in a dark room when black light is irradiated on it. It is required to
neutralize and treat the liquid for discharging it after the test.
(6) Vacuum pump method
This method can be used when the operation is stopped. One end of the pipe plate is blocked by a rubber
plug, soapy water is applied over the other side of the pipe plate, and that side is capped by a transparent cap made
from acrylic resin or a similar material. The air around the cap is sucked with a vacuum pump, and the leaking
point is found by movement of the soapy water foam. Leakage can also be detected by monitoring a drop in the
vacuum meter needle with the stop valve closed after having sucked the air. Leakage from the pipe or the
connecting part of the pipe can be detected.
3.4.2.5
Checking of air leakage
Too much air leakage to the condenser lowers the steam-condensing capability and the degree of vacuum,
resulting in inability to limit the load on the steam turbine or in inability of operation. Checking of air leakage
can be effected with flon or helium gas as shown in figure 3.4.2-2. But flon is a regulated material from an
environmental protection viewpoint. This method is suitable for checking of the many parts of the unit including
the turbine and the piping. In the event that the degree of vacuum is lowered before or after the periodic
inspection, parts dismantled and repaired in the meantime and connecting parts such as flanges should mainly be
checked. The water-filling method explained above may be used when the checking is just for the condenser
system.
Breakable diaphragm
Turbine casing
Flon or
helium gas
Rubber expansion joint
Low-pressure
feedwater heater
Connecting piping
Connecting piping
Gas detector
Connecting
piping
Connecting piping
Air-cooling section
Vacuum pump
Figure 3.4.2-2: Method for Air Leakage Detection

274
3.4.2.6
Eddy Current Test (9)
The built-in-type eddy current test is a checking method to find damage to the cooling pipes. This checking
should be effected at every periodic inspection, and the data should be compared and arranged in good order
according to the passage of time. The eddy current test is a detection method that utilizes electromagnetic
induction. There are two methods: synchronized detection and phase analysis. Both or only the latter should be
effected. As shown in Figure 3.4.2-3, passing an alternative current through a coil situated near a metallic
material causes an eddy current in it due to electromagnetic induction. Such defects as cracks or any variation in
the material properties would change the eddy current, changing the impedance of the coil.
The cooled pipes
The AC coils
Figure 3.4.2-3: Built-in-type Eddy Current Flaw Detection Coils(15)

The condition of the cooling pipe can be known if this change in impedance is converted to voltage and
recorded using a suitable electric circuit. Figure 3.4.2-4 shows how the flaws are detected.
Dent in the outer surface
Synchronized detection method
Synchronized
detection method
Synchronized
detection method
Phase analysis
method
Phase analysis
method
A foreign metal adhered to the outside

surface
Corrosion of the outside surface
Synchronized
detection method
Synchronized
detection method
Phase analysis
method
Phase analysis
method
Figure 3.4.2-4: Detected Wave Form vs. Type of Flaw

Since this method can only detect variation in the volume due to damage, a sample pipe should be extracted
corresponding to the wave form, and correlation between the wave form and any damage should be established.
3.4.2.7
Replacement and Blocking of a Cooling Pipe
Replace and block a cooling pipe from which leakage is found. Figure 3.4.2-5 shows the procedure for
effecting the methods.
(1) Crimping of the end of the pipe
Pipe from which

leakage occurred
Pipe
plate
Old
pipe
(2) Extracting of a pipe
Pipe
plate
Rubber plug,
brass rod, etc.
Copper rod
Pipe
plate
Procedure for blockng a pipe

Copper rod
Old
pipe
(3) Inserting and expanding of a new pipe
Fix a brass plate with

silver soldering.
Pipe
plate
Expander
Pipe
plate
A rubber plug
New pipe
Procedure for pipe replacement
Procedure for expanding and

then blocking a pipe
Figure 3.4.2-5: Procedure for Replacing and Blocking a Cooling Pipe
3.4.2.8
Checking of a Connecting Piece Rubber Expansion Joint
The service life of a rubber belt is about ten years. So, the following checking and measurement shall be
effected once a year after five years since the start of operation, and replacement shall be prepared after ten years.
(1) Visual inspection
Check whether or not any cracks,swells, or irregularities due to aged deterioration are found.
275
(2) Measurement of dimensions

Measurement of such dimensions as inclination, elongation, and shrinkage.
(3) Measurement of hardness
Replace it with a new one when the hardness reaches HS 80!. The hardness of the new one should be 65!3!.
(4) A leak test by filling water shall be effected when the rubber expansion joint is replaced with a new one.
3.4.2.9
Repair of the rubber lining
Figure 3.4.2-6 shows a typical method and procedure for the repair. Cut the damaged part off and grind the
appropriate part and the surroundings with a grinder. Apply adhesive over it, attach a vulcanized rubber sheet,
and shape them with pressure using a roller or some other tool. Make sure by visual check or by using a pin hole
tester that there are no irregularities.
Application of an adhesive
Vulcanized rubber
Metal part
Figure 3.4.2-6: Repair Method for the Rubber Lining
3.4.2.10 Replacement of a Bundle of Pipes

Copper alloy pipes may be replaced by highly corrosion-resistant titanium pipes when many copper alloy pipes
among all of the pipes have been blocked after prolonged operation. As Figure 3.4.2-7 shows, there is a choice
between the method of replacing only the cooling pipes and the pipe plates making use of the currently used
support plate of the condenser, and the other method of replacing a bundle of pipes including the support plate as a
module.
1. Removal of the copper alloy tubes
Water chamber
Inlet of the turbine bypass
(2) Cutting off of the copper alloy

pipes, Removal of water
chamber and pipe plate
(1) Current situation
(3) Removal of
the copper alloy pipes
2. Replacing of the existing pipes with titanium ones

(a) Method of replacing only the cooling pipes and the pipe plate
Titanium pipe plate
The pipe plate
Protective device for the turbine bypass
The stakes
Welding of the
titanium pipe
Newly fabricated water chamber

(4) Installation of the pipe plate on the side opposite
to the side from which the titanium pipes are to
be inserted, the protective device for the turbine
bypass, and the newly fabricated water chamber
(5) Insertion of
the titanium pipes
(b) Method of replacing the pipe bundle module
(6) Installation of the pipe plates on

the side from which the pipes
Expansion of Installation of the stakes
are inserted and installation of the pipes
the water chamber, Welding of
the titanium pipes, P.T. (Liquid
penetrant test), The water-filling
test
Newly fabricated water chamber
Supporting plate
(4) Cutting off a notch at the end

plate of the condenser,
Removing the supporting plate
and the inner structure
Pipe bundle module
(5) Insertion of the pipe

bundle module
(6) Recovery of the end plate,

Installation of the water
chamber
(7)Leak test by filling water
Figure 3.4.2-7: Procedure for Replacing of the Aluminum Brass Alloy Pipe Condenser by the Titanium Pipe
Condenser
2.4.2-1
Maintenance of the Feed water Heater
Table 3.4.2-3, 3.4.2-4, and 3.4.2-5 show examples of the main failures occurring in the feed water heater, those
of aged deterioration, and the main items of maintenance, respectively.
These items of maintenance and their frequency are just for reference, and they depend on the kind of a plant.
Therefore, it is necessary to obtain information on other plants and to operate a plant in cooperation with the
supplier.
276
Table 3.4.2-3: Examples of Main Failures Occurring in the Feed water Heater
Part Name
Item of Failure
Monel metal
Stress corrosion cracking

Ammonium attack
Drain attack
Inlet attack
Stress corrosion cracking
Drain attack
Deposit of scale
Brass
Heating
Steel pipe
Stainless
Diaphragm of the cylindrical water chamber
Fatigue damage
Seal ring of the breech lock-type water chamber
Cracking in the welded part
Extraction steam nozzle
Cracking in the welded part
Body and the parts inside the body
Erosion, thickness reduction, cracking due to thermal stress fatigue
Diaphragm in the water chamber
Erosion, thickness reduction, cracking in the welded part
Table 3.4.2-4: Examples of Aged Deterioration of the Feed water Heater

Phenomenon of Aged Deterioration
Deterioration of Materials
Deterioration of
Function
Item
Measures for Control
Content
Deterioration of heat transfer

capability of the heating pipe
The inside and the outside of

the pipe are becoming rusty
(scale deposited).
Effecting the function test

Renewing the equipment, Chemical washing, Jet water
washing
Deterioration of the structure

and the function
Deteriorated function of the desuperheating system, the draincooling system, and the vent
system
Checking in cooperation with the supplier
Damage to and deterioration

of the heating pipes
Ammonium attack, Inlet attack,

Corrosion, Erosion, Drain
attack
Control by periodic inspection

(Visual check of the heating pipe, Eddy current test)
Deterioration of the heating

pipe mounting part
Loosening of the expanded

portion of the pipe
Erosion of the welded part
Effecting the leak test using pressurized water or air

Eddy current test for the heating pipe
Deterioration of the body and

the material inside the body
Erosion due to flowed-in drain

and steam
Local attack
Measurement of body wall thickness, Effecting

inspection of the inside
(Measuring of the body wall thickness using the
ultrasonic measuring test)
Deterioration of the water

chamber diaphragm and the
corners of the pipe plate
Fatigue damage (hair cracks)
Cutting off of the skin of the area where a hair crack

appears
Effecting the periodic inspection
(Magnaflux particle inspection, liquid penetrantion test,
Measurement of hardness, Visual inspection)
Deterioration of the
diaphragm of the cylindrical
water chamber made of
forged steel
Hair cracks appear on the

surface area where stress is
concentrated.
Grasping of reliable information on the operation history

(Replacement of the diaphragm with a new one)
Effecting the magnaflux particle inspection and the
liquid penetrantion test
Deterioration of the material

used inside the water
chamber
Fatigue damage of the

diaphragm mounting portion
Periodically effecting the liquid penetrantion test
Deterioration of the nozzle

portion
Erosion and cracking due to

thermal stress fatigue of the
material around the steam inlet
and the drain inlet nozzle
Effecting the ultrasonic measuring of the wall thickness
277
Table 3.4.2-5: Maintenance Items of the Feed water Heater

No.
Maintenance
Frequency
Operation Mode
Once every hour

to once every few
hours
In service
Level of the drain

Opening angle of the valve
Water quality control
Once a day
In service
Level of the drain

Once a day to
once a month
In service
Level of the drain

Once a month to
once a year
In service
Level of the drain

Once a year
During a halt in operation

(during the periodic
inspection)
Checking of the inside of the water chamber

Replacing and checking of the packing
Checking of the performance
Once every five to

ten years

inspection)
Checking of the inside of the body, Measuring of the wall thickness

Checking of the heating pipe, Measuring of the wall thickness (E.T.)
Maintenance or Monitoring Item
3.4.2-2
Maintenance of the Deaerator
Table 3.4.2-6 and Table 3.4.2-7 show an outline of the main failures and aged deterioration that may occur in
the deaerator, respectively. Maintenance during operation is required in order to prevent and relieve these
failures and deterioration and to enhance reliability.
Table 3.4.2-6: Examples of Main Failures of the Deaerator
Part Name
Item of Failure
Nozzle exposed to high temperature
Cracking due to thermal stress fatigue
Bottom body plate
Erosion and corrosion
Spray nozzle
Corrosion and abrasion
Welded part
Corrosion and cracking
Table 3.4.2-7: Examples of Aged Deterioration of the Deaerator

Phenomenon of Aged Deterioration
Deterioration of
Materials
Deterioration of
Function
Item
Measures for Control
Content
Deterioration of the heated

deaeration system
Deteriorated performance of the

heated deaeration system due to
unevenness of the thickness of
the water-feeding membrane
caused by increased bending of
the tray
Deteriorated function of the
vent due to damaged spray
valve
Periodic control of the deaeration performance

(Checking of the level of the tray, Inspection of the spray
valve)
Deterioration of the materials

of the body and inside the
body
Erosion due to flowed-in drain

and steam
Local attack
Inspection of the inside

Ultrasonic measurement of the body wall thickness
Deterioration of the material

of the nozzle
Cracking due to erosion of the

materials around the steam
inlet, the drain inlet, the outlet
of the condensed water, etc. and
thermal stress fatigue

Ultrasonic measurement of the body wall thickness
Table 3.4.2-8 shows the main items of maintenance. These items of maintenance and their frequency are just
for reference, and they depend on the kind of the plant. Therefore , it is necessary to obtain information on other
plants and to operate a plant in cooperation with the suppliers in the same manner as explained later on the causes
of and measures against representative examples of failures listed in Table 3.4.2-6.
278
Table 3.4.2-8: Maintenance Items of the Deaerator

No.
Maintenance
Frequency
Operation Mode
Once every hour

to once every few
hours
In service
Level of the drain

Once a day
In service
Level of the drain

Once a month
In service
Level of the drain

Once a month to
once a year
In service
Level of the drain

Once a year

inspection)

Replacement and checking of the packing
Inspecting the inside of the body
Once every five to

ten years

inspection)
Checking of the functions

Inspecting the inside of the body, Measurement of the wall thickness
(Inspection of the tray and spray valve)
Maintenance or Monitoring Item
3.4.2-3
Maintenance of the Cooler
3.4.2-3.1 Maintenance and Control during Operation
The following maintenance and control shall be effected during operation of a power plant.
(1) Monitoring of the attached instruments and the measured data
Monitor the data on the temperatures at the outlet and the inlet of the cooler measured by temperature meters
or some other instruments to make sure that no irregularities related to function and performance occur.
Especially for seawater coolers, the pressure of the outlet and inlet of the cooler and, the opening angle of the
temperature control valve (the lower the performance, the wider the opening) on the cooling water side shall also
be monitored because its performance may be deteriorated due to deposited marine creatures clogging it and also
because the cooling pipes may be corroded.
(2) Checking of the appearance of each cooler
Check whether or not any leakage from the flanges is found and some other items.
(3) Inspection of the attached equipment
If an electrochemical protection device supplied with off-device electricity is used, make sure that the
corrosion control current and the corrosion control potential during operation are within the specified ranges. If
a seawater strainer (seashell filtering device) is installed, check the pressure difference, washing frequency, etc.
(4) Water quality control
When iron or chlorine is injected into seawater, the concentration of the solution to be injected and frequency
of injection shall be controlled.
(5) Storing of a device whose operation is suspended
If there is a spare seawater cooler or oil cooler, or in the event that the condenser cooler is bypassed in the
summer season, its operation is suspended for a long time. In this case, seawater in the seawater system of the
cooler shall be completely discharged, and the cooler shall be completely dried out for storing.
3.4.2-3.2 Periodic Maintenance

Table 3.4.2-9 shows the maintenance items to be effected during the scheduled suspension of operation or the
periodic inspection. Many of the maintenance items for the seawater system of the cooler are the same as those
for the condenser. However, for a cooler using seawater, which is different from a condenser as it is not usually
equipped with a ball cleaning equipment, maintaining cleanliness of the cooling pipes is more difficult than in the
case of a condenser. Therefore, it is desirable to increase the frequency of cleaning of the cooling pipe and to
effect cleaning semiannually in addition to that in the periodic inspection of the plant by switching the operation
to the spare unit.
279
Table 3.4.2-9: Maintenance Items to be Effected during Scheduled Suspension of Operation and Periodic
Inspection
Name of Equipment
Seawater cooler
Condenser cooler
Oil cooler
V.I.: Visual Inspection
Inspection Item
Method
Frequency
Countermeasures

of the cooling pipes
Inspect whether or not

and how scale adheres
and foreign matter is
deposited.
- Clean them when
necessary (V.I.).
Once every six months

to one year
Effect washing with a

brush or something
similar.
Review the frequency
of the cleaning.
Inspection of corrosion
Inspect corrosion of
both the inside and the
outside of the pipes
using ECT.
Once a year
Install a stop plug or

replace the pipe with a
new one.
Inspection of leakage
from the expanded part
and other parts of the
cooling pipes
Apply water or air

pressure to the inside of
the body, and inspect
whether or not there is
leakage.
Once every two to three

years
Re-expand the pipe.

Install a stop plug.
Replace the pipe with a
new one.
Inspection of the
surface of the pipe plate
Visually inspect
corrosion of the pipe
plate surface (V.I.).

years
Apply epoxy resin

coating to the eroded
area of the pipe plate.

surface of the water
chamber
Inspect whether or not

the rubber lining is
damaged (V.I. and pin
hole check).
Inspect how the marine
creatures adhere (V.I.).
Once every six months

to one year
Repair/clean the lining
Inspection of the
galvanic anode plate
Inspect the consumed

amount of the anode
material (V.I.).
Once a year
Replace the anode plate

with a new one.
Inspection of corrosion
Check whether or not

any part of the outside
or the inside of the pipe
is corroded.

years
Inspection of leakage
from the expanded part
Apply water (oil)

pressure or air pressure
to the inside of the
body, and inspect
whether or not there is
leakage (V.I.).

years
Re-expand the pipe.

ECT:: Eddy current test W.T.: Pressure test (Water, Air, or Oil pressure)
It is necessary to effect an eddy current test (ECT) at every periodic inspection for a cooler using seawater.
However, the frequency of ECT for a condenser cooler and an oil cooler may be somewhat reduced provided that
the water is appropriately treated to reduce the causes of cooling pipe corrosion.
A stop plug must be fitted in a pipe whose wall thickness is found by ECT to be too greatly reduced or when
such a pipe must be replaced with a new one. Figure 3.4.2-8 shows the procedure for fitting a stop plug in a pipe.
Pipe plate
Cooling pipe
Drive into the pipe

(e.g. with a hammer)
Stop plug (e.g. brass bar)
Figure 3.4.2-8: Procedure for fitting a Stop Plug into a Pipe
280
3.4.3
Preventative Maintenance and Remaining Life Assessment techniques of Equipment and

Components used in a Steam Turbine
3.4.3.1
The Main Body of a Steam Turbine
Typical Modes of Aged Deterioration of a Steam Turbine

Figure 3.4.3-1 shows causes and effects of the aged deterioration.
Causes
Effects
Creep
A creep deformation
A creep rupture
Time
Temperature
Aged deterioration
(Aged deterioration
of quality)
Fatigue
Low-cycle fatigue
High-cycle fatigue
Material deterioration
Increased
possibility of
damage
Embrittlement
Stress
Environment
Start and stop
Load fluctuation
Corrosive
Corrosion
Corrosion fatigue
Stress corrosion
cracking
Strength reduction
Increased
operating cost
Performance down
Erosion
Solid particle attack
Drain attack
Softening
Abrasion
Figure 3.4.3-1: Causes and Effects of Aged Deterioration of a Steam Turbine

The inlet temperature of a steam turbine is as high as 500 C or more, and the steam at the final stage where it
finishes its expansion is in the wet condition at a temperature of about 33 C and at a wetness fraction of about
10%.
Various kinds of deterioration occur due to the difference in the operating conditions mentioned above.
1.1 Creep
A material that is subjected to a load under high temperature gradually deforms and finally cracks and breaks.
This phenomenon where a material gradually deforms is called creep, and the cracking or the breaking is called
creep rupture.
(1) Creep deformation
Deformation due to creep can be a cause of aged bending of the steam turbine rotor, aged deformation of the
wheel casing, and aged lifting of the rotating blade.
(2) Creep rupture
When creep enters an acceleration zone, the strain increases and the material finally breaks.
A design to prevent creep rupture and cracking life assessment are effected based on creep rupture
characteristics (time taken until a rupture occurs under a certain temperature and stress).
Macroscopic deformation of a material caused by creek can be detected by measurement of the dimensions and
lifted amount of the rotating blade and the shroud.
(3) The mechanism of a creep rupture
The assumed process of a creep rupture is as follows. (1) A microscopic crack or a small void appears at the
grain boundary during a creep deformation. (2) Such cracks or voids grow and combine. (3) Finally an intergranular rupture occurs. Figure 3.4.3-2 systematically shows this process.
281
Inter-granular slide
A start of a
microscopic crack
Growth of a
microscopic crack
A void is formed
A void is formed and

growing
Voids are combined and a

microscopic crack appears
and is growing
Figure 3.4.3-2: The Mechanism of a Creep Rupture
1.2 Fatigue
Figure 3.4.3-3 systematically shows the process of formation and diffusion of a fatigue crack.
The direction of
repeated stress
A crack in the slip
zone appearing at
the initial stage
A crystal grain
The outside
(The inside)
A cleavage crack
The direction of growth
The inside
(The outside)
A ductility striation
A brittle striation that appears mainly
under a corrosive environment
The final slant
The second stage
separation fracture
The
first
stage
(Formation)
(Diffusion of a crack)
Figure 3.4.3-3: Formation and Diffusion of a Fatigue Crack

(1) Low-cycle fatigue
Low-cycle fatigue is fatigue in which the total number of stress cycles to cause a rupture is small and strong
stress exceeding the normal proof stress of the material is applied to a point where stress concentrates or a certain
point so that plastic deformation is caused and finally repetition of the stress causes cracking.
(2) High-cycle fatigue
High-cycle fatigue is fatigue in which the total number of stress cycles to cause a rupture is very high, and it is
very difficult in many cases to detect the symptom from the outside in a non-destructive way.
(3) The mechanism of a fatigue rupture
The assumed process of a fatigue rupture is as follows. (1) Local plastic strain is repeatedly applied to a
material at its surface or a point with an internal defect. (2) Under such a situation as described above (1), a slip
line appears in the crystal grain and increases to form a slip zone. (3) Finally, microscopic cracking occurs along
the slip zone and diffuses.
1.3 Embrittlement
Materials used for steam turbines are exposed to high temperature during operation for a long time, and their
toughness and ductility are reduced. Brittleness is the result of this process and is progressive as time passes.
The turbine wheel casing, the rotor, the main valve, etc. that are used under high temperature are liable to
suffer from this phenomenon.
Generally speaking, brittleness that appears after heating at high temperature for a long time is caused by
segregation of such trace elements as phosphorus (P) and tin (Sn) reducing the grain boundary strength.
Figure 3.4.3-4 systematically shows the process of aged brittleness occurring to the materials used in steam
turbines.
282
Diffusion of trace
elements
Grain boundary segregation

of trace elements
Acceleration of the grain

boundary segregation
and embrittlement
Condensation and
bulkinization of carbides
Precipitation of grain
boundary carbides
Acceleration of bulkinization
and embrittlement
Figure 3.4.3-4: Mechanism of Embrittlement Phenomenon

Embrittlement occurs at temperatures of 350 C or higher, and does so in a relatively conspicuous manner in
the temperature range between 450 and 500 C.
When a material becomes brittle, its resistance to unstable rupture (brittle fracture) and its ductility are reduced,
and diffusion velocity of a crack is increased at the same time. For this reason, a big cracking may start from a
point where stress concentrates such as a subsisting casting defect. It is necessary to extend the warming-up time
in the rotor in order to prevent bursts that may occur in a cold start.
1.4 Corrosion
The stage of a turbine near the dry-wet alternating area that becomes wet with a heavy load and dry with a
light load is an area where corrosion must be especially observed. In such an area, a phenomenon occurs where
traces of corrosive substances dissolved in water droplets sometimes condense due to the alternation between a
wet condition and a dry condition caused by load fluctuation or by starting and stopping.
And corrosion and pitting occur more or less in a steam turbine that has been operated for a long time because
when the steam turbine stops, steam becomes droplets that attach to the metal surface even near the last stage
where wet steam flows and in the higher stage where the temperature is higher.
Corrosion fatigue occurs when corrosion and repeated stress exist concurrently.
The fatigue strength of a material is lowered under a corrosive environment. This phenomenon is
conspicuous especially in the case of high-cycle fatigue. The tenons and the shroud for the rotating blades in the
wet area are liable to be affected.
In the case of corrosion fatigue, the higher the concentration of the corrosive substances and the longer the
exposure to corrosive substances, the more the fatigue strength is lowered. The fatigue limit is outstandingly
lowered compared with that in a dry environment.
(2) Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
The type of stress corrosion cracking is either a crystal grain boundary fracture or a transgranular fracture
depending on the material, the stress, and the environment.
The feature of SCC is a delayed fracture under a specific stress, and it can occur under a stress that is only a
fraction of the stress with which a material fracture occurs under a non-corrosive environment.
Under the same corrosive environment, SCC is more likely to occur with higher stress, and with the same
stress, it is more likely to occur to a material with higher strength.
1.5 Erosion
Erosion that occurs to materials used in a steam turbine is mainly caused either by solid particles or by drain
(water droplets).
(1) Erosion by solid particles
Small solid particles of oxidized scale flying in steam from the boiler are in some cases the main cause of
erosion of the nozzles and the rotating blades in the high- and medium-pressure stage. Erosion often occurs
especially to the nozzle plate in the first stage, where stress working on the rotating blades in the first stage is
increased, affecting the reliability of the rotating blades in extreme cases.
In the event that the area of the nozzle throat is increased or the profile of the effective part of a rotating blade
is changed by the influence of erosion, the efficiency of the turbine is reduced.
(2) Drain (wastewater) attack
Erosion occurs mainly to the rotating parts by wastewater produced in the wet area.
283
Typical erosion of this
kind is seen on the rotating blades of the final stage.

In another case, in the event that leakage occurs to a horizontal joint plane inside the wheel casing in a lowpressure section, steam containing wastewater passing through the joint erodes the metal surface in certain cases.
1.6 Softening
The necessary strength and ductility of the materials used for the parts exposed to high temperature are
maintained by heat treatment. However, various mechanical properties related to the strength are deteriorated
due to the effects of temperature and stress caused by operation under high temperature for a long time. One of
these phenomena is softening.
The higher the temperature and the stress, the more conspicuous the softening.
Softening of a material used in a turbine can be detected by measurement of hardness.
1.7 Abrasion
Although the gasket installed between the rotor and stationary parts such as the nozzle is a non-contact type,
light contact between them may occur due to deformation of the wheel casing during a thermal transitional period
such as the start-up of the turbine.
Gaskets are gradually abraded due to light contact resulting in increased leakage of steam between two stages
to cause aged deterioration of efficiency.
Journals of the rotor and bearings can suffer from abrasion and sliding scratches after prolonged operation.
2. Object Components and Areas in a Steam Turbine to be Assessed and Damage to Them
2.1 Object Components and Areas to be Assessed in a Steam Turbine
The rotor, the wheel casing, the rotating and stationary blades, and the main value are the objects of periodic
maintenance and life control because they are the main components of a turbine.
Figure 3.4.3-5 to 9 show the object components and areas of each item of main equipment for which life
assessment must be effected.
An enlarged view of the dummy part

The T-root
type
The dummy groove
The medium-pressure
rotating blades
The mediumpressure rotating

blades
The high-pressure
rotating blades
The place of the tenon

A shroud
The profile
The blade root
A rotor
The center hole
The dummy part
The outside surface
The side entry type

An enlarged view of the blade groove
Figure 3.4.3-5: Object Components and Areas of the High- and Medium-pressure Rotor (reaction type)
for Which Life Assessment Must be Effected
The place of the tenon
A disk
The outside surface
A disk
The profile
The center hole
The blade root

The high-pressure
rotating blades
The dummy part
The medium-pressure
rotating blades
A disk
The dub tail type
Figure 3.4.3-6: Object Components and Areas of the High- and Medium-pressure Rotor (impulse type)
284
The profile
The low-pressure
rotating blades
A disk
The part consecutively

connected by metal parts
one by one
The blade root

The center hole
The outside surface

The side-entry type
The fork type
Figure 3.4.3-7: Object Components and Areas of the Low-pressure Rotor

A corner R portion
A main steam nozzle
A corner R portion
A bolt
The flat
portion
Section A - A
Figure 3.4.3-8: Object Components and Areas of the High-pressure Wheel Casing
A bolt
The valve rod
The valve casing
Figure 3.4.3-9: Object Components and Areas of the Main Valve (Steam-adjusting Valve)
2.2 Use Environment of Main Equipment and Life Consumption Factor

Figure 3.4.3-1 shows causes of damage in components and areas of main equipment of steam turbines.
Among above-mentioned agreed deterioration modes, softening and creep are mainly caused by temperaturerelated factors, so the high-pressure and medium-pressure turbines and the main valve that are subjected to hightemperature and high-pressure steam are assessed.
As low-cycle fatigue occurs due to repeated thermal stress and centrifugal force caused by starting and
stopping of the operation at the power plant, the corner portions where stress concentration occurs are assessed for
the high-temperature and high-pressure, or rotating parts of the equipment.
Corrosion and drain erosion mainly occur in the wet-dry alternating stage and wet stage pf low-pressure
turbines.
Solid particle corrosion caused by materials flying from boilers etc. occurs at the inlet portion of the high
pressure and medium-pressure turbines. In many cases, the first stage nozzle plate is damaged.
285
Abrasion
Softening
Erosion
Corrosion
Embrittlement
Place/Component
Fatigue
Equipment
Creep
Cause of Aged Deterioration
Remaining life
assessment
Table 3.4.3-1: Main Parts of a Steam Turbine and Causes of Damage

Test
UT
MT
PT
VT
The center hole

The high and
medium-pressure
rotor
The blade groove

The disk
The dummy groove
The outside surface
The center hole
The low-pressure
rotor
The blade groove

The disk
The outside surface
The high and

medium-pressure
rotating blades
The low-pressure
rotating blades
The section of the shroud and the tenons

The profile
The blade root portion
The part consecutively connected by metal
parts one by one
The profile
The blade root portion
The nozzle
The profile
The high and

medium-pressure
wheel casing
The corner R portion

The flat portion
The bolt
The valve casing
The main valve
The valve rod

The bolt
UT: Ultrasonic Flaw Detection Test
MT: Magnaflux Flaw Detection Test PT: Penetrant Flaw Detection Test
VT: Visual Inspection
2.3 Example of aged deterioration of the steam turbine

Example of aged deterioration of the steam turbine in terms of four major cases of damage (creep, fatigue,
corrosion, erosion) are described below.
(1) Creep damage to the Tenon for a medium-pressure rotating blade
Photo 3.4.3-1 shows an example of creep damage that occurred to the tenon for a rotating blade near the inlet
of the medium-pressure turbine.
A structure where the top parts of the neighboring rotating blades in the reaction stage are connected in the
peripheral direction by the shrouds is adopted in order to improve the vibration characteristics. Traditionally, the
blades and the shroud were clinched by means of a tenon.
Areas around the inlet of the medium-pressure turbine can become hot, and strong eccentric force works on the
blades and the related parts in these areas because of the wide blade span, then such factors together with stress
concentration on the tenon cause creep cracking.
Photo 3.4.3-1: Creep damage to the Tenon for a medium-pressure rotating blade
286
(2) Fatigue cracking damage to the base part of the high- and medium-pressure disk
Photo 3.4.3-2 shows an example of low-cycle fatigue cracking damage occurring to the base part of the highand medium-pressure rotor due to repeated thermal stress caused by starting and stopping of the turbine.
Thermal stress occurs due to temperature difference between the inside and the surface of the disk. This is
caused by the large heat capacity of the rotor, leading to disagreement in temperature between steam and the
metallic part when the steam is introduced and also to inability of the inside of the disk to follow the rapid
increase in temperature afterwards.
Moreover, since stress concentration occurs around the corner and the groove parts of the rotor surface, plastic
deformation is repeated every time the turbine is started and stopped, leading to accumulated fatigue and finally to
cracking.
Photo 3.4.3-2: Low-cycle fatigue to the base part of the disk

(3) Corrosion fatigue damage to the part of a rotor in which rotating blades are embedded
Photo 3.4.3-3 shows an example of the corrosion fatigue occurring to the part of a low-pressure rotor in which
a rotating blade is embedded.
Impurities or corrosive substances in steam concentrated in the gap between the rotor and the rotating blades
cause corrosion pitting. Starting from a pit, a fatigue crack develops and expands because the fatigue strength of
a material is reduced under a corrosive environment.
A crack
A specimen to be
taken
(The outlet side)
The first hook

The second hook
The third hook
(the inlet side)
The starting point
Photo 3.4.3-3: Corrosion Fatigue of the Part of a Rotor Where Blades are Embedded
(4) Erosion of the nozzle of the first stage (1)
Chipped parts are often found on the first-stage nozzle of the high- and medium-pressure turbine, and Photo
3.4.3-4 shows an example of the chipped part. This is assumed to be caused by oxidized scale that has been
separated from the boiler pipe flying into the turbine and finally crashes into the nozzle at high speed. This
phenomenon is called solid particle erosion (SPE). Since there is concern that the developed erosion would
reduce the internal efficiency and have a bad influence on the first-stage rotating blades, repair needs to be
effected in a timely manner.
Photo 3.4.3-4: Erosion of the Nozzle of the First Stage
3. Techniques for Remaining Life Assessment of a Steam Turbine

3.1 The methods of remaining life assessment
Usually, methods for the remaining life assessment of major materials for steam turbines that have been
operated under high temperature and high pressure for a long time are roughly classified into the following three.
287
(1) Remaining life assessment by a destructive test (direct assessment method)

Among the test methods using destructive tests, one is where the specimens are sampled from the materials of
an actual turbine in service, and another is where the materials thrown away are utilized.
(2) Remaining life assessment by a non-destructive test (direct assessment method)
Conventionally, the main non-destructive tests for periodic inspection include visual inspection (VT), the
penetrant flaw detection test (PT), the magnaflux flaw detection test (MT), and the ultrasonic flaw detection test
(UT).
(3) Remaining life assessment by analytical calculation (indirect assessment method)(2)
The analytical calculation method is an assessment method where damage to the materials (consumed life) and
the time until cracking occurs (remaining life) are calculated based on temperature and stress analysis effected by
means of the finite element method (FEM) or of a kind of simple calculation, the operation history, and the data
on the materials.
3.2 Techniques for remaining life assessment by means of non-destructive inspection

Here, we introduce techniques for remaining life assessment by means of non-destructive inspection in relation
to each kind of damage or aged deterioration.
Table 3.4.3-2 shows examples of remaining life assessment techniques by means of non-destructive inspection
now being applied to actual steam turbines, and an outline of each method is given below.
Table 3.4.3-2: An Example of Techniques for Remaining Life Assessment by a Non-destructive Test
Cause of
Damage
Creep
Fatigue
Embrittlement
Assessment Method
Parameters to be detected
Instruments/Measuring Method
Measurement of hardness
Hardness
A portable hardness tester
Measurement of hardness together

with analytical calculation
Hardness
Measurement of electric resistance
Electric resistance
An electric resistance-measuring
device
By A parameters
Creep void
The replica method
By the average length of the void
Creep void
The replica method
By the area rate of the void
Creep void
The replica method
By the mean area rate of the

carbides
Carbides
The replica method
By comparison of the structures

(Area affected by welding heat)
Voids, Minute cracks, Structural

change, Precipitated substances
The replica method
Measurement of microscopic
cracks
Length of microscopic cracks
The replica method
Measurement of hardness
Hardness
Measurement of hardness together

with analytical calculation
Hardness
Measurement of X-ray diffraction
Half-value width
An X-ray diffraction device
Polarization
Current density
A polarization test device, A smallsize electrolysis cell
Chemical etching
Surface roughness, Intergranular

corrosion cleavage width
A surface roughness tester, The

replica method
3.2.1 Creep damage

(1) A technique by means of hardness measurement
A technique to assess remaining life by means of change in hardness taking place in a long period of operation
under high temperature is widely used because it is easy to carry out and the quantitative accuracy of the
assessment is relatively good. Removal of the surface layer and metallographic tests of the specimen are
effected to avoid unfavorable influence on the surface layer whose quality has changed due to decarburization and
machining. An Equotip hardness tester or a Shore hardness tester is used for field use.
Some methods of assessing remaining life based on the measurement of hardness are explained below.
288
(i) A method by means of measurement of hardness(2) ~ (6)

The hardness of the low-alloy steel for equipment used in steam turbines that is exposed to high temperature
drops due to the change in the metal structure under high temperature (deformation resistance change). This
drop in hardness occurs even with no load as shown in Figure 3.4.3-10 (heating with no load) and is accelerated
by a load being imposed.
Before heated
Vickers hardness (Hv)
Heated material with no load
Temperature
( C)
450
500
550
550
Heated
Materials that
material received creep
with no load
damage
!!
!
!
Materials
that received
creep
damage
[Cr-Mo-V steel]
Figure 3.4.3-10: Relation between the Temperature Time Parameter and Hardness
The hardness test method assesses the creep damage rate by means of the amount or rate of hardness drop
measured in actual steam turbines. Figure 3.4.3-11 shows the relationship between creep damage rate "c and
drop in hardness #Hv (difference in hardness between a material with a load applied and another with no load
applied), and the creep damage rate is obtained from the measurement of hardness making use of the figure.
CrMoV forged iron
Drop in hardness (#Hv)
CrMoV cast iron
Creep damage rate "c (t/tr)

[Cr-Mo-V steel]
Figure 3.4.3-11: Relation between Creep Damage Rate and Drop in Hardness
(ii) A method of using hardness measurement together with analytical calculations (1)
This method assesses the creep damage rate by means of creep rupture characteristics after deterioration that
are obtained from hardness measured in an area that received thermal aging (an area exposed to high temperature
but only to low stress), as well as by means of the analytical calculations. Figure 3.4.3-12 shows the summarized
test results of creep rupture characteristics represented by hardness and temperature time parameters. And creep
rupture characteristics after aged deterioration are obtained from measurement of hardness on actual steam
turbines and the calculation result of temperature and stress by Formula (1) that is induced from the figure.
T(C+logtr)={ ai$(log%)i-1$Hv+ bi$(log%)i-1 ........................................................................... (1)
where tr: Creep rapture time
T: Absolute temperature
C: Material constant
Hv: Vickers hardness
%: Working stress
ai$bi: Approximation constants
289
Stress % (kg/mm2)
(Estimation according
to the formula (1))
Values obtained by
experiments
Temperature time parameter (&10-3)

[Cr-Mo-V steel]
Figure 3.4.3-12: Comparison between Data on Creep Rupture Characteristics Obtained from Experiments and its
Estimation Based on Measured Hardness
Dropped amount of electric resistivity ratio

(#R')
(2) The electric resistance method (3)- (5)

The electric resistance method measures structural change that occurred during operation at high temperature
(cohesion bulkinization of carbides, drop in solid dissolved carbon in the matrix, and some others) by means of
the potential difference method.
Like in the case electric resistance drops even by heating with no load applied, and the drop is accelerated with
stress loaded. That is, the higher the creep damage rate, the greater the drop in electric resistance.
The electric resistance method assesses the creep damage rate by the ratio between the difference in electric
potential measured on actual equipment and the same measured on a specimen that has not been subjected to
deterioration (electric resistivity ratio).
Figure 3.4.3-13 shows the relationship between creep damage rate "c and the dropped amount of the electric
resistivity ratio #R' (difference in electric resistivity between a material with a load applied and the same material
with no load applied), and the creep damage rate is obtained from the measured electric resistance making use of
this figure.
Creep damage rate"c (t/tr)

[Cr-Mo-V steel]
Figure 3.4.3-13: Relation between Creep Damage Rate and Dropped Amount of Electric Resistivity Ratio
(3) The structure-observing method
The structure-observing method is where a metal structure is observed by means of a replica, and the extent of
damage is assessed by the degree of structural change. Since the change in the structure due to creep damage
itself can possibly be grasped, it is an important technique. Concretely speaking, the structure is transferred to a
replica film after the portion of metal to be assessed is polished and etched. The vapor deposition of gold is
applied to the replica, and the replica is observed by a scanning electron microscope.
Figure 3.4.3-14 and Photo 3.4.3-5 show the procedure for picking up of the replica and an example of
observation of a creep void (a cavity), respectively.
290
Photo 3.4.3-5: An Example of an Observed Creep Void by Means of a Replica

(i) The replica
film
A carbide
(ii) Transfer of (iii) Picking up

the structure
the replica
(iv) Vapor deposition of gold

(to give the replica electric conductivity)
A crack or a void
The replica
A metal specimen (polished and etched)
Figure 3.4.3-14: Procedure for Picking up of a Replica

For creep, there is a special feature where at first, formation of a creep void is recognized during the process of
damage and it develops, expands, and combines to become a crack through a microscopic crack. There is a
correlation between the situation of void formation and the creep damage rate.
The following methods are proposed for quantifying the occurrence of a void.
(i) The A parameter method
(ii) The mean length of void method
(iii) The area rate of void method
(iv) The mean area of carbide method
(v) The structure comparison method
The maximum microscopic crack length (mm)
3.2.2 Fatigue Damage

(1) The microscopic crack measurement method (10)(11)
Early in life, many minute cracks appear on the surface of a material that received fatigue damage due to
thermal stress fatigue, and they grow or repeat integration to constitute a major crack. The microscopic crack
measurement method assesses fatigue damage by detection by means of the replica behavior of the growing
microscopic cracks before they become a major crack.
Figure 3.4.3-15 shows the data. These data were obtained by means of a replica that detected the growing
process of minute cracks with a high-temperature, low-cycle fatigue test that was interrupted at each loading
condition.
Loading condition
A material used for 140,000 hours
A virgin material
Fatigue damage rate "f (N/Nf)

[Cr-Mo-V cast iron]
Figure 3.4.3-15: Relation between the Fatigue Damage Rate and the Maximum Microscopic Crack Length
291
(2) A technique by means of hardness measurement

(i) The hardness-measuring method (1)(12)
For high-temperature, low-cycle fatigue, the fatigue damage rate is obtained from the measurement of hardness
making use of the relationship between the rate of the hardness after deterioration against that of the aged material
and the fatigue damage rate.
(ii) The method of using hardness measurement together with analytical calculations (1)(13)
In the same manner as that of the creep damage assessment, this method assesses the fatigue damage rate by
means of the low-cycle fatigue characteristics obtained from the hardness of an area that received thermal aging
(the absolute value of hardness), as well as by means of analytical calculations.
(3) The X-ray diffraction method (1)(14)
Fatigue damage is one of the concerns regarding the bottom of the groove in the periphery of the rotor and
some other portions. However, hardness measurement is difficult because of their narrowness. Therefore, the
mean value width measurement by means of the X-ray diffraction method is applied.
3.2.3 Embrittlement
(1) The polarization method (1)(12)(15)(16)
The polarization method assesses the degree of embrittlement by means of the relationship between the voltage
and the current (polarization curve) appearing when electrolysis is caused in the electrolysis solution using a part
whose embrittlement is to be calculated as the anode, as well as by means of the phenomenon where the natural
electric potential varies according to advancement of embrittlement.
(2) The chemical etching method (17)
The chemical etching method detects advancement of embrittlement by means of measurement of the depth of
the grain boundary corroded groove (roughness and width of the grain boundary groove) to know the amount of
segregation at the phosphorus grain boundary following selective corroding of a certain grain boundary by picric
acid.
3.3 Application of Remaining Life Assessment and an Example of its Verification

Figure 3.4.3-16(4) shows an example of application of remaining life assessment to a rotor in a high-pressure
turbine by non-destructive inspection. The reference part is the peripheral area of the coupling where the
temperature and the stress are low, and the area to be assessed is the part in the first stage of the high-pressure
turbine.
Assessment of a part in the high-pressure area is not always possible because measurement and inspection of
actual equipment is required to effect assessment of the remaining life by means of non-destructive inspection as
shown in Table 3.4.3-2. For example, for a rotor of a high-pressure turbine, assessment of creep damage to the
center hole is necessary, and a device for this purpose has been developed.
Photo 3.4.3-6(1) shows a device to pick up a replica of the center hole of a rotor and measurement of hardness
as an example.
Photo 3.4.3-6: A Device for Remaining Life Assessment of the Rotor Center Hole [MACH-I]
Figure 3.4.3-17(1)(18) shows the result of remaining life assessment of a high- and medium-pressure outer wheel
casing. (The cumulative operation hours is about 160,000 hours, the number of starts and stops is 370, and the
temperature of the part to be assessed is 538 C.)
292
[1]Operation history
Number of starts and stops: 370 Operated time: 161,000 hours Steam temperature: 538 C
Fatigue damage "f
The lower half

The reheated steam
The part to be assessed
The main steam
The part to
be assessed
The zone where

cracks may occur
[2] Result of
the life assessment
Safe zone
Creep damage "c
[3]Observation Result of a Replica
Symbol Mark
Figure 3.4.3-17:
An Example of Actual
Application of Remaining
Life Assessment of a Highand Medium-pressure Outside
Wheel Casing
Observation result by a scanning
electron microscope (SEM)
(&1000)
Inspection Item
Electric resistance
measurement
Hardness measurement
Microscopic crack
measurement
Electric resistance
measurement
Hardness
measurement
Microscopic crack
measurement
Figure 3.4.3-16: An Example of Actual Application

of Remaining Life Assessment of a High-pressure
Rotor by Means of Non-destructive Inspection
It had been predicted that a crack would have occurred at the R portion of the base part of the main steam pipe
and the re-heated steam pipe on the outside surface of the lower wheel casing due to accumulated creep damage.
And a crack that was considered to be the result of the formation and combination of voids was detected during
the inspection carried out the following year.
Figure 3.4.3-18(1)(19) shows the results of a creep rupture test of a specimen taken from a place very near a
corner of the steam chest where accumulation of creep damage was predicted to have reached almost cracking
point and of observation of the creep point of the place under discussion. The specimen was obtained from a
main stop valve (subjected to about 90,000 hours of accumulated operation hours, about 800 starts and stops,
and a temperature of 566 C at the assessed place) dismantled for the study. The creep damage experienced in the
creep rupture test was near to the predicted damage, and the fact that the creep points had already been combined
to make a minute crack verified that the predicted value was correct.
Becoming a microscopic crack
The data of
the R portion of
the steam chest
Formation of a void in the steam
chest
(Combined voids)
(The initial
stage)
The creep
damage rate and
A void is
the creep strain
formed
(an image
on the
replica).
The creep damage rate

[The main stop valve]
Figure 3.4.3-18: Situation of the Creep Damage Rate, the Creep Strain, and the Void
293
3.4.3.2
Heat Exchangers
1. Outline
Various kinds of heat exchangers are used in thermal power plants. In this chapter, we discuss measures for
improvement including a new technology to enhance future reliability of the major types of heat exchangers.
Table 3.4.3-3 shows the main failures that occurred to the condensers, the feed water heaters, the cooling water
coolers, the oil cooler and the gland steam condensers due to their aged deterioration, as well as the content of
improvement and countermeasures. For typical examples among them, causes and their countermeasures are
explained below.
Table 3.4.3-3: Improvements of the Plant Equipment and Countermeasures against Malfunctions
Improvements of such major heat exchanging equipment as the condenser, the feed water heater, the oil cooler, the
cooling water cooler, and the gland steam condenser and countermeasures against major malfunctions
Name of
Equipment
1. Condenser
2. Lowpressure Feed
water Heater
Maintenance, Inspection, Improvement, and Replacement

Item
Purpose
Method of
Inspection
Improvements and Countermeasures
(1) Replacement of the

cooling pipes with new
ones
Prevention of leakage due to aged

deterioration, enhancement of performance
and reliability
ET
Replacement of the cooling pipes with

new ones
Replacement of the cooling pipes with
titanium ones
(2) Improvements of the

base exposed to high
temperature
Reinforcement of temperature-proof
capability (To prevent cracking due to aged
deterioration)
PT
(1) Converting the base to a thermal

sleeve type
(2) Reinforcement of the welded part
(3) Improvements of other

drains and the steam inlet
base
Countermeasures against wall thickness

reduction in the baffle and some others due to
erosion caused by aged deterioration
PT
DI
Increasing the wall thickness of the

eroded part
(4) Total inspection of the

inside of the condenser
body
Inspection as to whether or not erosion,

corrosion, or cracking occurs on the internal
structure due to aged deterioration
VI
PT
Repairing the damaged part

rubber belt expansion joint
with a new one
Maintaining airtightness of the condenser

(Prevention of cracking due to aged
deterioration)
HT
VI
Replacement of the joint with a new

one
(1) Measures to prevent

ammonium attack
steel pipes with new ones
(1) Prevention of ammonium attack

(2) Prevention of erosion due to steam and
drain attack
ET
Replacing the heating pipes with new

stainless pipes
(3) Inspection of the parts

installed inside the body
and the inside of the body
plate
Checking whether or not erosion or wall

thickness reduction occurs
VI
UT
Replacing the set with a new one
(1) Improvement of the structure of the water

chamber
(1) Improvements of the structure of

the water chamber
(a) Adoption of a new welding method
for the pipe end
(b) Increasing the corner R of the
water chamber
(c) Installing a tube-inserted pipe
Totally replacing the existing water
chamber with a new one in which the
above improvements are integrated
(2) Effecting water jet cleaning
(a) Prevention of leakage and sudden gush

from the welded part at the pipe end
Prevention of cracking at the pipe end
PT
(b) Prevention of cracking due to stress

concentration on the corner of the water
chamber
PT
(c) Prevention of the end of the heating pipes

from being eroded
VI
(2) Prevention of scale adhering
VI
4. Oil Cooler

pipe nest with a new one
(2) Modification of the
water chamber
(1) Measures against aged deterioration

(2) Recovering of function and performance
(3) Simplification of maintenance and
inspection
ET
VI
(1) Replacement of the pipe nest with

a new one
(2) Installation of a cover that is to be
tightened by flanged bolts on the water
chamber
5. Cooling
Water Cooler

cooler with a new one
water chamber
(1) Measures against aged deterioration

(2) Recovering of function and performance
(3) Simplification of maintenance and
inspection
ET
VI
(1) Replacement of the cooler with a

new one
(2) Installation of a cover that is to be
tightened by flanged bolts on the water
chamber
6. Gland
Steam
Condenser

blower with a new one
blower to a separately
placed type
(1) Measures against aged deterioration of

the impeller shaft
(2) Measures to prevent vibration of the
blower
VI
(1) Replacement of the blower with a

new one
(2) Installation of the blower in a
separate place
(3) Modification of the distribution
valve located around the blower
3. Highpressure Feed
water Heater
(1) Improvement of the

structure of the water
casing and checking of
inlet attack in the steel
pipes
(2) Adhering of scale to the
steel pipes
Meaning of the acronyms: ET (Eddy Current Flaw Detection Test) PT (Penetrate test) DI (Dimension Inspection) VI (Visual Inspection) HT
(Hardness Test) UT (Ultrasonic Flaw Detection Test)
2.
Technology for Preventative Maintenance and Measures to Strengthen the Deterioration-proof

294
Capability of the Condensers

2.1 Corrosion of the Cooling Pipe
Aluminum-brass pipes have been traditionally used for the cooling pipes of condensers. Inlet attack and
deposit attack (the impingement attack) are corrosive and erosive attacks from the inside of the pipe.
Ammonium attack is a corrosive and erosive attack from the outside. In particular, corrosion and erosion from
the inside, such as deposit attack, can sometime pierce the wall in a short time to cause water leakage.
Such measures as the injection of iron sulfate, electrochemical protection, the injection of chlorine, ball purge,
and counter flow washing are traditionally taken to prevent corrosion and erosion from the inside, but additional
daily elaborate operation control is also important.
A periodical E.T. (eddy current flaw detection test) is effective as preventative maintenance for aluminumbrass pipes. And nowadays, automatic control is adopted to arrange the data of the E.T. in order and to control
the remaining wall thickness.
Recently, there is a tendency to take the safety measure whereby all aluminum-brass pipes of a condenser
already installed are replaced by titanium pipes. The merit is a great reduction in the risk of seawater leakage
and the omission of the E.T. to be effected at periodic inspection and daily maintenance to protect the cooling
pipes. On the other hand, it becomes necessary to shorten the space between the cooling pipe supports as a
vibration-proofing measure so that titanium pipes with thin wall thickness can be used because titanium is
somewhat inferior to aluminum-brass in terms of heat conductivity.
2.2 Cracking in the Hot Nozzle
Hot fluid such as main steam wastewater whose temperature exceeds 400 C flows into the condenser. In
some cases, too much thermal stress occurs in the nozzle into which hot fluid flows due to a big difference in
temperature between the nozzle and the body where the temperature is about 33 C. Table 3.4.3-4 shows
examples of cracking that occurred in the part where the nozzle and the body are welded due to thermal fatigue
caused by repeated heating and cooling under operation in DSS mode.
Table 3.4.3-4 Damage to the Base Portion of the Condenser Exposed to High Temperature and Examples of
Their Countermeasures
Damage situation of the base portion of the condenser exposed to high temperature and examples of the
countermeasures in the shape of the base
No.
Plant
Output
(at the
opening of
the plant)
250 MW
(1967)
250 MW
(1974)
350 MW
(1970)
600 MW
(1973)
Shape of the Base

Operation
Mode
Name of the
Base
Time of
Damage
Occurrence
Damage Situation
DSS
High-pressure Seventeen
Drain
years after
Manifold
the operation
(150 A)
started
A crack of 105 mm in
the body and another
crack of 30 mm in the
nozzle
DSS
MediumTwelve
pressure Drain years after
Manifold
the operation
(100 A)
started
A crack of 115 mm in
the body and another
crack of 70 mm in the
nozzle
At a constant
load
(entered in an
emergency)
At a medium
load
SSR steam
inlet
(150 A)
Turbine Lead
Pipe Drain
Inlet
(50 A)
Meaning of the acronyms: DSS (Daily Start-Stop)
Nineteen
years after A crack of 178 mm in
the operation the body
started
Ten years
after the
operation
started
Three cracks of 80
mm max. length in the
peripheral direction
occurred on the
welded part of the
thermal sleeve and the
body
WSS (Weekly Start-Stop)
Original Shape
Countermeasures
Cracks
(hatched area)
Fillet welding
Cracks
(hatched area)
The thermal sleeve
Fillet welding
Cracks
(hatched area)
Groove
welding
Fillet welding
Cracks
SSR (Steam Seal Regulator)
Cracking can be prevented by the countermeasure where the hot side, the nozzle, and the cold side, the body,
are connected through the thermal sleeve and the point of injection is chosen so that the hot fluid does not point
the body to relieve steepness of the temperature gradient between the nozzle and the body.
295
3.
Technology for Preventative Maintenance and Measures to Strengthen the Deterioration-proof

Capability of the Feed Water Heater
3.1 Inlet Attack of the Steel Pipes
Inlet attack is a phenomenon where the protective film on the inside surface of a pipe is destroyed and eroded
by water flow, and it is often seen in high-pressure feed water heaters whose temperature of feed water is as high
as between 150 C and 200 C. Erosion and corrosion due to the influence of the pH and temperature of the feed
water are the causes besides vortices and too high a velocity of the fluid flow.
= Countermeasures =
Installation of an inserted pipe and a flow-smoothing bell mouth as illustrated in Figure 3.4.3-19 are effective.
Feed water
Feed water
Leakage
An inserted pipe
(SUS304TB)
A flow-smoothing bell mouth
(1.25Cr0.5Mo Steel plate)
An inserted pipe
(SUS304TB)
A flow-smoothing bell mouth
(1.25Cr0.5Mo Steel plate)
Protrusion welding type
Intrusion welding type
Figure 3.4.3-19: An Inserted Pipe and a Flow-smoothing Bell Mouth
3.2 Adhering of Scale on the Inside Wall of a Steel Pipe

In some cases, black consistent scale adheres to the inside wall of the steel pipes and some other places in the
high-pressure feed water heater where steel pipes are used. This scale is iron oxide called magnetite. Too much
magnetite adhered to the surface may lead to damage to the partition in the water chamber due to increased
pressure loss, overload of the BFP, imbalance of the flow of wastewater, and lowered heat conductivity.
= Countermeasures =
Such measures as periodical removal of scale, complete protection against rusting during storing of the unit in
the case of suspension of operation, complete control of water quality when the unit is restarted, etc. can be
countermeasures. Water jet washing and blast washing are usually used for the mechanical removal of the scale,
and acid washing with monoammonium citric acid is used for the chemical removal of the scale. The former is
superior in terms of cost, while the latter is superior in terms of removal performance.
3.3 Drain Attack of the Outside Surface of Steel Pipes

In some cases, steel pipes are attacked by erosion from the outside surface of the pipe, and leakage occurs
around the area near to the inlet of the heated steam flowing into the feed water heater or near the drain. In either
case, high-speed heated steam involves wastewater and blows against the outside surfaces of the front most row of
the pipes so that the erosion gradually penetrates into the inside.
= Countermeasures =
To keep the space between the main body and the row of the pipes so that the local flow speed of heating
steam does not become too fast, adopt an arrangement or location of the nozzle that prevents the heating steam
and the wastewater from interfering with each other. In addition to this measure, utilization of stainless pipes for
two or three outside rows is also effective.
3.4 Ammonium Attack of the Copper Pipes

For a feed water heater in which copper-type alloy pipes such as aluminum-brass pipes are used as heating
steam and the chamber in which the pressure is always negative, the pipes are eroded in some cases near the
area where non-condensed gas is extracted and at the support plate and the pipe plate near to the steam inlet
impact prevention plate where the concentration of ammonium is high.
= Countermeasures =
Replace some of the tubes located where any parts are liable to receive ammonium attack by stainless pipes
that have good corrosion resistance. Such measures as modification of the structure so that gas does not stay
around parts from where non-condensed gas is extracted or a change of operational parameters such as setting of a
vent amount also deserve consideration.
296
3.5 Non-destructive Inspection of the Heating Pipe

Carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminum-brass, monel metal, etc. are used for the heating pipe of the feed water
heater. But the necessary frequency and type of inspection vary according to the material used. The necessity
of inspection is high for carbon steel pipes and brass pipes in order to prevent leakage due to corrosion or erosion
of the heating pipe, while the necessity is low for stainless pipes that are highly corrosion resistant.
On the other hand, austenite stainless and copper alloy material that necessitate less inspection can receive E.T.
contrary to no necessity of inspection because they are non-magnetic materials, while checking of damage to such
ferromagnetic materials such as carbon steel pipes by means of E.T. is not so easy.
The following are inspection techniques to be used for the inspection of carbon steel.
(i) Magnetic saturation eddy current flaw detection method
This is a method where the influence of magnetism is removed in order to improve detection capability by
magnetically saturating part of the heating pipe whose flaw is to be detected.
(ii) The ultrasonic test method
This method can differentiate reduction in the thickness that occurred to the inside of a pipe from that to the
outside, and is used mainly for inspection of reduction in wall thickness using a submerged rotating probe.
(iii) The remote field eddy current flaw detection method
This is an inspection method where a transmission coil and a receiving coil are placed approximately a few
times the pipe diameter apart from each other, where magnetic flux is induced by the transmission coil penetrating
up to the outside surface of the pipe, and where the receiving coil receives the magnetic flux propagated along the
axis of the pipe.
Leakage from the heating pipe can also be checked by the opening angle of the drain valve, the drain level, the
temperature difference of the feed water, and abnormal noise. Although it depends on severity of the damage
suffered, the most popular method is to open the water chamber and install stop plugs in the leaking pipe and other
pipes suffering from the secondary damage. It is recommended to replace the feed water heater as a unit when
plugs are installed in 10% of the pipes. Replacing the heating pipes with stainless ones is also an effective
measure.
3.6 Damage to the Diaphragm in the Cylindrical Water Chamber of the High-pressure Feed Water
Heater
There is a structure where a diaphragm is used to obtain water tightness of the water chamber of the highpressure feed water heater (Figure 3.4.3-20). In this structure, the high pressure in the water chamber is
supported by a water chamber cover made of a thick plate and is sealed by the diaphragm. The diaphragm is not
often damaged.
The outlet for the feedwater
The body
The water chamber cover
The partition
cover
The diaphragm
The heating pipe
The sheer piece

The pipe plate
The water chamber

The inlet for the feedwater
Figure 3.4.3-20: The Structure of the Diaphragm

Since there are more cases nowadays where the welded part at the corner of the pipe plate where the partition
plate is attached and the welded part of the covering plate for the ( hole are cracked (fatigue cracking), it is better
to totally modify it.
297
= Countermeasures =
It is required to replaced the diaphragm every two years taking the DSS mode of operation into consideration.
The old one should not be used but should be replaced it with a new one at such an opportunity as opening of the
water chamber when the old one is broken.
3.7 Erosion of the Inside of the Low-pressure Feed water Heater Body
Reduction in the wall thickness of the parts located inside the heater such as the body plate and the pipesupporting plate due to aged deterioration has often been experienced recently.
A study revealed that the places where reduction in wall thickness had been experienced are those where the
flow of steam is relatively fast in the heater or places where there was movement of wastewater and where erosion
is liable to be induced. This attack is a phenomenon due to erosion and corrosion occurring in a specific
temperature range.
The corrosion speed of an iron or steel material is greatly influenced by the environmental temperature, and
there is a tendency for a material to increase its corrosion speed at a specific temperature. The number of cases
of the phenomenon where plates inside the body of the low-pressure feed water heater are corroded and their wall
thickness is reduced around the above-mentioned temperature range has increased.
= Countermeasures =
Such measures as padding by welding on the area whose wall thickness has been reduced, backing the area by
a metal stripe and/or partially replacing with a newly fabricated part made of SUS material are effected.
4.
Technology for Preventative Maintenance and Measures to the Strengthen Deterioration-proof

Capability of the Deaerator
4.1 Deaerator
(1) Cracking in the hot nozzle
Strong thermal stress is generated in structural members when there is a steep temperature gradient or a big
change in temperature takes place in an area into which hot steam flows (in the case where the temperature of the
fluid itself changes, or in another case where very rapid changes in the temperature like thermal shock take place
due to wastewater flowed into the hot portion). The generated thermal stress may cause fatigue damage when
concentrated at the point of discontinuity and stress concentration is repeated in DSS operation mode
= Countermeasures =
Check whether or not there is any incorporation of wastewater from the upper stream in the piping (e.g., failure
in discharge of the wastewater due to deterioration of the wastewater trap), and take necessary measures to
improve the root of the incorporation if such incorporation exists. Adopt the thermal sleeve-type structure for
the nozzle as shown in Figure 3.4.3-21 in order to relieve the temperature gradient between the piping and the
body-side plate. Also use full welding to avoid the occurrence of stress concentration.
The nozzle
The reinforcement plate
The breast plate

The nozzle
The breast plate
The thermal sleeve
Figure 3.4.3-21: Examples of Modifications to the hot Nozzle of the Deaerator
5.
Remaining Life Assessment of a Heat Exchanger

As for heat exchangers, countermeasures against aged deterioration have traditionally been effected focusing
on preventative maintenance. However techniques for remaining life assessment have recently been developed
and have partly being applied to feed water heaters and deaerators.
Remaining life assessment is carried out by means of theoretical analyses, destructive tests, and nondestructive tests, and utilization of these techniques has altogether improved its accuracy.
298
3.4.3.3
Pump
1.
Preventative Maintenance for Pumps

As for preventative maintenance of pumps, there are two types of pumps. The first one includes such pumps
as the boiler feed water pump and the boiler circulating pump whose life is decided by fatigue under high
temperature and high pressure. The second one is a circulating water pump whose life is decided by seawater
corrosion. Moreover, there are another classification of the condition, that is, whether it is with or without a
spare unit, continuously operated or not, etc. It is important to effect preventative maintenance suitable for each
pump. In this section, the boiler feedwater pump and the circulating water pump are discussed.
2.
Daily Inspection and Periodic Inspection

Scheduled maintenance includes maintenance by means of daily inspection and another one by periodic
inspection to be effected every two years or four years. Tables 3.4.3- 4 to 5 show the items for daily inspection,
and Tables 3.4.3-6 to 7 show the items for periodic inspection. The following points shall be observed when
each pump is inspected.
Table 3.4.3-4: The Content of Daily Maintenance and Inspection of BFP
Operation Record
Discharge pressure/Suction pressure/Amount of feed water/Feed water temperature/r.p.m./Motor

current/Bearing temperature/Lubricating oil temperature/Lubricating oil pressure/Vibration/Temperature of the
returned seal water (for the bushing seal type)/Temperature of the flushing water (for the mechanical seal type)
Inspection Items
Abnormal noise and vibration/Leakage from the piping, the gland and the coupling/Vibration of the small-size
piping/Opening angle of the sealing water control valve/Differential pressure of the strainers
Operation Record
Discharge pressure/Opening angle of the variable blade/Motor bearing temperature/Electric

current/Vibration/Noise/Gland temperature/Differential pressure of the lubricating water strainer
Inspection Items
Abnormal noise and vibration/Leakage from the piping/Abnormal noise and vibration/Leakage from the
gland/Differential pressure of the strainer/Abnormality in the bearing lubricating water
Table 3.4.3-5: The Content of Daily Maintenance and Inspection of CWP
Table 3.4.3-6: The Content of the Inspection on the Periodic Inspection of BFP
Item
The sliding ring
The main shaft
Rotating
Component
The impeller
)
)
)
)
The outer body
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
The inner body

Casing
The radial metals

Bearing
Others
)
)
)
)
)
)
The thrust metals
Content of the Inspection

Clearance
Cracks (P.T. inspection)
Measurement of the bend
Measurement of the dimensions of the gland and the journal
Visual inspection
Corrosion, Abrasion, Fretting, Threads on the shaft, Key way
Dimensions and run-out of the sliding part
Scale
Visual inspection
Cavitation corrosion, Abrasion, Erosion, Dents, Movement
Erosion of the inside surface
Cracks in the stainless padding (P.T. inspection)
Dimensions of the joint part and scratches on the surface
Damage to and abrasion of the threads of the tightening bolts
Erosion of the mating surface
Scale
Damage to the mating surface of the joint to the outer body
Loosening of bolts
Scratches and cracks
Inner body bushing/Erosion of the water extraction pipe/Deformation
Contact
Clearance
A crack in and separation of the padding metal (P.T. inspection)
Abrasion of the thrust shoe and the disk
Damage
Checking of the thrust shoe movement
Checking of the end play of the rotating components
Alignment check after dismantling and assembling
299
Table 3.4.3-7: The Content of the Inspection on the Periodic Inspection of CWP
Item
Content of the Inspection
The main shaft
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
The impeller
(1) Measurement of the outside diameter of the wearing

) Corrosion
) Cracking
) Dents/Contact of the tip of the vane with the liner
) Abrasion of the base of the vane entrance
) Looseness of the key/Contact of the joint part
(3) Cracking in the boss and the base of the vane (P.T.)
The coupling cover

Corrosion (the general part/the flange surface/the portion for the O-ring)
The shaft sleeve

Corrosion (the general part/the joint/the portion for the O-ring)
1. The bearing
(1) Dimensions of the internal diameter

) Deterioration of the rubber
) Boundary separation of the rubber from the shell
2. The shaft case

Corrosion (the spigot joint/the boundary between the case and the shaft shell)
1. The pumping-up
pipe of the
discharging body

Corrosion (the spigot joint on the flange surface/the general part)
2. The stuffing box

Corrosion (the spigot joint on the flange surface/the gasket inserting part/the general
part)
3. The suction bell for

the guide vane
(1) Dimensions of the internal diameter of the liner ring

Corrosion (the shaft case inserting part/the joint portion with the vane entrance tip
and the inner pipe/the spigot joint on the flange surface/the general part)
Rotating
Component
Bearing
Casing
Measurement of the bend

Dimensions of the outside diameter of the bearing sleeve
Dimensions of the gland gasket sliding sleeve
Visual inspection
Corrosion/Cracks/Abrasion/Looseness of the key/Bolt hole
(1) The feed water pump

In some cases, magnetite adhered on the impeller due to poor quality control of the feed water (AVT) may
increase the r.p.m. vibration for the same output. It is necessary to make sure by daily inspection that there are
no changes in tendency regarding discharging pressure, r.p.m., vibration, etc.
Since corrosion problems of the hard chrome plating applied to the wearing occurred due to the quality control
of the feed water (CWT) that was recently introduced, visual inspection of these parts is necessary at each
overhaul.
Note 1. CWT is the acronym for Combined Water Treatment and is a kind of water treatment for boilers
where combined injection of oxygen and ammonium are carried out.
2. AVT is the acronym for All Volatile Treatment (deaeration treatment) where a protective film of
oxide iron (magnetite) is formed with the help of hydrazine under a deaerated condition to lower
the oxygen concentration in the system to the lowest possible minimum in order to make the object
corrosion resistant.
(2) The circulating water pump
In the event that operation of a circulating water pump is suspended for a long time as it is installed, it is
necessary to operate it once a week or once a month to prevent pitting and crevice corrosion.
3.
Measures to Strengthen Deterioration-proof Capability

In the previous section, we discussed preventative maintenance where periodic inspection is expected to
identify deteriorated parts and where necessary parts are repaired or replaced by new ones.
However, the following changes in the situation are now known.
(1) Power plants that are operated in DSS or WSS mode have increased.
(2) The percentage of power plants that have been operated for 20 years or more since their start of
300
operation has increased.

(3) The interval for periodic inspection of pumps has been extended.
So, it is desirable that deterioration-proof capability of the pump itself be extended.
the measures taken by the industries to strengthen deterioration-proof capability.
Table 3.4.3-8 ~ 9 show
Table 3.4.3-8: Measures Taken to Strengthen the Deterioration-proof Capability of the Boiler Feed water Pump at
Hitachi, Ltd.
No.
Phenomenon that
Occurred
Cause
Measures for Improvement
"
Cavitation erosion
Increased operation time in the low flow

rate range due to increased opportunity of
intermediate-load-range operation such as
DSS and WSS
) Padding of a corrosion-resistant metal on the firststage impeller

) Improvement of the shape of the inlet channel and
the first-stage impeller
Increased vibration
Unbalanced force vibration due to locking

of the tooth flank of the gear coupling
caused by a sudden change in the load
) Adoption of a diaphragm coupling with better

flexibility
Increased vibration
Increased operation time outside the

designed flow rate due to increased
opportunity of intermediate-load-range
operation such as DSS and WSS
) Adoption of rotors with high rigidity
Damage to the shaft
Fatigue started from corrosion pitting

caused by deterioration of feed water
quality due to leakage of seawater or a
certain other reason.
) Detailed inspection of the shaft and removal of

corrosion pits
&
Occurrence of selfexcited vibration
Increased clearance due to aged

deterioration
) Adoption of a vibration-damping-type balancing

drum
'
Corrosion damage
to the chrome
plating
Deterioration of the corrosion-proof

environment due to increase in DO in the
feed water caused by CWT operation
) Replacing the current one with the new one to which

improved corrosion-proof chrome plating is applied
) Improvement by adoption of a material not
necessitating chrome plating (adoption of a shaft
without chrome plating/a shaft seal part without
chrome plating)
Damage to the part

where stress was
concentrated
Too much stress due to thermal deformation

of the casing repeatedly working on it when
the turbine is started and stopped
) Replacing the current casing with a new one whose

deterioration-proof capability is strengthened
) Changing the control method to temperature control
from the seal water control to prevent too much cold
water from flowing in
Erosion of the inner

surface of the
discharging nozzle
Erosion corrosion caused by aged

deterioration of the material and developed
under an environment where there is steam
with high-speed flow
) Applying padding of austenite stainless steel after

effecting welding of carbon steel for the repair
301
Table 3.4.3-9: Measures Taken to Strengthen the Deterioration-proof Capability of the Circulating Water Pump at
Hitachi, Ltd.
No.
Phenomenon that
Occurred
Cause
Measures for Improvement
"
Reduction in wall
thickness of the
loose flange due to
corrosion
Crevice corrosion due to seawater

Aged deterioration of the material
) Adoption of a corrosion-proof technique to coat the

inside surface in contact with water with a ripoxy
lining
Corrosion of the
mating surface of
the intermediate
coupling

) Adoption of a technique to prevent seawater from

penetrating by means of epoxy resin putty filled in
the joining surface
A malfunction of
feeding of the seal
water
Abrasion of the
shaft-sealing device
Clogging due to adhering of marine

creatures and accumulation of adult
creatures in the feed water piping and the
feed water channel in the pump
) Adoption of seal-waterless bearings
Corrosion of the
flange surfaces of
the bearing bracket
and the column pipe

) Adoption of a corrosion-proof technique to coat the

inside surface in contact with water and the flange
surface with a ripoxy lining.
&
Corrosion of the
bolts, the nuts, and
some others

) Strengthening corrosion-proof capability by

applying a crevice corrosion inhibitor (RFC)
'
Reduction in wall
thickness due to
corrosion of such
parts as the casing,
the column pipe, etc.

) Effecting a periodic assessment of corrosion by

means of an ultrasonic test
Leakage of oil in the

impeller boss (only
for the circulating
water pump for the
rotating vanes)
Crevice corrosion of the part of the variable

pitch vanes due to seawater
) Neutralizing the possibility of oil leakage by

adopting oil-less bearings for the variable pitch
control mechanism for the vane to eliminate the
necessity of boss oil.
302
4. Assessment Techniques for Equipment

4.1 Assessment Techniques at Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd.
The following are explanations of the assessment techniques for the area of components that are possibly
subject to fatigue taking remaining life assessment of the outer casing as an example to prevent escalation to
secondary damage to other equipment than the boiler feed water pump in the event of failure.
(1) Selection of objects of assessment and assessment methods
They had an experience where cracking occurred to the suction-side gasket seat of the outer casing (Figure
3.4.3-22 () of a turbine unit whose operation had started about 15 years ago when the failure occurred; it was
repaired by welding, and the outer casing was replaced. Welding of stainless padding was carried out on the part
under discussion to strengthen corrosion and erosion resistance. That part was subjected to stress fluctuation
according to starting and stopping of the unit. It was sealed against differential pressure between the suction part
and the discharging part by a gasket, and the thrust force from the inner casing due to differential pressure worked
on that part and caused stress concentration on the corner.
Figure 3.4.3-22: A Structural Drawing of the Feed water Pump of the Mitsubishi MDG 267 Boiler
This life assessment method(Figure 3.4.3-23) is an analytical method, and they are studying the replacement of
the component when cracking due to fatigue has occurred, development afterwards, and when the maximum
allowable depth of a crack has been reached.
FEM
Stress analysis
(Cracking in NDI)
Development of a crack
Max. allowable crack
depth according to the
crack development
curve for stainless steel
Number of Occurrences
of Cracking N
Depth of a Crack
Life assessment
According to the S-N

curves for carbon steel
and stainless steel in
Notification 501
Stress S
Cracking due to fatigue
The max.
allowable depth
Remaining Life
Number of Starts
and Stops N
Predicted future
operation mode
Remaining life
assessment
Figure 3.4.3-23: Remaining Life Assessment Method

Even if such a crack is found in the periodic inspection and repaired by means of welding, its deterioration
resistance capability would not be high enough and cracking would recur and continue its development. For safe
operation of a plant, it is recommended as the measure to strengthen the deterioration-proof capability of the pump
that occurrence of cracking should be deemed the end of its life.
(2) Results of remaining life assessment
The results of this analytical remaining life assessment were analyzed by means of an FEM model. Table
3.4.3-10 shows the results of the assessment in an actual plant. The part under discussion was assessed, and it
was found that it had more than 30 years of remaining life, also taking into consideration the fact that no cracks
had been found in a non-destructive inspection that had been separately carried out for a similar part of the unit.
Table 3.4.3-10: Results of the Life Assessment
303
Part Name
Consumed
Fatigue Life
Remaining Life
1. The corner area

(the suction nozzle side)
4.0%
More than
30 years
2. The corner area

(in the horizontal
direction)
2.5%
More than
30 years
3. The corner area

(on the side opposite to
the suction nozzle)
2.4%
More than
30 years
Name of Portion
The seating surface for the outer

casing suction-side gasket
The suction nozzle
The outer casing

The suction nozzle
Welding
The outer casing
304
3.4.4 Corrosion of Steam Turbines and its Countermeasures

The conditions inside a steam turbine continuously change from high temperature and high pressure to a
pressure lower than atmospheric pressure and low temperature depending on the conditions of steam.
For a recent typical power plant, the steam temperature at the inlet of the turbine is about 540 C to 570 C, the
pressure is about 250 kgf/cm2 and the exhaust gas temperature is about 30 C.
The change in steam conditions agrees with improvement of the materials used for each part of a turbine and
of the turbine structure. Development of heat resistant materials having great strength at high temperature is
indispensable to achieve high efficiency in power generation.
The design of a steam turbine is usually achieved for the high temperature section and the low temperature
section separately. Table 3.4.4-1 shows typical materials used in each section of a steam turbine. Low alloy
steel containing a low percentage of chromium and molybdenum is used for the rotor, the casing, the steam valve
and the tightening bolt all of which are used in the high and medium pressure section. And low alloy steel that
has high tensile strength such as 3.5NiCrMoV steel is used for the low pressure rotor. In this material, chromium
contributes to the oxidation resistance and resistance to the graphitization, and molybdenum contributes to the
high temperature strength. The 12Cr heat resistant steel is used for the rotor, the blade, the nozzle and the bolt all
of which are used in the high and medium pressure section. For the material for the rotor whose temperature
increases to about 580 C, 12Cr steel reinforced with molybdenum and vanadium is used with tantalum and
niobium or nitrogen added and with fine carbide and nitride precipitated. For use in the higher temperature,
strength at the high temperature is improved by the addition of tungsten or molybdenum.
Table 3.4.4-1: Material used in main parts of the thermal turbine
Low pressure turbine
High and Middle pressure turbine
Parts
Representative steel types
The rotor
1Cr-1Mo-1/4V steel
12Cr-Mo-V-Ta-N steel
12Cr-Mo-V-Nb-N steel
12Cr-Mo-V-W-Nb-N steel
The blade
The nozzle
12Cr-Mo-V-W steel
12Cr-Mo-V-Nb-N steel
12Cr steel
Ni-based superalloy
The casing
The steam valve
1Cr-1Mo-V steel
1Cr-0.5~1Mo steel
11/4~21/4Cr-0.5~1Mo steel
12Cr steel
The tightening bolt
1Cr-1Mo-V steel
12Cr-Mo-V-W steel
12Cr-Mo-V- Nb-N steel
Ni-based superalloy
The rotor
3~3.5Ni-Cr-Mo-V steel
The blade
The nozzle
12Cr steel
12Cr-Mo-V steel
12Cr-Ni-Mo-V-N steel
17-4PH
Titanium
The casing
Carbon steel
3.4.4.1
Corrosion in the High Temperature Zone and its Countermeasures
For corrosion in the high temperature zone exceeding 400 C, it is usually only a question of an oxidation
reaction of the target substance with a gas phase substance, and there is no involvement of a liquid phase. In a
thermal power plant, especially for the boiler, this countermeasures for the high temperature corrosion is an
important issue. This phenomenon is related to the decrease of thickness in many cases, therefore, the selection
of materials and setting of corrosion control such as coating are decided from this perspective.
As for the materials for the components of a turbine, problems directly related to the high temperature
corrosion have not often occurred. However, issues to be considered such as sticking of the major valves like the
main steam stop valve caused by products of corrosion deposited on the valves and erosion occurring due to the
flowing in of oxide particles still remain.
High chromium steel such as 12Cr steel is effective to improve corrosion resistance. And hardening of a
material by applying nitride treatment to the material surface and cladding welding of stelite that is a cobalt base
alloy are effective measures to strengthen corrosion resistance too.
305
Erosion is a phenomenon where decrease of thickness occurs due to high speed fluid and the reduction is
accelerated when solid substances included in the fluid abrade the wall. For example, we experienced a
phenomenon whereby the nozzle plate in the control stage at the turbine inlet is eroded by oxide particles. This
phenomenon mainly occurs at the start-up of a turbine, damaging the end part of the steam outlet of the nozzle
finally resulting in lowered turbine efficiency. Boronizaion treatment is one measure to prevent this erosion from
occurring. This treatment diffuses boron(B) applying its vapor deposition to the surface of the material to harden
it.
Figure 3.4.4-1(2) shows the effect of the treatment. This is the data of effectiveness of the boronization
treatment applied to an actual turbine unit. We obtained the result whereby the nozzle plate with a thickness of
80 !m of the treated layer could realize such durability that almost no erosion occurred in an operation even
exceeding 15000 hours. And also another measure is one in which the shape of the nozzle is structurally
changed to enhance erosion resistance.
Erosion Rate (%)
With no treatment
With boronization treatment

(thickness of the surface
layer: 40 !m)
With boronization
treatment (thickness of
the surface layer: 80!m)
Time (h)
Figure 3.4.4-1: Erosion Resistance of the Nozzle Plate with Boronization Treatment
3.4.4.2
Corrosion in a Low Temperature Zone and its Countermeasures
Corrosion in a turbine usually means corrosion under a wet steam environment at 200 C or lower. Corrosion
in this temperature zone includes stress corrosion cracking (SCC), corrosion fatigue, and erosion corrosion. The
SCC and the corrosion fatigue are generally considered to be caused by condensed water in the space between
turbine components where impurities such as Cl- and SO42- contained in steam are dissolved and condensed. In
fact, these types of corrosion often occur around the boundary zone between dry steam and wet steam in a low
pressure turbine.
The SCC is cracking that occurs in a material when corrosion happens under a static tensile stress. This
cracking suddenly causes a brittle fracture, therefore, it presents a serious problem for a structural component.
On the other hand, corrosion fatigue is a rupture of a material when an alternate stress is imposed on a material,
being caused by a phenomenon whereby the fatigue strength is lowered in a corrosive environment. For a low
pressure turbine, it occurs at the base of the blade and in the tenon in some cases.
And in the wet steam zone, erosion occurs in some cases. The erosion is caused in a process such that a water
film formed on the surface of the stationary blade is carried away by steam flow to become droplets and they
crash onto the rearmost rotating blades. Stelite welding or some other measures are applied to the rearmost
rotating blades to prevent this from happening.
3.4.4.2.1 SCC Sensitivity of a Material Used in a Thermal Power Plant
Here, some recent studies on the influence of impurities ions and dissolved oxygen on the SCC of materials
used in a thermal power plant are introduced.
The influence of impurities ions on SCC under an AVT (Volatile Matter Treatment) environment is being
studied. The test conditions were 90 C and pH 9.5 with deairing (7 ppb or lower O2) achieved. Figure 3.4.42(11) shows the results of investigation on the influence of Cl- concentration on the depth of the maximum crack
that occurred in a constant strain SCC test.
306
Max. crack depth (!m)
3.5NiCrMoV steel
12Cr steel
17-4PH steel
Cl- Concentration (ppm)
Figure 3.4.4-2: Influence of Cl- Concentration on Behavior of Various Types of Steel Related to SCC
For the 3.5 NiCrMoV steel, pitting occurs at 100 ppm of a Cl- concentration and SCC with 1000 ppm of a Clconcentration. While, for 12Cr steel and 17-4PH steel, no SCC occurs when Cl- is increased up to 1000 ppm.
SO42- has so little acceleration function compared with Cl- that no SCC occurs when the Cl- concentration is
increased up to 1000 ppm though pitting occurs at the same Cl- concentration. And for Na+, neither pitting nor
SCC occurs up to 1000 ppm of Cl- concentration. However, the SCC occurs both in 12Cr steel and 17-4PH steel
where the concentration is as high as 10% at a temperature of 200 C or higher.
Thus, we show the influence of dissolved oxygen. Figure 3.4.4-3(12) shows the situation in the case of
3.5NiCrMoV steel. This test was conducted in conditions such as a temperature of 90 C, a Cl- concentration of
10 ppm and range of dissolved oxygen concentration between 7 ppb or less and 1.63 ppm. The test results show
that the SCC occurs when the dissolved oxygen concentration exceeds 10 ppb and 10 ppm Cl- concentration.
Our results showed that the SCC sensitivity to the dissolved oxygen has the same tendency as that of the low alloy
steel as shown in Fig. 3.4.4-4(12) in the case of 12Cr steel used in the material for blade, but the speed of crack
development is slow. And the SCC resistance of the 17-4PH steel is more superior than the two types of steel
mentioned above as shown in Fig. 3.4.4-5(12).
1000 hour test

1500 hour test
3000 hour test
5000 hour test
5000 hour test

(320 !m on average)
3000 hour test

1500 hour test
Dissolved oxygen concentration (ppm)
Figure 3.4.4-3: Influence of Dissolved Oxygen Concentration on Behavior of 3.5NiCrMoV Steel Related to SCC
1000 hour test

1500 hour test
3000 hour test
5000 hour test
5000 hour test

(75 !m on average)
3000 hour test
1500 hour test
Figure 3.4.4-4: Influence of Dissolved Oxygen Concentration on Behavior of 12Cr Steel Related to SCC
307
1000 hour test

1500 hour test
3000 hour test
5000 hour test
3000 hour test

5000 hour test
(19.5 !m on average)
1500 hour test
Figure 3.4.4-5: Influence of Dissolved Oxygen Concentration on Behavior of 17-4PH Steel Related to SCC
Number of cycles (N)
3.4.4.2.2 Corrosion Fatigue

Generally, the stronger the corrosiveness of the environment, the more the corrosion fatigue strength of a
material is reduced. For example, the corrosion fatigue strength is reduced with the existence of NaCl, the
corrosiveness becomes more severe in conditions of a smaller pH number and increasing concentration of the
dissolved oxygen(13). As shown in Fig.3.4.4-6(14), there is also a report asserting that the number of cycles at
which a material is broken in the NaCl solution is influenced by temperature and the life is shortest around 150 C.
Temperature ( C)
Figure 3.4.4-6: Influence of Temperature on Corrosion Fatigue in NaCl Aqueous Solution

Recently, the method of feedwater treatment in thermal power plants is being changed to CWT (treatment by
oxygen) from conventional AVT. Some of the power plants have adopted the CWT. Influence of this change in
water treatment to the material of turbine is being investigated and no significant difference in the fatigue strength
of 3.5NiCrMoV steel and 12Cr steel has been found in any conditions of AVT (pH9.5, 7 ppb O2) and CWT (pH8.0,
[I] 50 ppb O2 and [II] 200 ppb O2) according to Fig. 3.4.4-7(15).
12%Cr steel
Stress amplitude (kg/mm2)
Stress amplitude (kg/mm2)
3.5%NiCrMoV steel
Repeated number at which the material is broken
Repeated number at which the material is broken
Figure 3.4.4-7: Influence of Water Treatment Conditions on Corrosion Fatigue Strength
3.4.4.3
Properties of Steam
All the types of corrosion damage explained above are greatly influenced by impurities contained in the steam.
Therefore, it has become a very important issue to completely grasp the properties of the steam quantitatively.
308
3.4.5 Corrosion of Heat Exchangers and Piping of Turbine Systems and its Countermeasures
3.4.5.1
Introduction
The system configuration of a thermal power plant using steam turbines has become more complicated due to
improvement in the steam condition and increase in the capacity of a single unit. Figure 3.4.5-1 shows as an
example the main system diagram(1) of a power plant having steam turbines of the 1000 MW class. The main
facilities of the power plant are classified as follows.
(1) The turbines and generators
(2) The water treatment unit for water for the condenser and feedwater
(3) The condenser unit
(4) The feedwater heater unit
(5) The feedwater pump
(6) The piping unit for each component system
Approximately
3000 tons/h
The boiler
The generator
The high
pressure
turbine
The medium
pressure turbine
The low pressure

turbine (A)
The low pressure

turbine (B)
The condenser
The make-up water
The
condenser
pump
The turbine
The
demineralizer
for the
condenser
The
deaerator
Approximately
280 C
The feedwater heater

The boiler feedwater pump
(1)
Figure 3.4.5-1: Main System Diagram
The drain
pump
Gland steam
condenser
The condensate
booster pump
The feedwater booster pump
of a Power Plant Having Steam Turbines in the 1000 MW Class
Among these main facilities, equipment and components, of which corrosion is one of the main concerns, are
the low pressure turbines, the condenser in the condensing and water feeding system, the deaerator, the feedwater
heater and the piping, all of which are placed under wet conditions during operation of the turbine, is well as other
components and piping that utilize seawater for cooling fluid, all of which handle or use water. In this chapter,
we discuss corrosion occurring in the heat exchanger and the piping for the turbine system and also its
countermeasures.
3.4.5.2
Examples of Corrosion Occurring in the Heat Exchangers and the Piping used in the
Turbine System and its Countermeasures
1
The Heat Exchangers Used in a Power Plant Using Steam Turbines
1.1 The Condenser
Figure 3.4.5-2 shows types of corrosion occurring in the condenser cooling pipes and protective measures
against it(2).
309
The inside
of a pipe
Type of corrosion and leakage
Protective measures
Inlet attack
An electrochemical protection
device
Deposit attack
Formation of a protective film by

the injection of ionized iron
Sand erosion
A chlorine injection device
Abnormal
impingement damage
A ball purge device
Corrosion by polluted
seawater
A counter-flow washing device
A shell remover
Corrosion of and
leakage from a
copper alloy pipe
Inspection of the water intake gate
The outside
of a pipe
Ammonium attack
Change of the material of the

pipes to titanium types
Erosion by
drain
Improvement of the structure
Type of corrosion and leakage
Protective measures
Galvanic
corrosion
The inside
of a pipe
Copper alloy pipes +

titanium pipes
Applying epoxy coating on the

pipe plate
Copper alloy pipes +

titanium pipes
Making the electric potential of

the electrochemical corrosion
protection device appropriate
(-0.45 ~ -0.6V (SCE))
Full-titanium pipes
Reinforcing the water chamber for

which electrochemical corrosion
protection is not provided by the
addition of a rubber lining
Hydrogen
absorption
Corrosion of/
leakage from
a titanium pipe
The outside
of a pipe
Erosion by drain
Improvement of the structure
Figure 3.4.5-2: Corrosion and Leakage of Condenser Cooling Tube and Its Countermeasures
Here in this chapter, we introduce the types of corrosion occurring in the cooling pipes facing the outside
(steam side) and the protective measures.
(1) Ammonium attack of the copper alloy pipes.
Part of the ammonium that is used as a feedwater treatment agent is discharged in the form of non-condensed
gas to the outside of the circulating system through the condenser cooler unit by the air extraction device. The
air cooler and the surrounding area are always exposed to ammonium concentrated in the condensed water and
especially the pipes near the supporting plate along which the condensed water drips down suffer from corrosion.
Photo 3.4.5-1 shows an example of the above mentioned corrosion. The countermeasure is replacement of
the existing pipes by titanium types that have superior corrosion resistance.
Photo 3.4.5-1: An Example of the Ammonium Attack of an Aluminum-brass Pipe

(2) Erosion by Drain (Droplet erosion)
In some cases, droplets accelerated by steam that is discharged from the low pressure turbine collide with a
pipe located outside of the pipe arrangement and erode its outer surface making it resemble a matte finished type(5).
Figure 3.4.5-3, Photo 3.4.5-2 and Photo 3.4.5-3 for example show the position where the erosion occurs and
the condition of an eroded aluminum-brass pipe and of an eroded titanium pipe, respectively. A protective
element and protective pipes are installed for the countermeasures as shown in Figs. 3.4.5-4 and - 5.
310
The low pressure turbine
A group of the
cooling pipes
Eroded
portion
The connecting
body
Eroded portion
The connecting body

The low pressure
feedwater heater
Eroded portion
Eroded portion
Figure 3.4.5-3: Erosion of the Outer Surface of a Condenser Cooling Pipe (at a place where erosion occurs)
Conditions of the outer surface of a cooling pipe

The outer surface
The inner surface
Photo 3.4.5-2: Erosion of an Aluminum-brass Cooling Pipe
Conditions of the outer surface of a cooling pipe

The outer surface
The inner surface
Photo 3.4.5-3: Erosion of a Titanium Cooling Pipe
311
The cross section of

the protection element
The supporting plate
The cooling pipe
protection element
A bundle of pipes
Figure 3.4.5-4: Prevention of Droplet Erosion by Installation of Protection Elements
A bundle of pipes
The protection pipes
Figure 3.4.5-5: Prevention of Droplet Erosion by Installation of Pipes to Protect the Peripheral Portion of the
Bundle of Pipes
1.2 Deaerator
In some cases, the inner surface of the deairing chamber body is partly damaged in a plant where the pH of the
boiler feedwater is smaller than 9.0 and the water includes a relatively large amount of dissolved oxygen. The
area receiving the damage is limited to the area on which the feed water drops from the deairing tray or against
which the dropping water is blown by the influence of heating steam. The cause of the damage is erosion
corrosion caused by the feedwater that drops from the deairing tray, is accelerated by heating steam entering from
the bottom center part of the tray which directly collides with the deairing chamber body. And when there is a
certain distance between the deairing tray and the body wall, erosion corrosion is sometimes caused by free fall of
the feedwater regardless of the existence of the heating steam.
Figure 3.4.5-6 shows an example of the damage. The protective plates made of stainless steel having strong
erosion corrosion resistance are attached to the inner surface of the deairing chamber body as shown in Fig. 3.4.57 to prevent erosion corrosion damage of the deairing chamber body.
Deaerating chamber
The tray
Heating steam
Erosion
Figure 3.4.5-6: Example of Corrosion Inside the Main Body of the Deaerating Chamber
312
The deairing chamber
The tray
Heating steam
Protection plate (SUS304)
Figure 3.4.5-7: An Actual Measure Against Erosion of the Inner Surface of the Deairing Chamber Body
1.3 The Oil Cooler

In most cases, corrosion of the oil cooler actually experienced occurs on the cooling water side of the copper
alloy cooling pipe. Causes of the corrosion are mainly (i) pitting and (ii) stress corrosion cracking.
(i) Pitting
When pitting occurs, it occurs almost evenly along the entire length of the cooling pipe, and the speed of
progression is of such an extent that the pitting pierces the wall with a thickness of approximately 1.2 mm in about
6 months in the fastest case. There is a special tendency whereby pitting is liable to occur more in the cooling
pipes of a spare unit fully filled with water than in the pipes through which water is running.
It is considered that the following combination of factors is the cause of the pitting.
1) The corrosion inhibitor added in the cooling water is not effective in corrosion prevention, or the
concentration of the corrosion inhibitor is insufficient.
2) A corrosion factor exists in the cooling water.
3) Local electric potential difference or difference in the concentration of dissolved oxygen is liable to
occur because the liquid in the pipe has almost no velocity when the operation is suspended (in a
stand-by situation).
4) Dissolved oxygen is consumed by microbes to make the atmosphere anaerobic, and the pipe is
corroded by ionized sulfur produced due to the propagation of sulfate salt reduction bacteria.
(ii) Stress corrosion cracking
On the other hand, there is the fact that a stress corrosion crack starts from a pit and occurs within a limited
area approximately 500 mm apart from the plane including the pipe plate in most cases. This crack advances
towards the outside surface of a pipe from the inside. Photo 3.4.5-4 shows an actual stress corrosion cracking
starting from a pit occurring in an aluminum-brass pipe that is dipped in the water (a sectional photo).
Photo 3.4.5-4: Stress Corrosion Cracking in an Aluminum-brass Pipe Dipped in the Cooling Water.
This is considered to be caused by the following two factors combined.
1) Existence of a corrosive catalyzer in the cooling water (ionized ammonium, ionized sulfur, etc.)
2) Existence of residual stress (those in the raw material itself, generated during the operation or
generated during assembling process)
Prevention of pitting is possible especially for the oil cooler whose operation is suspended (in a stand-by
situation) by providing a fluid speed fast enough (faster than 0.3 m/s) to equalize the difference in the local
concentration of ions that may form a corrosion battery. However, since it is not possible to nullify a corrosive
catalyzer, it is necessary to select and add an appropriate corrosion inhibitor from a practical view point.
As for measures against stress corrosion cracking, firstly, add the most appropriate corrosion inhibitor to
suppress pitting, the starting point of cracking. Secondly, reduce the residual stress in the cooling pipe as much
as possible. For this purpose, improvement of the processing method such as expansion of the cooling pipe and
assembling is important.
313
2
Piping for the Turbine Plant
2.1 The Steam Pipes
The damage to a main steam pipe or a hot reheat steam pipe is creep damage caused by the effect of internal
pressure during the steady operation and erosion and low cycle fatigue damage due to repeated thermal stress
caused by load fluctuation due to start and stop or some other factors.
Places where wall thickness reduction is liable to occur are the main stop valve (MSV), the governing valve
(CV), the lower outlet of the drain valves located before and after the valve seat of the combined stop and control
reheat valve (CRV), the elbows, the caps and the orifices. Leakage due to reduction in the wall thickness was
experienced in these places and components. Figs. 3.4.5-8 and 3.4.5-9 show the location of the damage and the
actual damage to the drain pipe elbows before and after the valve seat of the CRV, and the actual damage to the
main steam lead pipe warming orifice, respectively.
The primary valve
Flow
The secondary valve
Reduction in wall thickness

(The drain pipe before and after the valve seat of the MSV valve)
Figure 3.4.5-8: An Example of Damage to a Drain Pipe Elbow Before and After the Valve Seat of the MSV Valve
From the lead pipe
To the high pressure
casing
The main steam lead pipe

Erosion
To the condenser
Oxidized
powder scale
Erosion
To the condenser
Leakage
Figure 3.4.5-9: An Example of Damage to the Main Steam Lead Pipe Warming Orifice
These types of erosion are caused by the collision of the drain jet and flowing- in of the oxidized scale existing
in the main pipe. The countermeasures are periodic measurement of the wall thickness of the places in the
system where reduction in wall thickness is liable to occur and replacement of those components for which
reduction in wall thickness has been advanced.
And the orifice used to be replaced by one that had a shape more favorable in terms of erosion resistance.
Reduction in weight due to erosion

corrosion (mg/cm2)/14 days
2.2 Pipes of the Condenser and the Feedwater Systems

Damage to the pipes of the condenser and the feedwater systems is reduction in the wall thickness due to
erosion corrosion.
Generally speaking, erosion corrosion is a phenomenon of reduction in wall thickness that is caused by the
interaction of erosion, a mechanical action and corrosion, a chemical action.
Conditions of the fluid (temperature, wetness fraction, pH, dissolved oxygen), flow speed, material properties
and shape of the part are considered to be factors contributing to erosion corrosion.
Figures 3.4.5-10 to 13 show the influence of fluid speed, wetness fraction, content of alloy elements and
temperature on reduction in weight due to erosion corrosion, respectively.
Temperature: 158 C
Wetness fraction: 11%
O2 concentration: 16 ppm
Carbon
steel
Ni-Cr-Cu steel
Cr-Mo steel
Steam speed (m/s)
Figure 3.4.5-10: Influence of Steam Speed on Erosion Corrosion

314

corrosion (mg/cm2)/10 days
Temperature: 171 C
Velocity: 200 m/s
O2 concentration: 16 ppm
Carbon steel
Ni-Cr-Cu steel
Cr-Mo steel
Wetness fraction of steam (%)
Erosion vs. corrosion

advancing speed ratio
Figure 3.4.5-11: Influence of Wetness Fraction of Steam on Erosion Corrosion
Temperature: 150 C
Velocity: 90 m/s
Content of alloy elements (weight %)

corrosion (mg/cm2)
Figure 3.4.5-12: Relation Between Erosion vs. Corrosion Advancing Speed Ratio and Content of Alloy Elements
: Carbon steel
: Cr-Mo steel
Velocity: 90 m/s
O2 concentration:
16 ppm
Steam Temperature ( C)
Figure 3.4.5-13: Influence of Steam Temperature on Erosion Corrosion

In the case of carbon steel, reduction in weight increases in proportion to the square root of the steam speed,
and rapidly increases with wetness fraction up to approximately 7%. But the increase rate in the reduction
becomes very slow even when the wetness fraction increases. And the reduction in wall thickness tends to
decrease with the increase in the amount of alloy elements in the material. In the case of a low alloy steel, the
reduction in wall thickness is not much affected by the wetness fraction or steam speed. As for the influence of
temperature, there is a tendency for the amount of reduction in wall thickness to become its maximum in a certain
range of temperature (around 180 C) and to decrease outside this temperature zone either above or lower. This
phenomenon happens because the major dominant factor is the speed of corrosion action in the temperature zone
lower than the temperature at which the speed of reduction in wall thickness reaches its peak while a protective
film of magnetite (Fe3O4) is formed on the surface of the metal in the higher temperature zone. Difference in the
quality of water need not be considered taking into account the difference in speed of the reduction in wall
thickness occurring in each part because the quality of water is controlled according to the requirement of
standard values separately set for the feedwater heater and the boiler. Therefore, the parameters that cause the
difference in speed of reduction in wall thickness are the temperature and the shape of the channel for fluid. The
places and portions where the reduction in wall thickness and leakage were experienced are bends and branches
where the water temperature was between 150 C and 250 C, the outlet of the booster pump for the boiler
feedwater pump (BFP), the curved pipe at the outlet of the BFP, the outlet of the adjusting valve and the outlet of
the orifice.
Photos 3.4.5-5 and 3.4.5-6 show an actual case of reduction in wall thickness occurring in the outlet of the
booster pump for the boiler feedwater pump (BFP) and also another actual case of that occurring in the curved
pipe at the outlet of the BFP, respectively. Erosion corrosion is prevented by means of periodic measurement of
the components and the portions where the reduction in wall thickness is liable to occur and replacement of the
component by a corrosion resistant material such as a CrMo steel pipe or a stainless steel pipe if the reduction in
wall thickness has already progressed.
315
The BFP connecting pipe
Photo 3.4.5-5: An Example of Reduction in Wall Thickness of the BFP Booster Pump
The high pressure feedwater pipe
Photo 3.4.5-6: An Example of Reduction in Wall Thickness of a Curved Pipe at the Outlet of the Boiler Feedwater
Pump
2.3 Heater Drain Piping

In many cases, damage to the piping in this system is caused by erosion corrosion and the damaged area has
been limited to the lower side of the adjusting valve. It means that conditions of the drain in the drain piping in
terms of pressure and temperature are very near to the saturated temperature and the saturated pressure of the
upper side of the adjusting valve becomes lower than the steam pressure in the lower side of the adjusting valve
due to pressure reduction caused by the throttling effect of the adjusting valve. This creates a situation in the
pipe whereby it is flushed and bubbles are generated in the drain so that flow in the pipe becomes a gas liquid two
phase flow. As a result, reduction in wall thickness occurs in the lower side of the adjusting valve due to
turbulence in the two-phase flow and high speed flow of the drain. Many of the old power plants adopted the
piping design around the adjusting valve as shown in Fig. 3.4.5-14 and experienced a reduction in wall thickness
occurring in a short pipe in the lower side of the adjusting valve. Erosion corrosion is prevented by means of
periodic measurement of the components and the portions where the reduction in wall thickness is liable to occur
and replacement of the component by a corrosion resistant material such as a CrMo steel pipe or a stainless steel
pipe if the reduction in wall thickness has already progressed.
The adjusting valve
The short
pipe
The reducer
The flow direction
Figure 3.4.5-14: The Typical Piping Form Around the Heater Drain Pipe Adjusting Valve
2.4 Control System of Reduction in Wall Thickness in the Piping

Until recently, wall thickness was periodically measured to check the reduction in wall thickness and
experienced engineers assessed and controlled the reduction in wall thickness based on extensive measurement
data on the reduction in wall thickness. However, such manual work on the numerous numerical data has
reached its limitation in terms of efficiency and accuracy. Therefore, a control system of reduction in wall
thickness by means of automation and computerization of the measurement has been developed.
316
3.4.6 Corrosion in the Equipment of the Seawater System and the Piping and its Countermeasures
3.4.6.1
Preface
Seawater is considered to be a typical substance that produces a strong corrosive environment since it contains
large amount of strong corrosive chloride ions and has high electric conductivity. Therefore, the equipment and
the piping used in a seawater system and their components often suffer from noticeable corrosion damage unless
they are used based on specific technologies of each component and material. This report explains these
situations of damage, their features, and countermeasures.
3.4.6.2
Corrosivity in a Seawater Environment
Generally, the temperature, pH, and concentration of dissolved oxygen of clean natural seawater are 20C or
colder, approximately 8, and 5 to 10 ppm, respectively. They are approximately the same level as those of
freshwater.
However, the fact that it includes a concentration of 19,000 ppm of chloride ions, which corrodes metal
surfaces, and its electrical conductivity is 27 !cm (both are 100 times or more those of freshwater) has important
meaning.
In other words, since a layer of rust formed on the material surface becomes porous in the presence of a high
concentration of chloride ions, the corrosion rate of carbon steel, cast iron, and niresist cast iron (austenite Ni cast
iron) in seawater increase approximately linearly (3) when the flow speed increases to 5 to 15 m/s although the
gradients of the speed increase are different from each other. This is decisively different from the behavior of
carbon steel in freshwater where the corrosion rate rapidly decreases due to a delicate film forming with a flow
speed of 1 m/s or faster (2)(4). This is one of the strongest reasons why carbon steel cannot be used for seawater
hydraulic machines and equipment without any surface treatment. However, since some niresist cast iron (type
III) and copper alloys (BC2, BC6, AlBC2, etc.) are low in corrosion rate as well as in flow speed dependency,
these materials show superior corrosion resistance unless they are used in high-speed flow or in polluted seawater
(3)
.
The next fact is that highly concentrated chloride ions electrochemically destroy a passive state film. And
this makes the solution in this area acidic by pitting, hydrolysis of metallic ions dissolved inside the structural
crevice, and concentration of chloride ions. As a result, active dissolution occurs to a metal used as a raw
material like stainless steel and copper alloys and continuously advances so that various kinds of local corrosion
such as pitting, crevice corrosion, selective corrosion, intergranular corrosion, stress corrosion crackling, hydrogen
embrittlement, etc. are caused.
Figure 3.4.6-1 shows an example (5) of the relationship between the corrosion of stainless steel and the
environmental conditions. It may be understood that pitting and stress corrosion cracking that do not easily
occur in freshwater (the concentration of chloride ions is 100 ppm or lower) can occur in low-temperature zones
in solution of richly concentrated chloride ions carried by seawater.
Temperature ("C)
Concentration of C1- of
seawater equivalent
Concentration of C1- (ppm)

O: No corrosion S: rusted
P: Pitting C: Stress corrosion crackling
Figure 3.4.6-1: Each corrosion damages on SUS304 stainless steel in solution of neutral chloride
317
The next fact is that high electric conductivity of seawater has an important influence on the occurrence and
progression of corrosion damage. In other words, corroding action caused by an electrochemical mutual action
called bimetallic corrosion (also called galvanic corrosion) occurs when component and materials that have
different corrosion potential from each other (for example, a noble metal Cu and a base metal Zn) electrically
make contact and are immersed in a solution. This phenomenon is corrosion damage that a base metal dissolves
at first (as a sacrifice) against noble metal (anodic dissolution). In this case, higher electric conductivity means a
longer distance over which an electrochemical mutual action can occur. In seawater, where the affected area is
simply calculated as the square of 100 times that in freshwater, the speed of corrosion damage is accelerated
according to the increase in the affected area.
Therefore, special care is necessary to prevent this galvanic action (selection of materials and design of parts
configuration) in order to decrease corrosion damage to hydraulic machines and some others that consist of
various components and materials (1).
In certain cases, the corrosivity feature of seawater environment works moderately to the same degree as
freshwater does depending on the material used and the environmental conditions. On the other hand, cautious
observation is required because it is not unusual for a new kind of corrosion phenomenon to appear, greatly
increasing the speed of corrosion propagation and often leading to severe corrosion damage when the
environmental conditions change or a particular material is used(6)(7).
3.4.6.3
Corrosion Damage to Various Parts and its Countermeasures
1
Parts Made of Stainless Steel
Figure 3.4.6-2 shows an example of a configuration and materials of parts of a seawater pump(8).
The casing
(Carbon steel coated heavy corrosion control)
rubber bearing
Level of seawater
shaft casing (SUS316)
shaft (SUS316)
shaft sleeve (17-4PH)
impeller (SUS14)
rubber bearing
bell casing (SCS14)
runner ring (17-4PH)
bell mouth
(Cast iron coated heavy corrosion control)
Figure 3.4.6-2: Structure of a Vertical Shaft-type Seawater Pump and Examples of Materials Used in the
Components
Such local corrosion as indicated below likely occurs in seawater that contains a high concentration of chloride
ions although stainless steel is used for various parts as shown in the figure. We explain the corrosion damage
listed below and countermeasures.
(1) Pitting
(2) Crevice corrosion
(3) Selective corrosion along metallographic structure
(4) Intergranular corrosion
(5) Stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement cracking
(6) Cavitation erosion
318
1.1 Pitting Damage and its Countermeasures

Figure 3.4.6-3 shows the relationship between the chemical composition of various kinds of stainless steel that
have been immersed in seawater in Japan for three years and the maximum depth of pitting. It is understood that
the depth of erosion is very thin and that it takes considerable time for a large-sized hydraulic machine made of a
thick plate to be corroded although it depends on the metallographic structure and the alloy composition.
Maximum Pitting Depth (%m)
1 2 3 yr
# type
$ type
Two phase type
304C (color developed)
304HL
Total Research Institute

for Marine Technology
of Suruga Bay
Figure 3.4.6-3: Relation between the Pitting Index of Various Stainless Steels Dipped in Actual Seawater and the
Maximum Pitting Depth
Average Corrosion Rate (mm/y)
Concentration of Hydrogen Sulfide (ppm)
However, it is necessary to be careful when seawater is polluted. Figure 3.4.6-4 (a) and (b) show these
examples. Figure 3.4.6-4 (a) shows that the pitting potential (the critical value of the electric potential to cause
pitting) is reduced by some hundreds of mV and makes the material more liable to be corroded when
concentration of hydrogen sulfide in seawater increases. In the result, the average corrosion rate under this
environment is found to rapidly increase with the increase the concentration of hydrogen sulfide.
SUS316
Seawater
Dissolved oxygen:
Open to atmosphere
pH: 4.8
Pitting Electric Potential (mV vs SCE)
Seawater
50 C
pH: 5.5
Flow speed: 40 m/s
Concentration of Hydrogen Sulfide (ppm)
(a) Relation between Concentration of Hydrogen Sulfide and

Fluid Temperature regarding Pitting Electric Potential
(b) Relation between Concentration of Hydrogen

Sulfide and Average Corrosion Speed
Figure 3.4.6-4: Corrosion Behavior of Stainless Steel in Polluted Seawater Containing Hydrogen Sulfide
Although natural seawater containing such highly concentrated hydrogen sulfide does not actually exist, it
implies that such severe corrosion damage can occur in the event that formation of a local polluting environment
due to attachment and decomposition of marine creatures or a micro-polluting environment due to dissolution of
non-metallic impurities such as MnS in the steel occur.
For parts with thin wall thickness, it is very necessary to use the high-quality steel indicated above. For the
condenser pipes, the two-phase stainless steel SUS329J1 or the recently developed super stainless steel
SUS329J4L is used (12)(13).
319
1.2 Crevice Corrosion Damage and its Countermeasures

Crevice corrosion occurs not by chemical components in the seawater but also crevices that play an important
role in the starting point of the corrosion.
We have experienced crevice corrosion damage from which seawater hydraulic machines have suffered at the
places shown in Figure 3.4.6-5 (14).
Gravity
Crevice corrosion
The
impeller
Crevice
corrosion
Sediment
A bolt
Crevice corrosion
A shaft
Marker paint
Pitting
A shaft
Zone being
washed by
the tide
Figure 3.4.6-5: The places of a Structure Made of Stainless Steel Used for a Seawater Pump Where Pitting
Corrosion Occurred
For the impellers of pumps with a lot of downtime, dust is accumulated at the lower part by the force
of gravity and becomes the starting point of corrosion.
2) For bolts in hollow parts, mats made from marine creatures have accumulated and become the starting
point of corrosion as (1) above.
3) When a part number is written on the shaft by a marker, the ink film becomes a crevice and occurs
crevice corrosion.
4) For pump shafts of pumps with a lot of downtime, corroded pone occurs at the point of a lot of floating
dust floats in the zone of the tide.
In these cases, the degree of corrosion damage is so small as to seldom cause a functional problem even in
long-time operation.
Thus, the occurrence of crevice corrosion strongly depends on the structure of the crevice and existence of
attached substances.
The next matter to be discussed is the influence of environmental conditions on the crevice corrosion shown in
Figure 3.4.6-6. The results indicate that the observed maximum corrosion depth increases according to the
increase in the free surface area as well as the DO concentration, and this increase in the amount of cathode action
around a crevice decides the speed of anode action.
Maximum Crevice Corrosion Depth
(mm)
1)
Concentration of
Dissolved Oxygen
Outside Free Surface Area (cm2)
Figure 3.4.6-6: Relation between the Outside Free Surface Area and the Concentration of Dissolved Oxygen
Influencing the Maximum Depth of Crevice with crevice corrosion of SUS304 Dipped in Seawater
320
This phenomenon explains that structures where the area of the crevice working as the anode is small but the
area of the free surface working as the cathode is large are liable to suffer severe corrosion damage.
The next exhibit is Figure 3.4.6-7 (15) that shows the condition of metal materials related to crevice corrosion.
In the same manner as that of Figure 3.4.6-3, it indicates that an alloy element (here, the content of Mo)
considerably increases the critical creive corrosion temperature. And the fact that the critical crevice corrosion
temperature is lower than that causing pitting by about 40C shall be observed.
Crevice corrosion
Pitting
No crevice
corrosion occurred.
No pitting occurred.
Pitting
Crevice corrosion
occurred.
occurred.
Temperature (C)
Figure 3.4.6-7: Relation between Critical Temperature of pitting and Crevice Corrosion and Mo Content in
Various Stainless Steels
Next, it explains measures to prevent crevice corrosion. As described above, since crevice corrosion damage
is basically relatively light two-dimensional damage and change over time in depth is slow, it is not necessary to
be overly concerned. However, in the event that a thin material is used or in the case of a part whose air (water)
tightness is critical, it is recommended to see that the structure to prevent dust from adhering, that the device of
the structure is designed so as to prevent corrosion damage from concentrating in a limited area, and that the
appropriate operation is carried out.
Regarding the selection of materials, Figures 3.4.6-3 and 3.4.6-7 should be referenced and Table 3.4.6-1 can be
referenced when there is much freedom of material selection. In other words, the crevice corrosion resistance of
stainless steel is ranked as the lowest, thus utilization of niresist cast iron, or copper alloy is effective when full
corrosivity can be sacrificed to a certain extent.
Table 3.4.6-1: Crevice corrosivity of various materials to use for seawater structures
Crevice corrosion resistance
Major materials
No crevice corrosion occurred.
Hastelloy C
Ti*
Inconel 625
Crevice corrosion resistance: Strong
90Cu-10Ni
70Cu-30Ni
Bronze
Crevice corrosion resistance: Medium
Niresist cast iron Cast iron
Crevice corrosion resistance: Weak
Inconel 823
Severe crevice corrosion occurred.
SUS304 13Cr S/S steel

SUS316 Ni-Cr alloy
Brass
Carpenter 20
Carbon steel
Monel
Copper
A paste containing metal zinc grain to prevent crevice corrosion can be available in the market(18).
Application of the paste to crevices in structures can prevent crevice solutions from becoming acidic and can then
suppress crevice corrosion. Also, welding alloy known as prevention of crevice corrosion ressistance.(19).
321
1.3 Selective Corrosion along the Metal Structure and its Countermeasures
First, Photo 3.4.6-1 shows corrosion damage of the threads of a SUS 304 steel bolt and screw used for
seawater hydraulic devices along the non-metallic inclusion. Corrosion dissolution occurs in the shape of many
tunnels along the longitudinal direction of the bolt and the edge is dissolved along Mns non-metallic inclusion.
The longitudinal direction of the bolt
non-metallic
inclusion
(a) Cross-sectional View of a Stainless Steel

Bolt Where Corrosion Occurred
(b) An Enlarged View of Portion (a)
Photo 3.4.6-1: Corrosion Damage on the screw of a SUS 304 Steel Bolt along Non-metallic inclusion
Cumulative Occurrence (%)
Based on this knowledge, in countermeasures against this kind of damage, it is decided not to use bolt
materials produced through too much rolling and to obsreve the S content where possible. As a result, the
occurrence frequency of damage has been reduced.
Next, we explain the relationship between cutting conditions and corrosion resistance.
The difference in corrosion resistance quality between the best stainless steel and the poorest is a 3-digit
number at maximum even if all of them conform to the JIS standards because the conditions of the formation of
machining-induced martensite phase change greatly depending on the alloy composition and the cutting
conditions.
Figure 3.4.6-8 shows the results of tests where a part of a specimen is dipped in actual seawater for 16 months
in total with the content of Cr as well as the content of Ni changed by a few steps within the JIS standard and also
with the cutting conditions variously changed.
Symbol
Material
Cutting Conditions
Corroded Evaluation
Area Ratio
Fair
Excellent
Good
Depth of Pitting (mm)
Figure 3.4.6-8: Advancement of Pitting in SUS 316 Dipped in Seawater with Varying Cutting Conditions
Based on the above-mentioned knowledge and information, it is understood that the corrosion resistance of
stainless steel dipped in seawater cannot always be grasped only by the average chemical composition but is
strongly influenced by minute impurities, metallographic structure, and attached scale (25).
322
1.4 Grain Boundary Corrosion Damage and its Prevention

Photo 3.4.6-2 shows an example of corrosion damage to a welded part of stainless steel. (a) is for cases
where grain boundary corrosion of an area near to the deposited metal and affected by heat resulted in a hollow
being made, and (b) is for cases where priority dissolution of the deposited metal occurred.
Deposited metal
(a) A Hole Made due to Grain Boundary Corrosion of an Area Influenced by Welding Heat and the Surrounding Area
(b) A Hole Made due to Priority Dissolution of the Deposited Metal
Photo:3.4.6-2 Example of corrosion damages of welded part of stainless steel
Weight Reduction due to Corrosion

(g/m2/h)
It is basically important to reduce the influence of heat caused by welding to prevent this damage from
occurring, and using a metal of high quality is not always effective.
Next, information on selective dissolution is presented in Figure 3.4.6-9(29)(30). This figure shows the result of
a test where deposited metal and the base metal of SUS 304 stainless steel were tested in a corrosive environment.
It also shows the fact that the deposited metal is inferior to the base metal over wide conditions of heat treatment
in terms of corrosion resistance. As measures to prevent this damage, cancellation of alloy segregation by resolution treatment at 900C or higher, utilization of hyper-low C steel to prevent sensitization, or prevention of
alloy segregation by using 9% Mo- or N-added steel are considered effective (29)(30).
: Deposited metal
: Base metal
As welded
As received
Two-hour hold
One-hour hold
Temperature of Heat Treatment (C)
Figure 3.4.6-9: Influence of Heat Treatment on Pitting Corrosion Resistance of the Deposited Metal of SUS 304
Steel
323
Apparent Speed of Advancement

of Cracking (mm/h)
1.5 Stress Corrosion Cracking and Hydrogen Embrittlement and Their Prevention
Generally, in our experience, chloride stress corrosion cracking of austenite-group steel does not occur in
seawater at normal temperature.
This material easily cracks due to the rich concentration of magnesium chloride in special seawater
environments where the temperature becomes 60C or higher(33) to (35) or in the event that it is exposed to an
oceanic climate in a dry atmosphere whose relative humidity is as low as 30%(36) to (38).
Next, Figure 3.4.6-10(39) and Figure 3.4.6-11(40) show the hydrogen embrittlement of 17-4 PH steel that is used
for the sliding parts of a seawater pump. According to the information obtained from these figures, cracks occur
to materials whose hardness is more than 320 Hv, and the apparent advancing speed of a crack increases more for
steels of higher hardness.
: Solution treatment at 850C
: Solution treatment at 1050C
Numeral: Cracked specimens/
Total specimens
Material hardness (Hv)
Lowest Critical Stress Expansion

Constant KISCC (kg!f/mm3/2)
Figure 3.4.6-10: Behavior of the Sliding Part Material Made of 17-4 PH Steel Dipped in 3% Saltwater at Room
Temperature Related to Hydrogen Embrittlement
Isolated dipping
When contacted with Zn
Yield strength "Y (kg!f/mm2)
Figure 3.4.6-11: Behavior of 17-4 PH steel Dipped in the 3% Saltwater at Room Temperature Related to
Hydrogen Embrittlement
Crack Sensitivity Index ISCC
Figure 3.4.6-11 shows that a material with higher strength has more crack sensitivity. And crack sensitivity is
higher in the case where the material makes contact with Zn (electrolyted protection) than in the case of isolated
dipping.
Next, Figure 3.4.6-12 shows the influence of environmental conditions on hydrogen embrittlement cracking.
For behavior in this type of cracking, seawater and freshwater are considered to have the same effect. In other
words, pitting at the starting point occurs at first, and then a crack may occur when the dynamic conditions are
satisfied. This point represents a large difference from chloride stress corrosion cracking
Temperature (C)
Figure 3.4.6-12: Influence of environmental conditions on hydrogen embrittlement cracking of high-hardness

324
13Cr stainless steel (Hv=495)

Considering these findings, it is necessary to recognize the risk that hydrogen embrittlement crack can occur to
very hard stainless steel even under mild environmental conditions if it is hardened too much by attaching to much
importance to smooth movement of the part.
1.6 Cavitation Erosion Damage and its Preventive Measures

In some cases, cavitation erosion-corrosion damage may occur to the seawater pump, the valve, and the
piping(42) to (47). This type of damage is caused by cavitation (a cavity filled with vapor of the liquid) appearing
around a minute bubble or particle of dust in the liquid as a nucleus when the static pressure of the fluid boundary
in a high-speed flow drops to a lower value than the saturated vapor pressure. The damage is caused by a highpressure shock wave or a micro-jet formed in a situation where the bubbles are rapidly broken when the flow
speed is reduced or when the flow reaching a high-pressure area crashes strongly into the surface of the material.
The special feature of this damage is the phenomenon where, at the initial stage, countless minute holes are
formed on the surface at a specific place just after the point where the flow direction is suddenly changed (for
example, a place just after the leading edge of a vane), then, a deep part of the material is gradually and selectively
corroded by the so-called inlet effect as time passes. As a result, this corrosion often develops to cause such
severe damage that the surface becomes so rough that it can cut a finger. And it is not unusual that this corrosion
leads to fatigue rupture resulting in serious damage for a long time because a load is repeatedly added even if the
impact force is weak.
The parameters of the fluid dynamics influencing this damage are flow speed (strictly speaking, specific speed),
pressure, and properties of the fluid. Since the intensity of cavitation is in proportion to approximately a fifth to
sixth power of the flow speed, great prudence should be exercised when using a higher fluid speed in a fluid
machine (49) to (52).
Thus, since this kind of damage is complex where both mechanical and chemical actions are involved,
profound knowledge and experience are necessary to ascertain the situation of damage and to decide future
measures to be taken. A careful attitude towards measures to be taken where you record conditions of the facility
and equipment and listen to specialists is required.
Next, we explain countermeasures against cavitation damage. What method you use is a matter of choice
between utilization of fluid dynamics and selection of the material to use. Basically, the former is more effective
(45)(53)
.
On the other hand, the life is extended by a 1-digit number at the most even if a superior material in terms of
durability is used. So, this choice is not very positive. However, since the life can be extended more or less by
remaking a part with a higher-class material (partly plastering a part with such a material) (repeated amendment
can further extend the life), this method is often used. A material with superior cavitation erosion resistance is
also corrosion resistant and strong (54) to (56).
Well-known materials with the highest cavitation erosion resistance include Co base padding alloy (e.g.,
stelite), Ti alloy, the 300 type (e.g., SUS304), precipitation hardening-type stainless steel (e.g., 17-4 PH steel), and
Ni base alloy (e.g., hastelloy 625).
However, since even two types of steel belonging to the same group can be very different in their cavitation
corrosion resistance, the actual choice of material should be conducted very carefully.
Figure 3.4.6-13 shows the cavitation erosion resistance of the materials to be used for the structural
components of hydraulic machines such as the seawater pump (58).
Reduction in weight due to

cavitation erosion (mg/2 h)
Austenite steel as
a deposited metal
Martensite steel
Cast iron
cast iron
Nickel equivalent
Figure 3.4.6-13: Relation between the Amount of Damage due to Cavitation Erosion and Hirayamas Nickel
Equivalent
325
Amount of damage due to cavitation

erosion (mg/2 h)
Figure 3.4.6-13 shows that each curve representing a hardness value of 2~7Cr steel or 13Cr steel shows a
downhill tendency against the Ni equivalent, while each curve representing a hardness value of 18~30Cr-7~20Ni
steel shows a uphill tendency.
This fact makes us recognize that there is a big difference in cavitation erosion resistance among some types of
steel even belonging to the same standard due to even slight differences in their alloy composition.
Therefore, when you engage in the design of an actual hydraulic machine or selection of a material to be used
for repair of damage, you should calculate the nickel equivalent of the material to be used and check the place to
be repaired in the drawing. In some cases, extension of damage life can be expected by a slight change to the
metal composition.
Figure 3.4.6-14 and Figure 3.4.6.15 indicate that it is preferable to choose a material whose strain energy is as
large as possible among types of steel whose corrosion resistance is almost the same.
Hirayamas Ni equivalent
A zone
C zone
B zone
Material hardness just under the surface

subjected to a cavitation erosion test (Hv)
Figure 3.4.6-14: Relation between Amount of Damage due to Cavitation Erosion of18Cr-6Co Stainless Steel and
Hirayamas Ni Equivalent Using the C Content as a Parameter
After the cavitation

erosion test
Before the test
C content (weight %)
Figure 3.4.6-15: Relation between Material Hardness Just under the Surface Subjected to a Cavitation Erosion
Test of 18 Cr-8Ni and 18Cr-6Co Stainless Steel
1.7 Corrosion Fatigue

Material characteristics in terms of fatigue in the atmospheric environment do not have a significant meaning
in the prevention of corrosion fatigue damage or in assessment including characteristics of the material related to
progression of pitting. However, we have not been able to find a common rule through various kinds of
materials. It is evident that tensile strength and fatigue characteristics in the atmospheric environment do not
have a significant meaning in terms of corrosion fatigue strength, and there seems to be no simple and logical
damage prevention.
326
Copper Alloy
Photo 3.4.6-3 shows dezincification corrosion of a part made of brass.
Dezincification
corrosion
Photo 3.4.6-3: Cross-sectional View of Dezincification Corrosion of Brass Part

Table 3.4.6-2 lists the maximum allowable flow speed in a seawater heat exchanger (66). Since the mechanical
strength of the copper alloy surface is weak, it is liable to suffer from erosion damage or impingement attack.
Therefore, the max. service flow speed is approximately 1 m/s or lower for a pure copper pipe and 2 m/s for a
steel alloy pipe.
Table 3.4.6-2: Maximum Flow Speed that can be Used in the Seawater Heat Exchanger Pipe
Max. Flow Speed
(m/s)
Material
Copper
Silicone bronze
Admiral brass
Aluminum brass
90/10 cupro nickel
90/30 cupro nickel
Monel 400
316 steel
Incoloy 825/Carpenter20Cb
Inconel 625/Hastelloy C
Titanium
0.9
0.9
1.5
2.4
3.1
3.6
No limitation to the max. flow speed specified
No limitation to the flow speed specified
No limitation to the flow speed specified
On the other hand, in the case of a stainless steel pipe, since a slow flow speed (1 to 2 m/s or slower) allows
marine creatures to easily accumulate causing local corrosion, a faster flow speed is preferable if pressure loss can
be ignored.
Pitting of a copper alloy pipe used for a seawater heat exchanger can occur when the seawater is polluted (67).
Injection of ferric sulfate (Fe2+) into seawater whose concentration is brought to 0.01 ppm is considered
effective. The mechanism according to which this works is explained as follows. FeOOH that is produced by
oxidization of Fe2+ is attached to the inner surface of the pipe, forming a protective film there (68)(69).
However, the industry has recently been restrained from using this method in some cases from an
environmental protection viewpoint because the seawater is slightly colored when this method is used. And this
method is not very effective when the seawater is polluted (70)(71).
327
3
Heavy Corrosion Protection Coating and the Lining Parts
3.1 Steel Plates to Which Heavy Corrosion Protection Coating is Applied
Table 3.4.6-3 shows examples of causes of corrosion that occurred to parts to which heavy corrosion protection
coating was applied. This table reveals that the damage was caused in various production processes such as
assembly operation, painting operation, design, and maintenance operation.
Table 3.4.6-3: Causes of Corrosion Damage to Parts in a Structure Exposed to a Flowing Seawater Environment to
Which Heavy Corrosion Protection Coating Was Applied and the Their Classification
No.
A-1
-2
B-1
Cause of Damage
Separation of a paint film caused by tightening of bolts or nuts
Separation of a paint film caused by contact and/or impact by a wire rope
Assembling operation
Faulty pretreatment (remaining rust, oil, and/or chalk)
-2
Faulty pretreatment (without Zn-rich primer)
-3
Faulty paint film (too much hardener or solvent)
-4
Improper application interval/inappropriate cure
C-1
Classification
Improper macroscopic shape of the base part
-2
Improper detailed shape of the base part (corner of the end portion)
D-1
Deterioration of a paint film (too a period of irradiation of sunlight)
E-1
Painting of a stainless steel (crevice corrosion)
Painting operation
Design work
Maintenance operation
It is required to choose such a coating material that will not cause problems in each process (for example, a
material with mechanical flexibility) as shown in the Table 3.4.6-3 in the case where the heavy protection coating
under discussion provides a film thickness of hundreds of m. Coal tar epoxy paint that is widely used is
considered to be reasonable from a practical viewpoint (70)(71).
3.2 The Lining Parts

Carbon steel is preferable for the base material.
Sufficient care shall be taken to prevent a faulty operation from being conducted when installation of the
rubber lining is manually conducted.
4. Methods of Corrosion Protection
4.1 Suppression ofGalvanic Corrosion
The most noticeable feature of seawater corrosion is that the seawater environment tends to cause galvanic
corrosion.
This chemical action causing the galvanic corrosion in question not only occurs between different metals but
also between a sensitized part such as a welded part and a sound part, and between a defective part of a paint film
and a sound part of the film.
From this viewpoint, corrosion prevention technology is a technology to minimize galvanic action.
Table 3.4.6-4 is a summary of these methods. In this table, the sections corresponding to A-1 to A3 describe
methods of reducing electrochemical action between the materials, and those corresponding to B-1 to B-3 explain
methods of suppressing corrosion damage even in presence of electrochemical action between the materials.
Detailed explanation is omitted.
328
Table 3.4.6-4: Examples of Methods of Reducing Galvanic Corrosion Damage in a Structure Used in a Seawater
Environment
No.
Method
Description
Actual Case
Isolation of the materials from each

other (by means of a spacer, paint, etc.)
b)
A spacer
a)
Coating
A-1
A-2
Methods of relieving
interaction between
the materials
Use of materials whose potential

difference is small (use of the same
metal)
Provision of a longer distance between
materials (to lessen the potential
gradient)
A-3
Provision of a larger anode/cathode area

ratio (A2/A1)
The combination should be stainless steel/stainless

steel, copper alloy/copper alloy, carbon steel/carbon
steel, etc. (The same grade is preferable.)
Using austenite cast iron
as a washer
A copper
alloy bolt
Carbon steel
b)
a)
A2/A1 = small (wrong)
Stainless steel
Carbon
steel
B-1
B-2
B-3
A2/A1 = large (correct)
Methods of relieving
corrosion damage
even if interaction
exists
Application of paint to the part to be the

cathode
a)
b)
Paint film
Local corrosion
occurs (wrong)
Making the anode material replaceable

(Treating it as an expendable part)
Even corrosion
occurs (correct)
Paint film
Using carbon steel for bolts that are

easy to replace (large-sized ones) and
replacing them from time to time
You should understand that the word corrosion potential series that often appears when discussing galvanic
action just means an order and has no relation to the speed of galvanic action. For example, it is a well-known
fact that if the speeds of consumption of a zinc plate are compared between two cases, one where a zinc plate is
made to contact a stainless plate whose area amount is the same as that of the zinc plate (the potential difference is
1.0 V or less) and the other where the zinc plate is made to contact a carbon steel whose area amount is the same
as that of the zinc plate (the potential difference is 0.5 V or less), the speed of consumption of the zinc plate in the
latter case is faster by as much as 30 times at maximum than the former case.
4.2 The Electrochemical Protection Method
The cathode corrosion prevention method where the surface electric potential is made to be the base potential
is the most popular among electrochemical protection methods in the seawater environment. The anode
corrosion protection method where the surface potential is made to be the passive state potential is not practically
used because this method sometimes dangerously accelerates anode dissolution in crevices in a complex structures.
There is the impressed current method and the galvanic anode protection method (the sacrificial anode
method), but the former is relatively rarely used. For the impressed current method, it is necessary to install an
insoluble electrode (graphite or magnetic iron oxide electrode) at the fluid surface and to connect the lead wires
extended from the outside power source with each part. For this method, it is necessary to devise a special fixing
measure so that the fixed parts do not interfere with the fluid flow. And since corrosion damage to parts that are
made of stainless steel sometimes occurs during suspension of operation (installation, periodic inspection, etc.)
when the flow in the equipment also stops, in some cases, unexpected damage occurs because electricity is not
supplied during these periods. And an inappropriate design may cause overprotection in certain cases, resulting
in separation of the paint film or the lining due to the large amount of hydrogen gas generated at the cathode.
Also, in certain cases, severe corrosion damage may occur due to chlorine gas with strong oxidizing power in
equipment whose valve is left completely closed.
On the other hand, this kind of bad effect seldom occurs in the case of the galvanic anode protection method
because the current amount is relatively small. Aluminum (current efficiency: 80%) or zinc (current efficiency:
95%) rather than iron or steel should be used for the anode to be attached because they are cheaper and their selfelectrode potential is lower than iron or steel (71). Mg, when attached, provides too low an open circuit potential
and lower current efficiency (fast consumption), causing overprotection in certain cases.
It is necessary to periodically replace the anode because the anode is consumed when the galvanic anode
protection method under discussion is used. When a replacement period longer than that of the periodic
inspection is desired, it is important to reduce the value of the [protected area/area of the anode]. However, it
becomes important to pay as much attention as possible to the reliability of the heavy corrosion protection coating
when it is difficult to attach many anodes. You should expect very fast consumption of the anode when a carbon
steel part with a large area is exposed to fast-flowing seawater.
329
3.5 Power Generators

3.5.1 Preventive maintenance of electric and control facilities and remaining life assessment technology
3.5.1.1 Turbine generator
Securing the reliability of the turbine generator is a very important issue from the viewpoint of stable supply of
electricity.
The major reasons are that the percentage of each machine in the system has been increased and the rate of
shutdown of large-capacity generators due to accidents is high in the world. In addition to the increase in the
aged thermal power plants, thermal power plant units can be managed more effectively than before. Middle
management of existing units increased, and strict management of power facilities is obliged, resulting in
acceleration of deterioration.
In order to prevent severe accidents that require long-term shutdown and high cost for repair, improvement
based on various knowledge in the field and careful inspections are required. In addition, even after starting the
operation, it is important to detect accidents at the initial stage by various failure diagnosis methods and take
proper measures for them.
Preventive maintenance and remaining life assessment technology of turbine generators are introduced below.
1.
Maintenance of turbine generators

The repair of turbine generators is generally classified into two: by daily repair, the failure is repaired during
operation or by stopping power generation, and by periodical inspection, power generation is stopped periodically
for a long period of time for inspection and repair. One example of maintenance at periodical inspection is
shown in Table 3.5.1-1.
Table 3.5.1-1: Maintenance of power generator at periodical inspection
Power generator
(1) Stator
Coil, supporter, iron core, precision
inspection
(2) Rotor
Coil end section, fan attachment
section, wedge, slip ring, brush holder
inspection
(3) Bearing
Inspection and maintenance of white
metal
Inspection of insulation plate
Gap measurement
(4) Airway
Cleaning of air filter
(5) Hydrogen gas cooler
Cleaning of tube, water pressure test
Power generator accessories

(1) Stator cooling water device
Replacement of ion-exchange resin
Overhaul of cooling water pump
(2) Hydrogen gas-sealing oil device
Cleaning of tank inside
Overhaul of sealing oil pump and
vacuum pump
Inspection of drying agent of gas drier
2.
Test related to power generator

Measurement of insulation resistance
Hydrogen-sealing oil and rotor-cooling
water device sequence test
Measurement of derivative loss angle
Measurement of bearing insulation
resistance
Gas-sealing test
Aged deterioration and remaining life management

The causes of aged deterioration of the structural parts of turbine generators are generally classified as follows:
(1) Low-cycle fatigue and wear due to increase in the number of starts and stops High-cycle fatigue and
wear due to vibration, etc.
(2) High cycle fatigue and wear due to vibration, etc.
(3) Fatigue and wear due to heat cycle
(4) Deterioration and functional decrease due to long-term operation and changes in the environment
(5) Combination of (1) to (4)
(1) above is caused mainly by elongation due to centrifugal force, and has a large influence on rotor parts.
(2) is the high-cycle fatigue caused by electromagnetic vibration of the iron core and coil. It causes loosening
of the rotor parts and stator parts. When it is combined with other causes, it can cause aged deterioration.
(3) is the deterioration of the coils, insulation materials, or the like that is influenced by the heat cycle due to
changes in load, etc. In addition to this, the causes of deterioration are thermal deterioration due to local
overheating by abnormal operation and changes due to expansion/contraction, following the temperature.
(4) is exactly the aged deterioration. In addition to wear, erosion, and thermal deterioration, it includes
ground sinking of the mount and basis, lowering of functions due to the atmosphere and the environment, etc.
The mechanism of structural and functional aged deterioration of structural parts has almost been clarified.
Periodical inspection and failure diagnosis device are applied to each section. Various strength improvement
measures are taken, and remaining life is estimated from the operation history to improve the reliability.
330
Concerning dielectric breakdown that is peculiar to electric power generators in particular, active studies are
made including the sampling investigation of actual coils.
3. Preventive maintenance and life control of major parts

3.1 Rotor
3.1.1 Prevention of destruction of rotor shaft material
In the rotor shafts that were manufactured before modern advanced production technology and inspection
technology were established, defects in materials such as non-metal or sand most frequently tended to be detected
in the area near the center hole with the highest stress in the shaft.
Recently, internal defects of the rotor shaft can be more reliably detected than before by the new methods
including ultrasonic flaw detection from the center hole and high-sensitive ultrasonic flaw detection from the
surface. The method of judging the possibility of progress of non-metal substances by fracture mechanics
method has advanced a great deal, and deterioration caused by internal defects of the rotor shaft can be prevented
without fail.
Power generators with a large number of starts and stops and power generators that are operated for a long
time are inspected first. Even if it is not started or stopped frequently, if it is operated for 15 years or more or the
total operation hours is 100,000 hours or more, it is desirable to perform non-destruction inspection.
3.1.2 Rotor wedge
There are some types of rotor wedge: high-strength aluminum, magnetic iron, non-magnetic iron, and copper.
They are used depending on their character.
During unbalanced load operation, a dual-frequency current flows on the rotor surface due to the reverse phase
magnetic field on the rotor surface, and the rotor body end might be damaged. If excessive current flows on the
rotor surface, the arc might be stroked when excessive current is transited between the teeth section and wedge
section depending on their contact condition. A trace of electric corrosion remains on the wedge and teeth
section.
If contact between the teeth section and wedge section is uneven due to centrifugal force, circulation current is
concentrated or the teeth are rusted. Even slight rust is significantly increased, resulting in damage to the wedge.
Thermal damage to on the rotor surface due to multi-frequency excessive current is protected by the reverse phase
relay. It must be noted in particular that electric corrosion can occur even in the protection range of the reverse
phase relay because the reverse phase relay protects the rotor from the thermal viewpoint.
The area with a trace of electric corrosion is in the quenched condition, and the hardness is increased and the
extension toughness lowers. Therefore, initial cracks tend to occur at this area, and there is a fear of progress of
cracks starting from here. The electric corrosion trace cannot be detected in non-destructive inspection. The
only detection method is a direct check by sampling of wedges. The wedge damage and inspection concept are
shown in Fig. 3.5.1-1.
331
During production and precision inspection

Check of
properness
Inspection
During
operation
Deterioration of
creep strength
Abnormal operation
Asynchronous
operation
Unbalanced operation
High-frequency
operation
Overexcitation
operation
Excessive speed
operation
Short circuit accident
Re-close operation
Hightemperature
tank
Reverse phase
current
High-frequency
current
Deterioration of
low-cycle fatigue
strength
Accumulation
of starts and
stops
Centrifugal
stress during
operation
Electric
corrosion trace
Cracks
Superimposed
start/stop and
high-temperature
creep
Progress of
cracks
Serious
accident
Periodical nondestructive
inspection
Reverse phase magnetic field
Rotor-rotating direction
Polar surface
Cross slot
Teeth
(iron core)
Wedge
Damper ring
Field coil
Retaining ring
Probe
Wedge
Ultrasonic
Shaft
Wedge
Defect
Coil
Coil slot
Wedge ultrasonic
flaw detector
Fig. 3.5.1-1: Damage to wedge and concept of inspection

In general, it is desirable to perform wedge diagnosis by ultrasonic flaw detection from the rotor surface in the
first year after starting operation and every 4 years. It is also desirable to perform visual inspection by 100%
sampling and precision inspection by dye penetration flaw detection every 8 years. The interval of every 8
years was decided with proper allowance based on the occurrence of cracks in the superimposed test of creep and
fatigue of high-strength aluminum at high temperature and the progress speed in Fig. 3.5.1-2. This is preventive
maintenance with the intention of inspection of the field magnetic coil by pulling the retaining ring along with
wedge sampling. This creep crack progress speed should be controlled yearly regardless of the operation mode
because static creep, depending on the operation hours, is dominant in the high-temperature field, and dependence
on the number of starts and stops is low. In the low-temperature field, the rate of starts and stops is dominant,
and closer inspection of DSS machines is desirable.
(DSS operation)
(Continuous operation)
Fig. 3.5.1-2: Crack progress speed of high-strength aluminum alloy wedge

Knowledge on the progress of creep cracks is valuable data obtained in the wake of total-loss accidents of
turbines and power generators due to damage and splash of the wedge of the industrial power generators in the
332
1970s.
In the remaining life evaluation, the presence of thermal influence is checked by confirming wedge hardness.
Defects are detected by ultrasonic flaw detection or magnetic powder flaw detection. The crack size is evaluated
by the superimposed creep and fatigue from the actual stress.
3.1.3 Retaining ring

The retaining ring holds the end section of the field magnetic coil from centrifugal force. For electromagnetic
reasons, the ring must be nonmagnetic and highly durable. Austenitic steel is normally selected. It is attached
to the rotor shaft end by shrink fit. Stress functions even in the static state, and centrifugal stress is added during
operation. That is, it must be noted that tensile stress is always produced even while operation is stopped.
Many ring fracture accidents have been reported including one accident in Germany, one in Sweden, and one in
Denmark. The cause is estimated to be SCC (stress corrosion cracks).
If the retaining ring is not handled properly during installation or periodical inspection and dewing occurs or
leak water is accumulated in the ring, it is dangerous for this material, and special attention is required.
Recently, extremely severe SCC cracks were detected at the periodical inspection of industrial machines in
Japan as shown in Fig. 3.5.1-3. The progress of cracks by approx. 10 mm was confirmed over 3 years.
SCC crack depth (mm)
Periodical inspection
Retaining ring
External UT External PT
No defects
Periodical inspection
Retaining ring
Eternal SCC found
Internal SCC defect depth about 10mm
3 years
SCC progress speed 2.5~3.3 mm/year
Inspection history and SCC progress condition
After removing 6 mm
SCC defects during deletion
Fig. 3.5.1-3: Example of SCC of domestic industrial machine

As preventive maintenance, in the same way as the wedge, ultrasonic flaw detection from the external surface
is used at periodical inspection, and the entire surface is dyed for flaw detection when the ring is pulled at
precision inspection.
SCC in the retaining ring occurred because it was exposed to a wet atmosphere. It is important to keep the
gas temperature in the machine above the dew point while the machine is stopped for a long period of time, and to
take moisture-proof measures of the retaining ring during open inspection. Dewing can be prevented by keeping
the retaining ring temperature higher than the ambient temperature by several degrees. The hot air-type heater,
heater, or lamp irradiation is effective.
Exchanging the retaining ring of the hydrogen-cooling device with a rotor of a large diameter is promoted. It
is also necessary to exchange the air-cooling-type power generator or exciter of small capacity promptly.
Because the retaining ring has the maximum stress among turbine power generator rotors, it is necessary to
confirm that there are no cracks by the above-mentioned periodical precision inspection even if the material is
18Mn18Cr that has overcome the problems of SCC.
3.1.4 Cutting of polar connection conductor

As shown in Fig. 3.5.1-4~6, the polar connection conductor is integrated in the retaining ring that is displaced
in the radius direction due to centrifugal force. It repeats extension and contraction, following the swelling of the
retaining ring for starts and stops, and fatigue cracks might occur.
It is necessary to confirm the progress of occurrence and deformation of fatigue cracks by a fiber scope and
mirror at periodical inspection and to take proper measures.
333
Retaining ring
Insulation
cylinder
Polar connection
conductor
section
Lead conductor
Rotating span
Rotor shaft
Stopped span
Polar connection conductor
Retaining ring
Insulation cylinder
Fig. 3.5.1-4: Example of structure of polar connection conductor and behavior

#6 coil
#7 coil
Retaining ring
(Insulation cylinder side)
#7 coil
#6 coil
(The coil quantity is indicated.)

Crack
Rotor shaft side

Polar connection conductor
(Note) 1. The odd-number coil (#5, 7 coil)

passes on the retaining side.
2. The even-number coil (#6, 8)
passes on the rotor shaft side.
[Example of #7 coil]
Fig. 3.5.1-5 Example of damage to polar connection conductor
Insulation
Centering ring
Polarity crossing
Retaining ring
Rotor coil
Polarity crossing
Flexible section
Shape of polarity crossing
Fig. 3.5.1-6: Example of polarity connection conductor structure
3.1.5 Rotor coil

(1) Copper powder
In the power generator that directly cools the rotor coil by cooling gas (hydrogen), the contact surface between
two coil conductors in the same turn becomes rough like pear skin.
As shown in Fig. 3.5.1-7, there is a gap between the slot and the coil in the width direction and vertical
direction due to coil assembly. The coil moves laterally and vertically in the slot at low-speed turning. In this
case, copper powder is generated due to relative sliding between the same turns of multiple coils.
334
Double-coil copper band
Connection between coppers
Coil of taper section
Coil of parallel section

Slot
Gap at slot assembly launching

Low-speed turning
No centrifugal force
Movement of
coil in slot during
low-speed
turning
Hydrogen gas atmosphere (No oxygen)

Movement of coil in slot due to own weight
Wear between copper bands
Surface roughness
Copper powder
Fig. 3.5.1-7: Mechanism of generation of copper powder

If copper powder accumulates in the slot, there is a possibility of short circuit or earth fault as shown in Fig.
3.5.1-8. Some accidents have been reported in the U.S. Because the copper powder increases along with the
increase in the turning time, it is necessary to clean it at an early stage. Countermeasures include the method of
fixing layers by dot brazing by eliminating relative sliding in the same turn consisting of multiple coils and the
method of inserting an insulation sheet between conductors.
Rotor wedge
Clippage block
Short circuit between coils
(if failure also occurs in other slots)
Rotor grounding
Rotor coil (Same turn)
Layer short circuit
Slot insulation
Turn insulation
Fig. 3.5.1-8: Failure of rotor due to copper powder

(2) End turn
It is necessary to check the rotor coil under the retaining ring periodically using a fiber scope or mirror to see
that there is no thermal elongation during operation or deformation due to starts and stops. It is also necessary to
check clogging of the vent hole of the cooling gas of the direct cooling machine as well as the clogging of the
cooling hole of the straight section.
3.1.6 Insulation of rotor coil

(1) Other insulators
Other insulators include the following: layer insulation between coil conductors, lining plate for reinforcing
the slot insulation under the slot insulation, and insulating block between the rotor coils under the retaining ring
for preventing coil deformation due to thermal elongation during operation and start/stop.
At periodical inspection, it is necessary to inspect the dropping of blocks and the positions of the layer
insulation and lining plate, using the fiber scope and mirror under the retaining ring.
3.1.7 Field magnetic coil lead
The rotor coil has a lead conductor for connection from #1 coil, and is fixed by the wedge in the same way as
the field magnetic coil.
The lead conductor is connected to the terminal stud and connected to the collector ring via the center hole
conductor. There are two types of lead conductors: one is the solid type consisting of an integrated conductor,
and the other is the flexible type consisting of thin layers of copper plates.
It is necessary to inspect the lead conductor rise section periodically because it repeats the movement,
following swelling of the retaining ring when the unit starts and stops.
(1) Flexible type
Because of the structure, the flexible type in Fig. 3.5.1-9 is inspected from below the retaining ring for damage
335
to the insulator and deformation of the conductor without disassembling the lead wedge.
Coil
Retaining ring
Centering ring
Inspection
Insulation plate
Lead wedge
Lead conductor
(Flexible)
Fig. 3.5.1-9: Flexible-type field magnetic coil lead

The soundness of the lead wedge is confirmed by the ultrasonic flaw detection test in which the lead wedge is
inserted to the rotor shaft and, if possible, by magnetic powder flaw detection inspection after the lead wedge is
pulled out.
Recently, the flexible type has been replaced with and improved to the solid type for improving reliability and
for facilitating and securing inspection.
(2) Solid type
In the case of the solid type in Fig. 3.5.1-10, the lead wedge is disassembled, and the lead conductor rise and
bending section (R) are inspected. Soundness is confirmed by visual inspection using a fiber scope and liquid
penetration flaw detection test. The soundness of the pulled lead wedge is confirmed by the liquid penetration
flaw detection test or magnetic powder flaw detection test.
#1 coil
Retaining ring
Centering ring
Fan boss
Inspection
Lead conductor
rise section
Lead conductor
(Solid)
Fiber scope
Terminal stud
Fig. 3.5.1-10: Solid-type field magnetic coil lead
3.2 Stator
3.2.1 Transition in insulation method
The capacity of the turbine power generator has been increased and the size has been reduced mainly by
improvement of the cooling method and development of the insulation system. Stator coil insulation of the
rotating electric machines including the turbine generator mainly consists of mica with superior corona resistance
and impregnated resin for holding the mica.
As shown in Fig. 3.5.1-11, the impregnated resin of natural resin (shellac resin, asphalt compound, etc.) was
used. Along with development of synthetic resin with superior heat resistance, polyester resin and epoxy resin
came to be used. Polyester resin has been used from the middle of the 1950s, and epoxy resin has been used
from the late 1950s.
No.
!
"
#
$
Mica base
Flake mica
Flake mica and
laminated mica
Laminated mica
Impregnated resin
Natural resin
Polyester resin
Epoxy resin
Year
Fig. 3.5.1-11: Transition in insulator

Because the characteristics of polyester resin are lower than those of epoxy resin, epoxy resin is mainly used
recently.
Flake mica was used as mica base at first. Laminated mica (crushed flake mica) has been used from the early
336
1960s. At present, flake mica and laminated mica are used depending on the voltage level, coil dimension, etc.
Because it has become difficult to obtain flake mica of good quality recently, the use of insulation systems with
laminated mica is increasing.
It is necessary to eliminate the void in the insulation layers of the stator coil to the extent for the prevention of
corona. For this purpose, impregnated resin is used. The resin impregnation method is generally classified into
two: the vacuum pressure method (VPI method), and the resin-rich method. The vacuum pressure method of
the coil was used for synthetic resin mica insulation at first. In the middle of the 1960s, the resin-rich method
came into practical use. In this method, semi-cured mica tape is used, and an insulation layer is formed by
pressurization and heating after taping. At present, both the vacuum pressure method and resin-rich method are
used depending on the voltage level, power generator dimension, or the production facilities of the maker.
3.2.2 Mechanism of dielectric breakdown

The causes of deterioration of the stator coil insulation are generally classified as follows: (i) heat (ii)
electricity (iii) machine (iv) environment. Figure 3.5.1-12 shows the deterioration process of the stator coil
insulation(7). Because the impregnated resin of natural resin has plastic elasticity, heat deterioration such as
softening, flow-out, and sublimation progress, resulting in voiding and peeling. It generally leads to dielectric
breakdown due to partial discharge.
Thermal deterioration
Void and peeling due to

softening, flow-out,
sublimation, etc. of
impregnated resin caused
by temperature increase
Mechanical deterioration
Void and peeling due to

thermal/mechanical stress
by heat cycle including
start/stop and load change
Erosion and void increase

due to partial discharge
Dielectric
breakdown
Regular voltage
Peeling and cracks due to

electromagnetic vibration
Electric deterioration
Surge voltage
Regular voltage
Environmental deterioration
Tracking due to increase

in leak current
Deterioration of insulation
resistance due to moisture
absorption and pollution
Fig. 3.5.1-12: Deterioration process of stator coil insulation

On the other hand, the synthetic resin insulation that has been used recently has high heat resistance, and the
influence of heat deterioration is small. However, as shown in Fig. 3.5.1-13, voiding and peeling occur mainly in
the insulation layer due to the compound effect of the mechanical stress in the heat cycle along with the change in
load, starts and stops. In the operation after that, voiding and peeling grow and progress and partial discharge
occurs, resulting in dielectric breakdown(7).
Main insulation
layer
Wire
Tape layer
Void
Peeling
Wire insulation
Fig. 3.5.1-13: Deterioration of insulation layer

In addition to the above-mentioned dielectric breakdown in the main insulation layer, in the case of the
synthetic resin insulation, damage (vibration spark) to the coil surface is reported. The mechanism of occurrence
of vibration sparks is as follows.
Because the synthetic resin insulation has the characteristics of heat contraction over time, the coil is loosened
and the coil is vibrated by the magnetic force. On the other hand, a low-resistance shield is applied on the coil
surface to prevent surface corona. Almost the same voltage as the coil occurs in this low-resistance shield.
Along with coil vibration, the contact point on the coil surface and iron core moves and partial discharge
(vibration spark) occurs on the coil surface, resulting in damage to the coil surface.
To prevent these, a liner with a spring function is inserted for absorbing the heat contraction of the coil and
337
wedge.
edge. Inspection of wedge looseness at periodical inspection and re-insertion of the wedge, if necessary, are
also effective measures to prevent these phenomena.
3.2.3 Dielectric breakdown diagnosis technology

The diagnosis method of dielectric breakdown is generally classified into the visual inspection and electric
insulation characteristics test. Visual inspection is very important in general. Damage, cracks, peeling,
discoloration, and wear on the insulation are checked. The electric insulation characteristics test(8) in Table 3.5.12 is currently executed.
Table 3.5.1-2: Nondestructive test items (Typical example)
No.
Item
Contents
Measurement of insulation resistance
Megger
Direct absorption test
PI: Megger (1 min., 10 min.)
Alternative current test
Dielectric tangent test
AC
Applied voltage (kV)
Applied voltage (kV)
Partial discharge test
Partial discharge superimposition

Applied voltage
waveform
Qmax = Max. discharge charge amount

(Note) 2I: Average deterioration
Qmax: Local deterioration
(1) Measurement of insulation resistance

Insulation resistance is measured using a simplified insulation resistance gauge called megger. Degradation
of insulation resistance due to absorption and pollution on the insulation layer surface is checked to estimate the
tendency of dielectric breakdown. 1000 V mega is usually used.
(2) Direct current absorption test
Leak current on the insulation layer is measured 1 minute and 10 minutes after DC high voltage is applied.
Insulation performance, absorption, and pollution on the insulation layer, in particular, are judged.
(3) AC test
The current-voltage characteristics when AC voltage is applied change depending on absorption, pollution,
dielectric breakdown, and partial discharge. Insulation properties are estimated from these characteristics.
(4) Dielectric tangent test
This is called the tan! test in general. If void discharge occurs in the insulation layer, the discharge current
is added and the tan! value becomes larger. In general, the increase ("tan!) from the tan! value at 2 kV
(expressed as tan!0 in general) indicates the relative void discharge amount.
(5) Partial discharge test
By measuring partial discharge pulses directly, generation and progress of voids in the insulation layers are
checked and deterioration progress is estimated. Other deterioration diagnosis methods that are put into practical
use and tried are as follows. In partial discharge diagnosis, slot discharge between the coil surface and slot wall
during operation is detected and the insulation layer condition is judged. By analysis of the chemical substances
in the machine, abnormal heating in the power generator during operation is judged.
3.2.4 Dielectric breakdown judgment standard

For judgment of dielectric breakdown, the deterioration characteristics values including "tan! and Qmax
obtained in the above-mentioned nondestructive test are summed up and judged. The list of standards that are
proposed or practically used as the deterioration judgment standard is shown in Table 3.5.1-3(9). If it is estimated
that the dielectric breakdown voltage is (2E+1) kV or (2E+3) kV or more according to each nondestructive
characteristics value, it is regarded that the machine has the insulation resistance required for operation.
338
Table 3.5.1-3: List of dielectric breakdown judgment standards of wires on high-pressure rotating machine
Company name
Diagnosed rotating
machine
6.6~11 kV
Power generator
#11 kV
Power generator
#11 kV
Power generator
#11 kV
Power generator
#11 kV
Power generator
11 kV
Power generator
11 kV
Power generator
11 kV
Power generator
<12
NG
<12
NG
Insulation resistance R1
(M$)
Polarization index
(PI=R10/R1)
#1.5
OK
#1.5
OK
tan!0 (%) at 2 kV
(6.6 kV: at 1 kV)
#1.5
OK
%10
OK
at 1.25E/ 3
#1.5
at E
#2.0
OK
#2.0
OK
%2.0
0.3~3
OK
%10
OK
%1.0
Caution
needed
NG
#2.5
NG
#2.5
NG
%2.5
OK
Caution
needed
NG
Caution
needed
#6.5
NG
>6.5
NG
at 1.25E/ 3
#5
NG
>5
NG
at E
#12
NG
>12
NG
#10,000
Caution
needed
NG
#6.5
"tan!+"C/C0 (%) at E
<12
#1.5
OK
#0.8
Caution
needed
NG
<10,000
#1.5
OK
#10,000
at E/ 3
OK
#30,000
qmax
(pC)
OK
#2.5
"tan!
(%)
"1
(%)
#1.5
Caution
needed
NG
#10,000
#30,000
Caution
needed
NG
#30,000
<5
OK
<10,000
OK
#10,000
>10,000
at 1.25E/ 3
NG
#30,000
at E
Nq
qmax
#22,000
NG
#2.0
#30,000
at 1.25E/ 3
Insulation resistance
required for operation
2E+1 kV
Caution
needed
NG
2E+3 kV
Surface
discharge is
dominant.
2E+1 kV
2E+1 kV
339
2E+1 kV
2E+1 kV
2E+1 kV
2E+3 kV
3.2.5 Remaining life evaluation method

There are varieties of models and ratings of power generators. The operation conditions including
management methods, start/stop frequency, and operation hours are also diverse. There are various
nondestructive remaining life estimation methods considering these, and examples of applications are shown in
Table 3.5.1-4(9).
Table 3.5.1-4: Example of application of estimation of remaining life of power generator stator coil
[Nondestructive method]
Estimation method
Operation history method
Method
Outline
NY map
Obtained from operation hours and number of
start/stop times
Operation condition
Equivalent operation time
Insulation diagnosis method
D map
Obtained from discharge parameter " and max.

discharge charge amount
Max. discharge charge amount
Obtained from max. discharge charge amount
Nondestructive electric test
Obtained from each test amount of AC,

dielectric tangent, and partial discharge
(1) Method for estimation from operation history

[1] Remaining life estimation method by NY map
Among the causes of dielectric breakdown, the influences of electric deterioration, heat deterioration, and heat
cycle deterioration are particularly large. In actual machines, these causes of deterioration are combined. That
is, the dielectric breakdown voltage rate is expressed as a product of each deterioration cause, and can be
estimated from the number of start/stop times (N) and operation years (Y). Thus, it is called the NY map
method. The NY map average is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-14. The minimum value is obtained from (x-3&). The
vertical axis is expressed as the number of equivalent starts/stops. It indicates the influence of changes in load or
ineffective electricity on heat cycle fatigue converted to the equivalent number of starts/stops by using the minor
rule. The number of equivalent starts/stops NE can be obtained by the following formula:
NE/N10 = (N1/N10) ' (N2/N20) ' (N3/N30)
Here,
NE: Number of equivalent starts/stops N1: Number of starts/stops
N2: Number of load changes N3: Number of ineffective electricity changes
N10: Amount of life by starts/stops
N20: Amount of life by load change
N30: Amount of life by ineffective electricity change
Equivalent start/stop times
NBEB (times)
Average of remaining breakdown voltage

(%)
Operation hours Y (h)

(NY map average)
Fig. 3.5.1-14: Average epoxy insulation life curve

[2] Remaining life estimation method by operation condition
The stator coil is sampled from the power generator with the polyester insulation coil that is operated for a
long period of time. Based on the investigation result of the dielectric breakdown voltage, the breakdown
voltage is obtained from the number of starts/stops and operation hours in the multiple regression formula. In
this case, the degree of influence of dielectric breakdown causes are not classified. However, the formula is
applied as the life evaluation formula of the stator coil because this is the sampling result of actual coils, and the
multiple correlation coefficient is high and the inspection result is significant.
The life curve of the 99.9% reliability lower limit that is obtained from this life evaluation formula is shown in
Fig. 3.5.1-15.
340
Number of starts/stops X1
((10P3P times)
Remaining withstand voltage

T(99.9% reliability lower-limit value)T
Operation hours ((10P4P h) X2
Fig. 3.5.1-15: Relation between remaining withstand voltage and operation conditions
[3] Remaining life estimation method from equivalent operation hours
Sample coils of epoxy resin insulation are collected from machines, and the destructive voltage test is
performed. From the result, the following formula to estimate the remaining breakdown voltage (% indication,
taking BDV at production to be 100%) using the equivalent operation hours is obtained. The equivalent
operation hours are the operation hours calculated equivalently, regarding that one start/stop is equivalent to 20
operation hours.
BDVav = (-4 ( 10-5)YE + 100
BDV3& = (-6 ( 10-10)YE2 + (-6 ( 10-5)YE + 77.276
Here,
YE: Equivalent operation hours
(Equivalent operation hours) = (Operation hours) + 20 ( (Number of starts/stops)
The relation between the equivalent operation hours and remaining breakdown voltage is shown in Fig. 3.5.116.
Average
Average - 3&
Average
Data range
Average - 3&
Operating hours (h)
Fig.3.5.1-16: Correlation between equivalent operating hours and remaining BDV

(2) Estimation method from insulation diagnosis result
[1] Estimation by D map
The relation between the discharge parameter " (="2+"+) and the max. discharge charge amount Qmax is
obtained from the following experimental formula based on the test result of the model coil and field sampling
coil. Here, VR is the remaining breakdown voltage of the epoxy resin. By the AC current test method that
detects VR and the average void amount of the insulation layer, current increase rate "I is obtained.
"2 is
obtained by the dielectric tangent test.
VR: Remaining rate of breakdown voltage
VR = 100 1.8 (" 0.8) 27.4 log (Qmax/1500)
This relation is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-17. This is called D map (discharge map). It is confirmed that most
data of the relation between the estimated value and measured value are in the 95% reliable area. Comparison
between the estimated value VR and measured value Vr by the D map method is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-18. The D
map method for polyester insulation is reported in the same way.
341
Discharge parameter
" (="B2B+"B1B) (%)
Remaining breakdown
voltage
Max. discharge charge amount QBmaxB (pC)

%: Sampling coil +: Compound deterioration coil
Measured value of remaining breakdown

voltage VBrB (%)
Fig. 3.5.1-17: D map of epoxy insulation
Average by least
square
Insulation life control curve
Estimated value of remaining breakdown voltage
Vp (%)
%: Single polyester insulation coil
&: Coil of polyester insulation power generator
: Single epoxy insulation coil
Fig. 3.5.1-18 Relation between estimated value Vp and measured value VR by D map method
[2] Estimation from max. discharge charge amount
The investigation result of the relation between Q max and breakdown voltage VR is reported. Here, Q max
is of the coils sampled from 10 power generators of polyester insulation at the rated voltage. The result is shown
in Fig. 3.5.1-19. Both have a good correlation. Deterioration judgment standard (40% of initial destructive
value) = 22000 pC at the 99% reliability lower limit is proposed.
Remaining breakdown
voltage VBRB (%)
Measured quantity: n=110

99% reliability upper limit
99% reliability lower limit
QBmaxB (Coulomb)
Fig.3.5.1-19: Relation between Qmax and remaining breakdown voltage

The investigation result of the relation between Qmax and VR/E from various power generator coils and
sampling coils is reported. This is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-20. A certain correlation can be recognized between
Qmax and VR/E. 1(104 pC: Caution needed and 3(104 pC: NG are proposed as judgment standards.
342
Max. discharge intensity qBmaxB (pC)
Withstand
insulation
required for
operation
Withstand insulation (Destructive voltage VBRB/Rated voltage E)

Wire
Coil
Power
generator
Model
H: General hydraulic power P: Water pumping T: Turbine

P: Polyester series E: Epoxy series
Fig. 3.5.1-20: Relation between Qmax and VR/E
Estimated BDV by multiple

regression equation (%)
[3] Estimation by the multiple regression method from nondestructive electric test
In the following formula, the statistical correlation between the destructive voltage collected from the sampling
coil of the epoxy resin insulation and the insulation diagnosis data is calculated, and the remaining breakdown
voltage (% indication, taking BDV at production as 100%) is estimated.
BDV (%) = 91.1 0.767 ' ("I12) 0.151 ' ("tan!12) 1.78(10-6 ' (qmax12)
BDVav (%) = 42 29.2 ' ln((BDV 99.4)/(-56.1))
BDV3& (%) = BDVav ((95.3 0.395 ' Y) ' (57.9 + 0.474Y 0.0405 ' Y2))
Here,
BDVav (%): Average remaining withstand voltage
BDV3& (%): Remaining breakdown voltage of variance 3&
Y: Operating years
The relation between the estimated destructive voltage and measured value is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-21. The
correlation coefficient is as high as 0.61. An example of the relation between the operating years estimated by
this estimation method and the breakdown voltage is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-22. This estimation method uses the
actual insulation diagnosis data and operating years. The remaining life reflecting the actual dielectric
breakdown condition can be estimated.
Measured BDV (%)

BDV: Break Down Voltage
Fig. 3.5.1-21: Correlation between measured BDV and estimated BDV
343
BDV(%)
Batch average
Batch lower limit 3&
Withstand insulation required for operation: 2E+1 kV
Operation years (years)
Fig. 3.5.1-22: Example of estimation of remaining life
3.2.6 Preventive maintenance to leakage of water-cooling stator coil(10)

The water cooling stator coil has many advantages. Penetration of the cooling media to the insulation layer
must be considered for maintenance.
The cooling medium leaks from the brazing section of the pipe for supplying and draining the cooling water
and the connecting section between the conductor (wire) and the box (clip) for supplying and draining the cooling
water. The structure around the clip is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-23. The former case occurs due to the remaining
voids and corrosion during brazing. The latter case occurs when different types of metal (copper, brazing filler
metal) make contact with each other in the solvent (cooling water). The metal (copper) with low corrosion
potential is corroded (galvanic corrosion). According to the observation and experiment result, it was confirmed
that cooling water accumulates in the small voids in the brazing section and water quality in the void worsens.
Corrosion progresses over time and a water path is formed, resulting in penetration of the cooling water into the
insulation layer.
Leak
Stator core
Wire
Clip
Penetration
Insulation layer
Brazing
section
Absorption
+
Temperature
Hygrothermal aging
Insulation layer
Connection piece
Degradation of insulation resistance
Wire
Ground fault
UA-A cross-section view
Fig. 3.5.1-23 Structure of clip section and water penetration to insulation layer
If the cooling water penetrates into the insulation layer, the insulation characteristics drastically lower due to
hygrothermal aging. It is necessary to confirm formation of the water path (leak path) and penetration of the
cooling water into the insulation layer.
Presence of a leak can be confirmed by the coil pressure storage test, vacuum storage test, and tracer gas test,
etc. To judge the absorption degree of the insulation layer, the method of measuring the capacitance of the
insulation layer, which focuses on the difference in the relative permittivity between the water and the insulator, is
put into practical use, and is effective. A schematic diagram of measurement is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-24.
A large difference in relative
permittivity between the wire
insulation layer and water
(1:20) is used.
Coil
Upper coil
Pressing force
3-phase batch short circuit
Capacitance between the coil

(copper) and the insulation
layer is measured to judge the
absorption degree to
insulation layer.
Electrode
Lower coil
Principle
Capacitance meter
Measurement method:
100% measurement of turbine side,

collector side, and upper/lower coils
Fig. 3.5.1-24: Principle and method of capacitance measurement
344
Insulation resistance level (PU)
There is another method of estimating the remaining life by obtaining the dielectric breakdown speed by
hygrothermal aging from the capacitance and destructive voltage of the absorbed insulation layer. As shown in
Fig. 3.5.1-25, it is used for examination of the maintenance program. It is important to execute the leak test and
capacitor measurement test periodically. It is important to execute the leak test at each periodical inspection and
to consider the number of years from the initial water supply in the capacitance measurement test.
Aged deterioration by operation
Absorption start point
Capacitance measurement point
Insulation resistance lowering rate = PU/year
Dielectric
breakdown by
hygrothermal
aging
Insulation resistance level required for safe operation

Insulation resistance lowering rate
= (Several ~ 10 times PU/year)
Operation years (year)
Fig. 3.5.1-25: Operation years and estimated insulation resistance level
3.2.7 Wedge for stator coil

Conductive varnish is applied on the straight section to be inserted into the stator core to lower the surface
potential. The stator coil is securely fixed in the slot. If the coil is vibrated by the magnetic force in the slot,
mechanical deterioration occurs and the corona is discharged between the slot wall and the coil, resulting in
insulator deterioration and damage(12).
In order to prevent coil vibration in the slot and fix the coil, a ripple spring is inserted into the coil side as
shown in Fig. 3.5.1-26, or a ripple spring is inserted under the wedge as shown in Fig. 3.5.1-27.
Stator wedge
Spacer under wedge
Slide
Ripple spring
Upper coil
Lower coil
Ripple spring
Fig. 3.5.1-26: Side ripple method
Stator wedge
Ripple spring
Filler
Upper coil
Lower coil
Fig. 3.5.1-27: Top ripple method

When the tapered bottoms are overlapped and inserted in the axial direction, stress is applied to the slot bottom
and the wedge is securely fixed in the slot. There is another structure to fix the wedge by adjusting the filler
thickness.
All parts for fixing the stator coil including the wedge are made of insulators. The stator coil is loosened due
to vibration or temperature after a long period of operation. If operation is continued in this condition, discharge
345
between the coil surface and the slot wall is accelerated, and the insulation layer is damaged. There is a
possibility of a ground fault accident.
Consequently, when the rotor is pulled out, it is necessary to check adhesion of the insulator powder of the
wedge to the iron core visually. It is also necessary to check the hitting sound by the test hammer and the
deformation of the ripple spring under the wedge. If the wedge does not satisfy the judgment standard, proper
measures must be taken.
Power generators are frequently started and stopped recently. The insulators tend to become loose, compared
to the base load machines. It is necessary to inspect and control the machines based on the operation condition.
3.3 Diagnosis device

Various diagnosis devices are introduced in order to prevent accidents and large-scale accidents by monitoring
and diagnosing the power generator conditions at all times. Details of the diagnosis and monitoring technology
are given in the technical report (II) No. 294(5) and others of the Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan.
An outline is shown below.
3.3.1 Power generator conditioning monitor (GCM)
Particles of 0.1 ~ 0.001 !m that are generated before disassembly due to overheating of insulation materials
used for the power generator are converted to electric signals and detected, and local overheating in the power
generator is detected.
There are two types of conversion to the electric signals. By one method, hydrogen molecules are converted
to plasma ions by -radiation, and introduced to the electrode. The current is monitored. Particles that are
generated by overheating absorb ionized hydrogen molecules. A decrease in current is detected to detect
overheating.
In another method, the particles themselves are charged by corona discharge and introduced to the electrode. A
minute electric current is detected to know overheating.
The principle of the former method is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-28.
Power generator
Flow of hydrogen
gas
Indication,
alarm
radiation
source
Ionization room
Ion collection room
Fig. 3.5.1-28: Principle of operation of power generator condition monitor (GCM)
3.3.2 Partial discharge monitor

Instead of the current insulation diagnosis, the partial discharge charge amount during operation is always
monitored, and deterioration of the stator coil is judged from the measured values and phase characteristics.
There are some detection methods. The line is detected by the coupling capacitor, or the radiation wave is
detected by the antenna. For the detection of radiation waves, there are two methods. The special pickup coil
is used in one method, and the lead wire of the temperature measurement resistor is used instead in the other
method.
3.3.3 Stator coil end vibration monitor
If coil end rigidity lowers and comes close to the magnetic vibration frequency (100 Hz, 120 Hz), coil end
vibration increases, resulting in fatigue/wear of the coil conductor and damage to the insulator. Consequently, a
monitor to check coil end behavior at all times is developed.
Power generator voltage occurs at the coil end. The optical fiber with superior insulation properties is used
for measurement wires connected to the vibration pickup.
3.3.4 Rotor wire layer short monitor
If layer short circuit occurs to the rotor wire, the temperature distribution becomes uneven due to unbalanced
heat, and the rotor vibrates abnormally. Consequently, it is necessary to detect layer short circuit promptly.
If layer short circuit occurs to the rotor wire, the number of effective turns of the coil decreases. Changes in
the gap magnetic flux corresponding to it are detected. The gap magnetic flux is measured using the search coil
near the rotor, and the presence of layer short circuit and coils with short circuit are judged. One example of the
attachment method of the search coil is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-29. The search coil output waveform is shown in Fig.
346
3.5.1-30. The search coil output voltage corresponding to the coil with the layer short circuit is lower than usual.
By comparing waveforms, the presence of layer short circuit and coils with short circuit are judged.
Stator core
Stator frame external plate
Rotor
Search coil lead wire
Probe
Search coil
Probe details
Lead wire
Stainless pipe
Fig. 3.5.1-29: Attachment of search coil
N pole
N pole Layer short circuit
Pulse indicating magnetic

pole position
(a) Normal
(b) Layer short circuit
Fig. 3.5.1-30: Search coil output waveform
Impedance (")
In another method, layer short circuit is detected from the tendency of the changes in the rotor wire impedance
due to the turning speed. If layer short circuit occurs, the inductance of the coil decreases. An small AC
current is supplied to the rotor wire by a constant current generation device. The rotor voltage is measured, and
the rotor impedance at each rpm is measured to judge the presence of layer short circuit. The rotor impedance
characteristics are shown in Fig. 3.5.1-31. The impedance characteristics of the coil with layer short circuit
change drastically. By comparing characteristics, the presence of layer short circuit is judged(18).
Normal impedance characteristics
Location with drastic change layer short circuit

Rpm
Fig. 3.5.1-31: Rotor impedance characteristics
3.3.5 Axial torsion monitor

The axial torsion vibration in the power generator and turbine shafts is always monitored, and the total fatigue
life is calculated and evaluated to prevent deterioration of the shaft and shaft accessories. Gears and magnetic
pickup for detecting angular speed are attached to some positions on the shaft. Changes in the obtained angular
speed and distortion angle and the modal damping obtained from the detailed model of the shaft are used to
calculate the shaft stress waveform and fatigue life consumption. One example of the axial torsion vibration
monitoring device is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-32.
347
Detection of phase
difference
Waveform
smoothness
Average stress
Rotation change
unit
Static vibration
ingredient
1st
Detection of strain
amplitude
Peak count method
Damage calculation
(Fatigue life
consumption)
Display request
Display device
Monitor TV
! Oscilloscope
" Digital printer
Power generator
current
Power generator
voltage
Delay unit
5th
Modal conversion
constant
multiplication
Data
recorder
Stress
waveform
Additive
synthesis
Abnormal stress
detection
Alarm
Monitored point
Rotation gap
Fig. 3.5.1-32: Example of shaft twist vibration monitoring device

4. Concept of precision inspection
Parts of the power generator consist of various materials such as copper, insulator, aluminum, and iron. The
combination of them is one feature of the parts.
The stator becomes loose and wear powder is generated when the coil wedge and coil end insulators are aged
or loose. Inspection and proper correction are required. As shown in the bathtub curve in Fig. 3.5.1-33, the
looseness of the stator wedge is classified into the initial, stable, and wear periods. Inspection must be executed
according to the period.
Worn
Stable period
period
Number of loosened
wedges: f (t)
Initial
[Bathtub curve]
Operation hours (t)
Fig. 3.5.1-33: Looseness of stator wedge

High centrifugal force functions to the rotor. In addition, there is a problem of wedge corrosion due to
overcurrent applied to the rotor surface along with the unbalanced load, etc. The inspection interval must be
decided, considering the crack progress speed of the aluminum alloy wedge.
By judging from these phenomena comprehensively, initial and quarterly inspections by pulling out the rotor
and inspection by pulling out the retaining ring every 8 years are required.
5.
Concept of future maintenance

Operation of the power generator has been changed from the base operation to the middle, WSS, and DSS.
Measures to improve durability have been taken for frequent starts/stops. Inspection and countermeasures based
on the results of actual operations are required. That is, it is desirable to confirm the soundness of the machine
that frequently starts and stops by precision inspection mainly of the rotor.
On the other hand, turning waiting and long-term stop have been applied to oil-burning thermal power
machines recently. Power generators have been designed and manufactured mainly for operation. Each
unprecedented operation mode needs to be examined sufficiently.
For example, the hydrogen gas in the power generator is not removed by the gas drier while the unit is stopped.
The moisture in the machine increases, resulting in dewing and rusting. If the machine stops for a long period of
time, rust enters the oil of the lubrication oil system. Because the gap between the seal ring and shaft is very
small while the machine is stopped, the potential to catch foreign materials increases, resulting in damage to the
seal ring and shaft.
As mentioned above, it is necessary to take proper measures against the failure potential peculiar to each
operation mode. Some examples are the gas drier that can remove moisture even while the machine is stopped
and the high-performance filter for the sealing oil systems.
348
3.4.5.2
High-pressure motor
In thermal power plants, high-pressure motors are used for various devices for driving accessories. Highpressure motors are sometimes one of the important devices in a plant. To secure the reliability of the systems of
thermal power stations, preventive maintenance including periodical maintenance, exchange of parts, and
estimation of remaining life by deterioration judgment are performed for the motors of accessories.
Here, the high-pressure basket-type inductive motor is taken as an example, and an outline of preventive
maintenance and remaining life diagnosis is given.
1. Structure and deterioration form of each section
1.1 Structure
A cross-section view of the basket-type motor is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-34. The motor consists of three
sections: the fixed section, rotation section, and bearing section.
Stator frame
Stator core
Rotor core
Stator wire
Rotor wire
Shaft
Internal fan
External fan
Bearing bracket
Bearing
Heat exchanger
Fig. 3.5.1-34: Cross-section view of basket-type motor
1.2 Failure conditions

The fixed section consists of the stator wire and iron core. The rotation section includes the basket-type rotor
conductor. The structural members include the bearing. According to the failure investigations(1) in the past,
50% of failures occurred in the fixed section, 12% occurred in the rotation section, and 38% occurred in the
bearing and others.
Concerning the relation between the operation years and the number of failures, failure mostly occurs after
10~15 years of operation. The total failure rate is almost constant between 5 and 20 years of operation, but the
failure rate increases after 21 years.
Each cause of the total failure rate is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-35. Failure of the bearing section is often detected
before 20 years of operation. After 20 years, dielectric breakdown is often detected.
Failure rate (%)
Cumulative failure rate of bearing (Number of failures: 34)

Cumulative failure rate caused by dielectric breakdown (Number of
failures: 29)
Failures that are judged to be aged deterioration among failures caused by
dielectric breakdown (Number of failures: 17)
Note) The failure is located at the stator and the coil end.
Fig. 3.5.1-35: Transition in cumulative failure rate of each failure of 3 kV basket-type motor
1.3 Control items, deterioration form, and diagnosis method of major sections
Deterioration of major sections of the motor is classified as follows:
[1] Thermal cause
[2] Electric cause
[3] Physical cause
[4] Mechanical cause
[5] Chemical cause
Deterioration is accelerated by a combination of these causes, and failure occurs. The causes of deterioration
are shown in Fig. 3.5.1-36. Examples of control items, deterioration form, and diagnosis method are shown in
Table 3.5.1-5.
349
Electric cause
Physical cause
Thermal cause
Surge
Partial discharge
Heat cycle
Swelling,
Overload
contraction,
Cooling failure deformation,
Thermal
distortion
deterioration
Absorption Degradation of
Dewing
lubrication oil
Dust
Surface
insulation
failure
Deterioration
Start, stop,
vibration,
shock,
overcurrent
Corrosion by harmful substance

Chemicals
Oil
Degradation
of insulation
Fatigue,
wear,
deformation,
distortion
Mechanical cause
Chemical cause
Fig. 3.5.1-36: Deterioration cause analysis

Table 3.5.1-5: Control items, deterioration form, and diagnosis method of major sections
Control
locations
Appearance
Operation
condition
Related to bearing
No.
Slide
bearing
Roll
bearing
Rotor
Stator
Control items
Deterioration form
Diagnosis method
Pollution
Dust accumulation, corrosion, damage
Discoloration
Paint discoloration, peeling, etc.
# Visual
Loosening of each part
Screw loosening, backlash, etc.
# Visual, hitting
Sound
Looseness, backlash, bearing failure
# Sound and frequency analysis
Vibration
Mechanical unbalance, layer, wire breakage
# Vibration measurement, frequency analysis
Odor
Degradation of insulation characteristics,

burning of bearing, lubrication failure
# Odor judgment
Smoke
Degradation of insulation characteristics,

lubrication failure, overheating of bearing
# Visual
Voltage
Layer, wire breakage
# Voltage monitoring
Current
Pulsation of current by cutting of basket-type

rotor conductor
# Current monitoring
Temperature
Bearing lubrication failure, dust

accumulation on cooling passage,
degradation of cooler characteristics
# Thermometer
Lubrication oil
Oxidation, lowering of viscosity, mixing of

water or foreign materials
# X-ray fluorescent analysis
Oil ring
Deformation
# Visual
Oil scraper
Wear
# Visual
White metal
Peeling, cracks, wear, abnormal touching
# Penetration flaw detection, Dimension

measurement
Vibration
Damage to inner ring, outer ring, or ball
# Bearing diagnosis device
Abnormal noise
Damage to inner ring, outer ring, or ball
# Hearing
Rim of outer ring
Flaw and discoloration
# Visual
Grease
Separation, discoloration
# Visual
Duct piece
Loosening
# Visual
Iron core
Loosening
# Visual, touching, hitting
Brazing section
Crack
# Bar breakage diagnosis device, penetration

flaw detection
Short-circuit ring
Deformation
# Visual
Rotor conductor
Loosening
# Visual, hitting
Duct piece
Loosening
# Visual
Iron core
Loosening
Insulation section
Discoloration, breakage, corrosion,

degradation of electrical characteristics
# Nondestructive electric insulation

diagnosis, physical/chemical diagnosis
Wedge
Loosening, discoloration, breakage
# Visual
It is understood that daily inspection is very important for early detection and countermeasures against
deterioration. Examples of the standard inspection intervals are shown in Table 3.5.1-6.
Table 3.5.1-6: Standard inspection interval of motor
Initial inspection
1st continuance inspection
350
Continuance inspection
2,000 ~ 3,000 operation hours

Within 1 year max.
Approx. 8,000 operation hours/starting 500

times
Within 2 years max.
Approx. 8,000 operation hours/starting 500

times
Within 2 years max.
The rotor is not pulled out if

there is no failure when the
shield is (partially) removed.
Pulling out of rotor
The degree of inspection depends on the

presence of problems at a previous inspection
and during operation.
# Inspection of coil end

# Loosening of spacer
# Loosening of string
# Loosening of tightening
bolts
# Rotor frame
# Bearing
# Terminal
# Investigation of dust and
stains
# Inspection of lubrication oil
# Starting time, vibration
In addition to initial inspection items;

# Iron core inspection
# Loosening of iron core
# Loosening of duct piece or finger
# Inspection of stator wire
# Loosening of wedge
# Inspection of rotor wire
# Bar or short-circuit ring
# Brazing section
# Slip bearing
# Peeling, cracks, wear, or hitting of white
metal
# Oil ring
After approx. 8 years, pull out the rotor again

for detailed inspection.
2. Stator wire deterioration diagnosis technology and life estimation

2.1 Transition in stator wire insulation system
High-pressure motor wires have been changed from asphalt compound insulation used before the middle of
1960s to resin-rich insulation using polyester resin and epoxy resin and so-called resin insulation of total
impregnation (vacuum pressure impregnation) insulation.
2.2 Deterioration mechanism of stator wire insulation
The stator wire insulation receives various kinds of deterioration stress during operation. Deterioration stress
can be classified as shown in Fig. 3.5.1-36. These causes do not function individually, but are mixed and
accelerate deterioration.
The deterioration phenomena by these factors cause dielectric breakdown and lowering of insulation
performance, resulting in dielectric breakdown. However, deterioration stress depends on the motor type (fullclosed type, open type) and voltage level, and the deterioration mechanism is often complicated.
2.3 Dielectric breakdown diagnosis method of stator wire insulation
The dielectric breakdown of high-pressure motor wires has been diagnosed from long ago. Electric diagnosis
is performed in general.
The physical/chemical method of diagnosing the thermal deterioration degree of the insulation materials used
for the motor wire was developed and put into practical use.
2.3.1 Electric dielectric breakdown diagnosis method and judgment standard
(1) Electric dielectric breakdown diagnosis method(3)
The insulation condition of the motor wire is tested to prevent wire accidents and to make a preventive
maintenance plan in the future.
[1] DC absorption test
In the DC absorption test, the absorption current phenomena when DC high voltage is applied to the wire are
checked to see the insulation property. The insulation resistance (1-minute value), polar index (PI), and kick
current are investigated.
[2] Dielectric tangent (tan$) test
In the tan ! test, the tan$ value and tan!- voltage characteristics when AC voltage is applied to the wire
insulation are checked to see the wire insulation property and obtain the tan$0 and %tan$ characteristics value.
[3] AC test
In the AC test, the relation between the current (I) and the voltage (V) when AC voltage is applied to the
insulator, that is, the I-V characteristics, are checked to see the insulation property. The characteristics values of
%I (current increase rate) and Pi (current rapid increase voltage) are obtained.
351
[4] Partial discharge test

If any voids exist in the insulator, partial discharge occurs at the void when AC voltage is applied. This
discharge is called partial discharge. In this partial discharge test, insulation properties including wire
insulation voids and partial insulation defects are investigated, and Qmax (maximum partial discharge charge
amount) is obtained.
(2) Dielectric breakdown judgment standard
The wire insulation characteristics differ depending on the insulation method. It is necessary to evaluate the
insulation characteristics obtained by the insulation diagnosis test by this insulation method.
Asphalt compound insulation adopts the deterioration judgment standard of the Central Research Institute of
the Electric Power Industry. As mentioned above, the materials and production method of the resin insulation
depend on the motor maker. It is difficult to unify the deterioration judgment standard at the present time.
Each maker sets its original judgment standard. An example is shown in Table 3.5.1-7(3) (4).
Table 3.5.1-7: Example of dielectric breakdown judgment standard of high-pressure rotor wire
Column No.
Application
range
Insulation
method
Rated
voltage
Judgment
II
III
IV
Compound
Compound
Varnish
Resin
Resin
3.3 kV
6.6 kV
3.3 kV
3.3~4.4 kV
6.6~11 kV
3.3~11 kV
OK
OK
OK Caution needed NG
OK
OK
OK
~100~10~
R [M"]
>E+1
RC ["&F]
>10
log (Rd/Rw)
<3
P.I
>1.5
>1.5
tan$0 [%]
%tan$ [%]
>2.0
~20~30~
<10
<0.9
at 1.25E/ 3
at E
~1.5~1.0~
<0.7
<6.5
~0.7~1.1~
<12
%tan$+%C/C0 [%] at E
pi [kV]
% [%]
P11
P12
>6.6
~4.6~3.0~
<2.5
at 1.25E/ 3
at E
Vi [kV]
>E
>3.3
<4.0
<8.5
~4.0~5.9~
q>500 pC
~1.9~1.3~
q>1000 pC
>E
N [Pcs/half cycle]
at E, q>500 pC
~50~100~
<10000
at E/ 3
qm [pC]
at 4.5 kV
at E
<10000
<5000
~1000~1400~
2.3.2 Physical/chemical thermal deterioration diagnosis method

Electric insulation diagnosis of the high-pressure motor wire is mainly applied to the main insulation (slot
insulation) of the stator wire. The stator wire consists of wire-reinforcing materials such as the wedge that
mechanically supports the wire, the spacer between coils, and the string that fixes them. If these reinforcing
materials are loosened or their mechanical strength is lowered, the upper and lower coils vibrate in the slot and the
coil end touches the spacer and wearing occurs. It is estimated that the insulation layer is mechanically damaged.
In fact, this damage once led to dielectric breakdown. Deterioration of the reinforcing materials cannot be
detected by electric diagnosis.
The physical/chemical thermal deterioration diagnosis method was developed to diagnose deterioration of
reinforcing materials. If it is combined with electric insulation diagnosis, the degree of deterioration of the entire
wire can be comprehensively evaluated.
(1) Principle of physical/chemical heat deterioration diagnosis method(6)
Accelerated thermal deterioration is executed for the insulation-reinforcing materials used for stator wire
preliminarily to measure physical characteristics such as lowering of mechanical strength. Next, the same
352
sample is used to obtain some heat analysis values using the heat analysis device.
The correlation between the physical characteristic values and heat analysis value is examined to obtain the
best relation. This is called the master curve. It is obtained for each insulation material. The master curve is
the principle of this test method. An example of a master curve is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-37.
TG 3/1 reduction rate
Synthetic resin glass lamination plate
Chemical
characteristics of
sampled material
Estimated physical characteristics
Bending strength holding rate (%)
Fig. 3.5.1-37: Example of master curve

The heat analysis value is obtained from the materials that are sampled from the machine by the heat analysis
test. It is applied to the master curve of the material to estimate the physical characteristic value. (See Fig.
3.5.1-37.)
(2) Judgment of heat analysis
The characteristic value obtained by heat analysis is applied to the master curve to obtain the estimated
physical mechanical strength. The deterioration judgment in this case is based on the deterioration judgment
standard in Table 3.5.1-8. The deterioration judgment standard is based on IEC216-2.
Table 3.5.1-8: Deterioration judgment standard
Deterioration
degree
Mechanical
strength
Loss of weight by heating

Judgment
Lamination
plate, etc.
Resin
Varnish
Small
Over 75%
Under 2.5%
Under 10%
Medium
50~75%
2.5~5.0%
10~20%
Large
Under 50%
Over 5.0%
Over 20%
Note 1. The mechanical strength is the strength-holding rate.

2. Judgment is made based on IEC216-2.
Good: Deterioration progress is small. Operation is possible

with no difficulty.
Acceptable: Deterioration progresses, but operation is possible
with no difficulty at this moment.
Unacceptable: Deterioration progresses. Updating is
required.
The initial condition is regarded to be 100%.
2.4 Life estimation method

Insulation resistance of 2 E+1 kV that is required to continue stable operation in the future is judged from the
characteristic value by insulation diagnosis.
The method of estimating the remaining destruction voltage and remaining life from the insulation diagnosis is
partially used, but its reliability is not sufficient.
However, if the data of insulation diagnosis characteristics values and destructive voltage by abundant samples
and sampled coils can be accumulated, it is expected that the remaining destructive voltage and remaining life can
be estimated with a high degree of accuracy.
3. Diagnosis method of other sections
3.1 Deterioration diagnosis of basket-type rotor
A large current is applied to the conductor and short-circuit ring of the basket-type rotor when the operation is
started. The combined stress of thermal stress by heating, stress by conductor vibration due to magnetic force,
and the centrifugal force of rotation functions.
Due to its structure, the stress becomes largest near the silver brazing section of the connection section of the
discontinuous conductor and short-circuit ring.
If a plant starts and stops frequently for operation of the plant, in particular, repeated stress is applied and there
is a possibility of leading to the fatigue breakdown. Because high stress occurs in high-inertial-load machines
and high-speed machines, adequate attention must be paid to them.
In order to detect failure of conductors such as the silver brazing section promptly, a rotor bar breakage
monitor or the like is used.
A bar breakage monitor captures the pulsation of the load current from the motor whose bar is broken and
353
detects errors from the frequency.

A bar looseness measurement device detects looseness by hitting. The measured material is hit by a hammer
and the looseness is detected from the rate of the vibration response to the hitting strength. The vibration
response of a loose bar is larger than that of a fixed bar, and the rate is larger. Looseness can be judged
objectively.
3.2 Bearing
3.2.1 Roll bearing diagnosis machine
The bearing is an important part of the rotating machine. As mentioned before, the failure rate is rather high.
It is very important to detect the failure before fatal errors occur.
The life of the roll bearing is particularly short among structural parts of the motor. The life is defined with
99% reliability. The life is mainly judged by the occurrence of flaking. Flaking is fatigue breakdown on the
surface caused by repeated stress on the rolling contact section. Due to this fatigue, the surface peels off in
flakes.
To detect this kind of abnormal phenomena, bearing vibration is detected by acceleration and enveloped. By
this method, according to the enveloped vibration acceleration data, the calculation circuit that is weighed
according to the failure type is passed, and the presence of failure is numerically converted to facilitate judgment.
3.2.2 Diagnosis of slip bearing
The life of the slip bearing is longer compared to the roll bearing. However, due to various causes,
temperature increase, wear, white metal fatigue, peeling, and cracks occur, leading to the life of
the bearing diminishing.
By the thermometer element that is buried in the bearing, the bearing temperature during operation is
monitored throughout the year. The measurement result is used for tendency control. If any temperature out of
the tendency is detected, it must be noted because the lubrication surface might have some errors.
Investigation of the lubrication oil is one of the methods to detect bearing failure. By sampling a small
amount of lubrication oil from the bearing for fluorescent X-ray analysis, the amount of metal materials that form
the white metal ingredients in the lubrication oil can be clarified. If this investigation is performed periodically,
the tendency is controlled to judge the presence of failure.
Afterword
An outline of the preventive maintenance and remaining life diagnosis of the high-pressure motor is introduced
here.
It is desirable to continue a close relationship between makers and users for future development and
improvement of these technologies.
354
3.5.1.3
Electric facilities in the plant
Many thermal power plants in Japan were built between the 1950s and 1970s. More than 70% of units have
been operated for 15 years or more. The number of plants used for 15 years or more will increase in the future.
In addition, for stable supply of electricity and economical merits of extension of life, recent themes of study are
to diagnose the aged facilities properly and effectively execute life control and preventive maintenance based on
the diagnosis result.
From this point of view, as a typical device of the electric facilities of thermal power plants, an outline of
remaining life diagnosis and preventive maintenance of the static devices (including the main transformer,
transformer in the plant) and high-/low-pressure switch gear (including the metal clad, power center, and control
center) is given here.
1.
Transformer
Transformers in thermal power plants include the main transformer for increasing the power generator voltage,
starting transformer for supplying the plant-starting power source, and the transformer in the plant for supplying
the power source during normal operation. Based on the concept in Table 3.5.1-9, daily inspection and
periodical analysis investigation of the insulation oil-dissolved gas are performed for these transformers. In
addition, internal detailed inspection and overhaul are performed at the time of exchange of parts with relatively
short life and at periodical inspection of the plant to secure reliability(1)-(7).
Table 3.5.1-9: Maintenance and overhaul of transformer
Inspection cycle and updating schedule
Remarks
Oil-sealing section
All gaskets (including bushings) must be replaced approx. every 15 years.
Mechanical
protection relay
Overhaul must be performed once every few years. Major protection

relays (oil temperature gauge of the main body, shock oil pressure Ry, etc.)
need to be replaced after approx. 15 years.
Gauges
Overhaul is performed approx. every 15 years, and gauges are updated

depending on the result.
Oil-cooling device
All devices are replaced if the bearing issues abnormal noise after 5~10
years.
Periodical cleaning of cooling

pipes is required depending on
the environmental conditions.
Tap-switching
device for load
The device needs inspection every 50,000~100,000 times of switching.
Electric life: 200,000 times

Mechanical life: 800,000 times
Paint
The cycle is decided depending on the rust condition in the past.
Rust (life) depends on the

environmental condition.
Inside of main body
The main body is inspected by gas analysis of the oil once every 6 months
or 1 year. It is decided whether the internal inspection is required
depending on the result.
The expected life is 30 years in

general.
The life is shorter than the

main body. It is necessary to
update the units at least once
before the end of the life of the
main body.
Along with the increase in the number of devices that have been used for 20~30 years, it is important to
execute deterioration diagnosis of oil-immersed transformers and estimate the remaining life from the view points
of effective use of devices and securing reliability. The oil-immersed gas analysis is widely used to diagnose
device failure. The method is widely known as the Electric Technology Research Association method(1) (5).
Here, we focus on remaining life diagnosis mainly by deterioration.
1.1 Dominant reason for life of transformer

Materials whose characteristics lower due to aged deterioration in the transformer are the insulation oil and
insulator. The general concept of the life of the transformer related to the deterioration of these materials is
shown below.
1.1.1 Insulation oil
The most important characteristics of the insulation oil are the dielectric breakdown voltage. Lowering by
deterioration is small in general. The dielectric breakdown voltage of insulation oil lowers when dissolved water
in the oil increases for some reason in most of the cases. If the dielectric breakdown voltage or other
characteristics of the insulation oil are degraded, it is specified to exchange the oil with new oil or take deaeration
filtering measures following the control values in Table 3.5.1-10 defined in the maintenance control guideline of
the insulation oil. By taking these measures, characteristics of the insulation oil do not cause any problems in the
operation of the transformer. Consequently, it is regarded that degradation of characteristics of the insulation oil
does not affect the life of the transformer.
355
Table 3.5.1-10: Maintenance control value of insulation oil after starting operation
Voltage level
Water
(ppm)
Dielectric
breakdown
voltage
(kV)
Volume
resistivity
("cm)
(80+)
Total
oxidation
(mgKOH/g)
11~77 kV
110~275 kV
Tap switcher
'500 kV
Standard value
Test frequency
Standard value
Test frequency
Standard value
Test frequency
Standard value
Test frequency
<40
Once/3 years
<30
Once/3 years
<20
Once/3 years
40~50
Once/year
30~50
Once/year
20~30
Once/year
"
>50
Countermeasures
>40
Countermeasures
>30
Countermeasures
>30
Once/3 years
>40
Once/3 years
>50
Once/3 years
>20
30~40
Once/6 months
40~50
Once/6 months
"
<30
Countermeasures
<30
Countermeasures
<40
Countermeasures
)20
>1*1012
Once/3 years
>1*1012
Once/3 years
>5*1012
Once/3 years
Once/year
>1*1011~>1*1012
Once/year
>1*1011~>5*1012
Once/year
Once every 3
years or once
every 50,000
times of
operation if a
hot-line washer
is provided; once
every 20,000
times of
switching
operation if it is
not provided.
Take measures if
the voltage is 20
kV or less.
<1*1011
Countermeasures
<1*1011
Countermeasures
<1*1011
Countermeasures
<0.2
Once/3 years
<0.1
Once/3 years
<0.1
Once/3 years
0.2~0.5
Once/year
0.1~0.5
Once/year
0.1~.5
Once/year
"
>0.5
Countermeasures
>0.5
Countermeasures
>0.5
Countermeasures
! >1*1011~>1*1012
"
1.1.2 Insulator
The temperature of the insulating paper that is wound on the wire is the highest. The insulating paper tends
to be affected by degradation of characteristics caused by deterioration. Oil-immersed dielectric breakdown
strength, which is an important characteristic of the insulating paper, is not lowered by deterioration, in the same
way as the insulation oil. No problems normally occur even after the long-term operation of the transformer.
Tensile strength, which is another important characteristic of the insulating paper, is degraded due to deterioration,
and problems might occur when operation is continued. For example, when a system ground fault accident (2wire ground fault, etc.) occurs, external ground-fault or short-circuit current is applied. The tensile stress
functions to the wire coating due to the magnetic mechanical strength that occurs on this occasion. When the
strength of the insulating paper lowers below the strength, the insulating paper is torn or broken. This is the end
of the life of the insulating paper. It is in fact impossible to exchange the wire insulating paper of the transformer.
If the transformer is continuously used, the wire must be exchanged.
According to the above, the life of the transformer depends on the tensile strength of the insulating paper that
is wound on the wire.
Remaining rate of average

degree of polymerization (%)
1.2 Deterioration diagnosis

The life of the transformer depends on the life of the insulating paper of the wire. Diagnosis of the life of the
insulating paper is the deterioration diagnosis of the transformer. As the insulating paper used for the wire is
wound on the conductor, it is folded. It might be difficult to measure the correct tensile strength. The average
degree of polymerization that is closely related to the tensile strength is used as the basic scale of deterioration.
Figure 3.5.1-38 indicates the changes in the remaining rate of average degree of polymerization of the insulating
paper used for the transformer by the operation years. The average degree of polymerization lowers(8) along with
the transformer operation years.
Operation years (year)
Fig. 3.5.1-38: Relation between remaining rate of average degree of polymerization and transformer operation
years
1.2.1 Diagnosis standard

It has been general to measure the average degree of polymerization for measuring the deterioration degree of
356
the insulating paper(5) (7). The average degree of polymerization indicates the length of the molecule that
constitutes the insulating paper. If the paper material is deteriorated, the average degree of polymerization
becomes smaller. The initial average degree of polymerization of the insulating paper of the wire is around 1000.
In JEM1463-1993, the following evaluation standards of the average degree of polymerization of the insulating
paper for transformers are defined:
Life level:
450 or less
Dangerous level: 250 or less
Remaining rate of average degree of

polymerization (%)
1.2.2 Deterioration product material and deterioration index ingredient

Because the insulating paper in the operating transformer and characteristics cannot be measured, it is
impossible to directly check the degree of deterioration of the insulating paper. The deterioration product
material that is closely related to deterioration of the insulating material is found, and the aged deterioration of the
insulation materials is obtained from the deterioration product material. That is, deterioration is externally
diagnosed.
The generation amount of CO2+CO that is dissolved in the oil and furfural is analyzed as an effective item of
the deterioration diagnosis index of large-capacity oil-immersed transformers.
Figure 3.5.1-39(10) indicates the relation between the CO2+CO generation amount and the average degree of
polymerization. Figure 3.5.1-40(11) indicates the relation between the furfural generation amount and the average
degree of polymerization. As shown in the figures, we can see that the CO2+CO generation amount and furfural
generation amount are closely related to the average degree of polymerization of the insulating paper.
Consequently, the tensile strength and average degree of polymerization can be directly known by measuring the
CO2+CO generation amount and furfural generation amount in the insulating oil of the transformer. That is, the
aged deterioration of the transformer can be externally diagnosed.
#: In the case of oxygen addition
$: In the case of water addition
*: If oxygen or water is not added
COB2B + CO generation amount (ml/g)
Fig. 3.5.1-39: Relation between remaining rate of average degree of polymerization of insulating paper and
CO2+CO generation amount
Furfural generation amount (mg/g)
Condition
No addition
Paper weight (g)/Oil amount (ml)

3%
10%
&
Oxygen addition
Water addition
Remaining rate of average degree of polymerization (%)
Fig. 3.5.1-40: Relation between remaining rate of average degree of polymerization of insulating paper and
furfural generation amount
1.3 Life extension measures

Extension of the life of the cooling device, various measurement devices, and relays can be expected by
periodical maintenance. Yet, the life is about 10~15 years. If they are used for a long period of time, it is
357
desirable to replace them with new ones.

On the other hand, if the insulating paper comes to the end of its life, the wire needs to be replaced. In this
case, the major structural parts of the tank and iron core can be reused. In the case of important transformers
with a high utilization ratio and without a spare device like a major transformer, it is necessary to change it at a
proper timing in the plant life cycle in a well-planned manner.
2.
Switchgear on switchboard
Switchgears on the switchboard (hereafter called switchgears) are classified into two: the metal-clad
switchgear that has a 6 kV-class magnetic circuit breaker, SF6 gas breaker or vacuum breaker, and the power
center that has a 600 V-class air circuit breaker.
The switchgear consists of structural parts and control accessories. Structural parts include the breaker,
protection relay, measurement transformer, and bus bar. Control accessories include the lamp, fuse, auxiliary
relay, and timer.
For extension of the life of equipment and evaluation of soundness, it is important to take proper measures for
the major devices and insulators by remaining life diagnosis in the appropriate time. Concerning the control
accessories, it is rational to update them in a well-planned manner, referring to the estimated usable years.
Remaining life diagnosis technology and preventive maintenance of major structural devices and parts of the
switchgear are introduced below.
2.1 Remaining life diagnosis technology
Remaining life diagnosis technology (deterioration diagnosis and life evaluation method) of the switchgear can
be classified into two: by the [Soundness evaluation method], it is judged whether the switchgear maintains the
specified performance at each point in time, and by the [Remaining life evaluation method], the remaining life is
evaluated by evaluating the field products quantitatively.
It is practical to use both methods to evaluate the switchgear life. An example of the remaining life
evaluation method of the structural parts of the switchgear is shown in Table 3.5.1-11. Each item is explained
below.
2.1.1 Soundness evaluation
Whether the field switchgear and its structural devices, parts, and accessories function normally is investigated
and evaluated. If there is no failure as a result of diagnosis, it is judged that they can be used without problems.
Lubrication items are added to this judgment method, and this is the periodical inspection that is widely performed.
(1) Visual inspection (VI)
Parts and accessories are inspected visually to see visual defects (damage, pollution, and discoloration).
Dimension measurement might be included.
(2) Operation test
Structural devices are actually operated to check functions. The lubrication condition of the operation
structural sections is also judged at the same time. A characteristics test is performed in some cases.
358
Table 3.5.1-11: Life evaluation method of major structural parts of switchgear

Switchgear Major structural
Failure mode
types
parts
Insulation bus
Dielectric
wire
breakdown
Bus wire support Dielectric

breakdown
Metal clad
PT, CT
Cause of
deterioration
Temperature
Humidity,
pollution
Dielectric
Humidity,
breakdown
corrosion
Operating failure Wear
VI
Insulation
resistance
measurement
VI
Insulation
resistance
measurement
VI
Life evaluation method

Nondestructive
Destructive
Partial discharge Withstand voltage limit
characteristics
test
Measurement of
pollution degree
Material characteristics
investigation
Partial discharge
characteristics
(
investigation
(
Elevating
structure
Auxiliary switch Operating failure Temperature,
humidity,
pollution
Control line
Operating failure Temperature
VI
Operation test
VI
Conductivity
check
VI
MBB
bushing
Dielectric
breakdown
Temperature,
humidity
Partial discharge
characteristics
MBB
arc shoot
Breaker
malfunction
Humidity, wear
VI
Insulation
resistance
measurement
VI
Insulation
resistance
measurement
VI
Operation test
Insulation
resistance, VI,
operation test
VI
Operating
characteristics
MBB
Operating failure Wear, fatigue
operating
structure
Operating motor Operating failure Wear
Main circuit bus Damage

Temperature
wire
Insulation
Damage
Temperature
support
Insulation failure
Power center
Soundness
evaluation
Contact
resistance
measurement
(
investigation
Withstand voltage limit
test
investigation
Actual interrupting test
Shock life characteristics
Main circuit
disconnecting
section
Auxiliary relay
Wear
Heat
deterioration
Operating failure Wear, corrosion
ACB
Pull-out
structure
ACB
Insulation base
Damage
Wear
Operating failure
VI
(
Insulation
resistance
measurement
VI
(
Conductivity
check
VI Conductivity Partial discharge
check/Insulation characteristics
resistance
measurement
VI Operation
Operation test
check
Damage
Temperature,
Operating failure fatigue
VI Operation
check
ACB
Arc shoot
Breaker
malfunction
VI
Insulation
resistance
measurement
VI
Operation test
Damage
Superheating
Humidity, wear
ACB
Operating failure Wear
Overcurrent trip
device
ACB
Operating failure Temperature,
Loading trip coil
humidity,
corrosion
VI
Resistance
measurement
VI: Visual
inspection
Operation
characteristics
test
Layer test

test
investigation
test
investigation
Thermal cycle test
Accelerated deterioration
test
(
Shock life characteristics
investigation
Actual interrupting test
(
Accelerated deterioration
test
2.1.2 Remaining life evaluation(12)

Characteristics of devices, parts, and accessories are measured and analyzed or evaluated by the acceleration
test, etc. to estimate the remaining life. The evaluation method is classified into two: the destructive method, and
359
the nondestructive method.

Typical evaluation methods are explained below.
(1) Partial discharge test(13)
The long-term electric destruction of insulators occurs due to partial discharge deterioration or tracking
deterioration. There are two forms of partial discharge deterioration. One is internal partial discharge
deterioration that is caused by centralized electrolysis at peeled or cracked sections due to foreign materials or
heat stress. The other is surface partial discharge deterioration caused near the contact surface between the metal
electrode and insulators related to the ambient environment and pollution on the insulator surface. If these
partial discharges continue, tracking gradually progresses, resulting in dielectric breakdown. If the partial
discharge start voltage of the insulator is sufficiently higher than the normal application voltage, partial discharge
does not occur and there is no problem. If the partial discharge start voltage lowers due to aged deterioration and
discharge is started at the normal voltage, or if overvoltage is tentatively applied due to some causes even if the
partial discharge start voltage is high, the partial discharge continues when the partial discharge extinction voltage
is lower than the normal voltage. In this case, dielectric breakdown rapidly progresses.
The partial discharge diagnosis method by AE measurement is used to detect and diagnose the partial
discharge. Figure 3.5.1-41 shows the structural diagram of the partial discharge test.
Preventive maintenance of power-generating facilities and remaining life diagnosis
AE amplifier
Coupling
capacitor
AE sensor
RF output
Electrode
MBB or VBC (Housing)
Digital oscilloscope or PC
measurement system
Applied voltage
Partial
discharge
measurement
device
Fig. 3.5.1-41: Structural diagram of partial discharge test
Shock fatigue strength

Operating stress
18 years 20 years
New product 700 h
15 years
Break strength (kg/mmP2P)
(2) Shock life characteristics (Insulation structural material)

Both electric insulation resistance and mechanical strength as structural material are required for the insulation
structural materials such as the breaker bushing. These high-molecular insulation materials have deteriorated
elements by which the shock life characteristics degrade due to the deterioration characteristics of aged materials.
Figure 3.5.1-42 shows an example of the deterioration characteristics. Here, the shock life characteristics of
the sampled breaker bushing phenol resin insulation (laminated materials) and shock life characteristics of new
parts are measured. The characteristics reduction conditions are checked to estimate the approximate life of the
standard strength. The operating stress in Fig. 3.5.1-42 is the addition of stress applied when the breaker is
opened or closed and internal stress on the insulators. According to the investigation result, this value tends to
increase over time as shown in the graph. This is caused by the deterioration of the insulator. According to the
comparison between the shock fatigue stress of the insulator and operating stress, the life is about 15~20 years.
(Stress at switching +
Internal stress)
Elapsed time (g)
Figure 3.5.1-42 The change of the strength of MBB phenol bushing over time
(3) Accelerated deterioration test
The aged deterioration of insulators is accelerated by the heating conditions, and equivalent evaluation is
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Temperature
, Break strength
(kg/mmP2P)
performed by the check in a short period of time. An example of the characteristics of tensile strength to the
same insulator is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-43. The parameters are T (heating temperature) and t (heating time).
If the used temperature can be seen from the characteristics, the life of the standard strength can be estimated.
Standard strength
, Time
Fig. 3.5.1-43: Accelerated deterioration characteristics of insulators

(4) Material physical property investigation
As investigation of the insulator deterioration, the characteristics test of the static tensile strength, bending
strength, and elongation rate are also effective. The static characteristic specifications of insulation materials are
initially known in many cases. They can be used as a material for deterioration judgment by the characteristic
investigation of samples.
(5) Contact resistance measurement(14)
The switchgear uses various auxiliary switching devices. There are many contacts, and disassembly
inspection, cleaning, or maintenance are not actually performed. Consequently, the contact resistance increases
over time, and reliability problems occur.
Typical items of remaining life diagnosis technology are explained above. Deterioration diagnosis of
insulators is executed to some of devices and parts of the switchgear. By establishment of this technology and
the diagnosis method of accessories in the panel including the relays, it is regarded that the remaining life of the
switchgear is quantitatively evaluated.
2.2 Preventive maintenance

Preventive maintenance methods of the switchgear are classified into two: one is the soundness evaluation
by periodical inspection of housing devices and accessories including breakers, and the other is the replacement
by updating the aged switchgear itself or major housing devices including breakers.
2.2.1 Parts exchange by periodical inspection
Soundness is evaluated by periodical inspection. Parts with relatively short life are exchanged. Parts are
also exchanged by horizontal development of problems.
Periodical inspection of switchgears has a long track record both for makers and users. Parts to be exchanged
at periodical exchange might be listed. It is important to update parts and reflect improvement of field failure.
It is important to estimate the life of major devices to take measures against the increase in aged deterioration
and for extension of life. It is necessary to update applicable parts and devices in a well-planned manner by
predicting structural parts and parts to be exchanged by the above-mentioned deterioration diagnosis, using the
aged switchgears as samples.
3.
Preventive maintenance of control center

The basis of the preventive maintenance measures of the control center is to exchange the devices and parts
with failure or that have almost come to the end of their life. The range of exchange is classified into three as
Table 3.5.1-12: Comparison of control center durability improvement measures
Durability improvement measures
Contents
Exchange of parts
Only the parts of the magnetic contactors or magnetic relays with relatively short life are
updated.
Exchange of units
The deterioration is in progress generally with devices or wires in the units, for example. It
is necessary to check that bus wires and insulation wires in the panel are in good condition.
Update of panel
The bus wires and insulation wires in the panel are deteriorated, but are planned to be used for
more 5~10 years.
361
To select the range, future operating hours, economic efficiency, and time required for updating need to be
comprehensively compared. In the case of parts exchange, if the control center type is old, it might be difficult
to acquire parts because of model change by makers or it takes a long time for exchange. It might sometimes be
necessary to remodel existing panels to use a new incompatible part. Unit exchange might be more economical
than parts exchange.
Afterword
Many electric facilities in plants have been used for 25 years or more. Reliability has been maintained by
periodical inspection, exchange of parts with short life, or horizontal development of nonconformity. In order to
use these aged facilities for a longer period in the future, it is strongly desirable to establish life diagnosis and
evaluation technology of wires that are the major structural parts, like transformers.
For this purpose, cooperation between the maker and users is effective. We need the understanding and
cooperation of related parties.
362
3.5.2 Corrosion of power generators and countermeasures

Power generators can be classified by their cooling method: air cooling and hydrogen cooling (including stator
cooling). Corrosion problems due to the water environment are common to both methods.
In this chapter, examples of the corrosion of the structural parts of power generators are shown. Causes and
countermeasures are introduced and explained.
3.5.2.1
Corrosion of power generators and countermeasures
Turbine power generators are classified to air cooling, hydrogen cooling, and water cooling according to the
internal cooling media.
In the case of hydrogen cooling and water cooling power generators that are operated under a clean
environment in a closed power generator casing as well as air cooling generators, the internal air temperature is
above 40 C in general. The inside of the power generator is less subject to corrosion.
As shown in Fig. 3.5.2-1, turbine power generators have important and characteristic corrosion problems, and
countermeasures against them need to be taken.
Corrosion of water
cooling stator coil
Stress corrosion of
holding ring
1 . Stator frame
2 . Stator iron core
3 . Stator coil
4 . Bushing
5 . Lead box
6 . Rotor
7 . Rotor coil
8 . Bearing bracket (Turbine side)
9 . Bearing bracket (Exciter side)

10. Blower
11. Hydrogen gas cooler

Corrosion of hydrogen (air)
cooler and cooling pipe
Fig. 3.5.2-1: Typical corroded sections in a turbine power generator

If water leaks from the cooler (water-hydrogen-type and water-air-type heat exchanger) in the power generator
or cooling water circuits of the cooling water coil due to damage caused by corrosion, serious and fatal accidents
such as short-circuiting or ground fault may be caused because the power generator is an electric machine.
Because the turbine power generator is an electric, high-speed rotating machine, the structural parts of the rotor
must have a structure resistant to strong centrifugal force. The retaining ring is an important part of the rotor,
and some accidents have occurred due to stress corrosion cracks. In the following section, serious corrosion
problems and countermeasures are explained.
3.5.2.1.1 Corrosion cases of coolers and countermeasures

Coolers used for the turbine power generator are classified as follows: The hydrogen gas cooler or air cooler
cools the cooling media in the power generator. The cooling water cooler cools the water system of the stator
coil. There is a cooler that cools the oil for sealing the hydrogen gas. The air cooler is used for exciters.
Comprehensive reliability including of the water systems and oil systems is required.
In these coolers, corrosion problems of cooled heat media including hydrogen gas-water, air-water, purified
water-water, and oil-water do not occur very often, but water leakage due to corrosion might lead to serious
accidents such as hydrogen gas leakage and insulation failures. High reliability is required. Most failures of
these coolers are caused by corrosion.
The corrosion tendency depends on the water quality (freshwater, seawater), cooling water speed (low speed,
high speed), and materials. The cooling water speed is simply classified into two, but it must be noted that the
speed range depends on the material. If the component value of the cooling water quality changes, the corrosion
tendency of the cooler also changes. Consequently, in designing corrosion resistance of the cooling water system,
seasonal changes in cooling water quality, cooling method, and ambient environment must be understood to
evaluate the water quality and select the materials.
363
Relative value of corrosion

progress speed (p.u.)
3.5.2.1.2 Corrosion cases of water cooling coil and countermeasures

The purity of the water used for the water cooling power generator is high. The frequency of corrosion is
much lower compared to general devices. Cooling water does not leak from the stator coil due to corrosion.
Corrosion progresses very slowly from past experience. Corrosion product materials are deposited only in the
filters or pipes. Major ingredients of corrosion product materials are CuO and Cu2O. One of the parameters
related to corrosion is the dissolved oxygen concentration in the cooling water. In a system that has been put to
practical use, the primary cooling water tank is covered with air or hydrogen. The dissolved oxygen
concentration in the cooling water is high in the former case and low in the latter case. Both are operated in
good condition under a stable dissolved oxygen concentration condition. However, it is regarded that there is an
area where corrosion tends to occur in the middle of both concentrations. It is important to control the dissolved
oxygen concentration for various reasons such as the plant operation method. Figure 3.5.2-2 shows the relation
between the dissolved oxygen concentration and the corrosion amount.
Measurement point
Dissolving oxygen concentration (ppb)

Material: Copper
Fig. 3.5.2-2: Relation between dissolving oxygen concentration and corrosion progress speed
Corrosion amount (")
The experiment result of the air dissolved condition in Fig. 3.5.2-3 clearly indicates this. The corrosion
amount increases linearly in the case of air of 5 m/s. It saturates in the case of hydrogen or nitrogen.
Concerning the difference in the corrosion amount depending on the speed, the corrosion amount is small in
general if the speed is low. There is no large difference at 1.6 ~ 0.16 m/s.
Dissolved gas: Air
Temperature: 75 C
Water specific resistance:
1 M!or more
Period (year)
Fig. 3.5.2-3: Long-term corrosion test result (Copper corrosion)

Next, the corrosion due to the current that is supplied to/from water by the application of high voltage
(hereafter called galvanic corrosion) is explained. This is peculiar to electric devices of direct cooling by water.
The current has corrosive effects only when a current is supplied between metal and water. If a current is
supplied to the hollow conductor by supplying water to the hollow conductor inside, a current is not supplied
between the water and the conductor because the conductor resistance is smaller than the water resistance.
Consequently, this way of supplying a current does not induce corrosion. The experiment result when a current
is supplied between metal and water is shown in Fig. 3.5.2-4. According to the experiment, the influence of the
current on the copper is large, and corrosion is accelerated even in the case of AC. Stainless steel (SUS304) is
extremely strong against a current. It can be considered that corrosion does not occur practically in the case of
AC in particular.
364
Copper DC# 1.28 mA/cm2

Copper AC 2.85 mA/cm2
Corrosion reduction amount (mg/cm2)
Copper DC#
0.1 mA/cm2
Copper DC#
0.025 mA
/cm2
SUS27
DC# 1.28 mA/cm2
Copper DC# 0.0063 mA/cm2

Copper 0 mA/cm2
Temperature: 85 C
Dissolved gas: Air
$ AC is 60 Hz.
$ DC# indicates the
corrosion amount on
the plus side by direct
current. Almost no
corrosion is found on
the minus side.
SUS27
DC# 0.32 mA/cm2
SUS27 AC 2.86 mA/cm2
Time (Day)
Fig. 3.5.2-4: Galvanic corrosion of copper and stainless steel

In general, corrosion of corrosion-prone metal is accelerated if different kinds of metal make contact with one
another. However, along with the increase in the specific resistance of the corrosive media, the influence
becomes smaller. Consequently, it is regarded that contact corrosion problems do not occur in pure water based
on common sense. In the corrosion experiment of the low specific resistance (100 k!-cm) of the silver brazing
section of the stainless steel (SUS304) and copper, no contact corrosion was recognized in the galvanic pair of the
stainless steel and silver brazing.
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3.6 Efficiency and operation improvement of thermal power plants

3.6.1 Technology for improving the bearing force of boiler equipment
Boiler equipment receives various types of damage depending on the environment of use, most of which are
combinations of several damaging factors. With respect to such damage, various measures for improving the
bearing force have been taken, as shown in Table 3.6.1-1.
(1) Example of measures taken against the portions where thermal fatigue damage occurred
Most of the damage boiler equipment receives is caused by thermal fatigue. The measures taken against such
damage vary depending on the structure of each individual member. Table 3.6.1-2 shows an example of measures
taken in order to improve the bearing force.
Table 3.6.1-1 Classification of measures for improving the bearing force
Phenomenon
Creep
Fatigue
(including creep
fatigue)
Corrosion
Wear
Cause
Countermeasures
Portion subject to countermeasures
Creep aged strength

deterioration of the
welded portion
Inspection by replica,
ultrasonic testing,
TOFD method
Superheater/reheater pipe header,

main/longitudinal direction of high
temperature reheating steam piping,
surrounding welded portions,
elbow/Y-piece welded portion
Restriction on
elongation by heat
Add flexibility
Pipe header stub, finish of sealing,

expansion of casing
Sliding
Piping supporting fixture, back-stay

prevention fixture, fin end portion, pipe
header lid plate at the corner of the burner
wall box, expansion for the smoke duct
Shape the stress

concentrates
R-machining, chamfering,
change of shape
Thermal shock
Change of shape,
improvement of material,
improvement of the shapes
of the seat and piping
Desuperheater spray, small diameter

piping with main piping (drain pressure
tank)
Dissimilar metal
welding (SUS/Cr-Mo)
Inconel solvent
Joint of different piping material, fixture of

different material
Corrosion fatigue
Change of structure and

shape, water quality
control
Fixture welded to the furnace wall piping,

bent portion of the economizer
High temperature
fatigue, oxidation
Improvement of the
bearing force of material,
addition of extra welding
Superheater, reheater (STBA28)

Furnace wall
Oxidation of steam
(SUS piping)
Fine particle SUS material

Inner face shot blast
Superheater, reheater
Coal ash, soot blow
Protector, pipe thermal

spraying
Furnace wall, superheater, reheater
Corrosion fatigue damage on the inner face of the furnace wall piping occurs when the strength against fatigue
is reduced due to corrosion by the inner fluid. In view of the fact that corrosion fatigue damage also occurs at the
portion where a fixture is mounted on the external side, it is assumed that thermal stress is the major cause. An
effective countermeasure is to reduce the thermal stress by improving the structure of the attached fixture on the
external side.
366
Table 3.6.1-2 Example of measures for improving the bearing force of the boiler equipment
No.
1.
2.
Name of portion
Furnace wall
Wall boxes such as
burners, OAPs,
inside TVs, soot
blowers, etc.
Side wall at the

furnace outlet/portion
welded to the side
wall of the furnace
Example of measures for improving the bearing

force
Conventional structure
The corner portion cracks when a

temperature difference occurs
between the furnace wall and the
wall box in the course of the
temperature rise after starting the
operation of the furnace. As the wall
box has been welded to the pipe, the
temperature on the pipe side rises
rapidly, causing the temperature
difference to become larger.
Chamfering and
R-machining of the
corner portion
Provide a step to the corner portion and chamfer the

sharp edges to reduce the thermal stress. Weld the
wall box to the fin to reduce the temperature
difference.
Steam type
Steam type
Water cooling type
Current type
Water cooling type
Separation in the center
In welded portions of different paths

temperature difference occurs in the
process of water filling, cooling
stop, etc, causing cracks to occur on
the fin.
3.
Arrange the end of the panel fin in an arch shape and

apply R-machining to each fin edge. The furnace
outlet should have 3-part structure as shown on the
left. The same path should be used at the connection.
In case of a different path connection, connect the
path in 2 steps to make the temperature difference
smaller.
Fin edge at the

interim wall, etc. of
the rear thermal
transmission portion
If the fin edge has a flat shape, the
concentration of stress becomes
larger. A temperature difference is
likely to cause cracks.
367
R-machining and cutting

off the fin stop edge for
improving the shape
Apply R-machining to the fin edge to reduce the

stress concentration.
No.
Name of portion
4.
Pipe header of the

high temperature
portion and stub tube
welded portion
5.
6.
Dissimilar metal
welded joint under
high temperature

force
Honeycomb
Honeycomb
(Flat shape)
(Half-oval
shape)
MT or PT
Half-oval shape of
honeycomb
<Thick welded portion>

The internal and external
temperature difference becomes
larger at the start of operation of the
furnace at T-piece, pipe table and lid
plate.
<Stub>
If any temperature difference occurs
between the upper and lower
portions of the pipe header and on
any pipe within the panel at the start
of operation of the furnace, a
displacement difference occurs with
the stub pipe causing stress to occur
at the portion welded to the pipe
header (at the base). A pipe welded
at the lower side of both edges of the
pipe header is affected largely by
displacement of the pipe header. The
stress becomes larger because the
drain likely flows in and flexibility
is insufficient.
Stress caused by the difference in
thermal expansion and the strength
reduction caused by the
decarbonization phenomenon on the
Cr-Mo steel side is superimposed,
causing damage to occur at the weld
border of dissimilar metals.
Portion a loop pipe is

connected
Tie rod
Measures to give flexibility to the stub pipe
<Thick welded portion>

Apply R-machining to the portion where the stress
concentrates. The shape of the lid plate must be
half-oval.
<Stub>
Add further flexibility to the structure in order to
secure the bearing force against more frequent
starts/stops.
Inconel solvent has been used to reduce the thermal

expansion difference and to prevent carbon migration
as well.
Sliding
spacer
(Single lag)
Hanging
loop pipe
Portion passing
through the ceiling
(Oval lag)
Improvement of the structure of the connection fixture
If any temperature difference occurs

when starting the furnace, cracks
may occur to the linked metal fitted
portion due to the stress
concentration.
7.
R-machining
R-machining of the corners on the inner wall of

the pipe
Attached
fixtures
A sliding spacer should be used at the high

temperature transferring portion to prevent locking,
should a temperature difference occur.
The tie lag at the rear heat transferring portion should
be an oval lag to soften the stress concentration.
Crown
Crown
Ceiling piping
Due to a temperature difference

between the crown and pipe, stress
concentration occurs, which may
cause cracks. By using a sleeve for
the SUS pipe where it passes
through the ceiling, the thermal
stress can be softened.
368
Additional
sleeve
Ceiling piping
A sleeve is used for both SUS pip and 2.25 Cr-1Mo

pipe.
No.
Name of portion
8.
Devices in the spray

pipe of the
superheater

force
Flow nozzle
Venturi pipe
or
The welded portion should
have a flat surface of the
same thickness.
Swing type
nozzle
(single-hole
type)
Perforated type Swing type nozzle

of steam cooling
nozzle
type (single-hole
type)
Damage may occur to the spray

nozzle, venturi edge, or support
fixture due to thermal impact when
spray water is discharged.
9.
3-faces joining
corner of the panel
The material has been graded up

from SUS 304 to Inconel 600
(NCF600).
To improve spraying characteristics and nozzle

bearing force during low flow rate by changing the
spray nozzle to the perforated type from the
single-hole type.
When further additional bearing force is required, a
structure to cool down the nozzle by steam should be
employed. In addition, Inconel material is to be used
at the venturi end. At the same time, a structure that
can absorb thermal deformation should be employed
for the support of internal devices to increase the
bearing force.
Furnace side wall
Furnace side wall at

the outlet
Rear wall pipe at the

furnace outlet
Due to stress concentration at the fin

stop end, cracks may occur.
10.
Apply R-machining to the fin end and change the

shape to an arch.
Inner-casing on the
ceiling
Corrugated expansion
Pipe header on
the forepart wall
of the furnace
Pipe header
on the
furnace wall
Corner casing may crack and cause

gas leakage when it cannot absorb
the expansion of 3-faces.
Employ corrugated expansion at the corner to
increase the flexibility of the structure.
369
Table 3.6.2-1 Preventive maintenance and technologies for improving the bearing force of steam turbine (outline)
Others
Erosion
Corrosion
Fragility
Damage
by fatigue
Portion subject to
countermeasures
Damage
by creep
Cause of damage
Preventive maintenance and technologies
for improving the bearing force
Employment of low Si content rotor

material
Employment of improved rotor material
Expansion of stress softening
grooves/flattening of 1st step rotating blade
grooves
Expansion of corner R of dummy grooves
Employment of super clean rotor material
Employment of improved type blade
grooves
Integrated rotor
Employment of ISB (integral shroud blade)
Employment of large sized blade grooves
High/medium
pressure rotor
Low pressure rotor
High/medium
pressure rotating
blade
Low pressure
rotating blade
Employment of the new type of long blade

Employment of snapper blade
Improvement of the structure of low
pressure blade (against erosion)
Nozzle against erosion (Cr pack treatment)
Employment of improved type nozzle blade
Employment of boron treated nozzle
Employment of thermal spraying nozzle
Operation by injecting a full arc when
starting operation (Employment of
electro-hydraulic governor)
Improvement of the outer wall shape of the
nozzle diaphragm
Employment of high toughness casing
material
Employment of improved cast steel material
High/medium
pressure nozzle
Low pressure
stationary blade
High/medium
pressure
internal/external
casing
Main valve casing
Forged valve
Employment of high toughness casing
material
Alteration of valve rod and bushing material
Main valve rod
370
3.6.2
Preventive maintenance and technologies for improving the bearing force turbine equipment
Due to continuing operation of aged thermal power generation plants under severe conditions, aged
deterioration of steam turbine equipment has accelerated.
In view of the extension of regular inspection interval and enforcement of self control of the equipment under
the above-mentioned operation conditions, preventive maintenance and measures for improvement of bearing
force have become more important.
Table 3.6.2-1 outlines the preventive maintenance and measures for improvement of bearing force of steam
turbine that have been developed and employed.
(1) Turbine rotor
Measures against creep damage and fragility
As measures against damage caused by high temperature creep or fragility of high/medium pressure rotors,
rotor material is employed that has higher strength against high temperature creep than conventional rotor material,
with low speed fragility and that corresponds to operation changes such as DSS, etc.
Employment of low Si content rotor material
Employment of improved rotor material
Measures against fatigue damage

As measures against fatigue damage to the portion of high/medium pressure rotors with high level thermal
pressure, processes for removing fatigued and deteriorated layers and improving the shape are employed.
Expansion of stress softening grooves
Flattening of 1st step rotating blade grooves
Expansion of corner R of dummy grooves
Measures against fragility

As measures against the reduction of toughness and ductility due to aged fragility of low pressure rotors, rotor
material with minimized impure chemical element is employed.
Employment of super clean rotor material
Measures against corrosion

To attain improvement by changing the shapes of portions subject to corrosion and corrosion fatigue
Employment of improved type blade grooves
Integrated rotor
(2) Rotating blade

Measures against creep damage
As measures against creep damage occurring to high/medium pressure rotating blades, improvement is attained
by eliminating the tenon crimped structure by integrating a blade and a shroud(ISB blade) and reduction of stress
from blade base/blade grooves by employing large-sized blade grooves.
Employment of ISB (integral shroud blade)
Employment of large sized blade grooves
Measures against corrosion and erosion

As measures against failure caused by the corrosion of low pressure rotating blades, the new type of long blade
from which the tie wire has been eliminated is employed. In addition, as measures against the erosion of final step
rotating blades, the drain discharge process, etc. will be improved.
Employment of the new type of long blade
Employment of snapper blade
Improvement of the structure of low pressure blade (against erosion)
(3) Nozzle diaphragm

Measures against erosion by solid particles
As suppression/prevention measures against erosion of high/medium pressure nozzles by solid particles,
reduction of erosion and improvement of erosion resistance are attained by improving the nozzle blade type and
method of steam inflow.
371
Nozzle against erosion (Cr pack treatment)

High pressure shaft
Medium pressure
shaft
Fig. 3.6.2-1 Expansion of stress softening grooves/flattening of 1st step rotating blade grooves
Conventional blade
(Tenon crimped type)
ISB blade
(Shroud integrated type)
Fig. 3.6.2-2 Prevention of creep damage to rotating blade by employing ISB

Employment of improved type nozzle blade
Employment of boron treated nozzle
Employment of thermal spraying nozzle
Operation by injecting full arc when starting operation
Measures against corrosion

As measures against corrosion damage to the diaphragm of low pressure stationary blade, the shape of the
diaphragm is improved.
Large angle of water
drop collision
Small angle of water

drop collision
Water drop
Water drop
Erosion shield
Reasonable angle of attack

Reduction of the erosion
damage ratio
Flat plate Stellite
Cover structure
J-type Stellite
Lightening cover
Full arc 1 ring
Without cover
Structure able to largely

reduce vibration
Reduction of resonance
points
Face contact
Blade rigidity
Low rigidity blade type
High rigidity blade type

Reduction of vibration
amplitude
Prevention of Stellite from
peeling off
Tie wire
Tie wire structure
2 tie wires with silver

soldering
Without tie wire

Elimination of the
cause of occurrence of
SCC of silver soldering
W ith silver soldering
Blade type
Material
Subsonic speed blade

type
Fig. 3.6.2-3 Employment of

the new type of long blade
(Comparison between
former/new final step blades)
Transonic speed
blade type
12Cr-Nb
Stainless steel
12Cr
Stainless steel
Strength increased to
1.1 times
372
Conventional blade (left side)/

new blade (right side)
Improvement of the external wall shape of the nozzle diaphragm
(4) High/medium pressure casing

Measures against creep damage and fragility
As measures against crack generation/deformation or fragility caused by high temperature creep in the
high/medium pressure internal and external casing, casing material having strength against high temperature creep
and excellent roughness properties against destruction is employed.
Employment of high toughness casing material
Employment of improved cast steel material
(5) Main valves

Measures against creep damage
By eliminating any and all defects contained in the cast valve and employing casing material having excellent
roughness properties against destruction, the main valve casing can be improved.
Forged valve
Employment of high toughness casing material
Measures against erosion

For the main valve rod, etc., material having excellent strength against creep rupture and material generating
less amount of oxidized scale (by surface treatment) are employed.
Improvement of material for valve rod
Improvement of material for bushing and surface treatment
(6) Examples of preventive maintenance and technologies for improving the bearing force
Measures against fatigue damage of high/medium pressure rotors
Examples of measures against aged fatigue damage of high/medium pressure turbine rotors are shown in Fig.
3.6.2-1. Its purpose is to improve the bearing force against fatigue by skin-cutting the fatigue deteriorated layer of
stress softening grooves and 1st step rotating blade grooves and further expanding the R of stress softening
grooves and flattening the 1st step rotating blade groove bottom.
Measures against creep damage of high/medium pressure rotating blades
A tenon crimping structure was used for reaction step rotating blades in the past. However, it was found that
creep damage occurred to the tenon portion where the shrouds centrifugal force was applied by high/medium
pressure rotating blades exposed to high temperature steam. As countermeasures, ISB (integral shroud blade) in
which the blade and shroud are integrated together has been employed. ISB has other effects in improving
vibration characteristics by full arc tracing structure and by improving the sealing structure.
373
Casing
Stationary
blade
Drain catcher
Stationary blade ring
Rotating
blade
Trace of
water drop
Rotor
Drain discharge by drain catcher

Stationary blade
Drain discharging port

Drain
Drain
Slit
Stationary
blade
Drain discharging port
Drain
[Improvement of drain discharge]
Fig. 3.6.2-4 Measures against erosion of low pressure blades
Measures against corrosion/erosion damage of low pressure rotating blades

Low pressure step long blades have defects such as blade crack of the tie wire or crack of the tie wire hole. The
new type of long blade improves the bearing force against the weakness of conventional blades and at the same
time, high efficiency is targeted.
In Fig. 3.6.2-3, a comparison between new and old types of final step rotating 26-inch blades for 60 Hz is
shown. The characteristics of new type blade are as follows;
Elimination of tie wire (improvement of reliability and efficiency)
Integral shroud S type cover (high attenuation effect)
Best angle for water drops to collide (reduction of erosion damage ratio)
Best transonic blade type (improvement of efficiency)
374
In addition to the aged erosion of low pressure rotating blades, not only decreased efficiency but also crack
damage may be caused by corrosion or erosion.
In order to prevent such damage, Stellite plates are bonded to the front edge of rotating blades and hardening
treatment is applied. In addition, by employing a hollow stationary blade with a slit and drain catcher and by
promoting drain discharge aggressively, the erosion of low pressure rotating blades can be largely suppressed.
Measures
against erosion
Boron treated nozzle

Improvement of nozzle blade shape
Measures
against erosion
Expansion of distance in the shaft

direction
Handling by plant operation method
Improvement of
ease of
maintenance
Nozzle box of upside down type

Common spare nozzle box
Ceramics thermal spraying nozzle
Improvement of
ease of
maintenance
Change to cassette nozzle

Common spare nozzle
Fig. 3.6.2-5 Measures against erosion of high/medium pressure 1st step nozzles
An example of improvement of drain discharge from low pressure blades is shown in Fig. 3.6.2-4.
Measures against erosion of high/medium pressure 1st step nozzles s! sz!
Erosion phenomenon (SPE: Solid Particle Erosion) caused by oxidized scales flying from boiler, etc. can be
detected on the 1st (initial) step nozzles of high/medium pressure turbines, which creates various issues with
respect to performance, reliability, regular inspection interval, maintenance and control, etc.
Several measures against erosion in this respect are shown in Fig. 3.6.2-5.
In case of high pressure 1st step nozzles, erosion is generated at the outlet end of the nozzle by solid particles
flowing into the steam path. The erosion can be suppressed by such diffusion penetration treatment as boron
treatment (to have B (boron) make diffusion penetration on the metal surface and form a very hard and fine
chemical compound (Fe2B) layer on the nozzle plate), which strongly adheres to the base metal and forms an ultra
hard coat.
The medium pressure initial step nozzle can be damaged when solid particles passing through the nozzle
rebound from the rotating blades. As measures against this, bearing force is improved by forming on the back of
the nozzle a 250 300 !m thick plate hardened coat against high temperature and stable thermal spray metal of
the carbon family mainly composed of chromium carbide by high velocity gas flame metal spraying method
(HVOF).
375
4. Environmental preservation provision of Facilities

4.1 Environmental preservation measures of thermal power plants
Sulfur oxide
Low-sulfur fuel
Exhaust gas desulfurizer
Nitrogen oxide
Low-nitrogen fuel
Improvement of combustion method
Exhaust gas denitrizer
Soot and dust
High-quality fuel
Electric dust collector
Flying coal dust
Indoor coal storage

Sprinkler system
Drainage
Wastewater treatment equipment
Hot wastewater
Deep-water intake
Surface/underwater discharge
Oil leakage
Loading arm
Oil fence
Air quality preservation

measure
Water quality
preservation measure
Land fill
Effective utilization
Coal ash
Waste disposal
measures
Noise and vibration

prevention
- General
Desulfurization
plaster
Effective utilization
Noise and vibration
Low-noise equipment
Soundproof wall
Optimum arrangement of equipment
Afforestation
Tree plantation
Landscape
Well-planned equipment layout,

shape, and color
In harmony with
ambient surrounding
Fig. 4.1.1-1 Major environmental preservation measures of thermal power plants
4.1.1
Major environmental preservation measures of thermal power plants
Major environmental preservation measures planned and employed by Japanese thermal power plants are
classified into two: to deal with global environmental problems and to deal with regional environmental problems.
To cope with global environmental problems, they are currently tackling the prevention of the greenhouse effect
(the most critical issue in the 21st century) through a CO2 reduction scheme. They try to reduce CO2 emission by
improving electric supply and electric usage. To reduce the amount of CO2 from the electric source, they will use
more clean energies such as atomic power, LNG, and natural energy, such as nonfossil energy, and improve the
efficiency of electric power generation, e.g., thermal plants.
To reduce the electric power demand of customers, they try to develop high-efficiency energy-saving
equipment and to promote the use of heat storage systems for load leveling. They also positively support
international CO2 reduction activities to effectively implement the Kyoto Mechanism specified in the Kyoto
Protocol.

To cope with regional environmental problems, they are conducting appropriate environmental assessment
before constructing a thermal power plant, followed by various environmental preservation measures.
Japanese electric power plants had successfully conducted many environmental assessments since the 1977
ministry decision, and the assessment system has been established upon full implementation of the Environmental
Impact Assessment Law" in 1999. These environmental assessments first survey the candidate site, estimate
possible effects of the planned power plant and then begin studying how to preserve the environment.
Japanese thermal power plants provide globally advanced environmental preservation measures according to
the environmental protection agreement conducted between local communities that will be affected (2)(3). The
major environmental preservation measures that a thermal power plant should prepare include: air quality
preservation, water quality preservation, waste disposal, and noise and vibration prevention, as shown in Fig.
4.1.1-1. They should be in harmony with environment. Air quality preservation measures must provide fuel and
equipment that will minimize amounts of sulfur oxide, nitrogen oxide, and ash dust contained in smoke emission;
the measures must also provide coal-handling and storage facilities that prevents coal dust from flying. Water
quality preservation measures must provide a facility that correctly disposes wastewater from the power plant, and
a water intake/discharge facilities that will not affect the sea area from which water is pumped for cooling and
then returned after cooling. The measures also include facilities that prevents leakage of oil being transferred from
oil tankers. Waste disposal measures must provide a facilities that recycle waste. For example, coal ash from a
coal-fired power plant must be used as material for cement or landfill. Desulfurization plaster will be fully
recycled.
Other measures had been taken to reduce noise and vibration emitted outside the power plant site; so that plants
are in harmony with the surrounding environment, greenbelt is created by planting and designing plants that blend
in with the scenery.
Described below are technologies and facilities related to environmental preservation measures taken by
thermal power plants.
4.1.2
Countermeasures against global warming
4.1.2.1 Movement toward preventing global warning
Before the Industrial Revolution, 280 ppm of carbon dioxide (CO2) was contained in the air. Since then, it has
increased year by year and up to 368 ppm today. CO2, together with other greenhouse gases that have also
increased in quantity, has raised the ambient temperature by 0.4-0.8!C over the past 140 years. Observational data
show that the highest ambient temperature was recorded in the 20th century. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) has simulated future climate change and estimated that the average temperature of the
earth will increase, due to human activity, by 1.4-5.8!C by 2100, resulting in raising sea levels by 9-88 cm
In addition to temperature rise, global warming will have various effects on climate parameters, which in turn
will cause severe hazards to the socioeconomic system, ecological system, and human health. Although many
scientific uncertainties remain as to the prediction of the warming phenomenon and the assessment of associated
impacts, the cause of warming must be immediately reduced because global temperature cannot be reversed once
it is increased.
International undertaking of global warming prevention has proceeded according to the decisions made at the
Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP) founded in 1995.
At COP 3 held in Kyoto in Dec. 1997, the Kyoto Protocol specifying the reduction target of greenhouse gases
such as CO2 was adopted. However, its implementation procedure or rule was not determined. Starting with COP
4, international negotiations have been held where participating countries tried to take advantage regarding
emission quantity. Later, U.S.A. expressed its withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol. At COP 7 held in Nov. 2001, a
detailed implementation rule of the Kyoto Protocol was agreed, and the countries made efforts towards the
ratification of the protocol. The Kyoto Protocol requires the advanced nations to reduce emission by 5% in total. It
is estimated that this small amount of reduction will not significantly reduce the effects of warming, but the
important thing is that advanced nations will cooperate actively towards the reduction of greenhouse gas.
4.1.2.2 Amount of CO2 emission

The quantity of global CO2 emission from fossil fuel was estimated to be 23.2 billion tons in 1997 as shown in
Fig. 4.1.2-1. The U.S.A. emitted 23.6% of the CO2, the largest volume, followed by China with 14.5% and EU
countries with 13.0%. Emission from these countries exceeded 50% of the total global emission. Japan emitted
5.0% of the CO2 emission, 5th in the world, next to Russia . The global average CO2 emission per capita was 4.1
tons. That of western industrialized nations was 12.6 tons and that of developing countries was 2.0 tons. This
shows that CO2 emission per capita is quite large in advanced countries. The U.S.A. was also top in terms of CO2
emission per capita, approx. 5 times as the world average level. Japan emitted smaller amount of CO2 compared

with other advanced countries, approx. two times as the world average level. Developing countries such as China
and India emitted very small amount of CO2 but they are expected to increase CO2 emission sharply in proportion
to their economic growth rate.
Others
U.S.A.
Australia
South Africa
Total
Approx. 23.2
billion tons
CO2
Poland
Mexico
China
Ukraine
Korea
Canada
India
Russia
Germany
U.K.
Italy
Japan
France
Others
Fig. 4.1.2-1 Global CO2 emission (1997)

Approximately 90% among 6 greenhouse effect gases specified in the Kyoto Protocol, emitted from Japan was
CO2. Japan emitted less CO2 than the previous year in FY 1997 and FY 1998, as shown in Fig. 4.1.2-2. This was
because of the economic depression. In 1999, Japan emitted 1.22500 billion tons of CO2 or its equivalent, 9.67
tons per capita; both are higher than those of the previous year.
Emission per capita (line graph/unit: ton)
CO2 emission ( bar graph/unit: megaton)
The total emission has increased by 9.0%, and per capita emission, by 6.3%, when compared with the
respective value of 1990 where the reference quantity of emissions was established
(Year)
Fig. 4.1.2-2 CO2 change of emission in Japan

Among the total CO2 emission from Japan in 1999, approx. 40% was from the industrial sector, approx. 21%,
from the transportation sector, and approx. 25%, from the civilian sector. The amount of CO2 emission from the
industrial sector remained at the same level or lowered slightly despite economic growth. This was mainly due to
the improvement in energy conservation that has been continued since the oil crunch.
In contrast, CO2 emission from the transportation sector increased by 23% with reference to that of 1990, the
residential field of the civilian sector increased by 15%, and the utility field of the civilian sector, by 20%. The
reasons are the increased number and size of vehicles and increased electricity demand. This means that reduction
of CO2 per capita is important. The Japanese electric industry emitted 302 million tons of CO2, 24.6% of all
Japanese CO2 emission, in 1990.
4.1.2.3 Global warming countermeasures employed by the electric industry

The amount of CO2 emission from the electric industry was two times that recorded during the oil crisis of the
1970s although electricity demand has increased three times since then. During this period, CO2 emission per
generated output (CO2 emission basic unit) decreased by 30% or more. This is mainly because of the expanded
introduction of nuclear LNG energy, and improvement of heat efficiency at thermal power generation facilities. To
further promote the voluntary fight against global warming, the electric industry planned the "Environmental
Action Program in the electric industry" in 1996, the goal of which is to reduce the CO2 emission basic unit by
20% by FY 2010 compared with that of FY 1990. The industry has reviewed this scheme every year.

The Japanese electric industry actively participates the CO2 emission inhibition project shown in Fig. 4.1.2-3 to
achieve the goal specified in the " Environmental Action Program in the electric industry" for the electricity
supply sector and electricity consumption sector. The activity of the electric industry at the electricity supply side
is to advance CO2-free nuclear power generation, to introduce more LNG-fired power generation, and to develop
and propagate natural energy sources such as water, geothermal heat, sunlight, and wind power. The industry's
activities also include improvement of efficiency of power equipment, for example, introduction of combined
power generation, improvement of efficiency of coal-fired power generation, and high-tension transmission with
low power loss. The industry's activities on the electricity consumption side is to save energy by increasing the
efficiency of heat pumps and the like, development and introduction of energy-saving equipment, utilization of
unused energy, and promotion of installation of heat storage systems for load leveling. Among these
countermeasures, an optimum energy mix with nuclear power as a core electric source is said to be more effective
in terms of CO2 reduction.
To further reduce CO2 by way of international cooperation that utilizes the Kyoto Mechanism (emission permit
transactions, joint implementation, and the clean development mechanism), the industry are working on the
thermal efficiency improvement project for existing thermal generation, local electrification projects, tree
plantation projects, etc.
Increased use of
nonfossil energy
Introduction of more nuclear power generation

Increases LNG thermal power generation
Development and expansion of use of natural
energy
Improved efficiency of
electrical equipment
Increased efficiency of thermal power

generation
Reduced loss during transmission of electric
power
Saving of energy
Promotion of energy-saving activities

Development and popularization of highly
efficient energy-saving equipment
Full use of unused energy
Leveling out of the load
Introduction and promotion of the use of heat

storage systems
Countermeasure on
electricity supply side
Countermeasure on the
electricity consumption
side
Fig. 4.1.2-3 CO2 emission inhibition scheme - Japanese electric industry
4.1.3
Air quality prevention measure
4.1.3.1 Sulfur oxide
(1) Sulfur content reduction in fuel
Sulfur oxide (SOx) is produced when the sulfur (S) in fuel reacts with oxygen (O) in air. To reduce SOx, the
use of low-sulfur fuel is the major countermeasure. Therefore, thermal power plants have used light fuels such as
low-sulfur heavy oil, almost sulfur-free naphtha, and NGL (natural gas liquid) to reduce emission of SOx. They
have also positively used crude oil as fuel.
Tokyo Electric Power Co., Inc. was the first user of LNG (liquid natural gas) as the fuel for power generation; it
used LNG at its Minami Yokohama Thermal Power Plant in 1970. Since then, LNG has been recognized as a
clean, environmentally friendly fuel and is used in many power plants. At the end of 1999, the industry had 350
power boilers including 117 LNG power boilers.
(2) Exhaust gas desulfurizer

In Japan, the first exhaust gas desulfurizer was introduced at the Takasago Thermal Power Plant (Electric Power
Development Co., Ltd.) in 1975. Since then, exhaust gas desulfurizers have been installed in many thermal power
plants as the main countermeasure against sulfur oxide emission. By the end of FY 2000, 79 exhaust gas
desulfurizers had been installed at Japanese thermal power plants in accordance with the wet limestone-gypsum
process.
Exhaust gas desulfurizers are classified into the dry type and the wet type. Currently most adopted power
boilers are the wet model (wet limestone-gypsum process) that uses lime as a sulfur oxide absorbent to obtain
plaster as a side product. The reason for this is that limestone is abundantly available in Japan at low cost. Plaster,
the side product, is easier to handle and can be recycled as cement or gypsum board.

Boiler exhaust gas
Demister
To chimney
Water
Cooling
tower
Gas gas
heater
Calcium
sulfite CaSO3
Oxidation
tower
No.2
absorbing
tower
To absorbing tower inlet
Plaster
CaSO4
Plaster thickener
Air
Centrifugal
separator
Drainage
Limestone
CaCO3
Limestone slurry
Plaster
Fig. 4.1.3-1 Process concept of exhaust gas desulfurizer

(wet limestone-gypsum process)
As shown in Fig. 4.1.3-1, the wet limestone-gypsum process performs, in the absorbing tower, the gas-liquid
contact process between the sulfur dioxide contained in the exhaust gas and the absorbent slurry containing
limestone to obtain calcium sulfite. The process then oxides them in the air to change them to plaster and removes
the water from the plaster to change it to by-product plaster. The exhaust gas from the boiler is pressurized by the
boost-up fan and then subjected to the heat exchange process together with the desulfurization equipment outlet
gas in the gas heater and then sent to the cooling tower. In the cooling tower, the exhaust gas is cleaned with the
cooling tower circulating fluid and sent to the absorbing tower. In the absorbing tower, sulfur dioxide (SO2)
contained in the exhaust gas and absorbent circulating slurry containing limestone are subjected to gas-liquid
contacting, and the result of the process is as shown in the formula below.
CaCO3 + SO2 + 1/2H2O " CaSO3 1/2H2O + CO2
A portion of the calcium sulfite (CaSO3) produced in the absorbing tower is oxidized by oxygen contained in
the exhaust gas and transformed into plaster (CaSO42H2O). The calcium sulfite remaining in the absorbing tower
is sent to the oxidation tower and fully oxidized to become plaster.
CaSO3 1/2H2O + 1/2O2 + 3/2H2O " CaSO4 2H2O
The plaster slurry produced in the oxidation tower is spin-dried in the centrifugal separator, and by-product
plaster is recovered.
The sulfur removal process can be performed either by the ash separation system or the ash mixture system,
depending on the treatment method of ash dust contained in the exhaust gas. With the ash separation system, a
scrubber is located at the upper stream of the absorbing tower in which ash dust and water-soluble gases (HGL,
HF, etc.) are removed, and the sulfur dioxide is processed in the absorbing tower, leaving very pure plaster. With
the ash mixture system, ash dust, water-soluble gases, sulfur dioxide, etc., are simultaneously processed in the
absorbing tower. The plaster can be recovered at lower cost than with the ash separation system, although the
plaster purity is not high.
Two oxidization systems are available for obtaining by-product plaster: one uses a separate oxidization tower
where oxidation occurs, while the other system performs absorbing and oxidizing in the absorbing tower. The
separate oxidization tower system that has long been employed provides very pure plaster, but its desulfurizing
capability drops in the low pH zone. To improve desulfurizing performance even in a low pH zone, a single-tower
system with the oxidization process in the absorbing tower has been developed. Because this system has an
additional advantage, simplicity, it has been adopted in many power plants.
Many exhaust gas desulfurizers have been operated in thermal power plants for almost 30 years so that they
have been improved in terms of reliability and technology.
However, because the size and capacity of coal-fired power plants and desulfurizers have increased, further
improvement in performance, simplification, and cost reduction of related devices is required.

4.1.3.2 Oxides of nitrogen

(1) Generation and handling of oxidation process
When the fuel is burned in a boiler, it gives off oxides of nitrogen (NOx), i.e., fuel NOx and thermal NOx. Fuel
NOx is produced as the nitrogenous compound contained in the fuel reacts with oxygen while burning. Thermal
NOx is produced as the molecular nitrogen contained in the combustion air reacts with oxygen at a higher
temperature.
The ratio of thermal NOx depends on the type and burning method of fuel: 100% from gas, 30-40% from
heavy/crude oil, and 10-20% from coal.
To minimize oxides of nitrogen, fuel containing less nitrogen is basically used to reduce fuel NOx. To minimize
thermal NOx, combustion is improved by lowering the burning temperature, lowering the oxygen concentration in
the burning zone, and shortening the dwell time of combustion gas in the high-temperature burning zone etc.. The
third countermeasure is to use an exhaust gas denitrizer that can directly remove oxides of nitrogen from the
exhaust gas. A combination of the following three methods are currently used with power boilers to reduce oxides
of nitrogen.
1) Inhabitation of nitrogen generation implemented by the choice of fuel (Use of low-nitrogen fuel)
2) Inhabitation of nitrogen generation implemented by the Improvement of the fuel (Improvement of the
burning process)
3) Use of the flue gas denitrification system
(2) Use of low-nitrogen fuel

The amount of fuel NOx derived from the oxides of nitrogen as they burn is 15-50% of the N contained in the
fuel and is proportional to the quantity of nitrogen components in the fuel.
The percent nitrogen in fuel nitrogen components is in the order of coal>heavy/crude oil, naphtha>gas.Lighter
fuel contains fewer nitrogen components and thus emits less fuel NOx. Gases such as LNG are almost nitrogen
free, emitting negligible fuel NOx. The gas fuel easily mixes with air, and completely burns in a shorter time than
coal, heavy oil, and crude oil, giving off less nitrogen oxide. Coal, heavy oil, and crude oil contain larger amounts
of nitrogen components than gas fuels and thus release larger amounts of fuel NOx compared with gas fuels,
depending on the burning period and burning temperature. Thermal power plants are using more low-nitrogen
fuels such as light oils (naphtha, NGL, crude oil, etc.) or shifting to LNG thermal power plants.
(3) Improvement of burning method

The method of improving the burning process by lowering the flame temperature in the boiler to minimize
emission of thermal NOx is the basic technology for reducing oxides of nitrogen and is used in the three burning
process improvement methods: two-stage combustion, gas mixed combustion, and low-NOx burners.
1) Two-stage combustion method
This method supplies the combustion air to two stages separately. Air less than the theoretical amount of air is
supplied to the 1st stage (burner) to cause partial combustion, and the compensating air necessary for full
combustion is supplied to the 2nd stage. This two-stage combustion inhibits rapid burning reaction, limits flame
temperature rise, prevents development of local high-temperature zones, and limits the amount of oxides of
nitrogen. Fig. 4.1.3-2 shows an example of two-stage combustion.
Over fire air
Fuel
Fuel
Primary air
Secondary air
Air
Fig. 4.1.3-2 Two-stage combustion method

2) Gas mixed combustion

This method supplies the combustion air mixed with a portion of the exhaust gas to the boiler. This method is
also referred to as the exhaust gas recirculation method. The air thinned with the exhaust contains less oxygen
than ambient air, delaying retarding reaction between the fuel and oxygen or the burning speed; the lower
maximum flame temperature inhibits production of nitrogen oxide. Fig. 4.1.3-3 shows an example of gas mixed
combustion method.
Secondary air resister
Tertiary
air resistor?
Venturi
Exhaust gas
Fuel
Mixer
Fuel
Air
Secondary
air
Exhaust gas
Pulverized coal +
primary air
Exhaust gas
mixing fan
Tertiary air
Exhaust gas
Fig. 4.1.3-3 Exhaust gas mixed combustion method
Secondary
air vane
Fig. 4.1.3-4 Example of low-NOx burner
(3) Low-NOx burner

Various types of low-NOx burners are developed and commercialized. They are designed based on one of the
following three principles.
1) Slow burning and diffusion mixing process
Reducing the heat release rate of the flame lowers the flame temperature and thus lowers the temperature.
2) Promotion of unequal burning
The supplied fuel does not correctly match with distributed air: the burner unevenly sprays fuel to perform
nonstoichiometric combustion.
3) Promotion of heat release of flame
By adjusting the fuel-air mixing method, the flame shape expands to the heat radiation range while shortening
the dwell time of the combustion gas at high temperature.
In practice, a low-NOx burner that combines these three methods is developed. Fig. 4.1.3-4 shows an example
of a low-NOx burner where secondary air makes contact with pulverized coal step by step to slow the burning rate
and thus improve mixing and diffusion, while a portion of exhaust gas is mixed to lower the temperature.
The two-stage combustion method and gas mixed combustion method, and a combination of these methods hve
been widely employed in Japan since 1972. Since the first installation at an oil-fired power plant in 1973, NOx
burners have been improved and installed in most thermal power plant boilers. Almost all Japanese thermal power
plants have now implemented these improved combustion methods. These plants can reduce emission of nitrogen
oxide by 20-50%.
(4) Exhaust gas NOx removal equipment

The Japanese electric industry was the first in the world to install exhaust gas denitrizers in the 1970s. Chita
Thermal Power Plant installed an exhaust gas denitrizer for clean gases, e.g., LNG, in 1978. Kudamatsu Thermal
Power Plant operated an exhaust gas denitrizer for heavy/crude oil in 1979. Shimonoseki Thermal Power Plant
operated an exhaust gas denitrizer for the coal-fired system in 1981. At the end of 2000, 154 exhaust gas
denitrification systems using the ammonia gas selective catalytic reduction method were installed.
Flue gas denitrification is broadly classified into two systems, dry and wet, and are designed based on various

principles. Among them, the exhaust gas denitrification system using the ammonia gas selective catalytic
reduction process, the dry type, is practically used with powerboilers.
Because this type of denitrification system is simple and can decompose NOx into harmless nitrogen and water
with negligible by products, it is suitable for disposing of a large amount of exhaust gas.
The principle of denitration reaction when using ammonia as the reducer is expressed as follows.
Catalyst
4NO + 4NH3 + O2 " 4N2 + 6H2O
This reaction preferentially occurs at gas temperatures between 350 and 400!C, i.e., nitrogen oxide and
ammonia react almost in an equimolar state. When this type of exhaust gas denitrizer is used for a boiler, it is
installed between the economizer and air preheater where the gas temperature is approx. 350!C, assuring at least
80% denitration efficiency.
The exhaust gas denitrizer consists of a NOx removal catalyst, a reactor vessel for storing the catalyst, and a
device that injects ammonia into the exhaust gas, as shown in Fig. 4.1.3-5. There are two arrangements for
installing the exhaust gas denitrizer: the low dust type that removes dust at the previous step of the NOx removal
equipment, and the high dust type that passes the exhaust gas from the boiler directly to the NOx removal
equipment.
The catalyst that has the largest effect on the performance of NOx removal equipment is a porous structure with
many microscopic pores into which the exhaust gas diffusing over the surface of the catalyst flows, promoting
decomposition reaction of NOx. The shape of the catalyst is grain, plate, grid, or cylinder etc.
For heavy/crude oil- and coal-fired power plants, plate- and grid-shape catalysts are preferably used to prevent
clogging. A granular catalyst is used at thermal power plants using gas only. Most catalysts are made from
titanium-type oxide with TiO2 as the catalyst support.
The denitration efficiency is 80% or more for coal-fired power plant exhaust gas.
The denitrification equipment with the ammonia selective catalytic reduction process has been used for more
than 20 years at power plants operating with clean gases such as LNG. It has a reputation for reliability.
Exhaust gas denitrizers for heavy/crude oil and coal had many defects such as deterioration and wear of the
catalyst and clogging of the catalyst layer due to dirty gases (sulfur oxide, nitrogen oxide, soot, and dust). These
problems were corrected, and the denitirizers were modified and put into service several years after denitrification
equipment with the ammonia selective catalytic reduction process (for clean gas) was employed.

Control device for NH3 injection rate

Ammonia
Soot
blower
Rectifier
Exhaust
gas
Ammonia
injection tube
Catalyst
layer
Catalyst
layer
Exhaust
gas
Catalyst
layer
Fan
NOx analyzer
Catalyst
layer
Catalyst
Buffering agent
(Spare)
Catalyst unit
Fig. 4.1.3-5 Example of denitrification equipment (selective catalytic reduction process)

Recently, large denitrification equipment is required to support large power boilers . The NOx removal
capability of a large denitrification system becomes low because the gas stream flowing through the reactor vessel
is disturbed, and the molar ratio (NH3/NOx) in the catalytic layer is not uniform. To improve system performance,
the shape of the reactor vessel has been optimized, a new NH3 injection nozzle has been developed, and a new
catalyst with higher abrasion resistance and higher activity at lower temperatures has been developed. Currently,
denitrification systems compatible with 1000 MW are in practical use.
4.1.3.3 Dust
(1) Dust source and prevention
The boiler outputs ash dust as it fires ash-containing fuel. It does not produce such dust while burning gas fuel,
e.g., LNG. However measures against soot and dust are necessary when using heavy/crude oil or coal as the fuel.
The ash contained in coal is nearly two whole orders of magnitude greater than that in heavy oil. Use of
high-quality fuel and smoke and soot collection devices are common measures to minimize soot and dust. For
power boilers associated with fuel other than gas, high-performance electric dust collectors are used.
(2) Electrostatic precipitator
The world's first electrostatic precipitator for heavy oil-fired power plant was installed at Yokosuka Thermal
Power Plant in 1966. Dry-type electrostatic precipitators as shown in Fig. 4.1.3-6 are now widely used. The
operating principle is that high voltage is applied to the discharge electrode, and corona discharge causes
suspended particulates in the exhaust gas to go to the collect electrode and accumulate on it. The accumulated
particulates are then sent to the dust chamber hopper.
Two types of dust chambers, low temperature and high temperature, are available.

Motor for discharge

electrode-rapping device
Insulator
chamber
Support
insulator
Discharge
electrode-rapping
device
Porous
plate
Discharge
electrode
Collect
electrode-rap
ping device
Discharge
electrode
frame
Collect
electrode
Hopper
partition
plate
Hopper vibrator
Fig. 4.1.3-6 Example of electrostatic precipitator

A low-temperature electrostatic precipitator is installed in the low-temperature zone (approx. 130!C) of the
outlet of the boiler air preheater. This type of electrostatic precipitator has successfully been operated for many
years with no problems in many Japanese heavy oil-fired and coal-fired power plants. A high-temperature
electrostatic precipitator is installed in the high-temperature zone (approx. 380!C) of the outlet of the boiler
economizer.
The dust collection capability of the high-temperature electrostatic precipitator greatly increases at higher
temperatures where the electrical resistance of the dust is low regardless of the type of coal. Therefore, this type of
precipitator is preferably used in coal-fired power plants that use various types of coal.
Currently, coal-fired power plants operate the wet-type desulfurization equipment in combination with either
the high- or low-temperature electrostatic precipitator, achieving a target concentration of approx. 100 mg/m3N at
the outlet of electrostatic precipitator, i.e., removing at least 99.9% dust coming from the boiler. The concentration
of dust at the outlet of chimney is 20-30 mg/m3N or below.
In some regions, for further global environment preservation, advanced coal-fired power plants are not allowed
to emit exhaust gas containing more than 10 mg/m3N dust. To meet this requirement, a wet-type electrostatic
precipitator may be used in addition to the existing conventional exhaust gas treatment system. With this system,
water spray produces water film on the entire surface of the dust-collecting electrode plate of the existing dry
electrostatic precipitator. The water film removes the dust from the electrode (electric resistance of the dust does
not affect this removal performance). The dust on the collecting electrode plate cannot scatter. These features
contribute to improves dust-collecting performance of coal-fired power plants.
Conventional dry electrostatic precipitators are usually operated at 130!C, but an increasing number of them are
recently operated at approx. 90!C. The electrical resistance of coal ash sharply drops in this lower temperature
range and is easily collected. The ash dust concentration at the outlet of chimney is 10 mg/m3N.or below.
4.1.3.4 Current exhaust gas-processing technology

(1) Exhaust gas treatment system at coal-fired power plants
The exhaust gas treatment process of Japanese thermal power plants is said to be at the top level in the world in
terms of technology and reliability. The total amounts of SOx and NOx emissions from Japanese thermal power
plants are significantly low when compared with 6 OECD industrial countries, as shown in Fig. 4.1.3-7 (
Nevertheless, Japanese coal-fired power plants are often required to have higher emission control technology,
equivalent to the level of that of oil-fired power plants, to protect the regional environment. Since emission gases

from coal-fired plants contain more sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulates than those from oil-fired plants,
comprehensive and unified measures are required. These additional countermeasures become reasonably
expensive as coal-fired power plants grow in size; they must be cost effective.
10 Electric
Power
companies +
Electric Power
Development
Co., Ltd.
Desulfurization
equipment
Dry EP (low
temperature)
Desulfurization
equipment
Desulfurization
equipment
Dry EP
(cold side)
Lowtemperature
EP method
Hightemperature
EP method
Desulfurization
equipment
Denitrification
equipment
Boiler
Denitrification
equipment
Boiler
Boiler
Dry EP (high
temperature)
Dry EP (low
temperature)
Denitrification
equipment
Boiler
Boiler
Denitrification
equipment
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Coal fired
Fig. 4.1.3-7 SOx and NOx emission/generated power from thermal power plants
Ultra cold-side
EP method
Wet
EP
Wet
EP method
Fig. 4.1.3-8 Exhaust gas treatment system in coal-fired power plant
Fig. 4.1.3-8 shows the exhaust gas treatment systems in coal-fired power plants.
With the low-temperature EP system, the EP is installed after the air preheater and the dust concentration at EP
outlet is kept between 100-200 mg/m3N to prevent the dust from adhering to the heat transfer surface of the
reheater (GGH). The soot separation configuration is employed in the gas-desulfurizing system so that the dust
removal tower is located upstream of the absorbing tower. With this new arrangement, the dust removal tower
reduces soot concentration from approx. 100 mg/m3N to several tens of mg/m3N. With the high-temperature EP
system, the EP is installed upstream of the air preheater to increase the efficiency of the EP. The dust
concentration at the outlet of gas-desulfurizing system is lower than that from the low-temperature EP system.
Recently, coal-fired power plants in suburbs of cities are often required to reduce dust concentration in their
emission from several tens of mg/m3N to below 10 mg/m3N, and that of SO2 to below 50 ppm. To meet these
requirements, they add wet-type electrostatic precipitators to the outlet of absorbing tower of the desulfurization
equipment, to improve the dust removal capacity of the existing low-temperature EP system.
These system components and devices are complex and expensive, and therefore are replaced with more
cost-effective systems: instead of wet type, the dry electrostatic precipitator is used in combination with the
desulfurization equipment and preheater (GGH): this high-performance dust-collecting system is called the
ultra-cold EP system. In this system, the GGH is installed upstream of EP to lower the gas humidity at the inlet of
EP and to increase the performance of EP. At approx. 90C where the dry electrostatic precipitator operates, the

electric resistivity of coal ash drastically drops and back discharge does not occur. This high dust-collecting
method can be applied when using a coal of type whose ash cannot be completely charged and collected. By using
the ultra-cold electrostatic precipitator, dust concentration at the outlet of the chimney can be lowered to several
mg/m3N.
(2) Dry desulfurization equipment using coal ash

A dry desulfurization technology that uses coal ash (produced at coal-fired power plants) as desulfurization
agent has been developed and commercial. Hokkaido Electric Power Co., Inc. has discovered that hardened
material containing coal ash, lime, and plaster has high desulphurization capacity, with verified efficiency of more
than 90% by testing; the company has being used it together with the dry desulfurization equipment using coal ash
at TomathoatsumaPower Plant since 1991. The company has advanced this system and modified desulfurization
agent production technology. The hydration process, included in the production process of dry desulfurization
agent using coal ash, uses steam. Using this hydration process, the company has developed a method that is
conducted during the hot water slurry state. The company calls the desulfurization agent produced by this method
LILAC (Lively Intensified Lime Ash Compound).
The desulfurization agent LILAC has higher lability with sulfur oxide than that of calcium hydroxide;
Hokkaido Electric Power Co., Inc. has studied the practical application of LILAC as a semi-dry desulfurization
agent.
The LILAC semi-dry desulfurization system sprays slurry desulfurization agent from the top of the reaction
tower, to let the agent make contact with the exhaust gas to remove sulfur. Desulfurization agent is dried to fine
particles by gas heat and then caught by the dust collector installed downstream, together with dust contained in
the gas. This system is relatively simple and requires no drainage treatment. The company started field testing of
this system in 1992 at Tomatoatsuma Power Plant and demonstrated its technical feasibility for service application.
As part of the "Green Aid Plan" proposed by the government, a commercial-size demonstration facility is installed
and operated at the Huangdao power plant in China.
(3) Electron beam irradiation exhaust gas treatment technology

The Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute and Ogihara Mfg. Co., Ltd. recognized that an exhaust gas
treatment process using the electron beam was an excellent technology because it removed sulfur and nitrogen at
the same time; they have started development of the electron beam irradiation exhaust gas treatment process in
1971.
The process can be briefly described as follows: when an electron beam is irradiated to exhaust gas, the gas
produces active species that easily initiate chemical reaction. The sulfur oxide and nitrogen oxide initiate chemical
reaction with the active species and become sulfuric acid and nitric acid, respectively, and then further react with
ammonia, to transform to ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate. Concurrently with these processes, a
thermochemical reaction process also takes place. During this process, sulfur oxide in the exhaust gas reacts with
added ammonia and water and oxygen (both also contained in the exhaust gas) and transforms to ammonium
sulfate. This process has many advantages: it performs simultaneous desulfurization and denitration; it is dry (no
drainage); it is a simple system configuration; and it uses recycled by-product as nitrogen fertilizer.
This small-scale basic test was followed by a pilot plant test using iron ore-sintering exhaust gas, and a pilot
plant test using coal combustion exhaust gas in U.S.A. to show technical feasibility. To reflect the outcomes of
these tests, the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute and Ogihara Mfg. Co., Ltd. and Chubu Electric Power Co.,
Inc. worked toward the practical use of this system by stabilizing application technologies from 1991 to 1994.
Chubu Electric Power Co., Inc. conducted a verification test at its Shin Nagoya Thermal Power Plant, using a pilot
plant capable of handling exhaust gas from 3500-kW coal-fired systems. As the result showed technical feasibility,
the company designed a 700-MW prototype whose processing cost was 10-20% less than that of conventional
systems. In 1997, a model plant using electron beam exhaust gas processing was constructed in China to verify
technical reliability and economical efficiency. The electron beam exhaust gas treatment technology has been
recognized as being suitable for use in developing countries because of its simplicity. In 2000, electron beam
irradiation exhaust gas treatment equipment was installed at the Nishi Nagoya Thermal Power Plant No.1 unit
(220 MW) for field test purposes.
(4) Exhaust gas treatment technology using activated carbon

Japanese exhaust gas desulfurization equipment and exhaust gas denitrification equipment are technically
complete and have a good performance. However, the desulfurization system using the wet limestone-gypsum
process requires a large volume of water and discharges a large amount of wastewater and by-product plasters.
The denitrification system based on the dry-type ammonia selective catalytic reduction process is slightly
challenging because the life control of the NOx removal catalyst is difficult; leaking ammonia blocks downstream
equipment.
To solve these problems, exhaust gas-processing technologies using activated coal were developed from 1980

to 1994. Electric Power Development Co., Ltd., based on the result of the pilot test conducted at Takehara
Thermal Power Plant started a field test of the dry-type desulfurization process using activated coal at Matsushima
Thermal Power Plant (gas-processing capacity: 0.3 mega m3N/h, electrical output: 90 MW) in 1980. With this
process, SOx in the exhaust gas is absorbed by activated coal and then recovered as free sulfur. Therefore, the
activated coal maintained high desulfurization performance (95% or more efficiency) and also had high
denitration performance if the concentration of SO2 in the exhaust gas was low. The company tried to further
improve denitration efficiency by passing the exhaust gas through activated carbon layer twice, and designed dry
simultaneous desulfurization and denitrification equipment; they tested this equipment at Matsushima Plant
(gas-processing capacity: 0.15 mega m3N/h, electrical output: 45 MW) by the end of FY 1994. The result showed
the expected achievement: SOx removal efficiency of 95% or more, NOx removal efficiency of 25% or more, and
soot and dust concentration at the outlet of 10 mg/m3N or below.
Following the development of exhaust gas treatment processing for pulverized coal-fired boilers, the company
started developing exhaust gas-processing technology for fluidized bed boilers in 1988 and verified its
performance by installing a 0.1- mega m3N/h demonstrative experimental equipment on the Wakamatsu fluidized
bed boiler field test facility until 1991.
The result showed the expected achievement: NOx removal efficiency of 80% or more, SOx removal efficiency
of 90% or more, and soot and dust concentration at the outlet of 30 mg/m3N or below.
Commercial NOx removal equipment designed based on these tests was installed for use with the No.2 unit
(gas-processing capacity: 1.157 mega m3N/h, electrical output: 350 MW) at Takehara Thermal Power Plant and
put into service in 1995 as the world's largest dry-type active carbon denitration equipment. The operating theory
was almost the same as the conventional denitration equipment using the dry-type selective catalytic reduction
process: allowing NOx in exhaust gas to react with ammonia (put into the denitration tower inlet) with the help of
a catalyst (active coal), decomposing into water and nitrogen. With the fluidized bed boiler, the SO2 concentration
in the exhaust gas is reduced to 100 ppm or below by the incinerator internal desulphurization function. The
combined fluidized bed boiler and active carbon denitration equipment has high NOx removal capability. A
dry-type exhaust gas treatment system utilizing activated carbon will be an appropriate environmental facility for
installation at sites where the volume of water is not available, in suburban power plants where tighter
environmental standards are applied, or in power plants using waste.
4.1.4
Water quality preservation measures
4.1.4.1 Wastewater treatment measures
(1) Types and properties of wastewater
Wastewater from thermal power plants contains steady-state water discharge (during operation) and
unsteady-state water discharge (only during machine maintenance and inspection). Steady-state water discharges
include: water discharged from machinery, containing minute quantities of acids, alkali, suspended matter, oil,
etc.; recycled water from the demineralizer to the boiler and then discharged; water discharged from
desulfurization equipment using the limestone-gypsum process; ash treatment water discharge, and so on; water
discharged from other plant facilities; and domestic wastewater (containing a large amount of organic
components) discharged by workers.
Unsteady-state water discharges include: water used to clean machines and devices during periodic
maintenance of the boiler, and turbine; and rain water from the coal-storage yard and oil tank yard. In the first case,
a large amount of water is discharged in a short period while significantly changing water quality. In the second
case, water contains oil and SS but rarely includes a large amount of other dissolved materials. Table 4.1.4-1
describes the properties of wastewater from thermal power plants.
(2) Types of wastewater treatment

Thermal power plants use the following three wastewater treatment processes: individual wastewater treatment,
the system-splitting process, and the mass mixing process. Coal-fired power plants that have implemented fuel
conversion may choose an individual wastewater treatment configuration by using the existing
wastewater-processing equipment while adding exhaust gas desulfurization wastewater treatment equipment.
New thermal power plants preferably choose the system-splitting process configuration. In this configuration,
the plant classifies the wastewater according to its source, a high-salinity or low-salinity system, to effectively use
the wastewater. The plant properly treats the high-salinity water and then discharges it to public water interface.
The plant treats the low-salinity water and recycles it, e.g., as a supplemental supply to the exhaust gas
desulfurization equipment. The mass mixing process is used for the purpose of simplifying the wastewater
processing system and reducing the footprint. With this configuration, gas-processing wastewater and general
wastewater are mixed and treated to meet the water quality standards and then discharged to the public water
interface.

Table 4.1.4-1 Properties of wastewater from thermal power plants
Others
Unsteady-state discharge Steady-state discharge
General wastewater
Type
Wastewater
(Discharge) From service water
pretreatment equipment
(Discharge) From makeup water
demineralizer
(Discharge) From condensate
water demineralizer
From ash-processing equipment
From exhaust gas denitrizer
Air preheater-cleaning water
Dust collector-cleaning water
Flue-cleaning water
Boiler chemical-cleaning water
Domestic wastewater
Quantity
50 m3 /day
Substances treated
Muddy, hydrated aluminum flock
50 to 100 m3 /day
pH 0 to 14, muddy, dissolved salt
50 to 150
pH 0 to 14, muddy, suspended

iron
pH 2 to 8, muddy
pH 1 to 3, muddy, dissolved salt
50 to 100
100 to 500
1,500 to 2,000 m3/
Once/unit, year
discharge
3
1,000 to 1,500 m /
Once/unit, year
discharge
100 to 500 m3/
Once/unit, year
discharge
1,000 to 2,000 m3/
Once/unit,
discharge
1-3 years
3
50-100 m /discharge
pH2-6, dust, iron

pH2-6, dust, iron
pH2-6, dust, iron
pH2-12, iron, inhibiter
Organic matter, muddy
(3) Wastewater treatment technology

Wastewater from the desulfurization equipment of the wet limestone-gypsum process contains SS, heavy metal,
fluorine, chlorine, COD, etc. The quantities of water and concentration of these materials in the water depend on
the fuel used, configuration of the upstream equipment and desulfurization equipment, etc. The desulfurization
wastewater treatment equipment usually consists of coagulation sedimentation equipment, a filtering device,
ion-exchange equipment, and neutralization equipment. Ash, the principal component of SS, is removed by the
coagulation sedimentation system. Fluorine is removed by first being mixed with calcium salt, e.g., hydrated lime,
to transform to calcium fluoride and then precipitated. Or it is mixed with aluminum salt, e.g., aluminum sulfate,
or magnesium salt, e.g., magnesium sulfate. Then it is absorbed by hydroxide and separated out as a result of pH
control. Heavy metals are removed by the absorption method that uses absorbent, e.g., ion-exchange resin, or by
the precipitation method that causes precipitation from hydroxide, sulfide, or chelate compound. Next, the
filtering process is as follows: refractory COD, e.g., giotin acid, and N-S compounds are processed by means of
coagulating sedimentation, activated carbon absorption, and synthetic adsorbent material. The treated water is
discharged after biological denitrification (when necessary). Sludge deposited in the sedimentation tank is
removed either as sludge cake after being condensed at a condensation tank or as low-grade plaster at
desulfurization equipment.
(4) Trend of wastewater-processing technology
The Water Pollution Control Law enacted in 1970 was largely revised in 1993 to limit the discharge of
nitrogen and phosphorus to the 18 newly specified closed coastal areas, e.g., Tokyo Bay, that will eutrophicate. In
2001, the law was revised again to specify the discharge limit of boron, fluorine, nitrate-nitrogen, and
nitrite-nitrogen. In reaction to these discharge limits, new technologies associated with wastewater-processing of
thermal power plants have been developed.
The main traditional wastewater processes were coagulating sedimentation and filtration for inorganic waste
discharge. These coagulating sedimentation and filtration systems have been improved to have high efficiency,
and the separation membrane process has been developed and put into practical use. Polymer coagulant is used,
flock is macroaggregated, and high-speed sedimentation tanks with a higher settling speed and high-speed filters
with plastic artificial filtering media are used. The total processing speed is 5 times higher than the conventional
process. Studies have been conducted to apply the separation membranes used in sewage-treatment facilities and
industrial wastewater treatment facilities to thermal power plant wastewater treatment facilities. Modified
membranes have been successfully used for over 4 years in general wastewater treatment facilities of oil-fired
power plants and in desulfurization wastewater treatment facilities of coal-fired power plants.
To comply with strict nitrogen and phosphorus discharge control, some newly built power plants process
nitrogen according to the pollution control agreement.
Some of them use a biological nitrogen removal process that has been successfully applied in sewage treatment
facilities and industrial wastewater treatment facilities. However, because the biological process requires large
space and essential operation control over load fluctuation, it is replaced by a catalyst denitrification method based
on easy-to-control physical chemistry treatment.

4.1.5
Smoke emission regulation (Article 3 of Article 5)
Emission standards are roughly divided into the general emission standard, special emission standard,
strict standard, total emission control standard, and fuel usage standard.
(1) General emission standard (smoke source-specific standard)

For nitrogen oxide (hereafter NOx), sulfur oxide (hereafter SOx), and soot and dust, the following applies:
1) NOx emission standard (concentration regulation)
The maximum NOx emission concentration allowed for individual facilities based on the type and capacity. In
the case of boilers in power plants, the standard concentration is specified according to the fuel, type of the boiler,
quantity of emission gas, and date of installation. Examples of emission standards are shown in Table 4.1.5-1.
Table 4.1.5-1 NOx emission standard (abstract)
Facility
Amount of exhaust gas

(unit: 10 thousand
m3N/h)
Over 50
10 ~ 50
Gas-burning boiler 4 ~ 10
1~4
Less than 1
Over 70
50 ~ 70
Solid fuel-burning 20 ~ 50
boiler
4 ~ 20
0.5 ~ 4
Less than 0.5
Over 50
Other boilers (liquid 10 ~ 50
fuel, liquid-gas fuel 4 ~ 10
mixed burning)
1~4
Less than 1
Special waste
Over 4
incinerator
(continuous
Less than 4
furnace.erc.)
Facilities
(unit: 10 thousand
m3N/h)
Over 4.5
Gas-burning turbine
Less than 4.5
Emission standard (ppm) of facilities

Facility installation date
On
(%)
~ Aug. 9,
1973
Aug. 10, 1973

~
Dec. 9, 1975
Dec. 10, 1975

~
June 17, 1977
June 18, 1977

~
Aug. 9, 1979
Aug. 10, 1979

~
Sept. 9, 1983
Sept. 10, 1983

~
March 31,
1987
April 1, 1987
~
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
4
4
4
4
4
130
130
130
150
150
400
420
420
450
450
480
180
190
250
250
250
130
130
130
150
150
300
300
350
350
380
480
180
180
180
250
250
100
100
130
130
150
300
300
300
300
350
480
150
150
150
150
250
60
100
100
130
150
300
300
300
300
350
380
130
150
150
150
250
60
100
100
130
150
300
300
300
300
350
380
130
150
150
150
180
60
100
100
130
150
300
300
300
300
350
350
130
150
150
150
180
60
100
100
130
150
200
250
250
250
350
350
130
150
150
150
180
12
300
300
300
250
250
250
250
12
900
900
900
900
700
700
700
~
Jan. 31, 1988
Feb. 1, 1988
~
July 31, 1989
Aug. 1, 1989
~
Jan. 31, 1991
Feb. 1, 1991
~
Jan. 31, 1994
16
70
70
70
70
16
90
70
70
70 installed on Jan. 31, 1988
16
100
100
70
70
16
120
100
100
100
Cylinder I.D.
400 mm or more
13
1,600
1,400
1,200
Cylinder I.D.
below 400 mm
13
950
950
950
Liquid fuel-burning Over 4.5

gas turbine
Less than 4.5
On
(%)
Feb. 1, 1994
~
fuel small boiler

fuel-burning small
boiler
Size
Oil equivalent
combustion
performance 50 L/h or
more and heat transfer
area below 10 m2
On
(%)
4
4
~
Sept. 9, 1986
Not
applicable
for an
undetermin
ed period
Sept. 10, 1986

Sept. 10, 1990
~
~
Sept. 9, 1990
300
350

Not applicable to facilities

or before or emergency
facilities, for an
undetermined period.
Not applicable to facilities
1,200 installed on Jan. 31, 1988
Diesel engine
Facilities
Remarks
950
or before or emergency
facilities, for an
Remarks
Not applicable for an undetermined period to small

boilers that burn gas or light liquid fuel (kerosene, light
oil, or fuel oil A) or gas-light liquid mixture fuel, and
were installed on Sept. 10, 1985 and after
350
260
2) SOx emission standard (quantitative regulation by K value)

Allowable emission specified based on its K value and calculated according to the formula below
q = K x 10-3He2
where
q
permissible emission of sulfur oxide (m3/h)
N/h
equivalent to m3/h at 0 and 1 atm
K
:constant specified to a given region (K value = 3.0-17.5: the smaller the value, the stricter the
regulation). A K value of 3.0 is applied to 6 zones: Tokyo special wards, Osaka-Sakai etc., Nagoya etc.,
Yokohama-Kawasaki etc., Kobe-Amagasaki etc., and Yokkaichi etc.
He
corrected exhaust port height (m: chimney height + smoke column height)
3) Dust emission standard (concentration regulation)

The maximum allowable emission from a facilities is determined based on its type and size. Examples of
emission standards (abstract) are shown in Table 4.1.5-2.
(2) Special emission standard
Strict standard (SOx or dust) that is to be applied to new facilities located in a region severely affected by air
pollution
(3) Strict emission standard
A strict standard (NOx or dust) that is specified by prefectural ordinance
(4) Total emission control standard (allowable emission from a specified plant)
In a region (specified region) where the emission standard for each facility is difficult to meet the regional
environmental criteria, the maximum allowable emission is allocated to each group of specified plants of certain
large scale.
Table 4.1.5-2 Dust emission standard (abstract)
Facility
Gas-fired boiler
Liquid-fired boiler
Gas-liquid mixture
fuel-fired boiler
Solid fuel-firing
boiler
General
(g/m3N)
0.05
0.10
Main rule
Special
(g/m3N)
0.03
0.05
Small boiler
0.10
0.05
Over 20
4 ~ 20
1~4
0.05
0.15
0.25
0.04
0.05
0.15
Below 1
0.30
0.15

(unit: 10 thousand m3N/h)
4 or more
Below 4
Small boiler
0.30
0.15
Over 20
4 ~ 20
Below 1
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.05
0.10
0.15
Small boiler
0.30
0.15
Gas turbine
Diesel engine
0.05
0.04
0.10
0.08
Additional rule
On
(%)
General
(g/m3N)
5
5
5
Not applicable for an undetermined period
Special
(g/m3N)
On
(%)
Not applicable for an

undetermined period
4 0.07 for the installation before May 31, 1982

Future
application
0.50 for the installation before Sept. 9, 1990
6
6
6
6
0.30 for the installation before Sept.

9, 1990
Future
application
0.15or the installation before May 31, 1982

0.50 for the installation before Sept. 9, 1990
0.30 for the installation before Sept.

9, 1990
16 Not applicable to facilities installed on Jan. 31, 1988 or before or emergency facilities, for an
13 Not applicable to facilities installed on Jan. 31, 1988 or before or emergency facilities, for an
Installed on
On
Facilites
Processing capacity
July 1, 1988
(%)
or after
Over 4
0.08
0.04
12
Waste incinerator 2 ~ 4
0.15
0.08
12
Below 2
0.25
0.15
12
* Dust emission standard concerning small boilers (oil-equivalent combustion performance of 50 L/h or more and a heat transfer area below 10 m2)
1. Not applicable to small boilers installed before Sept. 10, 1985, for an undetermined period.
2. Not applicable for an undetermined period to small boilers that burn gas or light liquid fuel (kerosene, light oil or fuel oil A) or gas-light liquid mixture fuel, and were installed on Sept. 10, 1985 and
after
Installed on
June 30, 1988
or before

For gas-fired plants, only denitration equipment is required to be installed as an environmental protection
facility. There are no particular emission-related items to be taken into consideration other than the basic
parameters shown in Table 4.1.5-3 when designing the exhaust gas treatment system.
Table 4.1.5-3 Exhaust gas treatment system layout
Boiler
Boiler
Denitrification
equipment
Boiler
Boiler
Process method
Wet process
High-temperature
EP method
Wet
desulfurization
equipment
Chimney
Dry EP (low
temperature)
Wet process
Low-temperature
EP method
Wet
desulfurization
equipment
Chimney
Denitrification
equipment
Boiler
Dry EP (high
temperature)
Denitrification
equipment
Boiler
Denitrification
equipment
System configuration
Dry EP
(cold side)
Wet process
Ultra cold EP
method
Wet
desulfurization
equipment
Chimney
Dry EP (low
temperature)
Wet
desulfurization
equipment
Wet process
Wet EP method
Wet EP
Chimney
Dry denitration
&
desulfurization
equipment
Dry EP
Denitrification
equipment
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler
Coal fired
Boiler
Boiler
Combustion
method
Dry EP

Chimney
Dry process
Denitration &
desulfurization
simultaneous process
(Example of individual
process)
Chimney
Dry process
Denitration &
desulfurization
simultaneous process
(Example: installation of
denitration equipment)
Dry denitration
&
desulfurization
equipment
4.2 Dust Precipitator

In the case of the thermal power plants in Japan, effort has been concentrated on switching over to nonpetroleum fuel, mainly composed of coals, from petroleum fuel, in an effort to cope with the oil-crisis that
occurred in 1973. In addition, such fuels as heavy oil, petroleum coke, etc. have become used in recent years in
order to diversify the types of fuels.
With such sudden change in the fuel type and increasing social pressure to reduce atmospheric pollution, new
dust collection technology is being sought. With respect to coal, which is presently playing the main role in the
course of fuel switchover, various new issues have been raised against electrostatic dust collection technology
through such facts that the dust content (fly ash) the coal generates reaches 100 times or more of that being
generated by heavy oil fuel, that we are forced to rely on the import of coal itself, that much of the imported coal
generates dust with higher apparent electric specific resistance due to low sulfur content, etc.
In addition to the measures to remove dust, it has become necessary to develop new dust collection technology
that enables the system to treat exhaust smoke, including treatment of such gases as sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen
oxides (NOx), etc.
In this Section, the points of issue in the planning of dust precipitators for thermal power generation in relation
to such diversifying needs and recent technological performance are explained.
4.2.1
Direction toward high-efficiency dust collection technology
4.2.1.1
To understand the points of issue
Dust precipitators are essential facilities for the thermal power plants, and are not considered as ancillary
facilities any more. As seen in the opinions of the users below, equivalent or higher requirements, including
reliability, than the thermal power plant itself are demanded of dust precipitators.
(1) It must exhibit its planned efficiency without fail.
(2) It must maintain high-efficiency for a long period of time.
(3) It must exhibit stable efficiency even when conditions vary.
(4) It must have a long service life, and must be easy to inspect and/or maintain.
The electrostatic precipitator (hereinafter referred to as "EP"), which has been employed in almost all cases as
dust precipitator for thermal power plant, exhibits easily in general very high collection efficiency. While it is
superior to any other types of dust collector in terms of operation costs (energy cost, maintenance cost, etc.), it
tends to be affected by physical and chemical natures of treated gas and dusts, because the dust and gas are treated
electrically. It involves many issues to be solved through experimental engineering.
With the recent increasing requirements for collection efficiency, EP having high collection efficiency has
become popular. However, such high efficiency is difficult to maintain with fluctuation in the nature of the gas
and the dust. Plans to develop EP that has a capacity to allow such fluctuations are underway. EP itself has
become a large scaled facility.
As such large scale facilities are not economic, research to capture the controlling factors over the collection
efficiency has been promoted by analyzing actual performance. In theory, reliable high-efficiency of the facility
can be established with smaller safety factor as the number of the data in the past becomes larger. The technical
target for the time being is based on this point.
Recent dust collection technology has aimed at measures for collecting "particulates" and "high resistant dust."
In addition to improvement of the collection capability of dust onto the collecting electrode, such a study is
presently underway to improve the mechanism for dropping the collected dust on the electrode plate and a method
for preventing the dust from flying away during dropping, to develop a conventional mechanism and to achieve
high-efficiency in order to secure the level of the marginal concentration of outlet soot and dust in a stable manner
for a long period of time.

4.2.1.2 Procedures for planning a dust precipitator
When planning a dust precipitator, it is required to study all factors from every angle such as capturing each
factor of the gas and dust being generated from the source, studying the layout, operation, reliability, etc. The
procedures for planning a dust precipitator are explained below.
(1) Investigation of the dust source

Investigate and understand in a complete manner the amount of gas to be handled, the nature of the gas, dust
content, components of the dust, physical and chemical nature of the dust, etc. Investigate further the process of
dust generation and the operation conditions of the dust generator and the overall layout of the plant.
(2) Setting of targets
Set the dust concentration level at the outlet of the dust precipitator by giving consideration to the exhaust
standards under applicable laws, the values established in the related territory and required values from the plant
393
system, etc.
(3) Deciding the type of dust precipitator

Giving consideration to the collection efficiency, energy saving of the entire system, and labor saving, etc.,
select the model from electric type, filtering type, etc. At the same time, determine the layout of the dust
precipitator and front/rear flue.
(4) Planning of accompanying facilities
Plan facilities accompanying the dust precipitator such as ash handling equipment, ammonia filling equipment,
waste water treatment equipment, etc.
(5) Cost calculation
Investigate a suitable facility having economic advantages by calculating the costs and expenses required for
construction, operation, maintenance, etc.
Following the above procedures, plan your ideal dust precipitator. The most important item among the above
procedures is an investigation of the dust source. If this investigation has been carried out in an inaccurate and/or
incorrect manner, double or triple investments may become necessary in the future. In addition, accidents or
insufficient performance may be caused.
4.2.1.2 Dust density concentration and smoke color
Diameter of chimney:10 m
Dust absolute specific gravity:21
Desulfurization equipment
Particle diameter 5 m
Boiler
NOx removal equipment
Particle diameter 2 m
Particle diameter 1.5 m
Air heater
Visible
from timeto-time
Level of growing
hazy on average,
depending on the
weather
Transparent but
range perceptible
like a heat haze
Electrostatic precipitator
Gas/gas heater
Chimney
Light transmissivity of smoke (%)
Invisible range
Visible range
Suction fan
Bypass damper
Forced draft fan
Particle
diameter
0.6 m
Particle
diameter
0.4 m
Fig. 4.2.2-1 Flow of exhaust smoke treatment
Dust concentration [mg/m3 (normal)]

(Calculation by Lambert-Beer law)
Fig. 4.2.1-1 Dust concentration and light transmissivity

of smoke
With respect to the smoke color, the scattered

light is recognized by the observer's eyes as
"smoke". Its level of shade becomes larger when
the total of the surface areas of particles becomes
larger in addition to the weight concentration.
Namely, as the particle diameter becomes smaller,
the smoke becomes darker.
Here, using the Lambert-Beer law, the
relationship between the dust concentration and
light transmissivity is shown in Fig. 4.2.1-1.

As shown in Fig. 4.2.1-1, the smoke color differs depending
on the particle diameter even when the dust concentration is
the same.
Therefore, in order to prevent any visible smoke, removal of
very fine sub-micron particles is essential in addition to the
reduction of dust concentration. A dust precipitator of highefficiency is therefore required.
394
Discharge electrode
Collecting electrode
4.2.2 Dust precipitator for coal fired boiler

All of the dust precipitators currently used in Japan to treat
the exhaust gas from coal fired boilers of thermal power plants
are electrostatic dust precipitators. The flow of the
conventional and the general type system is shown in the
Fig.4.2.2-1.
4.2.2.1 Outline of EP
4.2.2.1.1 Principles and characteristics
As shown in Fig. 4.2.2-2, EP provides electric charge to the
dust contained in the gas by utilizing corona discharge and
DC high pressure
Ionized area
Gas ion or electron

Charged particles
Dropped by rapping
Fig. 4.2.2-2
separates/collects electrically from the gas through the function of electric field (Coulomb force). In addition, EP
has the following characteristics;
(1) Due to static coagulation effect, collection of fine particles becomes possible, resulting in highefficiency.
(2) The gas speed within EP is 0.5 - 1.5 m/s in general. The pressure loss is as small as 0.1 - 0.2 kPa,
thereby the operation costs can be reduced.
(3) Such nature of the gas/dust as the particle diameter of dust, gas temperature, humidity, etc. can be
broadly utilized.
4.2.2.1.2 Structure of EP
Almost all of the EP presently used for thermal power generation is of the dry-type. A parallel plain type of
collecting electrode is used. The basic structure of a dry-type EP is shown in Fig. 4.2.2-3.
AC high voltage
generator
Motor for hammering the
discharge electrode
EP is composed of the following items;

(1) Discharge electrode to perform
corona discharge
Position to focus the duct
(2)
Collecting
electrode to collect the
Exit focusing duct
dust charged by the above corona
discharge
(3) Rapping device to give
vibration to peel off the dust collected
Discharge
and attract it to the electrode surface
electrode
(4) Distribution plate to distribute the gas
Gas distribution
flow speed evenly within the dust
plate
collection chamber
Rapping device
(5)
Insulator to electrically insulate the
Hopper
discharge
electrode from the grounding
Collecting
electrode
electrode
(6) Dust collecting chamber to house
built-in items and the outer shell of the
Fig. 4.2.2-3 Example of the structure of the dry-type EP
hopper, etc. to lead the collected dust to
(Frame type)
ash treatment process
(7) Charging equipment to apply high voltage between the discharge electrode and the collecting electrode
(8) The corona current is adjusted in such a manner that most effective electrostatic dust collection can be
achieved. A control panel with built-in automatic controller
Manhole
porcelain bushing room
4.2.2.2
Characteristics of the dust emitted from a coal fired boiler and points to be noted when
planning
4.2.2.2.1 Comparison with the dust emitted from a heavy oil fired boiler
The nature of the exhaust gas from a boiler varies largely depending on the type of fuel, its nature and its firing
method.
Typical examples of the nature of exhaust gas/dust from heavy oil and coal are shown in Table 4.2.2-1;
Table 4.2.2-1 Comparison of natures of exhaust gas/dust from heavy oil and coal fired boilers
Item
Gas amount
Gas temperature
Gas pressure
Dust content at the inlet
Diameter of dust particle
Components of dust
SiO2
Al2O3
SO3
C
Electric resistance factor
Apparent specific gravity
%
!C
kPa
g/m3
(normal)
m
Wt%
Wt%
Wt%
Wt%
"-cm
g/cm3
Heavy oil firing

100
130 to 150
0 to +1.0
(Forced draft)
0.05 to 0.15
Coal firing
About 120
130 to 150
-2.0 to -0.5
(Balanced draft)
10 to 20
1 to 3
20 to 30
Ash content 15 to 20
25 to 35
50 to 60
104 to 108
0.1 to 0.2
60 to 75
15 to 20
0.3 to 0.7
0.4 to 0.8
1010 to 1013
0.6 to 0.8
395
Accumulative weight frequency (Wt %)
Possibility of re-entrainment of dust

Possibility of sticking
Possibility of wearing
Flying dust coming from heavy oil firing
EP inlet
Flying dust
coming from
coal firing
Particle diameter (m)
Large
Small
Small
Large
Small
Large
When comparing heavy oil with coal, the ash content in
the coal fuel is larger than that of heavy oil by 100 - 200
times. The dust content in its exhaust gas is 100 times or
more that of heavy oil. In addition, the dust has a
characteristic of very high electric specific resistance.
Next, an example of the distribution of particle

diameters measured at the inlet of an actual EP is shown in
Fig. 4.2.2-4 below. In order to attain such high efficiency
of dust concentration of 40 - 50 mg/m3 or less at the outlet
for both heavy oil and coal, a dust precipitator that can
collect sub-micron particles of 1 micron meter ( m) or less
is required.
Fig. 4.2.2-4 Distribution of particle diameters of boiler

dust
Surface conductive area
(1) Exhaust gas temperature

(2) Amount of water and SO3 contained in the exhaust gas
(3) Nature of coal and components of the dust
Current specific resistance ("/cm)
4.2.2.2.2 Electric specific resistance of dust and collection efficiency

As shown in Fig. 4.2.2-5, the efficiency of dust collection by EP varies largely depending on the electric
specific resistance of the dust. When planning EP, it is necessary to check this point in advance.
Most of the issues relating to the poor performance experienced in the past have been caused by this electric
specific resistance.
The difference in the electric specific resistance of the dust is
mainly caused by the following items;
Volume
conductive area
The relationship between the gas temperature and electric

Large
specific resistance of the dust is shown in Fig. 4.2.2-6 below. In
general, when the temperature is in the range of 120 - 180!C, the
resistance becomes largest. This is caused by the difference of
the current running through dust particles in the low temperature
area and high temperature area. As shown in Fig. 4.2.2-7 below,
the current runs easily on the particle surfaces because the water
Gas temperature (!C)
or SO3 in the gas is adsorbed in the low temperature area.
Fig.
4.2.2-6
Relationship
between electric specific
However, this effect becomes smaller as the temperature rises.
resistance of flying ash and gas temperature
Collection efficiency
Current/voltage
Dust collection efficiency
Voltage
Current
Electric specific resistance of dust (/cm)

Function drop due to
jumping phenomenon
Normal Range
Dust from High-S coal Electric charge

is unstable
Efficiency
Dust with NH3 filling specific to heavy oil
drops
Dust from LowS coal
Dust without NH3 filling specific to heavy oil
396
Function drop
due to back
corona
phenomenon

Fig. 4.2.2-5 Relationship between electric specific resistance of dust and collection efficiency
Collecting
electrode
(1) Surface conduction: More effective

when more water and SO3 is
contained in the gas and the
gas temperature is low
Negative ion
(2) Volume conduction: More effective
when more alkali metals are
contained in the flying ash and
the gas temperature is high
Fly ash
To the contrary, in the high temperature area, the

current flowing through the particles becomes
overwhelming, which is affected by alkali metals
(Na, K, etc.) The trend of electric specific resistance
of dust due to the coal and nature of ash is shown in
Fig. 4.2.2-8. This figure confirms that the factors
that affect electric specific resistance vary largely
depending on the type of coal.
Fig. 4.2.2-7 Surface conduction and volume conduction
High alkali content

Low sulfur content
Electric resistance (/cm)
4.2.2.2.3 Estimation of fly ash collection capability (4)

Different from heavy oil, the nature of coal varies
largely depending on its origin of production and the era
it has been created. Therefore, the capability of collecting
fly ash varies depending on it. For boiler plants in Japan
where imported coal is fired, it is necessary to make
exact estimation of the fly ash collection capacity and
based on which, to determine the EP capacity and general
exhaust smoke treatment system and select the coal for
use.
Many researches and studies have been conducted to
estimate the fly ash collection capability by assuming the
electric specific resistance from the ash contents and
estimating the dust collection capability, etc. An
estimation method having relatively high accuracy has
been developed.
Low alkali content

Low sulfur content
Low alkali content

High sulfur content
High alkali content

High sulfur content
Gas temperature
Fig. 4.2.2-8 Electric specific resistance of flying ash
397
4.2.2.2.4 Points to be noted when planning

In Japan, we are forced to rely on imported coal. Ash dust with high resistance may be generated. In addition,
multiple types of coal are sometimes used. Technologies are required to minimize the dust soot and dust by giving
full consideration to the economic performance. Especially in the case of high electric specific resistance, an
abnormal event such as a back corona specific to electrostatic dust precipitator may occur, which largely reduces
the collection efficiency.
resistance of dust (p) is high.
Electric specific resistance of dust (p) is high.
Dust collection Dust layer

electrode
Discharge
electrode
Negative electric charge will be accumulated on the

surface of dust layer.
Voltage load on the dust layer becomes heavier.

Dust
Dust layer
precipitator Dust with high Discharge electrode
VEP: EP voltage
resistance
Vdb: Voltage to the
accumulated layers
of normal dust
Vd: Voltage to the
accumulated layers
of dust with high
Normal dust
resistance
Ld: Thickness of dust
Accumulated Discharging
layer
layers Ld
space Lg
Ed: Vd/Ld
Particles with
negative charge due to
corona discharge
State of back corona
Ed > Eb
Back corona
Eb: Electric field
strength of
breakdown
caused by dust
Dust layer
Dust
collection
electrode
Discharge electrode
Breakdown
Plus ion
discharged from
dust collection
electrode by a
breakdown
Particle with negative charge due
to corona discharge
Fig. 4.2.2-9 Explanation of back corona phenomenon

A back corona is, as shown in Fig. 4.2.2-9, a phenomenon that generates electric potential according to Ohm's
law due to the electric resistance of the dust layer itself, when current runs over the layer of dust collected on the
collecting electrode plate.
The electric field strength becomes larger within the dust layer when the electric resistance is high. When the
electric field strength exceeds a given level, a breakdown is caused within the dust layer and plus ion having
reversed polarity of applied voltage is discharged in the dust collection space. This is called a back corona
phenomenon. The negative electric charge of dust particles moving in the direction of the collecting electrode
plate from the discharge electrode is electrically neutralized. Therefore, no dust is collected, resulting in a large
reduction of the collection efficiency.
The conditions for this back corona to occur are shown by the formula below:
Ed = id x d > Eb (1)
Where, Ed, id and d respectively represent the electric field strength of the dust layer, density of the current
running through the dust layer and the electric specific resistance of dust. Eb is the breakdown electric field
strength of the dust layer.
Incidentally, this breakdown electric field strength is generally regarded as about 10 - 20 kV/cm in the case of
fly ash.
4.2.2.3 EP for coal fired boiler

With respect to the EP in the exhaust smoke treatment system, there are 3 types of EP classified according to
the features of the before and behind related facilities as shown in Fig. 4.2.2-10, namely, hot-side EP to be
installed in the upstream of an air heater (AH), cold side EP to be installed in the downstream and cold side EP
with the heat recovery side of a gas gas heater (GGH) installed between AH and EP.
Hot-side EP
The use of hot-side EP started during 1970s in the USA at coal fired power plants. The electric specific
resistance is lowered in the high temperature area at the outlet of the boiler economizer (Eco). By making best use
of such characteristics, EP was adopted. Therefore, hot-side EP is able to collect fly ash that could not be collected
by conventional cold side EP.
However, with respect to the type of coal having a small amount of Na2O in the dust, the electric specific
resistance does not drop to the level at which EP can be used in the high temperature area. Therefore, the type of
coal for use must be examined.
In addition, because hot-side EP is operated in a high temperature range between 320 - 360C, it is required to
select suitable materials for its structure which is able to endure high temperature in comparison with cold side EP
and give full consideration to the deformation possibly caused by heat, shrinkage/expansion by heat, etc.
398
Cold side EP
Cold side EP to be installed in the low temperature area at the outlet of boiler AH enjoys the longest operation
record since its adoption for coal fired power plant during the 1950s. This EP exhibits satisfactory reliability as
well.
Hot-side EP system
Gas temperature
350
( C)
NOx removal
equipment
Hot-side EP
Boiler
To chimney
350
GGH
Desulfurization
equipment
GGH
Desulfurization
equipment
A/H
Cold side EP system

To chimney
Gas temperature
( C)
350
Boiler
350
NOx removal
equipment
130
130
Cold side EP
A/H
Ultra-cold side EP system
GGH
(Heat
recovery)
To chimney
Desulfurization
equipment
Gas temperature
( C)
Boiler
350
350
NOx removal
equipment
130
A/H
90
GGH
(Heat recovery)
90
Ultra-cold side EP
Fig. 4.2.2-10 Comparison among exhaust smoke treatment systems

However, the drop in collection efficiency due to high resistance dust is an issue. The following measures will
be required for the related facilities;
(1) High resistance dust tends to strongly stick to the collecting electrode and it is difficult to peel off the stuck
dust by hammer rapping. Therefore, a collection electrode that can convey the impact from a hammer by
rapping with a better effect is required.
(2) When dust sticks to the electrode, the discharge current is suppressed, causing the efficiency to deteriorate
over time. It is necessary to adopt a discharge electrode having a shape suitable for the discharge
characteristics.
(3) It is necessary to adopt a system to control the charged current intermittently which is accumulated on the
collecting electrode.
(4) It is necessary to enlarge the EP capacity in order to improve the collection efficiency,
Ultra-cold side EP
Ultra-cold side EP is a system that utilizes the characteristics of the fly ash, of which electric specific resistance
drops in the temperature area of 100 or lower, which is caused by the relationship between the electric
specific resistance of fly ash and gas temperature, as shown in Fig. 4.2.2-6. In order to lower the gas temperature,
the heat recovery side of GGH, which was used to be installed before the desulfurization equipment, is now
installed between AH and EP.
Next, the advantages of ultra-cold side EP are introduced below;
(1) Improvement of the collection efficiency through the drop in the dust electric specific resistance, caused by
the gas temperature drop
(2) Small-sized EP due to the reduction of the gas amount to be treated
4.2.2.4 New dust collection technology
In order to treat high resistance dust, EP having a far larger capacity than dust with excellent collection
efficiency is required. To that end, various types of technology to cope with high resistance dust have been
developed.
In Table 4.2.2-2, technologies to improve the efficiency against high resistance dust are introduced. The main
items from the table are explained below;
399
4.2.2.4.1 Movable electrode type EP

(1) Principles
The cause of the drop in efficiency of EP due to high resistance dust is the collecting electrode being covered
by dust, namely, by an electric insulation layer, because the dust collected on the collecting electrode had not been
fully removed, thus resulting in an abnormal electric discharge.
The dust collected on the collecting electrode is normally removed by hammering. However, in the case of
movable electrode type EP, the dust collected on the collecting electrode is completely scraped off by a rotating
brush. Thus EP efficiency is prevented from dropping and its deterioration as time passes by can be prevented,
which resulted in admirable operation records of the power generation boilers.
(2) Structure
The structure of movable electrode type EP is as shown in Fig. 4.2.2-11. The collecting electrode, divided into
rectangular shape, is connected via link chain. While moving at a very low speed (about 0.5 m/min), the electrode
collects the dust. The dust collected by the collecting electrode is almost completely scraped off by a rotating
brush. The movable electrode type EP has been used by various industries, including power generation plants,
such as glass melting furnaces, sludge incinerators, sintering exhaust gas from steel works, cement kilns, etc.
Table 4.2.2-2 Technology to improve the efficiency for high resistance dust
(1)
(2)
(3)
Countermeasures against high resistance dust

Complete removal of dust
Wet type, movable electrode type
To raise temperature
Adoption of hot-side EP
Adoption of ultra-cold side EP
Refining To lower temperature
To inject refining agent
Injection of SO3, Na, etc
agent
High-S coal mixed with high-S heavy oil, or mixed
Mixed coals, mixed fuel firing
fuel firing
Temperature
To control the current running
Intermittent charge
To control charging
through dust layer
Pulse charge
To isolate the charged portion
Stand-by charging equipment
and dust collection portion
To eliminate the dust layer
Reduction of electric resistance
400
Wheel for
movement
Collecting electrode
driving unit
Rotation
direction
Link chain
Dust collection
area
Roller chain
Collecting
electrode Gas
Discharge electrode
Rotating brush
Guide
Dust noncollection area

Lower roller
With respect to the adoption of a coal firing

boiler, economic advantages have been taken into
consideration such that a movable electrode type
EP has been used, as shown in Fig. 4.2.2-12, in
the field at the far rear portion of EP where
scraping off of dust is difficult by a simple
hammer rapping method.
4.2.2.4.2 Refining of gas/dust

As a measure to improve the collection
efficiency for high resistance fly ash, a gas
refining system has been developed. Available
refining agents include injected water/steam and
NH3,
TEA
such
chemicals
as SO3,
(Triethylamine) and Na, etc. Major refining
agents are introduced below;
Roller chain
Rotating brush driving unit
(1) Injected SO3

SO3 is the most effective one as a refining
agent. There are many examples of use for cold side EP in the USA, Europe and Australia as a measure to
improve the efficiency when using coal containing low level sulfur.
About 10 - 30 ppm SO3 refining agent is injected in the upstream duct of EP. By lowering the electric specific
resistance of fly ash by letting SO3 be adsorbed on the surface of fly ash particles, the collection efficiency is
improved. It is rare that this SO3 injection system is planned for adoption from the start in foreign countries. There
are many cases of adoption of SO3 injection in order to improve the efficiency, in such events that the type of coal
is to be changed, the planned efficiency cannot be attained, or exhaust gas regulation has been reinforced. (This is
the case with other refining methods as well.)
In Fig. 4.2.2-13, the amount of SO3 injection and the results of collection efficiency (by pilot EP) are shown. As
can be seen, a remarkably improved efficiency has been attained and it is effective for various types of coal.
Depending on the type of coal however, almost no efficiency improvement has been attained.
Injected SO3 reacts with the Ca content within the fly ash and is adsorbed to it and collected by EP. It is thought
that no secondary environmental pollution would be caused by residual SO3 if not injected excessively. However,
this SO3 system has not yet been introduced into actual use in Japan.
Particle diameter is
rough resulting in
excellent peeling
off of dust.
Fixed electrode
hammer rapping
method
EP outlet side
Particle diameter is
small resulting in a
difficulty to peel
off the dust
Movable brushing
method
Chinese A-coal
Dust collection efficiency (%)
EP inlet side
High efficiency dust

collection
High resistance dust
Fig. 4.2.2-11 Structure of movable electrode type EP
Canadian A-coal
Australian A-coal
Mixture of Chinese A-coal

and Australian C-coal
Australian B-coal
SO3 injection amount (ppm)

Combined EP
Fig. 4.2.2-12 Application of a movable electrode type EP

to a coal fired boiler
(2) Na injection
401
Fig. 4.2.2-13 SO3 injection amount and collection

efficiency
This system has been employed mainly in the USA to cope with the efficiency deterioration of hot-side EP over
time and a remarkable improvement effect has been confirmed.
The hot-side EP used in the USA displayed excellent collection efficiency at the start of operation, but its
efficiency deteriorated over time. Although it was operated under high temperature conditions, phenomena of
back corona occurred, which was thought to be because the electric specific resistance had been raised due to the
exhaustion of alkali metals (Na, K, etc.) which should act as an ion carrier inside the fly ash layer.
As a result of injection of Na (Na2SO3, Na2CO3, etc) in order to replenish the Na in the accumulated layer of fly
ash on this electrode, it was confirmed that remarkable efficiency improvement had been attained.
In addition, as a result of injection tests into cold side EP, instead of hot-side EP, for a type of coal with very
poor collection efficiency, excellent efficiency improvement effect has been observed in many test cases.
4.2.2.4.3 Wet type EP

Wet type EP has the highest efficiency among EPs without being affected by the electric specific resistance of
the dust. However, there remain such issues that a huge amount of water is used, it is not suitable for high dust
concentration, etc. However this model is most suitable for collecting dust and mist at the outlet side of wet type
desulfurization equipment in the boiler gas exhaust system. It has already been put into practical use as part of a
high efficiency smoke exhaust treatment system.
Wet type EP has long been adopted as an industrial EP, but most types do not have large capacity. Therefore,
its structure has been considered, etc. The structure of wet type EP is shown in Fig. 4.2.2-14. For thermal power
plants, a flat plate type collecting electrode has been used in order to treat a huge volume of gas. The system
creates a liquid film over the collecting electrode surface from spraying nozzles from above and drains down the
dust that arrives at the collecting electrode together with the liquid film. For the discharge electrode, it has been
designed to stabilize the collection efficiency by adopting a structure having a needle tip in order to prevent the
discharge current from being suppressed by mist coming from desulfurization equipment.
Insulator
Water washing piping
(Intermittent spray)
Charging unit
Water washing piping for dust
collection electrode plate
(Continuous spray)
Outlet of cleaned
air
Inlet of air containing

dust
Outlet of smoke duct
Artificial distribution
diagram
Artificial smoke duct
Discharge electrode
Collecting electrode plate

Hopper
Water sealing unit
Fig. 4.2.2-14 Structure of wet type flat plate type EP

4.2.2.4.4 Bag filter (BF)
In most cases, bag filters are used for general industrial purpose at steel works. BF for coal fired power plants
was, as the case of hot-side EP, put into practical use mainly in the USA. In the USA, BF for coal fired power
plants of 175 MW class was first installed in 1973. In Australia, BF for coal fired power plants of 30 MW was
also installed in the same year.
BF is not affected by the type of coal in most cases, as shown in Table. 4.2.2-3, and high efficiency can be
attained, in comparison with EP. To the contrary, there remain such issues that draft loss is large, large space is
required for installation, the life of the filtering cloth is critical, etc. However, because stable collection efficiency
can be expected, BF is being reconsidered in the USA and Australia as a dust precipitator for coal fired power
plants. Presently, about BF 100 units are in operation or under planning.
Incidentally in Japan, BF has already been put into practical use for industrial coal fired boilers but not yet for
thermal power plants, due to such issues as the economic effect compared with EP, ease of maintenance, etc. in
402
relation to the requirement for dust collection installation as an exhaust smoke treatment system of high efficiency,
difference in the collection efficiency, etc.
BF is a system for filtering the particles on the surface of the filtering cloth. As a dust collection function,
inertia adsorption, cut off adsorption, etc. are used. As a dust scraping off structure, the scraping off method of the
back wash type and the scraping off method of the pulse jet type are available. The scraping off method of the
pulse jet type has become mainstream in recent years.
Table 4.2.2-3 Comparison of BF (bag filter) for coal fired power plant with EP
No.
1
Item
Collection efficiency
Maintenance
3
4
5
Pressure loss
Running cost
Practical use
BF (Bag filter)
Without being critically affected
by the variation of coals, stable
collection efficiency can be
attained.
Periodical replacement of
filtering cloth is required. (About
once every 2 - 3 years)
High (1.0 - 1.5 kPa)
Large
In America and Australia
No practical use in Japan
EP
Depending on the type of coal,
the collection efficiency varies.
One maintenance/year is
sufficient.
Low (0.2 kPa)
Small
Many practical uses are found in
the world.
4.2.2.4.5 Electrostatic bag filter

When compared with the electrostatic dust precipitator, the collection efficiency of a bag filter of particles
having a diameter of about 0.1 m is poorer and the pressure loss becomes several times higher. An electrostatic
bag filter has been developed in order to improve such disadvantages, which has already been put into practical
use in the steel works industry.
As shown in Fig. 4.2.2-15, an electrostatic charger is placed in front of a bag filter, where an electric charge is
given to the dust contained in the gas by corona discharge and the dust is collected by the filtering cloth positioned
at a later stage. The dust charged by the electrostatic charger promptly sticks to the surface of the filtering cloth to
form a dust layer. In addition, even the subsequent charged fine particles are caught without passing through the
fine holes of the filtering cloth and/or dust layer, because such subsequent charged fine particles receive
electrostatic repulsion from the dust stuck to the surface having the same polarity as the charged dust.
In Fig. 4.2.2-16, escaping dust at the start of the operation of a bag filter and the effect of the charge, which
affects the collection efficiency after the primary stuck layer has been formed, are shown. It is possible to reduce
the dust concentration at the outlet to several mg/m3 level or less through electrostatic repulsion of charged dust
from the initial stage of operation. In addition, the time required to reach stable collection efficiency has been
reduced to about 1/3 (one third) of conventional models.
On the other hand, the charged dust is collected in an uneven manner on the surface of filtering cloth and the
empty space of a dust layer becomes larger. The pressure loss is reduced by about 30 - 40 % in 4 kV/cm charge in
comparison with conventional models.
Particle
Filtering cloth
Discharge electrode
Grounding
electrode
Electrostatic charger
High voltage power source
Fig. 4.2.2-15 Dust collection mechanism by electrostatic bag filter
403
4.2.2.4.6 Pulse charge system

Dust concentration at the outlet of a bag filter [mg
m3(normal)]
If the current is suppressed excessively in order to prevent

back corona from occurring, the efficiency of the
conventional type EP drops because remarkably uneven
Conventional
distribution occurs in the corona current from the discharge
bag filter
electrode. On the other hand, if high voltage is applied to the
discharge electrode in a pulse fashion for a very short period
of time, the corona current generating from the discharge
electrode distributes evenly over the entire discharge
electrode.
In addition, by changing the wave height value (voltage),
width
and frequency in an adequate manner, improvement
Electrostatic bag filter
of charge becomes possible by obtaining much higher peak
(E = 4 kV/cm)
voltage than with a DC charge, resulting in improvement of
the collection efficiency. This pulse charge system is
attracting attention worldwide and research for its practical
use is underway.
In Table 4.2.2-4 below, the conventional and new
Time (min)
charging systems are compared. The pulse charge is roughly
divided into a millisecond pulse and a microsecond pulse
Fig. 4.2.2-16 Effect of charge affecting the
depending on the width of the pulse voltage to be applied to
escaping dust at an initial stage of operation
the EP.
An intermittent charging system is available for a millisecond pulse charge, which makes it possible to save
energy and at the same time to improve the dust moving speed by 1.2 times in the case of high resistance dust.
With respect to the microsecond pulse, efficiency improvement has been observed with the EPs already installed
on coal fired boilers and cement kilns mainly in Europe and the USA.
A pulse charge has several advantages over a conventional DC charge. The main reason why it has not been put
into practical use widely is the fact that the cost of the power source unit is high and the pulse power source is
insufficiently reliable. For the power source unit, high speed switching element, charging and combining
condenser, a power source to generate pulse, etc. are required in addition to a general high voltage power source.
It is reported that its cost would be about 5 times that of the conventional charging system.
Table 4.2.2-4 Comparison between conventional and new charging systems
System
No.
Conventional charging
system
Item
DC superimposing pulse charging

system
DC charging system
Charging
DC
New charging system
DC
DC
Impossible to suppress back corona
Even corona
High spark
generating voltage
4
5
Energy
saving
Wave form of
applied voltage
Effect of
collection
efficiency
Structure of
circuit
Serviceability
"
Charging
Suppression of
back corona
Suppression of
back corona
t1: 10 to 100 ms
t2: 20 to 200 !s
t1: 5 to 10 ms
t2: 1 to 100 !s
3
Superimposing
charge
Sudden pulse
Method/principle
Power consumption increases
Superimposing
charge
DC intermittent charging
system
Characteristics
100
100 to 180
100 to 120
Simple
Complicated
Simple
Good
Pace (Poor collection
efficiency against high
resistance dust)
"
"
Troublesome
Able to apply strong charge to the
dust because the peak voltage is
very high
As the current density is even,
high average current can be
applied and is effective for high
resistance dust
404
"
"
Good
The peak voltage improves
and the collection
efficiency can be improved
for high resistance dust
Large energy saving effect
Therefore, issues to be solved in the future are the reduction of the power source unit, which could determine
the future of the pulse charge and establishment of reliability.
4.2.2.4.7 Technology to control EP through use of microcomputer

This technology is not a countermeasure against high resistance dust as explained above, but it is a controlling
technology to control the dust concentration at an EP outlet using an automatic control of the power source or dust
concentration monitor through remarkably advancing computer engineering.
The collection efficiency of EP varies largely depending on the type of gas to be treated and the amount and
density of dust. The operation condition of a plant changes at every moment and the content or concentration of
gas or dust fluctuates accordingly. Therefore, the requirements for the efficiency of the dust precipitator change as
well. The conventional dust precipitator is used at its maximum charged voltage and current. However, a new type
of operation method has been developed and already put into practical use that can maintain the dust
concentration at the outlet of the dust precipitator at a constant level according to the amount of gas to be treated
and the dust concentration and thereby can save energy.
(1) Outline of the system
An outline of the power saving controlling operation is shown in Fig. 4.2.2-17. It is a combined controlling
system of "Load responding control" to control the charge amount of EP by load signal of the gas amount to be
treated and/or dust soot and dust concentration and "Constant dust concentration control" to maintain the dust soot
and dust concentration at almost constant level by detecting the concentration using the dust soot and dust
concentration meter installed at the outlet of dust precipitator.
As the amount of charge required for EP is controlled by a microcomputer and output to the charging unit in
such a manner that the set value for the dust soot and dust concentration at the outlet is maintained by always
catching up with any fluctuation in the load condition.
(2) Results of practical use
Figure 4.2.2-18 shows the control of constant dust soot and dust concentration with EP for a coal fired power
generation boiler and the state of control under non-control. Under the state of non-control, maximum charging is
carried out within the range limited by spark. However under the state of control, the charge amount varies
according to the load to the EP to keep the dust soot and dust concentration at the EP outlet at a constant level,
resulting in a reduction of the consumed electric power. While the dust soot and dust concentration at the outlet
under non-control during soot blow operation fluctuates largely, the dust concentration is controlled in a stable
manner, regardless of the dust concentration at the outlet, by increasing or decreasing the output from the charging
unit during the control of constant dust concentration.
EP supervising control panel

Actual charge amount
(Microcomputer)
Calculation of required
charge amount
Load responding
control
Setting of required
charge amount
Charging unit
Load signal
Constant dust
concentration control
Dust
concentration
meter at the outlet
(Light
transmission type)
Gas
Fig. 4.2.2-17 EP energy saving type control system
405
Charged
voltage
(kV)
Section 1
Discharge
current
(mA)
Charged
voltage
(kV)
Section 2
Discharge
current
(mA)
Soot blow
Soot blow
Dust
concentration
at EP outlet
Time of the day
Time of the day
(Manual operation)
(Manual operation)
(Computer controlled) Ws: 60mg/m3 (normal)
Fig. 4.2.2-18 Control of EP for coal fired boiler
4.2.3 Operation and maintenance of dust precipitator

By only improving the function of the unit, no high efficiency of EP can be attained. It is important to
understand the function and method to use, inspection and repair in the operation and maintenance of the unit and
to prevent any failure before occurring, in addition to keeping the function of the unit under stable condition.
The main points are as follows;
4.2.3.1 Monitoring during EP operation
The following points can directly affect the functions of the unit and especially need to be monitored with care.
(1) Charging state of EP
On a regular basis, monitor the current and voltage displayed on the operation control panel and check for any
abnormal drop of spark voltage and/or abnormal increase or decrease in the discharged current.
(2) Operation state of hammering unit rapping device
Investigate whether the hammering unit rapping device is functioning appropriately and especially whether the
hammering action rapping of dust collecting electrode is performed according to correct operation schedule.
(3) Relationship with gas/dust
On regular basis, measure the dust concentration in the exhaust gas and investigate the nature of collected dust
(contents of the dust, electric specific resistance, particle size distribution, etc.) together with the burning state of
the boiler, and examine whether the burning should be adjusted.
(4) Operation of ash handling system
Monitor to check whether any failure in movement has occurred to the ash exhaust valve, whether any clogging
has occurred to the conveying system, ash recovery system and/or handling system.
4.2.3.2 Controlling of start/stop
406
The nature of the dust fluctuates largely and the temperature is relatively low when starting/stopping a boiler.
Sparks tend to be generated easily when EP is charged. There is a chance the collected dust may catch fire as a
result of a spark. Therefore, it is necessary to fully understand any and all issues expected to occur at the time of
starting/stopping of the unit and implement measures and actions to minimize the chance of incidents.
4.2.3.2.1 Issues expected to occur at the time of starting/stopping

(1) Contamination to collecting electrode by dust
The dust collected on the collecting electrode may absorb moisture and become solid. Such dust will be
difficult to remove by hammering operation, resulting in unstable charge, etc.
(2) Dust stuck to the hopper and each part of ash handling equipment
When the dust has absorbed moisture, the hopper, valve of ash handling equipment and/or conveying pipe may
be clogged, resulting in difficulty in handling ash appropriately.
(3) Ignition of collected dust
When starting/stopping, the exhaust gas temperature is kept low and the nature of dust fluctuates largely.
Therefore, continuous spark is likely to be generated. In addition, the oxygen concentration in the exhaust gas
becomes higher, which may cause ignition or burning.
(4) Re-entrainment of dust
When a continuous spark is generated, the collected dust may fly away and colored smoke may be generated.
4.2.3.2.2 Operation when starting/stopping
Handling methods and countermeasures to minimize the issues mentioned above are explained below;
(1) Before stopping, hammer rap the collecting electrode repeatedly and remove as much dust stuck to the
dust collection plate as possible, thereby preventing the dust from sticking and minimize reentrainment of dust when starting the unit.
(2) Handle the ash appropriately after repeated hammer rapping of the collecting electrode to prevent any
dust from remaining within the hopper. Prevent the dust from becoming solid by absorbing moisture at
the time of stopping and prevent the ash from catching fire at the time of starting.
(3) By dropping EP charged voltage when starting/stopping, reduce the chance of spark generation to
prevent the ash from catching fire.
4.2.3.3 Maintenance of EP
The main body of EP is a standstill type machine. Only the driving portion and rotation portion of the
hammering unit rapping device are moving parts. As this rotation portion is positioned in the dust within EP, no
lubrication oil has been used. As the bearings tend to wear, inspection and/or repair are required especially while
not used. With respect to other machinery/equipment, it is necessary to make inspection and/or repair during
regular inspection, check for damage occurring to any machinery in advance and confirm that each machine
functions appropriately. Examples of the main items subject to regular inspection are shown in Table 4.2.3-1.
Table 4.2.3-1 Main items subject to regular inspection (Part 1)
Section
Portion to be
inspected
Discharge
electrode
Collecting
Dust
electrode
collecting
chamber
Distribution
plate
Insulator
Description of inspection
Disconnection, looseness
Wear, corrosion
Contamination
Deformation, off-centering
Contamination
Corrosion
Corrosion, falling off
Contamination
Contamination
Breakage
407
Purpose
Prevention Extension of
of accident service life
Handling
Cut off/replacement
Cut off/replacement
Washing by water
Repair
Washing by water
Replacement
Repair/replacement
Washing by water
Cleaning
Replacement
Table 4.2.3-1 Main items subject to regular inspection (Part 2)

Section
Dust
collecting
chamber
Hammering
unit
Rapping
device
Smoke duct
Ash
discharge
system
Portion to
be inspected
Diaphragm
Hopper
Insulator
shaft
Speed
reducer
Hammer
Rapper shaft
Hammer
drive unit
Hammer
rapper rod
Inlet of
smoke duct
Expansion
Vibrator
motor
Vibrator
Manhole
and gland
Inspection
hole
Each
manhole
Gland seal
Description of inspection
Purpose
Prevention Extension of
of accident service life
Corrosion, falling off

Closing of manhole
Accumulation of dust
Corrosion
Deformation
Contamination
Breakage
Movement, abnormal noise
Lubrication oil
Loosened bolt, broken pin
Crack on welded portion
Wear
Wear
Silicon
transformer
Breather
Insulators
High
voltage
protection
resistance
Grounding
switch
High
voltage
circuit
Grounding
FCO
(Film cut
out)
Repair
Close check
Discharge ash, wash by water
Correct plectra clearances
Repair
Cleaning
Replacement
Disassembling, inspection, repair
Replacement and filling up
Repair, replacement
Repair
Repair, replacement
Repair, replacement
Repair, replacement
Breakage, wear
Repair
Corrosion
Corrosion
Loosened fitting
Movement, abnormal noise
Damage to cord
Loosened fastening
Crack on welded portion
Crack on gas sealing plate
Corrosion of stool
Clogging by dust
Corrosion, gas leak
Damaged packing
Corrosion
Closed state
Damaged packing
State of sealing
Electric
system
Handling
Insulation oil, amount,

color
Pressure tightness
Oil amount
Silica gel color
Contamination
Breakage
Contamination
Repair, replacement
Additional fastening
Disassembling, inspection, repair
Replacement
Repair
Replacement
Repair, replacement
Cleaning
Repair, replacement of packing
Replacement
Repair, replacement
Additional packing, correction
Replacement
Additional fastening of gland,
additional packing, replacement
Filtering, replacement,
replenishment
Replacement
Replenishment of oil
Regeneration and replacement
Cleaning
Replacement
Cleaning
Replacement
Burning, disconnection
Tightening of each portion
Roughness of connector
Movement
Deformation
Tightening of each portion
Disconnection, missing
Grounding resistance
Repair, replacement
Repair, adjustment
Correction
Repair
Measurement, re-work
Replacement of insulation paper
Movement
408
4.3 Desulfurization Equipment

4.3.1 Outline of flue gas desulfurization process
4.3.1.1 Classification of flue gas desulfurization process
The desulfurization equipment is roughly divided into the wet type and the dry type. However, most of the
equipment presently installed and operated practically is the wet type. There are many types of wet-type flue gas
desulfurization process. There are also various methods of classifying them. In general, the process name is
determined by indicating the absorbent or alkali materials and byproducts.
If the processes are to be classified according to the items of absorbent, alkali material, and byproduct, they will
be classified as shown in Table 4.3.1-1. For commercial boilers and large-sized power generation boilers for
house use among these flue gas desulfurization processes, processes that produce gypsum as a byproduct, among
which there are many Limestone - Gypsum Process have been installed. For small-sized boilers for industrial use,
many discharge processes (discharge of magnesium nitrate or mirabilite liquid) using Mg(OH)2 and NaOH have
been employed.
In this article, explanation is given of the general Limestone - Gypsum Process regarding the flue gas
desulfurization equipment for the coal-fired boilers used at thermal power generation plants.
4.3.1.2 Nature of exhaust gas
When planning installation of an exhaust gas-handling system, it is necessary to fully understand the nature of
exhaust gas first. As shown in Table 4.3.1-2, the nature of coal-fired exhaust gas has following characteristics in
general, which are largely different from those of heavy oil-fired exhaust gas.
Table 4.3.1-1 Types of flue gas desulfurization process
Type of process
Wet process
Lime-Gypsum Process
Sulfurous acid calcium

CaSO3
MG-Gypsum Process
Sulfurous acid magnesium MgSO3

Sulfurous acid calcium CaSO3
Slurry
Sodium Carbonate SulfiteMirabilite Process

Sodium Carbonate Sulfite
Recovery Process
Sodium Carbonate SulfiteGypsum Process
Sulfurous acid sodium

Na2SO3
Solution
Sodium Carbonate SulfiteSulfuric Acid Process

Dilute Sulfuric Acid-Gypsum
Process
NH3 -Ammonium Sulfate
Process
NH3 -Gypsum Process
Al-Gypsum Process
Mg Process
Dry process
Nature of
adsorbent
liquid
Slurry
Adsorbent
Material
Byproduct
Calcium
carbonate
Slaked lime
Quick lime
Slaked lime
Calcium
carbonate
Caustic soda
NaOH
Caustic soda
NaOH
Calcium carbonate
CaCO3
Ca(OH)2
CaO
Slaked lime
Quick lime
CaCO3
Ca(OH)2
CaO
Ca(OH)2
CaCO3
Dilute sulfuric acid
Solution
Sulfurous acid ammonium

(NH4)2SO3
Solution
Basic aluminum sulfate

Al2(SO4)2Al2O3
Sulfurous acid magnesium
MgSO3
Slurry
Solution
Calcium
carbonate
Ammonia
Gypsum
Nh4OH
Ammonium
sulfate
Gypsum
Gypsum
Ca(OH)2
Mg(OH)2
Solution
Slaked lime
Magnesium
hydroxide
Activated carbon adsorption

method*1
Spray-drier Process
Activated carbon
Solid
Activated carbon
Ca(OH)2
Na2CO2
Electron beam
Coal ash, gypsum, lime
Slurry
Mg(OH)2
Slaked lime
Ca(OH)2
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3
Electron Beam Process *1
Ammonia
NH4OH
Dry desulfurization method
Solid
Coal ash, plaster,
using coal ash *1
lime
Note: *1 The details of these processes will be introduced in Section 7. New technologies of desulfurization and NOx removal.
409
Mirabilite
Discharge
Sodium
Carbonate Sulfite
Gypsum
CaCO3
Ca(OH)2
CaCO3
Sulfurous acid magnesium

MgSO3
Gypsum
Sulfuric acid
Slaked lime
Calcium
carbonate
Magnesium
hydroxide
Magnesium Hydroxide-Gypsum
Process
Gypsum
Discharge of
sulfuric acid
magnesium
Gypsum
Discharge of
sulfuric acid
magnesium
Sulfur, sulfuric
acid
Gypsum
Others
Ammonium salt
Coal ash
Lime, others
Table 4.3.1-2 Comparison of the natures of exhaust gas

Fuel
Coal
Heavy Oil
6,000 to 7,000
10,500
1.0 to 2.0
10 to 25
0.2 to 2.0
100 to 200
(O2 = 6% base)
0.1 to 0.3
0.1 or less
1 to 2
60 to 100
(O2 = 4% base)
10 to 25
0.1 to 0.2
200 to 1,600
500 to 1,500
Item
Higher heating value
(kcal/kg)
Nitrogen content (%)
Ash content (%)
Sulfur content (%)
Nature of fuel
NOx concentration (ppm)

Nature of exhaust gas
1)
2)
3)
Dust concentration
(g/m3N)
SOx concentration (ppm)
Considerably large amount of Cl (chlorine) and F (fluorine) is contained, which will affect the
efficiency of desulfurization and waste water treatment and corrode the materials used.
A very large amount of ash is contained. The soot and dust concentration is 100 times or higher that in
heavy oil. As characteristics of the soot and dust, its main components are silica and alumina, which
have strong electric resistance. The dust collection efficiency of the electrostatic precipitator depends
largely on the type of coal.
Depending on the type of coal, the concentration of SO2 becomes high in general.
In view of these characteristics, the points to be noted with flue gas desulfurization equipment and the
countermeasures to be considered in the planning of equipment are summarized in Fig. 4.3.1-1.
4.3.1.3 Outline of wet-type flue gas desulfurization process

The mainstream desulfurization process of flue gas desulfurization equipment in Japan is the Wet Limestone Gypsum Process for the following reasons:
a)
Abundant limestone is produced in Japan for use as an absorbent. Its handling is easy. It is very
economical.
b) As a byproduct, gypsum with high commercial value can be recovered for cement and plaster board.
Storage of huge volumes in a stable fashion is possible without any difficulty.
This process will be outlined below.
Characteristics of coal
exhaust gas
Much halogen-family
gas (Hcl, HF) is
contained.
Points to be noted
Countermeasures to be
considered in planning
Influence on
desulphurization
Ash-separating system
Ash-mixing system
Influence on the quality

of byproduct gypsum
Selection of adsorbent
Addition of Mg and Na
Dust removal efficiency
Adequate ratio of liquid

gas (L/G)
Usage ratio of calcium
Addition of seed crystal

Circulation of CaSO4 and
2H2O
Much soot and dust
High SO2 concentration
Control over scaling
Corrosion
proofness/wear
resistance of materials
Selection of corrosionfree and wear-free lining

materials
Fig. 4.3.1-1 Points to be considered for flue gas desulfurization equipment for coal thermal power plants
410
(1) Explanation of the process

The flue gas desulfurization process based on the Wet-type Limestone - Gypsum Process is a process where the
sulfurous acid gas contained in the exhaust gas is absorbed by the absorbing slurry, where gypsum is formed
through reaction with oxidized air, where the water contained in the absorbing slurry in which gypsum is also
contained is separated, and where byproduct gypsum is recovered. A systematic diagram of desulfurization
equipment based on the Limestone - Gypsum Process is shown in Fig. 4.3.1-2.
This process is structured as the cooling process, absorbing process, reheating process, gypsum-recovering
process, and material-adjusting process.
1) Cooling, absorbing, and reheating processes:
a) Heat recovery
The pressure of fired exhaust gas from the boiler is, after removing the soot and dust by the electrostatic
precipitator, raised by the induction fan. The gas is then led to the gas/gas heater (heat recovery unit) through a
damper located at the inlet of the desulfurization equipment. In order to reduce the amount of water that
evaporates in the absorber and to reduce water consumption, and by using processed exhaust gas as the heart
source, heat is recovered by the heat carrier through heat exchange between unprocessed exhaust gas and the heat
carrier in the heat recovery unit.
b) Cooling and absorbing
The exhaust gas cooled down by the heat recovery unit is introduced into the absorber. The temperature of the
introduced gas is lowered to adiabatic cooling temperature by the circulating slurry sprayed within the absorber.
The sulfurous acid gas (SO2) contained in the exhaust gas is absorbed into the circulating slurry to become nitrous
acid (H2SO3).
SO2 + H2O H2SO3
Because H2SO3 is separated in the liquid to hydrogen ions (H+), hydrogen sulfate ions (HSO3-), and sulfurous
acid ions (SO32-), the absorbing reaction advances in the right direction.
H2SO3 H+ + HSO3 2H+ + SO32In order to suppress the rise in H2SO3 concentration and let this balanced reaction advance in a smooth fashion,
adequate pH and L/G is to be selected. (The rise in H2SO3 concentration can be suppressed by raising the pH and
increasing the L/G.)
In order to have SO2 absorbed in a continuous manner, it is required to reduce H2SO3, which has increased
through absorption, and recover the absorbing efficiency of the absorbing slurry. Therefore, H2SO3 is oxidized to
become sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
H2SO3 + 1/2 O2 H2SO4
The generated H2SO4 lowers the pH of the absorbing slurry that will make the separation balance of H2SO3
difficult to advance in the right direction and lower the absorption efficiency. In order to avoid this, calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) is fed to the absorber to neutralize the H2SO4 and generate calcium sulfate (CaSO4/2H2O =
gypsum).
H2SO4 + CaCO3 + H2O
CaSO4 ! 2H2O + CO2 "
Exhaust gas
Damper at the inlet of
desulphurization
equipment
Bypass damper
Desulphurization
ventilator
Chimney
Gas gas heater

(Reheating unit)
Gas heater
(Heat recovery unit)
Limestone silo
Mist eliminator
Dehydrator for gypsum
Absorber
Gypsum
Vacuum pump
Material pit
Waste water
treatment
Filter pit
Fig. 4.3.1-2 Systematic diagram of Lime - Gypsum Process desulfurization equipment

411
c) Removal of such impurities as HCl, HF, soot and dust, etc.,

In the absorber, hydrochloric acid (HCl) and fluorine (HF), etc. contained in the exhaust gas are absorbed and
removed together with SO2.. Since these impurities (chlorine ion (Cl-) and fluorine ion (F)) are accumulated in the
absorbing slurry and have an adverse effect such as performance deterioration or corrosion of the materials of the
equipment, some of the filtered liquid is to be discharged into the waste water treatment equipment for flue gas
desulfurization to keep the concentration below the specified value.
The soot and dust contained in the exhaust gas is collected in the absorber. Collected soot and dust will not only
become impurities within the gypsum and reduce the quality of the gypsum, but also cause the materials used for
the equipment to wear.
d) Removal of mist
Since the exhaust gas after desulfurization is accompanied by the mist sprayed within the absorber, such
accompanying mist must be removed using a mist eliminator so that any of downstream equipment is not
adversely affected by any corrosion caused by the absorbing liquid, adherence of solid substances contained in the
slurry, or clogging caused by scaling.
e) Reheating of treated gas
The exhaust gas leaving the mist eliminator is in a saturated state with water, which will be heated using the gas
heater (re-heater) by the heat of the heat carrier recovered by the heat recovery unit in order to prevent the smoke
duct/chimney from becoming corrosive due to water condensation or to prevent white-colored smoke from exiting
the chimney. The exhaust gas with raised temperature is discharged into the air by the desulfurization ventilator
after recovering the pressure loss that occurred in the desulfurization equipment.
2) Gypsum-recovering process
The absorbing slurry containing gypsum generated in the absorber is taken out from the absorber in order to
keep the slurry density at a given level and then fed to the gypsum dehydrator. Several types of gypsum
dehydrator are available (for details, refer to Section 4.3.1.4). In recent years, a vacuum dehydrator of the filter
cloth traveling type (belt filter) has been mainly employed. With the vacuum dehydrator of the filter cloth
traveling type (belt filter), the filtered liquid is sucked out by a vacuum pump and the gypsum is dehydrated. At
the same time, in order to keep the quality of gypsum at specified value, the gypsum is washed in water and then
recovered as a byproduct.
3) Material-adjusting process
The powdered limestone that is used as the material is stored in the limestone silo. The limestone is cut out
from the material silo by a measuring feeder and fed to the material pit. At the same time, it is mixed with gypsum
filter liquid at a given ratio and becomes limestone slurry with a specified density. The adjusted limestone slurry
is fed to the absorber as an absorbent. The limestone concentration in the absorbing slurry is maintained within a
specified range that can satisfy the gypsum quality and desulfurization efficiency.
(2) Soot and dust treatment process
As the treatment systems of soot and dust collected by flue gas desulfurization equipment, 2 types are available,
one for the soot separation system and the other for the soot mixture system. In the case of the soot separation
system, a scrubber is installed before the absorber in order to carry out cleaning and dust removal in advance. This
is to prevent the desulfurization efficiency from deteriorating by flow of HCl and HF contained in the exhaust gas
into the absorber. In addition, the quality of gypsum can be improved by minimizing the mixture of any impurities
in the gypsum by removing soot and dust beforehand. The soot mixture system, on the other hand, it is a system to
perform absorption of SO2 gas in the absorber and, at the same time, remove soot and dust, HCl, and HF. Because
no scrubber is required, its economic effect is appreciable. A comparison of the characteristics of both systems is
The question of which system to use depends on the required quality of gypsum and economical effect. The
soot separation system would be suitable when the required quality of gypsum is very strict, whereas the soot
mixture system would be suitable when economical effect has priority. In Fig. 4.3.1-3, the relationship between
soot and dust concentration at the inlet of the desulfurization equipment and fly ash content of the soot mixture
system is shown. In recent years, however, it is a trend to adopt ultra-cold side EP systems in order to reduce the
soot and dust concentration at the chimney inlet. In such a case, the soot and dust concentration at the inlet of the
desulfurization equipment is lowered to about several tens of mg/m3N. Therefore, cases where the quality of
gypsum becomes critical have become rare. The byproduct gypsum is used for cement and board, whose
evaluation criteria are shown in Table 4.3.1-4. However, the byproduct gypsum obtained from the soot mixture
system has sufficient quality for gypsum board.
412
Table 4.3.1-3 Comparison between soot separation system and soot mixture system
Flow
Reheating process
Cooling process
Soot mixture system
Absorber
Scrubber
ME
Absorber
ME
Absorber
Scrubber
Soot separation system
Reheating process
Absorbing process
Gypsum dehydrator
Absorber
ME
Absorbing
process
Gypsum
dehydrator
Limestone
Gypsum
Waste water
treatment
Gypsum
Limestone
Material pit
Material pit
Gypsum-recovering
process
Material-adjusting
process
Item
Gypsum-recovering
process
Material-adjusting
process
Waste water
treatment
Absorption
efficiency
Low concentration of impurities, no concern

regarding absorption efficiency drop
Dust removal
efficiency
Gypsum
quality
Materials of
equipment
A high dust removal ratio is attainable.
It is required to take into consideration the

drop in absorption efficiency due to chlorine
ions, etc.
Almost the same, but a little bit poorer
Byproduct gypsum of good quality can be

obtained.
Materials with corrosion proofness and wear
resistance against chlorine ions, a low pH, and
fly ash in the cooling process
Although such impurities as fly ash, etc. are

contained, it can be used for boards.
Materials with corrosion proofness against
such impurities as chlorine ions, etc. are
required for the entire equipment.
Base
# Because no cooling process is required, the

equipment is less expensive.
# Because no circulation pump is required for
the scrubber and due to less gas pressure
loss, energy consumption can be saved.
# Because the pH of the waste water after
desulfurization is high, the cost for waste
water treatment can be saved.
# Can be saved because no cooling process is
required.
Economical
effect
Equipment
cost
Operation
cost
Space
requirement
for
installation
Base
Base
4.3.1.4 Outline of main units/systems composed of wet-type flue gas desulfurization equipment
(1) Cooling, absorbing, and reheating processes
a) Desulfurization ventilator
a. Position to install a desulfurization ventilator
For wet-type desulfurization equipment, a desulfurization ventilator is used as its ventilation source. In general,
the position names for installation of the desulfurization ventilator are identified by the position marks as shown
in Fig. 4.3.1-4. In the past, most of desulfurization ventilators were installed upstream of the untreated gas gas
heater (GGH) called the A-fan. In Table 4.3.1-5, the position to install the desulfurization ventilator and a
characteristics comparison are shown. From the viewpoint of power consumption, the C-fan is most advantageous,
but not advantageous because countermeasures must be prepared against erosion or corrosion by the mist, etc.
downstream of the absorber. In recent years, adoption of the D-position is increasing in view of energy saving and
equipment cost.
413
C-fan
A-fan
B-fan
Desulfurization
equipment
Fly ash content within gypsum (Wt%)
D-fan
S minute
From boiler
Fig. 4.3.1-4 Position and name of desulfurization

ventilator
Soot and dust concentration at the inlet of
desulfurization equipment (mg/m3N)
Fig. 4.3.1-3 Soot and dust concentration at the inlet of

desulfurization equipment and fly ash content within
gypsum (Soot mixture system)
Item
Adhered moisture
Purity
pH
Wet tensile strength
Table 4.3.1-4 General evaluation criteria for byproduct gypsum

General Evaluation Criteria
For cement
For board
< 10%
< 10%
> 90%
> 95%
5 to 8
> 8.0kg/cm2
Leak
Environment for use
Table 4.3.1-5 Comparison according to the position of desulfurization ventilator
Economical
effect
Item
# Temperature of
gas used
# Wear
# Corrosion
A-fan
100 - 150$C
Negligible
(Depends on fly ash)
Almost none
B-fan
80 - 100$C
Negligible
(Depends on fly ash)
In the corrosive
environment of
sulfuric acid due to
acid dewpoint
# Adhesion of soot
and dust
Negligible
Slightly larger than

A-fan
Leak in the
combination of the
rotary-type
regenerative system
GGH
(Non-treatment
Treatment)
Dust leak (%)
Gas leak (%)
Power consumption
Evaluation
Large
Up to 6.0
Up to 3.0
100
(Base)
Has largest
installation records
and high reliability,
but too much power
consumption
C-fan
45 - 55$C
Almost none
D-fan
80 - 100$C
Almost none
Big potential for

corrosion by SO2
mist or mist drain
from the absorbing
liquid
There is a low
possibility of
adherence of soot
and dust, but flying
mist can adhere.
Negligible corrosive
environment by
sulfur
Almost none
Small
Small
Large
Up to 4.0
Up to 0.3
Up to 4.0
Up to 0.3
Up to 6.0
Up to 3.0
90
82
95
Has an advantage if
combined with the
rotating regenerative
system GGH, but
careful consideration
must be given to the
materials
Most excellent in
economical effect
with lower power
consumption
The corrosive
environment is
tough, and corrosiveproof materials are
therefore required.
414
Has almost
equivalent
characteristics to Afan
With many
installation records
b. Types of desulfurization ventilator

In the wet-type flue gas desulfurization equipment, the desulfurization ventilator consumes the most power (40
- 50% in general). In view of economical operation, reduction in power consumption by improving the efficiency
of the desulfurization ventilator and controlling method under low load is important.
As the types of desulfurization ventilator, a centrifugal type and an axial flow type are available. Depending on
the control method under low load, the centrifugal type is divided into the RPM control type and the inlet vane
control type, and the axial flow type is divided into the variable stationary blade type and the variable rotating
blade type. Fig. 4.3.1-5 shows a comparison of the shaft power for each control method.
The ventilator of the variable rotating blade axial flow type (Fig. 4.3.1-6) has such features that the fan
efficiency itself is high and the energy-saving effect is large under low load operation. Therefore, this type has
excellent economical effect and, when compared with the centrifugal type, can save space for installation because
it is a small, lightweight unit. Many of this type have been employed in recent years as a desulfurization ventilator
suitable for the handling of large-volume exhaust gas.
Centrifugal ventilator of inlet vane-controlling
blade type
Ventilator of
Thyristor motor type and
RPM-controlling blade type
Shaft power (%)
Ventilator of variable stationary blade

axial-flow type
Ventilator of variable rotating blade
axial-flow type
Boiler output (%)
Fig. 4.3.1-5 Shaft power of ventilators of axial-flow type and centrifugal type
Drive motor
Manhole for inspecting

rotating blade
Main bearing
Diffuser
Flexible coupling
Inlet casing
Rotating blade
Bearing-supporting rotating blade
Stationary blade
Servo Support
cylinder blade
Fig. 4.3.1-6 Variable rotating blade axial-flow ventilator
b) Structure of absorber
The absorber used for the Lime - Gypsum Process flue gas desulfurization process has a large area in contact
with vapor liquid and its gas absorption reaction is excellent in vapor-liquid solid substances. Its pressure loss in
the exhaust gas is kept low. In addition, an absorber of a type suitable for treating large-volume exhaust gas is
used. Typical types of absorber currently employed as flue gas desulfurization equipment at thermal power
generation plants include the spray tower, filling tower, jet bubbling reactor, and liquid column tower.
a. Spray tower
This is a system to have SO2 gas absorbed by installing several steps of many spray nozzles on the upper part of
415
the absorber, reforming the absorbent into fine liquid tubes, and letting the absorbent come into contact with the
exhaust gas. Because the inner structure is made as simple as possible, it is difficult for solid substances to adhere
and for scaling to be generated, which can minimize the pressure loss. The outlook for the spray absorber is
shown in Fig. 4.3.1-7. No demister is built in in some absorbers.
b. Grid-filling tower
The circulating slurry of the absorbent sprayed evenly from the overflow-type spray header positioned on the
upper part of the absorber changes the entire face of the filling grid to the wet wall state. Here, vapor liquid
composed of exhaust gas and slurry have full contact with each other to have SO2 absorbed. The grid-filling tower
has parallel flow or counterflow. The superficial velocity is high at about 4 - 5 m/s. The unit is more compact than
the counterflow type. The pressure loss varies depending on the grid-filling height, which is, however, 100 mm
H2O or less in general.
Fig. 4.3.1-8 shows the outlook for the grid-filling absorber.
Exhaust gas
Gas
Scrubber
Spray nozzle
Built-in demister Absorber
Mist eliminator
Air blower
Spray pipe
Exhaust gas
Spray pipe
Mist eliminator Spray nozzle
Gas
Scrubber
Agitator
Circulation
pump of
scrubber
Oxidized air
Absorber
Oxidizing air
pipe
Absorber
Circulation pump
of absorber
Circulation pump of absorber
Fig. 4.3.1-8 Grid-filling tower
Fig. 4.3.1-7 Spray absorber

Clean gas
Jet bubbling
layer
Exhaust gas
Limestone slurry
Gas outlet
Gas sparger
Spray pipe
Reaction layer
Gypsum slurry
Air
Gas inlet
Fig. 4.3.1-9 Jet bubbling reactor
Circulation pump of
absorber
Fig. 4.3.1-10 Liquid column-type absorber
c. Jet bubbling reactor (JBR)

As shown in Fig. 4.3.1-9, many gas spargers are built in in the inner reactor. The cooled exhaust gas passes
through these gas spargers and spouts out in a horizontal direction in a jet from the opening position at 100 - 400
mm below the absorbing liquid level and mixes with the absorbing liquid in a violent manner to form a jet
bubbling layer.
Vapor and liquid make contact within this layer, and SO2 is absorbed. The gas leaving the desulfurization
process is discharged through the gas riser.
Because no circulation pump is required for the absorber, this unit has such features that pump power can be
saved and space for installation can be also saved. However, the pressure loss from exhaust gas is larger than with
other types of absorber.
d. Liquid column tower
This is a system to have SO2 gas absorbed by letting it make contact with the exhaust gas by spouting the
absorbing liquid like a water jet through many nozzles installed on the lower part of the absorber. Because the
inner structure has been designed to be simple as possible, it has such features that it is difficult for solid
substances to adhere and for scaling to be generated. Pressure loss is considerably suppressed. The outlook for the
liquid column-type absorber is shown in Fig. 4.3.1-10.
416
c) Gas-reheating system
Because the exhaust gas leaving the absorber is in a saturated state with water, there can be such issues as the
generation of white smoke or corrosion of the smoke duct, if it is discharged without any treatment. In many cases,
it is reheated up to 80 - 100$C. in general.
For reheating of the gas leaving the desulfurization process in the past, supplementary heating (afterburner
method) by firing fuel containing low-level sulfur was usually employed. However, in view of energy saving
since then, a gas heater (GGH) is presently employed that heats up the low-temperature gas at the outlet of the
desulfurization equipment using high-temperature gas at the inlet of the desulfurization equipment. There are 3
types of gas heater available, namely, (1) the rotary-type regenerative system, (2) the media cycle type, and (3) the
heat pipe type. The features of each type are compared in Table 4.3.1-6.
a. Rotary-type regenerative gas heater
Layered wave-shaped plates are contained as a heat accumulator in the rotor having a radial partition wall. Heat
exchange is performed when this rotor rotates in the high-temperature gas and low-temperature gas. Heat is
transferred to low-temperature gas from high-temperature gas via the layered wave-shaped plate heat accumulator.
This type is compact, but due to its structure, the leakage of soot and dust and gas from untreated hightemperature gas to treated low-temperature gas cannot be avoided. Therefore, the general desulfurization
efficiency or dust removal efficiency may drop. However, the level of leakage is currently suppressed by adopting
a scavenging system.
b. Medium recycle-type gas heater
This is a system to exchange heat by forcibly circulating the medium between 2 independent shell and tube heat
exchangers. It has such features that no soot and dust are discharged and that the exhaust gas temperature can be
adjusted by the circulation amount of the heat carrier or the heat carrier heater. The system can be easily enlarged
and has greatest flexibility in installation.
c. Heat pipe-type gas heater
The heat carrier is enclosed in a closed system. The heart carrier receives heat that evaporates in the hightemperature area, discharges the heat, and then condenses it in the low-temperature area. The condensed heat
carrier returns to the high-temperature area to receive heat. Because the heat exchange is carried out in the natural
circulation of the heat carrier, no drive unit is required, and power for operation can be saved.
Table 4.3.1-6 Comparison of gas-reheating systems
GGH-type system
Rotary-type regenerative
system
Medium recycle-type system

(Non-leak type)
Heat pipe-type system (Nonleak type)
High-temperature gas
Heat carrier
piping
Flue gas reheat

equipment side
(condensation part)
Medium
steam
Heat carrier tank
Steam
Basic structure
High-temperature
gas
Heat carrier circulation pump

Heat recovery device
Heat recovery side
Medium
solution
Lowtemperature
(Evaporator) gas
Heat carrier heater
Flue gas reheat

equipment
Low-temperature gas
Heat carrier
Characteristics
Heat exchange method
Leak of gas or soot and dust
Heat transfer element
Steel plate with layered wave

shape
Heat exchange by the rotation
of the steel plate with a layered
wave shape as a heat
accumulator
Presence of leak from untreated
high-temperature gas to treated
low-temperature gas
Gas leak: 0.2 - 0.3%
Soot and dust leak: 2 - 5%
Enamel-coated steel plate
Circulation water: Water
Enclosed water: Water
Forced circulation by heat

carrier circulation pump
Natural circulation through

evaporation/condensation and
temperature difference
No leak
No leak
Fin tube or pair tube
Fin tube or pair tube
Most conventional gas heaters were the rotary-type regenerative system. Leakage of soot and dust or gas was
unavoidable. In recent years, the non-leak type of medium circulation system or heat pipe-type gas heater is
adopted when high-level desulfurization efficiency or soot and dust removal efficiency is required.
In particular, the adoption of ultra-cold side EP processes is advancing, and the adoption of medium recycle
systems of the non-leak type is increasing.
(2) Oxidation/ Gypsum-recovering process
a) Oxidation system
With respect to the oxidation system in the flue gas desulfurization equipment, there are 2 types available,
417
namely, a method to oxidize flue gas in a separate oxidation tower, and a method to absorb and oxidize
simultaneously in the absorber. In view of such advantages that the unit itself is simple and utilities can be
reduced, the oxidation system in the absorber has been employed in recent years.
This system feeds air for oxidation into the absorber tank and performs almost 100% oxidation within the
absorber. Absorption of SO2 and oxidation reaction advances at the same time, and sulfuric acid is generated. In
addition, neutralization reaction with existing CaCO3 occurs simultaneously to generate gypsum.
In the oxidation method within the absorber, CaCO31/2H2O does not exist as seen in the separate oxidation
tower. Therefore, the absorbing mechanism is different.
As shown in Table 4.3.1-7, H2SO4 generated by oxidation reaction reacts with CaCO3 in a very quick fashion,
which is characteristic of this method. Therefore, no further sulfuric acid is required to be added. High SOx
removal efficiency can be achieved while keeping excessive CaCO3 at a low level.
The main oxidation equipment that feeds air for oxidation into the absorber tank is shown in Table 4.3.1-8.
There are several methods made available. In each case, air converted into very fine bubbles is fed into the tank.
Table 4.3.1-7 Comparison of oxidation systems
Item
Basic flow
Separate oxidation tower system
Oxidation system within absorber
Absorber
Absorber
Sulfuric acid
Oxidation tower
Gas
Gas
Gypsum
Limestone
Air
Gypsum
Limestone
Absorber
tank
Absorber
tank
Air
SO2 + H2O H+ + HSO3H+ + HSO3 + 1/2H2O H2SO4

H2SO4 + CaCO3+ + H2O
CaSO4!2H2O + CO2 "
+
H + HSO3- + 1/2O2 H2SO4
H2SO4 + CaCO3+ + H2O
CaSO4!2H2O + CO2 "
Chemical reaction
Absorber
Tower
SO2 + H2O H+ + HSO3H+ + HSO3 + CaSO3!1/2H2O

Ca2+ + 2HSO3- + 1/2H2O
Absorber
Within tank
Ca2+ + 2HSO3- + CaCO3

2CaSO3!1/2H2O + CO2 "
Oxidation tower
CaSO3!1/2H2O+1/2O2 +3/2H2O
CaSO4!2H2O
CaCO3 + H2SO4 + H2O
CaSO4!2H2O + CO2 "
# Oxidation tower: Required (separate
installation)
# Sulfuric acid: Required
# CaCO3 excess ratio: Large
# Impact of oxidation on absorbing
efficiency: Small
Characteristics
418
#
#
#
#
Oxidation tower: Not required

Sulfuric acid: Not required
CaCO3 excess ratio: Small
Impact of oxidation on absorbing
efficiency: Large
Table 4.3.1-8 Comparison of oxidation systems within tower

Item
Propeller atomizer
Sparger ring system
system
Oxidation method
Multiple-pipe
insertion system
Rotary sparger
system
Air
Air
Air
Characteristics
Air
# Air is converted
into very fine
components
through the rotary
blade of the
propeller-type
agitator.
# The same as on
# Air is converted
the left
into very fine
bubbles by the
fixed-type sparger
ring.
# Air is converted
into very fine
bubbles by the
rotary sparger.
b) Type of gypsum dehydrator

The type of gypsum dehydrator is selected from such points as moisture content of byproduct gypsum,
economical effect, operation method, space required for installation, etc. Gypsum dehydrators are roughly divided
into the basket-type centrifugal dehydrator, the decanter-type centrifugal dehydrator, and the filter cloth travelingtype vacuum-type dehydrator (belt filter). A comparison of each type is shown in Table 4.3.1-9.
The basket-type centrifugal dehydrator has largest record of practical use in Japan for wet-type flue gas
desulfurization equipment, and its reliability is also high.
However, this system has a weak point, which is that it is a batch operation-type and its handling capacity is
therefore very limited. The decanter-type dehydrator has the advantage of economical effect, but it has a weak
point, which is that the moisture content of gypsum is high. Therefore, this system has not been used widely so far.
The adoption of the filter cloth traveling-type dehydrator (belt filter) is increasing recently. Although this
system was able to handle a large volume of gas, the high moisture content of gypsum was a point of issue,
which issue, however, has already been improved.
(3) Material-adjusting process
The limestone as an absorbent is received in a powdered state in general and stored in the limestone silo.
The type of limestone silo is roughly divided into the flat-bottom type and the cone type. In general, cone-type
silos are currently used. In the case of a large-capacity silo that receives limestone directly from a tanker, flat-type
silos are mainly used.
In order to facilitate the discharge of powered limestone in a stable manner, an air slide is provided for flattype silos and an aeration unit, for cone-type silos in general.
The structure of the limestone silo is shown in Fig. 4.3.1-11.
4.3.1.5 Trend of technology in the future
The wet-type Lime - Gypsum Process flue gas desulfurization equipment has a long delivery record with high
reliability. Its basic technology has already been completed. In line with the movement to scaled-up capacity of
coal-fired power generation equipment, an absorber that can treat the exhaust gas of 1000-MW class by a single
unit has already been put to practical use. Although the related technology has already almost been completed,
rationalization of the system, etc. including rationalization and simplification of the equipment and exhaust gas
treatment is still under way.
419
Table 4.3.1-9 Comparison of gypsum dehydrators

Item
Basket-type centrifugal dehydrator
Drive unit (by air

or oil pressure)
Dehydrated
cakedehydrator
Centrifugal filtering/dehydration
Batch operation
Dehydration efficiency
Records of practical use
Moisture content of gypsum: 10% or less
Advantages
Washing water
Washing water
Pump for feeding
gypsum slurry
Turbofan
Vacuum
tank
Dehydrated
Filtered
cakedehydrator liquid
Centrifugal precipitation/dehydration
# Replacement of the filter cloth is

required.
# Due to batch operation,
installation of many units is
required.
Vacuum pump
Suction filtering/dehydration
Continuous operation
Continuous operation
Moisture content of gypsum: 10- 15%
Many
# The moisture content of gypsum is
low.
# Long record of practical use with
high reliability
Characteristics
Belt fan
Dehydrated
cakedehydrator
Mist
separator
Filtered
liquid
Filtered liquid
Dehydration principle
Operation method
Moisture content of gypsum: 10% or less
Some
# Large treatment capacity
due to continuous
operation
# The unit is made compact,
and the number of
installations can be
lowered.
# Easy maintenance because
no filter cloth is required to
be replaced
# Compared with the baskettype and the filter cloth
traveling type, the moisture
content of gypsum is
higher.
Some
# Large treatment capacity due to
continuous operation
# The number of installations can be
lowered.
# Long record of practical use with
high reliability
# Replacement of the filter cloth is

required.
Receiving
piping
Receiving
piping
Air slide
Filter cloth traveling-type vacuum

dehydrator (Belt filter)
Pump for feeding

gypsum slurry
Basket-type
centrifugal
d h d
Disadvantages
Decanter-type
centrifugal
dehydrator
Water for washing

filter cloth
Pump for feeding

gypsum slurry
Process flow
Decanter-type centrifugal
dehydrator
Air slide
Auto Feeder
To material pit
To material pit
Cone-type silo
Flat-bottom-type silo
Fig. 4.3.1-11 Structure of limestone silo
(1) Rationalization and simplification of system

As explained in the preceding section, such major functions as cooling, absorption, and oxidation are
concentrated in the absorber of wet-type flue gas desulfurization equipment. In addition, the material-adjusting
process is included in some absorbers. The rationalization and simplification of the absorber has been almost
completed. It is expected that rationalization and simplification as a system will become the main item in the
future, including the reheating unit, desulfurization ventilator, and precipitator.
The role of the absorber in the desulfurization equipment has become more important, because major functions
are concentrated in it. Scaling-up of absorber capacity has already been realized. Rationalization and
simplification of the absorber with the above functions and its compactness in line with scaling up will be the
issues in the future.
420
(2) Energy saving

Energy saving will be an important and ongoing theme in the future as well. The major energy consumers in the
flue gas desulfurization equipment are the desulfurization ventilator and circulation pump. In order to reduce the
power consumption of the desulfurization ventilator, it is a recent remarkable trend to study the entire system
including the position to install the fan, sharing of pressure loss with IDF, layout of the smoke duct, etc.
With respect to the circulation pump on the other hand, because sulfur content, etc. varies depending on the
coal especially used for coal-fired boilers, circulation flow rate control using the function to presume the state of
the process by a computer is becoming popular. In addition, a monitoring system to capture the operation state of
various types of absorber has been developed. Optimization and energy saving utilizing the above is expected.
(3) Operation support system
The reliability of flue gas desulfurization equipment has been largely improved as the rationalization and
simplification of flue gas desulfurization equipment have advanced. As a result, the operation of the equipment
has become simpler. Due to the advancement of electronic-related technology through computers, etc. on the other
hand, huge storage of data and communication has become easier. A related operation system is now ready to be
built at various levels, which is expected to be realized in line with the rationalization of operation in the future.
(4) Others
Lining materials, etc. are used for many portions of wet-type flue gas desulfurization equipment due to the
environmental requirement for use. It is expected that such materials will be switched gradually to corrosion-proof
materials (materials not using linings) in view of maintenance.
It is expected also that reinforcement against waste water (reinforcement of regulated concentration, addition of
regulated substances) will continue in the future. Reduction in the discharge of waste water or development of
technology not discharging any waste water is under way and has been partially put to actual use.
4.3.2 Operation and maintenance of flue gas desulfurization equipment
Because wet-type flue gas desulfurization equipment is a type of chemical plant accompanied by chemical
reactions, it is required to operate and maintain it fully understanding the nature and characteristics of chemical
plants, which is somewhat different from power generation plants. The characteristics of flue gas desulfurization
equipment include the following:
1) It is a plant operated under low-temperature and low-pressure conditions.
2) Since it is a plant handling slurry and liquid of a highly corrosive nature, wear of system/unit and
accumulation of slurry/corrosion are likely to occur.
3) Since there are accompanying chemical reactions, control of the state of the process such as the control
of slurry pH, its density, flow rate, etc. is required.
4) It is a plant with a large time constant.
4.3.2.1 Items to be controlled during operation and countermeasures to be taken against abnormal
events
During normal operation of flue gas desulfurization equipment, it is required to pay careful attention so that the
respective given efficiency is maintained and in addition, no abnormal event is caused on the equipment or in any
process, and so that the operation is maintained under a stable condition. Items to be controlled during normal
operation and the countermeasures to be taken in the case of any abnormal event are explained below:
(1) Gas cooling and absorbing process
a) Ventilation system
Because any problem with the ventilation system can lead to operation stop of the flue gas desulfurization
equipment and the power generation boiler as a result, it is necessary to provide sufficient maintenance control
and monitoring of the entire system. Periodically inspect the correlation between the boiler load/exhaust gas flow
rate signal and opening of the control damper/rotating blade/current and draft of the gas system of each location
and check for any abnormal points. When the pressure loss in the gas system increases, the volume of gas treated
by the fan drops. The causes of increased pressure loss include the mist eliminator, loading substances, closed
elements of the gas heater (GGH), etc. Carry out cleaning, etc. as required.
b) Desulfurization efficiency
There are two factors that can affect the desulfurization efficiency, namely, the pH in the absorber (limestone
concentration) and the liquid-gas ratio in the absorber (L/G, immersion liquid level, etc.). In general, when the pH
value in the absorber is lowered, the desulfurization efficiency drops, whereas when the pH value is raised, SOx
removal efficiency improves, in which case, the non-reacted limestone concentration becomes higher or scale
adherence is caused, to which careful attention should be drawn. It is very important to maintain the pH value
421
and/or limestone concentration at its optimum level. Keep monitoring instruments, etc. under your strict control
by always carrying out the following checks:
#
Whether or not any deviation is present in the value displayed on the instrument
#
Whether or not sufficient cleaning has been performed for the instrument
#
Whether or not the display on the instrument has been kept stable
If the liquid-gas ratio in the absorber (L/G, immersion liquid level, etc.) should drop due to any closed spray
nozzle, accumulation of scale within the spray pipe, etc., it will cause not only a drop in desulfurization efficiency
but also the adherence of scale within the absorber, to which careful attention must be paid.
c) Limestone slurry feed flow rate
If the feed flow rate of limestone cannot be controlled in a successful manner, the pH value in the absorber
cannot be maintained at a stable level, which will have a direct impact on the desulfurization efficiency. Therefore,
it is required to continuously monitor whether or not the feed line of the limestone (including the regulating valve
and instruments) is clogged and for the presence of any abnormal point with the feed pump of the limestone slurry.
d) Air flow rate for oxidation
If the feed flow rate of air for oxidation to the absorber drops, the oxidation efficiency may drop and in addition,
reverse flow of slurry into the air piping may occur, which requires your special attention.
e) Gas temperature at the inlet of absorber
Inside the absorber, plastic parts are used or rubber or resin lining is used, whose heat-resistant temperature is
relatively low. Therefore, in order to monitor whether or not the exhaust gas has been sufficiently cooled down,
a thermometer is sometimes installed at the inlet of the absorber, etc. If the temperature rises, an interlock will be
actuated to apply an emergency stop to let the smoke pass through. The major causes of such high temperature
include an abnormal temperature rise in the gas at inlet, drop in circulating flow rate due to any clogging of the
spray nozzle for cooling water circulation, etc. Daily inspection and monitoring of these points are also required.
f) Control of liquid level
The absorber tanks are controlled in such a manner that their liquid level is kept at a given level by a liquid
level-regulating valve. In the event that the liquid level has dropped too low due to a problem with the liquid
level-regulating valve or clogging in the liquid leveler, the agitator may trip and cause the flue gas desulfurization
equipment to stop. Daily monitoring is required in order to detect any abnormal event at an early stage.
(2) Reheating process
With respect to the gas heater (GGH), any clogging in the element will cause the heat exchange efficiency to
drop and the differential pressure to rise.
In the case of the rotary-type generative GGH, untreated gas (soot and dust) may leak, which will force the
equipment to stop. Therefore, such operation control as capturing aged variation of GGH differential pressure,
monitoring of gas temperature, and inspection of the operation of soot blower becomes important.
(3) Gypsum-recovering process
If the density level of the slurry to be fed to the gypsum dehydrator is too high, the piping may be clogged. If it
is too low, the handling performance of the dehydrator may drop. If the fluctuation of the fed slurry density is too
large, it causes abnormal vibration of the gypsum dehydrator. Therefore, it is required to monitor on a daily basis
the slurry density to be fed to the gypsum dehydrator by adjusting the zero point and checking the span.
(4) Material-adjusting process
The slurry density of the absorbent limestone determines the slurry density within the absorber under operation.
It is required to fully monitor the fluctuation of the density, which causes various problems in the operation of
equipment.
4.3.2.2 Outline of maintenance/inspection technology

In the coal-fired exhaust gas to be treated by flue gas desulfurization equipment, SOx, HCl, HF, fly ash, etc. is
contained. Because these substances are absorbed or collected, such units as absorbers, etc. are exposed to a very
severe corrosive and wearing environment. Especially at the inlet of the absorber and at the portion where the
temperature of the exhaust gas after desulfurization rises, high-temperature exhaust gas and liquid make contact
with each other. For these portions, it is required to use materials of the heat-resistant and corrosion-proof type
because both dried and wet gas are present here.
In addition, in the slurry to be treated in the later process, such solid substances as fly ash, calcium carbonate,
gypsum, etc. are contained. In particular, the fly ash and gypsum slurry is likely to accelerate wearing. Therefore,
it is required to use materials with high wear resistance. Examples of major materials to be used for flue gas
desulfurization equipment are shown in Table 4.3.2-1.
422
Table 4.3.2-1 Major materials for flue gas desulfurization equipment

Equipment name and part name
Materials for use
Absorber
Resin lining, stainless steel, special stainless steel
Duct
Carbon steel, stainless steel, resin lining, FRP
Pump
Rubber lining, special stainless steel, ceramic
Gypsum separator
Stainless steel, rubber lining, resin lining, polyethylene
Piping
Rubber lining, polyethylene lining
Valve
Rubber lining, special alloy, stainless steel, ceramic
It is necessary to develop a maintenance/inspection plan for flue gas desulfurization equipment, paying special
attention to such points that the probability of occurrence of problems due to corrosion, wear, or scaling is high. In
particular, rubber lining or resin lining has been applied to the portions that make contact with any liquid or gas
contained in the corrosive liquid. It is required to carry out full inspection of the level of deterioration periodically.
The inspection of desulfurization equipment is normally carried out together with the periodical inspection of
boilers being carried out at intervals of 1 to 2 years. Examples of items to be inspected/repaired at periodical
inspection are shown in Table 4.3.2-2, and an outline of inspection of the lining is shown in Table 4.3.2-3.
4.3.2.3 Countermeasures against scaling

(1) Mechanism of scaling generation
There are 2 types of scale generated in the wet-type flue gas desulfurization equipment, namely, physical scale
and chemical scale. Physical scale is generated at such locations where the adhered absorbent slurry structurally
dries up.
Table 4.3.2-2 Items for inspection/repair during periodical inspection (1/2)
Equipment Name
1. Desulfurization ventilator
2-(1) Rotary-type regenerative gas

heater (GGH)
2-(2) Medium recycle-type gas

heater (GGH)
3. Exhaust flue (damper)
4. Absorber
5. Mist eliminator
6. Limestone silo
7. Various types of tank
8. Various types of agitator
9. Various types of slurry pump
Inspection Item
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
a)
b)
c)
d)
a)
b)
c)
a)
b)
a)
b)
c)
a)
b)
c)
a)
b)
c)
a)
b)
c)
d)
Accumulated substances, wear or corrosion within casing

Wear, corrosion, or cracks of impeller
Wear of bearing metal
Deterioration or damage to sealing parts of shaft seal
Disassembling inspection of coupling
Disassembling inspection of lubrication unit
Disassembling inspection of blade variable mechanism, checking of damage to the
parts
Wear or deformation of damper blade
Corrosion or damage to rotor and bearing
Adherence of dust to element or damage to element
Weight loss of element, measurement of back pressure
Corrosion or damage to rotor seal
Corrosion of connecting duct, damage to lining
Disassembling inspection of rotor drive unit
Disassembling inspection of nozzle, bearing, and drive unit of soot blower
Adherence of dust, corrosion, or damage to scavenging equipment
Disassembling inspection of lubrication unit
Corrosion of or heat carrier leak from heat transfer pipe
Corrosion or damage within casing
Wear or corrosion of cleaning equipment
Damage to heat carrier circulation pump
Damage to heat carrier heater
Accumulated substances or corrosion within duct
Damage to resin lining
Damage or deterioration of expansion joint
Disassembling inspection of damper
Corrosion, wear, or damage to spray pipe
Clogging, corrosion, or wear of spray pipe nozzle
Wear, expansion, or cracks of lining
Clogging or deformation of element
Clogging or looseness of spray pipe nozzle
Disassembling inspection of bag filter
Failure of air slide
Disassembling inspection of slide gate
Wear
Damage to lining
Accumulated substances
Wear or corrosion of shaft blade
Damage to rubber lining
Disassembling inspection of speed reducer
Wear or corrosion of impeller and casing
Wear or damage to mechanical sealing (gland)
Looseness, wear, or corrosion of bearing
Looseness or damage to V-belt (coupling)
423
Table 4.3.2-2 Items for inspection/repair during periodical inspection (2/2)

Equipment Name
10-(1) Gypsum dehydrator (basket
type)
10-(2) Gypsum dehydrator (decanter

type)
10-(3) Gypsum dehydrator (belt

filter type)
11. Piping
12. Instruments
13. Electrical related
Inspection Item
a) Corrosion, wear, or damage to basket
b) Damage to bearing, speed reducer, or shaft
c) Wear, looseness, or damage to V-belt
d) Wear of scraper/blade tip of scraper device
e) Damage to damper
f) Clogging or damage to filter cloth
a) Wear of bowl conveyor and scraping blade
b) Damage to shaft
c) Looseness, wear, or corrosion of bearing
d) Damage to rubber support
e) Disassembling inspection of lubrication unit
a) Clogging or damage to filter cloth
b) Looseness, wear, or corrosion of bearing
c) Corrosion within casing
a) Wear, expansion, or damage to lining piping
b) Wear, damage, or off-centering of expansion joint
c) Wear or damage to valve
d) Corrosion or wear of orifice
a) Disassembling inspection of regulating valve
b) Inspection and calibration of all analyzers (SO2 gage, pH gage, etc.)
c) Inspection and calibration of instruments (flow rate gage, pressure gage,
etc.) to be installed on site
d) Movement of security interlock
a) Disassembling inspection of motor
b) Disassembling inspection, checking of movement, and measurement of
insulation resistance of breaker
Table 4.3.2-3 Inspection method of linings

Inspection Item
1. Damage such as cracks,
dent, etc.
Inspection Method
Visually inspect all points first. If any problem
is foreseen, check it using a pinhole tester.
2. Blistering
Visually check for any expansion.
3. Film thickness
Concentrated measurement of any portion,

which may wear using a film thickness gage.
Hardness measurement using a durometer to
capture the level of deterioration.
Check for any peeling of lining hit by a
wooden hammer.
4. Hardness
5. Peeling
424
Remarks
Rubber lining: 3,000 V/mm
Resin lining: 2,000 V/mm
Find any portion in which the arc
occurs.
Partial repair, or entire repair if
necessary
Portion with which the spray liquid
collides, etc.
Especially rubber lining
This scale is composed of calcium sulfate (CaSO3!1/2H2O) and gypsum (CaSO4!2H2O) and is generally soft.
Chemical scale, on the other hand, is mainly composed of CaSO4!2H2O, which is precipitated under a partially
super-saturated state of CaSO4 in the absorbent slurry that has absorbed SO2. It grows and becomes solid in the
course of the crystallization of the gypsum. Its removal is not an easy job.
Fig. 4.3.2-1 shows the relationship between the saturated solubility of the pH and CaSO3/CaSO4.
When solid CaSO3!1/2H2O or CaSO4!2H2O is present in the liquid, it has been dissolved to its saturated
solubility depending on its pH level. Chemical scale in such a state is generated because dissolved CaSO3 is
oxidized by dissolved and existing O2, and the CaSO3 reaches a super-saturated state as follows:
CaSO3 + 1/2O2 CaSO4
From Fig. 4.3.2-1, you will understand that when fluctuation of the pH (high low) is large and the pH
becomes as low as possible, the scaling potential rises and scaling is easily generated.
The super-saturated dissolution line under the

presence of solid CaSO31/2H2O and CaSO4
2H2O is shown below.
Dissolution level (mold/L)
CaSO4(L)
Super-saturated line
Scaling
potential
Saturated
dissolution line of
CaSO4(L)
Saturated
dissolution line of
CaSO3(L)
Fig. 4.3.2-1 pH and dissolution level of CaSO3, CaSO4
(2) Countermeasures against scaling

Although it is very difficult to eliminate all scaling in the process through which the gypsum is generated, it is
required to minimize the causes of scaling generation as above in order to prevent scaling from being generated.
As countermeasures in the planning, the following procedures are recommended:
a) For physical factors:
#
Select an adequate liquid-gas ratio.
#
Use filling materials that can tear off the liquid easily.
#
Pay attention to the structure and layout of the spray nozzles, taking into account even distribution of
the liquid.
#
Adopt an absorber structure that will eliminate the drying portion and stagnation of slurry within the
absorber.
b) For chemical factors:
Plan an adequate circulation liquid volume and liquid volume kept within the absorber, taking into account
suppression of the gypsum super-saturation level.
Keep the pH of the absorbing (circulating) liquid at an adequate level.
Secure a sufficient amount of seed crystal in the absorbing liquid to suppress the generation of nuclei.
4.3.3 Economical effect of flue gas desulfurization equipment
The cost for flue gas desulfurization equipment cannot be estimated sweepingly because it varies depending on
the equipment size, structure of the system, required efficiency, etc. However, thanks to the trend of cost reduction
425
in these years, the cost required for the equipment has largely dropped. The economical effect of flue gas
desulfurization equipment was discussed in the past because low S-fuel was used. However, it is now positioned
as essential equipment for coal-fired power generation plants or high S-oil-fired power generation plants. The
economical effect is seldom discussed although there is discussion of the flow of cost reduction as seen with other
equipment.
The cost of flue gas desulfurization equipment is affected not only by desulfurization efficiency (SO2 density at
the outlet) but also by dust removal efficiency (soot and dust concentration at the outlet). The desulfurization
efficiency will, as a matter of fact, be reflected in the desulfurization cost within an absorber. Dust removal
efficiency affects the selection of the gas heater. Namely, when dust removal efficiency is sufficient, a gas leak to
some extent is permissible that enables the use of a rotary-type regenerative gas heater. When dust removal
efficiency is very limited, it is required to use a non-leak-type gas heater, which will result in a rise in equipment
cost to some extent.
In these years, we can see an example of rationalization in the installation of dry-type electrostatic
precipitators for coal-fired boilers downstream of the heat-recovering unit of the non-leak-type gas heater, in line
with the reinforcement of environmental regulations. Evaluation of economical effect in this case would not be
enough if you evaluate the same for flue gas desulfurization equipment only. It would also be necessary to make
evaluation as a system including the dry-type electrostatic precipitator. This trend of evaluating the entire exhaust
gas-treating system, not only evaluating the flue gas desulfurization equipment, will become popular in the
discussion of economical effect especially with coal-fired boilers, etc. that remove SO2 together with soot and
dust.
Because the rationalization and simplification of the system of flue gas desulfurization equipment have been
considerably accelerated, the machine cost in the entire equipment cost tends to drop and the weight of controls
tends to become heavier. The cost of controls relates to the operation control. Therefore, it is necessary to make
total evaluation including operation cost.
426
4.4 Denitration Equipment

The steps in Japan to reduce nitrogen oxides generated from boilers, gas turbines, fired heaters, etc. as a direct
cause of atmospheric pollution (the nitrogen oxides that are the issue in atmospheric pollution are nitrogen
monoxide = NO and nitrogen dioxide = NO2) have been largely accelerated by Article 3 of the Atmospheric
Contamination Prevention Law established in August of 1973.
Accelerated by the conversion to coal firing caused by two oil crises thereafter and by the acid rain that became
a large social issue in USA and European countries, research and development of technologies to reduce nitrogen
oxides have further advanced, and significant progress has been observed in related engineering.
Under the circumstances explained below, the steps taken in Japan against nitrogen oxides have been recognized
in the entire world as the most advanced technology.
There are two types of technologies to reduce nitrogen oxides that are a direct cause of atmospheric pollution as
follows:
(1) Improvement by combustion
(2) Denitrification equipment
(1) is a technology to suppress the generation of NOx in the course of combustion, while (2) is a technology to
remove generated NOx from exhaust gas. These two technologies are combined for use in current thermal power
generation plants.
In this section, the general denitrification system with denitrification equipment as its core for which demand is
recently increasing is introduced.
4.4.1 Mechanism NOx is generated (Principles)
Two processes can be considered for the generation of NOx in the combustion reaction. One is called Thermal
NOx, which is generated when nitrogen molecules contained in the air are combined with oxygen under high
temperature. The other is called Fuel NOx, which is generated when nitrogen compounds contained in the fuel are
oxidized. Some of the NO generated in the above processes (about 5% in the case of a boiler) is further oxidized
and becomes NO2.
4.4.1.1 Thermal NOx
There are two types of NOx generated by N2 and O2 contained in the air. One is generated downstream of the
flame strip, and the other is rapidly generated within the flame strip. The former is said to be formed by the
reaction shown in the following formula and is known as the Zeldovich mechanism.
N2 + ONO + N
N + O2NO + O
In order to calculate the generated NO density from the above formula suitable for an actual boiler, the formula
below is widely known:
NO ! Ae
E1
RT
[N2IO2] 2
te
NO : Generated NO density (ppm)

A : Frequency coefficient (1/ppm"sec)
E
: Apparent activation energy (kcal/kg"mol)
R
: Gas constant (1.99 kcal/kg"mol/#K)
T
: Flame temperature (#K)
te : Gas retention time at temperature T
[N2], [O2]: Balanced density of N2 and O2 (ppm) at temperature T
From the above formula, you will understand that the volume of NO generated downstream of the flame strip
becomes larger as the O2 density becomes higher in the flame area and the combustion gas retention time (te)
becomes longer. This may suggest that it is necessary in principle to suppress the combustion temperature, O2
density, and retention time in order to suppress the generation of NO. As shown in Fig. 4.4.1-1, this trend is
remarkably observed in the combustion temperature. In an example of calculation of the generated volume of NO
in relation to the temperature, NO generation suddenly increases when the temperature rises to 1600#C or higher.
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NO conversion rate (Fuel NOx/Total NO (%))
NO generation volume
0.5 seconds after
reaction
Converted NO density (ppm)
Heavy oil
Gas
Fig. 4.4.1-1 NOx generation volume in the

calculation during combustion of heavy oil/gas
N content in the fuel (%)
Fig. 4.4.1-2 NO conversion rate of N contained in the fuel

and Fuel NOx ratio in the entire NO exhaust volume
On the other hand, NO promptly generated within the flame strip is called Prompt NO, which is considered in
general to be generated through the reaction of N contained in the combustion air with hydrocarbon radicals.
However, its generation features and mechanism have not been made sufficiently clear. Fenimore's view that this
reaction generates NO via NCN, which is an intermediate product generated during combustion, is currently
prevailing. It is said that the level of temperature dependency of the reaction in the Zeldovich mechanism is high,
whereas the same of Prompt NO generation is low.
4.4.1.2 Fuel NO
No clear conclusion has been so far reached with respect to the generation mechanism of Fuel NO. However, it
is considered in general that there are two generation processes from nitrogen compounds contained in the fuel to
NO as follows:
(1) Nitrogen compounds are thermally decomposed in such intermediate compounds as NH2, NH3, CN,
HCN, etc., and NO is thereby generated.
(2) Nitrogen compound is decomposed and the N atom is discharged. NO is then generated in the
reactions below.
N + O2NO + O
N + OHNO + H
Fig. 4.4.1-2 shows an example of the relationship between O2 = 0% converted NO density and N content by the
percentage in an actual boiler. In the example in Fig 4.4.1-2, NO increases by 53 ppm when the N content
increases by 0.1%. If all of 0.1% N content is converted into NO (conversion rate: 100%), it will correspond to:
"$ Approximately 155 ppm (O2 = 0% conversion) in the case of heavy oil, and
"$ Approximately 200 ppm (O2 = 0% conversion) in the case of coal.
The increase of 53 ppm when the N content is 0.1% corresponds to a conversion rate of 34%. The conversion
rate of the N content contained in the fuel into NO is considered in general to be about 15 - 30%.
4.4.2 Suppression of NOx and combustion-improving technology
4.4.2.1 Suppression of NOx in a boiler and combustion-improving technology
As combustion methods for suppressing NOx in a boiler, the following methods are adopted in general:
(1) To lower the excess air ratio
This is a method of suppressing the generation of NOx by reducing the feed air into a boiler, especially by
reducing excess oxygen in the combustion area. However, most boilers currently used for power generation are
already operated under low excess air ratio. Therefore, it is not considered that any significant NOx reduction
effect can be expected through air ratio adjustment.
(2) To lower the air temperature for combustion
Boilers are operated at combustion air temperature in the range of 250 - 350#C in general. The NOx generation
volume is reduced by lowering this temperature as well as the combustion temperature.
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(3) Two-step combustion

In the two-step combustion method, combustion air is supplied in two steps. At the first step (burner),
combustion is performed under an air ratio of 1 or less. From the second step downstream, complete combustion
is attained by feeding air that was in short supply at the first step.
If the air volume at the first step is reduced to the extent possible, the effect of NOx reduction becomes larger.
However, there is a possibility of unstable combustion or greater generation of soot and dust (unburned), for
which careful attention is required.
(4) Exhaust gas recycling
This method is to reduce NOx by mixing some of the burned exhaust gas with air for combustion, thereby
reducing the O2 density in the combustion air and lowering the combustion temperature through moderate
combustion. If the volume of recycling gas becomes larger, the effect of NOx suppression becomes larger.
However, if the volume of exhaust gas becomes too large, the combustion may become unstable. About 20 - 30%
mixture of recycling gas with the air volume for combustion is considered to be the limit.
(5) Improvement of burner (low-NOx burner)
There are roughly three methods of NOx reduction through the improvement of the burner as follows:
1) To slow down the speed of diffusion and mixture of combustion and air
2) To promote imbalanced combustion
3) To promote heat radiation from the flame
Method 1) aims at a temperature suppression effect by lowering the flame temperature by reducing the heat
release rate of the flame.
In Method 2), several among many burners are used under an excessive combustion condition. By arranging air
excessive burners or inlets used exclusively for the air around these burners, or distributing combustion from a
single rough or fine particle, combustion is performed. In this method, the supply of fuel and air allotment do not
match each other. So-called non-stoichimetric combustion is carried out.
Method 3) aims to shorten the residual time of combustion gas under high temperature, by arranging the flame
to become the largest heat radiation shape by adjusting the method of mixing fuel and air.
The low-NOx burner has been summarized above. In practice, the low-NOx burner varies in many types
combining above Methods 1), 2), and 3) depending on the manufacturer. Typical examples of coal-fired burners
are introduced below:
Mitsubishi PM/A-PM burner
Fig. 4.4.2-1 shows NOx being generated from the flame from pulverized coal in the relationship of the primary
air/coal feed rate.
Features of generation of
NOx by conventional
burner
Air feed rate based

on volatile matter
content theory
Theoretical air feed rate

to coal
Primary air/Coal feed rate (kg/kg coal)
Fig. 4.4.2-1 Diagram of low NOx principle from a pulverized coal-fired burner
The characteristics of pulverized coal are utilized in the Mitsubishi PM burner. The NOx generation volume
decreases at the side at which the concentration of pulverized coal is larger at the border where the primary/coal
feed rate corresponds to the value of the theoretical combustion air feed rate of the volatile matter content in the
coal.
In the direct combustion system (a system in which the mill and burner are directly connected via pulverized
coal piping), the primary air/coal feed rate at the mill outlet is 2 - 3. In the case of the PM burner, a distributor is
installed at the burner inlet. The burner nozzle is divided into a nozzle for larger pulverized coal concentration
(Fig. 4.4.2-1) and a nozzle for smaller pulverized coal concentration (Fig. 4.4.2-1). The pulverized coal is fired
generating a smaller amount of NOx (Fig. 4.4.2-1) than the amount of NOx (Fig. 4.4.2-1) generated when fired
through a single nozzle.
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The A-PM burner shown in Fig. 4.4.2-2 has a built-in distributor and forms a dense mixed-air flame around the
outside circumference of the flame (called Conc) and a thin mixed-air flame (called Weak) within the inside
circumference of the flame.
Fig. 4.4.2-2 Structure of the MHI pulverized coal-fired A-PM burner

The coal burner and air nozzle are arranged in a vertical direction in relation to each other as shown in Fig.
4.4.2-2. The allotment of secondary air to the air nozzle is controlled to its optimum level by the secondary air
damper installed at the inlet of each compartment. The following are the features of the pulverized coal-fired APM burner having the structure above.
1) Reduction of NOx is not performed by lowering the temperature, but by the reduction reaction of NOx in the
flame. The increase in non-burnt contents is suppressed to the minimum. In addition, mixing of recirculation air
is basically not required.
2) The Conc flame with a low primary air/coal feed rate have a nature whereby they can easily ignite in a stable
fashion. In addition, by a placing Conc flame around the circumference of the flame with high radiant heat load
from the proximate burner flame, an excellent flame-holding effect is secured. Due to the excellent stable nature
of ignition under low load, the minimum load by single coal firing can be made lower than conventional-type
burners.
3) No complex adjustment is required for operation.
4) The structure is simplified, and the required maintenance is almost the same as for the conventional burner.
! Hitachi NR burner
The Hitachi NR burner is an inner flame denitrification-type ultra-low-NOx burner that reduces the NOx
density of the burnt exhaust gas by effectively decomposing NO generated from the N content volatilized from
coal particles (Volatile-N) through reaction with the excess combustion intermediate product in the hydrocarbon
within the high-temperature gas flame generated by excess fuel by rapidly consuming the oxygen in the flame.
Fig. 4.4.2-3 and Fig.4.4.2-4 show the flame structure and NOx reduction principle of the Hitachi NR burner.
Primary air
(Pulverized coal +
Air)
Inside
Outside
circumference circumference
Secondary air Secondary air
(A): Area volatilized content burns

(B): Area reducing agent is generated
(C): Area NOx decomposes.
(D): Area char firing is accelerated.
Fig. 4.4.2-3 Flame structure of the pulverized coal-fired NR burner
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Density
- HC: Intermediate product of

hydrocarbon family
- NX: Intermediate product
containing nitrogen
Distance in burner shaft direction
Fig. 4.4.2-4 Principle diagram of NOx reduction by the Hitachi pulverized coal-fired NR burner
In the area, volatilized content burns as shown in Fig. 4.4.2-3 to facilitate pulverized coal to ignite and form
high-temperature reduction with excess fuel in a stable fashion, and heat decomposition is accelerated while
suppressing the initial mixture of the fuel and the inside and outside circumference secondary air. Here, by
maintaining stable ignition and flame holding by consuming the oxygen contained in the primary air, Fuel-NO
generated from volatile organic nitrogen oxide in the coal is discharged at the initial step of combustion (the step
of the combustion of volatilized content occurs first). B in Fig. 4.4.2-3 is the area in which the reducing agent is
generated that generates reducing substances such as intermediate products of the hydrocarbon family ("HC)
through a reaction in the low-oxygen atmosphere of the carbon within the coal discharged by heat decomposition
in the flame center downstream of A and hydrogen. In area C where NOx decomposes, Fuel-NO generated in A
and intermediate products ("HC) generated in B that exist within the flame makes a NOx reduction reaction, where
NOx is reduced to N2 via intermediate products containing nitrogen("NX). D in Fig. 4.4.2-3 is the outside flame
that makes contact with the inside secondary air. Combustion of coal particles advances and, at the same time, a
small amount of NO is generated through the oxidation reaction of the N content (Char-N) existing in the coal
char. This forms a high-temperature flame in a stable state and, at the same time, accelerates char combustion
formed downstream of C by utilizing the strong rotary force of the outside-circumference secondary air. In the
complete combustion area downstream of the flame, combustion of char is accelerated by suppressing the
phenomenon where the N content of char converts to NO. The Hitachi NR burner has the characteristic of
volatizing a large amount of nitrogen compound contained in the coal particles in the gas layer at the initial stage
of combustion and of suppressing the later conversion to NO.
Fig. 4.4.2-5 gives an outline of the structure of the Hitachi NR burner. The pulverized coal nozzle is positioned
at the center of the burner. In the concentric circle of the outside circumference, a cylindrical inside-circumference
secondary air supply nozzle is installed. Outside it, a combustion air-rotating device is installed that adjusts the
outside-circumference secondary air. Pulverized coal is conveyed and supplied by primary air and from its
surrounding area, and inside- and outside-circumference secondary air is supplied in a ring shape.
Pilot torch
High-efficiency combustion air-rotating device
Flame holding ring

(Ceramics with accessories)
Guide sleeve
Pulverized coal
+ Primary air
Inside
Outside
circumference circumference
Secondary air Secondary air
Fig. 4.4.2-5 Outline structure of the pulverized coal-fired NR burner

The following points are mentioned as characteristics of the Hitachi NR burner compared with conventional
countermeasures against NOx:
Whereas conventional countermeasures against NOx need larger combustion space because of the long flameshape burner formed by slow combustion, the Hitachi NR burner is a self-NOx-removal-type burner by igniting
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the volatilized content in the pulverized coal, generating reducing agent, performing NOx reduction, and
completing combustion. In addition, it forms a high-temperature reducing flame through quick ignition, and the
flame becomes short. Because it is a burner able to attain low-NOx combustion and improvement of combustion
efficiency (reduction of non-burnt content in the ash), the minimum load in single coal firing can be reduced.
Therefore, basically, no cooling of the flame by feeding exhaust gas is required. In addition, because an effective
and strong reducing area can be formed in the burner flame when the burner air ratio is relatively high,
combustion at a low excess air ratio becomes possible.
" IHI's low-NOx burner
Although such coal with large volatile content actively generates Volatile-NOx in the ignition area of
pulverized coal, it can be easily reduced by forming a volatile atmosphere through two-step combustion.
Therefore, in order to reduce NOx in pulverized coal combustion effectively, it is recommended to make the
ignition stable, form a reduction atmosphere in the area of pulverized coal ignition, discharge the nitrogen content
in the coal to the extent possible, and reduce it to nitrogen.
In order to realize the above, the DF pulverized coal burner, which is IHI's low-NOx pulverized coal burner,
forms a high-temperature reduction atmosphere using a rotary current and ignites pulverized coal in a stable
fashion.
Fig. 4.4.2-6 shows the structure of the IHI-DF inter-vane pulverized coal burner made by IHI. The secondary
air, which constitutes the major part of the combustion air, is supplied to the burner throat through two routes. The
rotary force of each route can be adjusted independently. The internal secondary air rotary force is adjusted by the
secondary air inter-vane as shown in Fig. 4.4.2-6 so that the flame becomes stable. The flow pattern of the
external secondary air is adjusted by the secondary air vane. As a result, the mixture of secondary air with fuel is
controlled. The fuel is injected from the ring nozzle tip composed of the inner and outer cylinders. The nozzle tip
has been narrowed to a given angle. The fuel injection is so arranged it concentrates on the burner axis, whereby
fuel excess combustion is formed to reduce NOx.
On the other hand, the pulverized coal conveyed in the primary air is injected from the pulverized coal nozzle
after being fed in the circumference direction evenly. The tip of the pulverized coal nozzle has a coned shape by
which the infection of pulverized coal is directed to the center of burner to reduce NOx by performing self-dense
or-thin combustion.
# KHI-CC-type pulverized coal burner
The KHI-CC-type pulverized coal burner made by Kawasaki Heavy Industries is shown in Fig. 4.4.2-7.
This burner aims to stably ignite the flame and reduce NOx in the course of two-step combustion as a
countermeasure against NOx. The air container is a spiral and rotary type for each burner. The flame is stabilized
by the rotation of the combustion air. The air distribution to each burner is simplified. It is designed to attain
excellent combustion under as low an excess air ratio as possible. The burner throat is composed in the sequence
of oil burner, primary air + pulverized coal, secondary air, and tertiary air, starting from the center. With the
functions of a distribution blade and primary/secondary flame holders, this burner has such characteristics as
ignition under a stable condition, high-efficiency combustion, and low-NOx operation without causing any
slugging to the furnace.
Burner inner cylinder
Secondary air inter-vane

Secondary air vane
Burner outer cylinder
Primary air + Pulverized coal
Flow divider
Throat ring
Tertiary air
damper
Oil burner
Primary air + Pulverized coal
Pulverized coal nozzle
Tertiary air
Oil burner support
Furnace wall piping

External secondary air
Secondary air vane drive unit
Secondary air
Internal secondary air
Secondary air inter-vane driving unit
Fig. 4.4.2-6 IHI-DF inter-vane pulverized coal burner

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Acceleration of inner flame NOx removal combustion

by stable ignition to outer circumference
Secondary air
Tertiary air rotation vane
Tertiary air
Tertiary air
Secondary air
Distribution blade
Oil burner
Reduction flame
Primary air +
Pulverized coal
Secondary throat
Primary
throat
Rib
Primary flame holder

Secondary flame holder
Fig. 4.4.2-7 KHI-CC pulverized coal burner

In order to reduce NOx during combustion of pulverized coal, this burner has been so designed as to secure
flame holding, to discharge the N content in the coal (Fuel-N) to the extent possible, to reduce the generated FuelNO during combustion by intermediate products, and to decompose NOx generated under a low level in the
reduction area before two-step combustion.
(6) In-furnace NOx reduction method
In the in-furnace NOx reduction method, NOx generated in the combustion chamber is reduced by hydrocarbon.
In-furnace NOx reduction is composed of two processes. The first process is a process of NOx reduction by
hydrocarbon. The following three conditions are required to complete this process:
1) The atmospheric temperature must be higher than the decomposition temperature of hydrocarbon
(approx. 900 C or more).
2) Oxygen must be present.
3) The amount of hydrocarbon (fuel) to be mixed for reduction must be larger than the chemical
equivalent to the oxygen present.
Under the above conditions, NO in the exhaust gas decomposes in the formula below:
CnHm + O2 ! Cn Hm * + CO + H2O
NO + Cn Hm * ! Cn Hm* + N2 +H20+CO
Or,
NO + Cn Hm* ! Cn Hm + NHi + H2O + CO
where mark * indicates the radical at an early stage of the chemical reaction, and NHi in the formula is a
representative of the N compound.
The second process is a process to completely burn the unburned content generated in the first process, which
requires the following two conditions;
1) The atmospheric temperature must be higher than the reaction temperature of unburned content.
2) Oxygen sufficient to eliminate unburned content completely must be supplied. It is desirable, however,
if oxygen of low density is mixed in step by step.
With respect to the combustion reaction of unburned content under these conditions, the following formula is
considered:
Cn Hm + O2 ! H2O + CO2
CO + O2 ! CO2
NHi + O2 ! N2 + H2O
NHi + O2 ! NO + H2O
In a practical boiler, reduction fuel corresponding to about 10% of the main fuel is to be supplied to the upper
part of the main burner. If the fuel to be used is coal, there are some cases where no reduction fuel is supplied,
because its combustion reaction is slower than other fuels. Air for burning unburned content corresponding to
about 20% of the total combustion air volume is supplied to the upper portion from the reduction fuel-filling port.
433
Furnace outlet
Area to
complete
combustion
Area to reduce
NOx contained in
unburned fuel
Main burner
combustion
area
Main burner
In-furnace NOx
reduction method
Fig. 4.4.2-8 Concept sketch of in-furnace NOx reduction

Fig. 4.4.2-8 shows the scheme of in-furnace NOx reduction. In the scheme, UB means a report of supplied fuel
for reduction, and AA means a report of supplied air for the combustion of unburned content. Some of the main
fuel can be used as the fuel for reduction. Heavy (crude) oil, gas, or coal can be used. The NOx reduction
efficiency will be 30 - 50%. With respect to the furnace when the in-furnace NOx reduction method is adopted, its
height becomes higher than the normal furnace by several meters. Fig. 4.4.2-9 and Fig. 4.4.2-10 show the records
of use of practical equipment under the in-furnace NOx reduction method.
The in-furnace NOx reduction is under operation.
No NOx reduction
in-furnace operation
NOx reduction
Time
Fig. 4.4.2-9 Performance of in-furnace NOx reduction
No NOx reduction
NOx reduction in-furnace operation
Boiler load (MW)
Fig. 4.4.2-10 Load characteristics of in-furnace NOx reduction
(7) Fuel conversion

NOx generation in relation to the fuel type and NOx exhaust amount is considered in general to become Solid
fuel > Liquid fuel > Gas combustion. With respect to gas combustion, almost no N compounds are contained in
434
the fuel, and almost no Fuel NOx is generated. In addition, because the fuel is a type of gas, it becomes easy to
have Thermal NO mix with air in a desirable fashion. Because the time required for complete combustion is
shorter than for liquid or solid fuel, the generation of NOx becomes smaller. In the case of liquid or solid fuel, N
compounds are contained in the fuel. Therefore, the amount of NOx generation become larger in relation to its
time required for combustion and flame temperature. As such, if you use a fuel type with lower N content,
gasified or liquidated solid fuel, it will become possible to make the best use of the technology to reduce NOx in
an effective manner.
In practical boilers for thermal power generation, combinations of the above measures (1) - (7) are used. With
respect to the comprehensive NOx suppression effect through such combinations, it is difficult to expect the total
NOx suppression effect of each measure.
The NOx suppression effect of the boiler has been explained above. The NOx suppression technology of gas
turbines, whose installation has been increasing remarkably these years, is explained below.
4.4.3 Outline of the technology

(1) Selective catalytic reduction process
This is a process to reduce NOx to N2 by adding reducing agent under the presence of a catalyst. This process is
divided into the selective type or non-selective type depending on whether the reaction of the reducing agent with
NOx or the reaction of the reducing agent with O2 contained in the exhaust gas prevails.
As reducing agent for the selective type, ammonia (NH3) is used in general, and for non-selective type, CO, H2,
HC, etc. is used. In the non-selective type, both reducing agent and O2 react. Therefore, the selective type is
economically disadvantageous, and there has been no record of practical use.
The selective catalytic reduction process using NH3 as its reducing agent is considered to be most effective
process in denitrification equipment. Its technical development has also been promoted. At the initial stage,
poisoning of the catalyst by SOx or soot and dust was considered critical. However, a TiO2 carrier catalyst with
strong resistance against SOx has been developed and put to practical use for treating such dirty exhaust gas as
exhaust gas from heavy oil combustion, coal combustion, sintering furnaces, etc. Detailed explanation of this
process is given in the next section.
(2) Selective non-catalytic reduction process
In this process, NOx contained in the exhaust gas is reduced and decomposed in a high-temperature gas
atmosphere under the presence of O2. The reaction mechanism is as shown below. The denitration reaction
advances in a gas temperature range of 800 - 1,050 C. At around 900 - 1000 C, the highest NOx removal
efficiency is expected. In order for the reaction to complete, a reaction-holding time of 0.1 seconds or more,
preferably 0.4 seconds or more, is required.
The following formula shows the chemical reaction.
4NO + 4NH3 + O2 ! 4N2 + 6H2O
4NH3 + 5O2 ! 4NO + 6H2O
4NH3 + 3O2 ! 2N2 + 6H2O
The most critical point in non-catalytic NOx reduction technology is the issue of mixing thin NOx contained in
the exhaust gas and 1/1000 or less NH3 of the exhaust gas volume. NOx removal efficiency largely depends on
what type of NH3 injection device is selected. In addition, the combustion varies depending on the load. When the
gas temperature will largely change due to a dirty furnace, the temperature range at the point of filling NH3 may
change. Therefore, it becomes necessary to install multiple injection devices so that NH3 can be injected in the
most suitable temperature range. In recent years, a method of injecting urea: CO(NH2)2 aqueous solution instead
of ammonia has been studied and put to practical use.
There are many records of practical use of non-catalytic ammonia reduction. In view of ammonia leakage, the
NH3/NOx mole percentage (hereinafter referred to as the "mole percentage") is sometimes set up. Maximum NOx
removal efficiency is said to be 40 - 50%. A flow of non-catalytic NOx reduction equipment is shown in Fig.
4.4.3-1.
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NH3 nozzle
Boiler
NH3 injection
nozzle
NH3
Cooling water
Air blower FD fan for NH3 dilution
Fig. 4.4.3-1 Flow diagram of non-catalytic NOx reduction equipment for industrial boilers
(3) Activated carbon adsorption process

When NOx is allowed to make contact with this carbon-type catalyst as activated carbon, etc. by injecting NH3
into the exhaust gas cooled down to about 200 C, NOx is reduced to NH3 and decomposed to N2. At the same
time, sulfur dioxide (SO2) is oxidized by the O2 remaining in the exhaust gas and adsorbed to the catalyst and
removed as sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and ammonium salt.
(4) Electron beam irradiation process
This is a method of removing SOx and NOx simultaneously by irradiating an electron beam against the
combustion exhaust gas. Removal efficiency depends on the intensity of the electron beam, gas residual time,
temperature, etc.
4.4.4 Selective catalytic reduction process
As explained in the preceding section, various types of process have been so far studied and developed. At
present, a catalyst able to reduce NOx selectively to N2 without being interfered with by coexisting O2 at a density
of 100 times or more of NO in the exhaust gas has been developed. The selective catalytic reduction process using
NH3 as its reduction agent has been intensively developed and put to practical use.
As practical equipment in operation, improvement of the catalyst that can minimize performance deterioration
caused by SOx contained in the exhaust gas or alkali metals contained in the soot and dust has been promoted and
put to practical use for various combustion exhaust gases from heavy oil, coal, etc. This technology has been
completed in Japan and exported to USA and European countries where NOx reduction measures had become
critical issue due to acid rain, etc. The technology was evaluated on a worldwide scale, and its practical use is
rapidly spreading in Germany, Austria, Netherlands, USA, etc.
4.4.4.1 Outline of selective catalytic reduction process
This process is currently most adopted as mainstream denitrification equipment. This process has been adopted
by almost all denitrification equipment for large-sized boilers and gas turbines. In recent years, adoption of this
process for denitrification equipment for diesel and refuse incinerators is increasing.
(1) Characteristics
This process lets NOx react selectively with ammonia on the catalyst to reduce it to N2 and H2O. Its main
characteristics are as follows:
1) Because the process is simplified, operation is easy. Its reliability is high, and problems are minimized.
2) Because it is a dry type, neither waste water treatment nor reheating of the exhaust gas is required..
436
3) It can attain high NOx removal efficiency.

4) No byproducts are produced.
5) Because the operation has been simplified, it can harmonize with the gas source without difficulty.
(2) Outline of process
The process is basically composed of a NOx removal catalyst, a NOx removal reactor, a NH3 injection device
to inject reducing agent NH3 into the exhaust gas, and an NH3 supply device. As shown in Fig. 4.4.4-1, the flow of
the process varies depending on such conditions as the type of gas source, manufacturer of the denitrification
equipment, location of installation, etc. Here, a general example of usage of the process for NOx removal from
exhaust gas generated by coal-fired boilers is shown in Fig. 4.4.4-2.
Gas-fired boiler
Boiler
Denitrification
equipment
Boiler
Dust
Desulphurization Chimney
Denitrification Air
equipment
pre-heater collector equipment
Boiler
Desulphurization Chimney
Denitrification Air
Dust
equipment
pre-heater collector equipment
(Low
temperature)
Air pre-heater
Chimney
Heavy oil-fired boiler
High-soot and dust NOx removal

system
Coal-fired
boiler
Low-soot and dust NOx removal
system
Boiler
Dust collector
(High
temperature)
Chimney
Desulphurization
Denitrification Air
pre-heater equipment
equipment
Fuel
Denitrification
equipment
Combined cycle
Gas turbine
Exhausted heat recovering
boiler
Gas turbine
Fuel
Chimney
Denitrification
equipment
Simple cycle
Gas turbine
Exhausted heat
recovering boiler
Chimney
Fig. 4.4.4-1 Flow of exhaust gas treatment process (Examples)
437
To atmospheric air
Boiler
NH3 injection nozzle
Air pre-heater
Dust collector
Soot blower
Ammonia dilution
device
Denitrification
equipment
Air
NOx
removal
reactor
Chimney
Gas gas heater
Backfire prevention
device
Accumulator
Liquidated NH3
receiver
Carburetor
NH3 tank
Steam
Fig. 4.4.4-2 Flow sheet of denitrification equipment for a coal-fired boiler

( High-soot and -dust NOx removal system) (Example)
Exhaust gas coming from a boiler is mixed with NH3 injected from the NH3 injection nozzle and introduced to
the NOx removal reactor via the gas rectifier, etc. Here, NOx contained in the exhaust gas makes selective
reaction with NH3 on the surface of the catalyst according to formulas (1) and (2) below and is reduced to N2 and
H2O, and then transferred to the downstream equipment as harmless gas.
4NO + 4NH3 + O2
NO +NH3 + 2NH3
CATA
CATA
4N2 + 6H2O
(1)
2N2 + 3H2O
(2)
In the case of any possible clogging of the NOx removal reactor caused by gas containing a large amount of
dust, etc., a soot blower is sometimes installed in the upstream side of the NOx removal reactor.
NH3 to be used for reduction is transported by a tank lorry, etc. and stored in a liquidated ammonia tank. The
required amount of NH3 is gasified by an NH3 carburetor and transferred to an accumulator. After being diluted
by some of air from the forced draft fan (hereinafter referred to as "FDF") of the boiler, gasified NH3 is injected
into the exhaust gas evenly from the NH3 injection nozzle. Here, the injection amount of NH3 is determined in
general by judging the amount of NOx flowing into the reactor from the signals representing the exhaust gas
amount such as NOx density at the inlet of the denitrification equipment and the boiler load signal as shown in Fig.
4.4.4-3, and by multiplying the given mole percentage.
Boiler
Ammonia injection nozzle
NOx removal
reactor
Boiler
load signal
Catalyst
FDF air
Compensation
calculator
NOx
gauge
Air pre-heater
Ammonia flow
rate adjustment
Mol ratio-adjusting
station
Ammonia
Fig. 4.4.4-3 Outline sketch of ammonia injection amount-controlling system
(3) Main devices

1) NOx removal catalyst
NOx removal catalyst is composed of the activating compound, its carrier, and auxiliary materials. The
conditions required for the NOx removal catalyst are as follows:
a)
High NOx removal efficiency in the temperature range for use
438
b)
c)
d)
e)
Minimized side reaction such as the conversion ratio of SO2 into SO3, etc.
High durability
High mechanical strength and heat resistance
Wear-proofness has been taken into consideration when treating exhaust gas containing soot and dust
with high wearing impact
Several types of catalyst satisfying the above conditions are currently in practical use.
As a carrier for such catalysts, porous ceramics that carry various types of metal oxides as an activating
compound such as titan, aluminum, etc. are used.
As the shape of the catalyst, a grid, plate, or particle shape is put to practical use as shown in Fig. 4.4.4-4. Table
4.4.4-1 outlines the points to be considered when selecting the catalyst to use for the denitrification equipment for
a boiler. A NOx removal catalyst is usually contained in a catalyst container (which is called a pack, module,
basket, unit, block, etc.) for use.
2) NOx removal reactor
The NOx removal reactor fills up the NOx removal catalyst and performs NOx removal reaction. In order to
perform NOx removal reaction in an effective fashion, the reactor must be a type not causing clogging or
divagation due to exhaust gas. A guide vane is installed to prevent divagation. To prevent clogging, the following
measures are taken:
a)
Use of a catalyst of the gas parallel flow type
b) Use of the gas longitudinal flow type when the amount of soot and dust is large
c)
Selection of the proper gas flow velocity not causing soot and dust to accumulate
d) Considering the installation of a soot blower if necessary to prevent or remove soot and dust
accumulation
Here, the types of NOx removal reactor are shown in Fig. 4.4.4-5.
Table 4.4.4-1 Points to be considered when selecting
the fuel type for a boiler and catalyst
Particle
Grid
Plate
Gas-fired boiler
Catalyst
Heavy oil-fired boiler
Fig. 4.4.4-4 Types of catalyst practically used

Gas parallel flow type
Gas horizontal flow
Gas longitudinal flow
type
type
Coalfired
boiler
Fig. 4.4.4-5 NOx removal reactor type (Example)
Low-soot
and -dust
NOx
removal
system
High-soot
and -dust
NOx
removal
system
Points to be considered
High activity with thermal
resistance
High activity, thermal resistance,
resistance against SOx, no
poisoning by and resistance
against soot and dust, low SO3
conversion ratio, resistance
against adherence of soot and
dust
Same as above
Wear resistance has been added

to the low-soot and-dust NOx
removal system.
Photo 4.4.4-1 Panoramic view of the combined cycle plant

439
High-temperature heat
recovery
NOx removal
reactor
Medium-temperature
heat recovery
Low-temperature
heat recovery
Fig. 4.4.4-6 External appearance of the combined cycle exhaust gas boiler

Boiler front
ECO bypass
NOx
removal
reactor
To EP
Fig. 4.4.4-7 External appearance of gas longitudinal

flow-type denitrification equipment (Example)
Photo 2: Panoramic view of a 1,000-MW boiler plant
Here, the types of NOx removal reactor are shown in Fig. 4.4.4-5. In Photo 4.4.4-1 and Fig. 4.4.4-6, a
panoramic view of the gas combined cycle of the gas horizontal flow type and the external appearance of the NOx
removal reactor are shown respectively as an example. In Photo 4.4.4-2 and Fig.4.4.4-7, the overall layout of a
1000-MW boiler plant and external appearance of the NOx removal reactor are shown respectively as an example.
3) NH3 injection device

This device is mainly composed of an NH3 dilution unit that dilutes NH3 transferred from the NH3 supply unit
to the specified density using air and the NH3 injection nozzle that injects NH3 evenly in the exhaust gas.
! NH3 dilution unit
This is a device to dilute NH3 transferred from the NH3 supply unit using air. The density after dilution is
determined taking into consideration the explosion boundary limit of NH3 (Table 4.4.4-2).
Table 4.4.4-2 Explosion boundary limit of ammonia gas
Upper-limit concentration
Lower-limit concentration
Mixture with air
27.0%
15.7%
Mixture with oxygen
79.0%
13.5%
In the case of denitrification equipment for general boilers, some of the air at the FDF outlet is used for the
dilution of air. If the FDF capacity is not enough, a separate dilution air fan may be installed.
" NH3 injection nozzle
In order to inject NH3 evenly in the exhaust gas, layout of the nozzles and their number, size, and shape have
been defined.
The criteria to define the above items vary depending on the manufacturer of the denitrification equipment.
However, various ideas have been taken up so that final adjustment of NH3 may be made at the start of a test run.
440
4) NH3 supply device

This is a device to receive liquidated ammonia, store it, and gasify the required amount. NH3 is flammable and
poisonous. In addition, it is handled under high pressure. Therefore, it is regulated by following laws and
regulations:
a)
Poisonous and Deleterious Substances Regulation Law
b) Offensive Odor Control Law
c)
Industrial Safety and Health Law
d) High-pressure Gas Safety Law or Electricity Enterprise Law
NOx removal efficiency (%)
(4) Points to be considered with design

Explanation is given first of NOx removal efficiency, exhaust gas amount, exhaust gas temperature, exhaust gas
composition, aged deterioration of the catalyst, and selection of the catalyst, which are the main conditions for
designing denitrification equipment.
1) NOx removal efficiency
It is required to determine the NOx removal efficiency in view of the NOx density in the exhaust gas, exhausted
NOx density, and ammonia leakage.
2) Exhaust gas amount
The exhaust gas amount is an important element for determining the capacity of the NOx removal reactor. The
value of MCR (Maximum Continuous Rating) at the time when the boiler load becomes largest is defined in the
design conditions in general as the maximum exhaust gas amount.
3) Exhaust gas temperature
The exhaust gas temperature has an important impact on NOx removal efficiency. The relationship between
NOx removal efficiency and exhaust gas temperature varies depending on the type of NOx removal catalyst, of
which an example is shown in Fig. 4.4.4-8. When the exhaust gas temperature is low, the NOx removal efficiency
not only drops but acidic ammonium sulfate is also generated when SOx is contained in the exhaust gas, which
will cause such issues as the deterioration of the activity of the catalyst, etc., to which attention must be paid.
SV value: Constant
NH3/NOx mol ratio: Constant
Gas temperature ( C)
Fig. 4.4.4-8 Relationship between gas temperature and NOx removal efficiency (Example)
4) Exhaust gas composition

Many types of substances are contained in exhaust gas. Explanation is given of NOx, SOx, and soot and dust,
which especially affect NOx removal efficiency.
! NOx
Although the density of NOx contained in exhaust gas varies depending on the fuel type, combustion condition,
etc., it is about some hundreds of ppm at maximum in general. Within this range, almost no fluctuation of NOx
removal efficiency occurs due to the level of density.
" SOx
The SOx density fluctuates mainly depending on the sulfur content in the fuel. The SOx density in the exhaust
gas from LNG-fired boilers and gas turbines is zero. In the case of heavy oil- or coal-fired boilers, some thousands
of ppm of SOx are contained at maximum. In the case of catalysts of the alumina family, such issues as sulfate
chloridation, etc. of the catalyst occur. Therefore, catalysts of the titan family are usually used for the exhaust gas
containing SOx coming from heavy oil- and coal-fired boilers.
# Soot and dust
The amount of soot and dust in the exhaust gas varies depending on the fuel, operation conditions, etc. In the
case of gas-fired boilers, no soot or dust is generated. In the case of a coal-fired boiler, soot and dust from some
grams/m3N to some tens grams/m3N is generated.
Soot and dust cause wear of the catalyst, clogging, efficiency deterioration, etc.
441
5) Aged deterioration of the catalyst and its selection

It is normal for the activity of the crystal to deteriorate as time passes due to the state of the gas, soot, and dust
contained in the exhaust gas or temperature-related factors. The main causes of such aged deterioration are as
follows:
! The compounds (alkali metals, etc.) contained in the exhaust gas chemically combine with the catalyst,
causing the activity of the catalyst to deteriorate.
" The compounds (soot and dust, etc.) contained in the exhaust gas adhere to the surface of the catalyst,
causing the activity of the catalyst to deteriorate.
# The catalyst is sintered (sintering) by high temperature, causing the activity of the catalyst to deteriorate.
It is required to "select the most important and suitable catalyst," taking into full consideration the causes and
features of aged deterioration of the catalyst as explained above.
It is required
! to select a suitable type of catalyst,
" to select a suitable amount of catalyst (SV value), and
# to select a suitable usage conditions (mole percentage).
(a) Selection of suitable-type catalyst
In the case of a gas-fired boiler, the catalyst can be selected almost without any restriction, because no SOx or
soot and dust is contained in the exhaust gas. In the case of heavy oil- or coal-fired boilers on the other hand, it is
required to use a catalyst with a low-level SO3 conversion ratio, because the air pre-heater downstream may be
interfered with by SO3 generated in the catalyst layer. In the case of the high-soot and -dust NOx removal system
of the coal-fired type, it is required to select a catalyst with strong wear resistance. Such a catalyst suitable for the
fuel type has been developed. It is possible to select a catalyst suitable for the specific fuel type. Table 4.4.4-3
summarizes the types of catalyst.
Table 4.4.4-3 Selection of catalyst type
Fuel
Gas
Heavy oil
Items to be studied
Coal
Coal
[High-soot and dust NOx removal

system]
[Low-soot and -dust

NOx removal
system]
$
$
$
$
High activity
$
$
$
$
Heat resistance
$
$
$
SOx resistance
$
$
$
Poison-proofness against soot and dust
$
$
$
Suppression of SO3 conversion ratio
$
$
$
Resistance against adherence of soot and dust
$
Wear resistance
$ Items to be studied
(b) Selection of suitable amount of catalyst (SV value)
It is required to define the amount of catalyst (SV value: Space Velocity: Amount of gas to be treated/amount
of catalyst) in order to obtain NOx removal efficiency suitable for the design conditions.
NOx removal efficiency tends to drop as the SV value rises, which relationship is shown in Fig. 4.4.4-9. Based
on this relationship, the amount of catalyst should be defined.
Gas temperature: Constant

NH3/NOx mol ratio: Constant
SV value (x103h-1)
Fig. 4.4.4-9 Relationship between SV value and NOx removal efficiency (Example)
It is not recommended to fill the catalyst in an amount more than necessary because pressure loss may increase.
Selection of a suitable amount of catalyst is required.
442
(c)Setting of the suitable usage conditions (mole percentage)

Taking into consideration the ammonia leakage, it is required to set the NH3/NOx mole percentage so that the
target NOx removal efficiency may be attained.
The main reaction in NOx removal is shown in the formula below:
4NO + 4NH3 + O2 = 4N2 + 6H2O
SV value: Constant
Gas temperature:
Constant
Ammonia leakage (ppm)
Therefore, 1 mole of ammonia is required for 1 mole of nitrogen monoxide. NOx removal efficiency largely
varies depending on the injection amount of ammonia. The relationship between the mole percentage and NOx
removal efficiency is shown in Fig. 4.4.4-10.
NH3/NOx mol ratio
Fig. 4.4.4-10 Relationship between NH3/NOx mole percentage and NOx removal efficiency (Example)
According to the above relationship, select the correct mole percentage.
The points to be considered when designing denitrification equipment are outlined above. When designing
denitrification equipment, it is most important to plan not only the main body of the denitrification equipment, but
also the best-balanced NOx removal system as an entire plant, synchronized with the boiler or gas turbine to be
installed together.
Points to be considered in designing denitrification equipment are outlined in Fig. 4.4.4-11.
(5) Points to be considered in operation and maintenance
Because moving parts are very limited in the case of NOx removal equipment, it is very rare that any
mechanical issue could occur during operation. However, the activity of the NOx removal catalyst tends to lower
slightly due to the compounds contained in the exhaust gas. It is required to carry out complete inspection and
performance control because NH3 to be used as reduction agent is a poisonous and flammable gas.
Portions to be inspected and points to be considered in the operation of NOx removal equipment are shown in
Table 4.4.4-4.
Control
center
Synchronization
with boilers A, B,
and C
Economizer bypass
Measures against AH clogging

caused by acidic ammonium sulfate
NH3 injection nozzle and effect of mixture

Evaluation and selection of
catalyst
Selection of shape for reactor
Effect on and measures for

downstream equipment
NOx
removal
equipment
Air heater
Economizer
Boiler
Electrostatic
precipitator
NOx
removal
fan
Desulphur
-ization
fan
Ammonia/exhaust
gas mixer
Ammonia injection
nozzle
Measures against boiler gas
temperature and its effect
Measures against increase in pressure loss

caused by installation of NOx removal
equipment
Gas heater
Desulphurization
equipment
Fig. 4.4.4-11 Points to be considered in designing the boiler and

443
accessory devices when installing NOx removal equipment

Table 4.4.4-4 Points to be inspected and checked
Points to be inspected
NOx removal reactor
Points to be checked
(1) Falling off of thermal insulating materials
(2) Gas leakage
(3) Differential pressure
(1) Clogging of valve and damper
(2) Movement of cutoff valve for ammonia gas injection and regulating valve for
ammonia gas injection
(3) Gland leakage from valve
(4) Leakage of operation air
(5) Leakage from injection flexible tube
(6) Indications on instruments
" Ammonia gas pressure gage
" Ammonia gas thermometer
" Ammonia dilution air pressure gage
(1) Temperature of, vibration of, or abnormal sound from any motor
(2) Oil leakage from gear box
(3) Leakage of gland from head valve or leakage from flange
(4) Rotation of lance tube or any damage to gear
Ammonia injection device
Soot blower
In order to use NOx removal equipment for a long period of time under a stable condition, it is required to
capture any aged efficiency change according to NOx removal efficiency control data, etc., evaluate the life of the
catalyst, and establish a long-term plan for the catalyst.
Fig. 4.4.4-12 shows a flowchart of the method of estimating the life of a NOx removal catalyst. Examples of the
performance test necessary for performance control are shown in Table 4.4.4-5 and Table 4.4.4-6. If the
maintenance inspection and performance control is carried out as shown above, it becomes possible to replace the
catalyst at a desirable timing, whereby NOx removal equipment can be operated under a stable condition and its
economic effects will be improved.
(Customer)
Acquisition of data
from operation of
actual equipment
Analysis of data
obtained from operation
of actual equipment
Change in
efficiency
NOx removal
efficiency
To capture the features

of aged change from
the data obtained from
the operation of actual
equipment
No
Yes
To capture the features of

aged performance change
in performance by
evaluating data obtained
from the operation of
actual equipment and the
sampled catalyst
Sampling and
evaluation of
catalyst
To determine
remaining life
Time passed
Not required
Replacement
required?
NOx removal
efficiency
To continue
operation
Required
Time passed
Possible
Possibility
of recycling
Local
performance
test
(Outline for
evaluation)
Implementation
of recycling
Not
possible
Performance
evaluation
To capture the
features of aged
performance change
by evaluating the
sampled catalyst and
local performance
test results
Performance
evaluation matches
Performance does not match.
To study the
amount for
replacement
To study any
issue related to
equipment
Clogging of ammonia injection nozzle,
defective gas sealing in reactor, etc.
Fig. 4.4.4-12 Flowchart of method of estimating the life of a NOx removal catalyst
444
Item
Test load
Frequency
Items to be
recorded
Item
Test item
Frequency
Table 4.4.4-5 Performance test using actual equipment (Example)

Description
Remarks
Boiler rated output
It is desirable if the test is carried
Partial output (Implement as required.)
out under the same conditions.
Approximately once every other month
Determine the frequency based on
the state of operation.
Boiler output, fuel type
Determine the items to be recorded
Nature of combustion and amount used
based on the state of the test.
Exhaust gas flow rate (air flow rate)
Temperature at inlet of NOx removal equipment
NH3/NOx mole percentage
Inlet of NOx removal equipment
Density of NOx, O2, SO2, SO3
Chimney inlet
Density of NOx, O2, SO2, SO3
Amount of ammonia used
Density of leaked ammonia
H2O density
Concentration of soot and dust
Draft differential pressure of NOx removal reactor
Draft differential pressure of air pre-heater
Table 4.4.4-6 Control of sample catalyst (Example)
Description
Remarks
Activity, SO3 conversion ratio, specific surface area, pore
To select items depending on
volume, strength, analysis of adhered substances,
the difference of the catalyst
observation by microscope
(shape, manufacturing method,
etc.)
Determine the frequency as
Interval for taking out sample catalyst
required.
Example: 1 year, 2 years ###
The sampling amount varies depending on the catalyst
shape, testing item, specifications, etc.
4.4.5 Trend of regulations over nitrogen oxide emission

For the NOx emission standard at smoke-generating facilities, which are fixed generation sources, the first
regulation was enforced in August 1973 under Article 3 of the Air Pollution Control Law. The emission standard
has been further reinforced by amendments to the law thereafter.
The current regulation value is considered to be the strictest in the world. In order to observe this regulation
value in a strict manner, various measures as explained in this section have been implemented.
445
Number
Table 4.4.5-1 Emission standard for NOx (Part 1)

Soot and dust
generation facility
Size (10,000
m3N/h)
[Maximum rated
exhaust gas amount]
Standard value for emission (ppm)

Facilities
installed on
or before
August 9,
1973
Facilities
installed
between
August
10, 1973
and
December
9, 1975
Facilities
installed
between
December
10, 1975
and June
17, 1977
Facilities installed
between June 18,
1977 and August 9,
1979
Liquid fuel-fired
small boilers
installed between
June 18, 1977 and
September 7,
1977
Facilities
installed
between
August 10,
1979 and
September
9, 1983
Facilities installed
between September
10, 1983 and March
31, 1987
Facilities
installed
between
September 10,
1983 and
September 9,
1984
Facilities
installed
after April
1, 1987
onward
Gasified fuel [Residual oxygen density 5%]
(1)
Boiler firing gas

only
50 or more
10 - 50
4 - 10
1-4
0.5 - 1
Below 0.5
(2)
Solid fuel-fired
boiler
" Furnace heat
release rate
200,000
kcal/m3#h or
more
" Reheating
regenerative
condensing
extraction type
Natural
circulation type
" Emission of
500,000 700,000 m3N/h
or more
" Fuel to be
converted to
solid fuel by
December 31,
1984
130
130
130
150
150
150
130
130
100
130
130
100
130
130
130
150
150
130
150
150
150
150
150
150
Solid fuel [Residual oxygen density 6%]
60
100
100
130
150
150
60
100
100
130
150
150
60
100
100
130
150
150
420
420
200
300
250
300
300
446
Table 4.4.5-1 Emission standard (Part 2)

Solid fuel [Residual oxygen density 6%]
(3)
Solid fuel-fired
boiler
70 or more
50 - 70
20 - 50
4 - 20
0.5 - 4
Below 0.5
400
420
420
450
450
480
300
300
300
300
300
300
350
300
300
350
300
300
380
350
350
480
480
380
Liquid fuel [Residual oxygen density 4%]
300
300
300
300
350
380
300
300
300
300
350
350
200
250
250
250
350
350
(4)
Liquid fuel-fired
boiler
50 or more
10 - 50
4 - 10
1-4
0.5 - 1
Below 0.5
180
190
250
250
250
250
180
180
180
250
250
250
130
150
150
150
180
180
130
150
150
150
180
180
130
150
150
150
180
180
150
150
150
150
250
250
130
150
150
150
#250
#250
180
180
Gas turbine, diesel engine (50 l/h or more)
No.
Scale of soot and dust

generation facility
(10,000 m3N/h)
[Maximum rated
exhaust gas amount]
Emission standard value (ppm)

Facilities whose
Facilities whose
Facilities whose
Facilities whose
installation was started installation was started installation was started installation was started
before January 31, 1988 between February 1, between August 1, 1989 after February 1, 1991
1988 and July 31, 1989 and January 31, 1991
Gas turbine [Residual oxygen density 16%]
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Gas turbine
(Firing gasified fuel
only)
4.5 or more
Below 4.5
Gas turbine
(Firing liquid fuel only
and mixed gasified
and liquid fuel)
4.5 or more
Below 4.5
Diesel engine
Large-sized type
(Cylinder diameter
400 mm or more)
Diesel engine
Medium-sized and
small-sized type
(Cylinder diameter
Below 400 mm)
Application exempted
70
90
100
120
Diesel engine [Residual oxygen density 13%]
70
70
70
70
100
100
70
70
1,600
1,400
1,200
950
950
950
Gas turbine and diesel

engine for emergency
use
Prepared based on the Atmospheric Contamination Prevention Law (Environmental Statute Books, issued in 1998)
(5)
447
4.5 Maintenance of environmental protection system

4.5.1 Preventive maintenance of environmental system and technology to assess remaining life
The environmental system, which is installed as atmospheric protection measures of thermal power generation
plants, is composed of desulphurization equipment to remove sulfur oxides (SOx), denitration equipment to
remove nitrogen oxides (NOx), dust removal equipment to remove soot and dust, and such accessory equipment
as gas-gas heaters.
Such environmental systems have become important equipment equivalent to the boiler/turbine power
generators for thermal power generation plants. It has become indispensable equipment for current thermal power
generation plants. Therefore, high reliability, the same or more than that of major equipment of power generation
plants, is required. The environmental system currently under operation has been used continuously in a stable
state for a long period of time without interfering with thermal power generation plants. However, it is planned to
extend the interval of periodical inspection in the future. In order to secure further reliability, it is required to
perfect the maintenance and inspection and to renew the parts concerned in a timely manner through remaining
life assessment.
In this section, an outline of this environmental system, maintenance and inspection, and the recent trend of the
technology to assess the remaining life is given.
4.5.2
Desulphurization equipment
4.5.2.1 Main body of desulphurization equipment
The characteristics of the equipment comprising the desulphurization equipment aspect of maintenance and
inspection are shown in Table 4.5.2-1.
Table 4.5.2-1 Main equipment comprising desulphurization equipment and
the characteristics aspect of maintenance and control
Liquid treatment system
Gas system
Main equipment
Wear
Corrosion
Absorber main body

Desulphurization fan
Gas heater main body
Damper
Mist eliminator
Duct
Items to be inspected
Thermal
Sliding
deterioration
portion
Others
Scaling
Adherence of dust
Adherence of dust
Scaling
Accumulation of
dust
Bridging
Slurry accumulation
Silo
Tank
Slurry pump
Water pump
Agitator
Blower
Gypsum dehydrator
Air intake dust

Wear damage to
filter cloth
Conveyor
Piping
Clogging
448
(1) Items for maintenance and inspection

The desulphurization equipment is composed of many devices/units. Therefore, items for maintenance and
inspection include many points. Here, explanation of mainly characteristic devices/units of desulphurization
equipment is given.
[1] Desulphurization fan, duct, and damper
The environmental conditions of desulphurization equipment of the gas system varies depending mainly on
the gas heater and the position of installation such as the un-treatment inlet (A-position), un-treatment
outlet (B-position), treatment inlet (C-position), and treatment outlet (D-position). It is very important to
check for any corrosion, dust adherence, or deterioration degree of the lining at B-position and C-position,
which are exposed to especially severe conditions in view of maintenance and inspection. If A-position and
D-position are made of steel with resistance against corrosion caused by sulfuric acid, judge the progressive
degree of corrosion through wall thickness measurement (control of remaining thickness of corrosion
allowance).
[2] Absorber main body, slurry tank, slurry pump, agitator, etc.
It is required to check the portions likely to wear severely such as the spray header and various types of
nozzle of the absorber and impellers, etc. of the pump and agitator. For spray nozzles or wetted portions
where metal has been used, it is required to check for any corrosion. The inner walls of most absorbers and
tanks are covered by lining. Therefore, it is required to check for any thermal deterioration caused by
exhaust gas temperature or deterioration caused by penetrating steam. If the bottom of the absorber has
been covered by lining, it is required to pay attention not to cause any damage by hitting during inspection
jobs.
[3] Gypsum dehydrator
For the gypsum dehydrator, life management of the filter cloth is important. It is an expendable supply.
Therefore, its life management is not a difficult task if carried out in relation to the practical operation
period of time.
[4] Slurry piping
In the case of metal piping, it is required to check for any crevice corrosion and/or pitting at the portion at
which the slurry accumulates. In the case of lining piping, on the other hand, it is required to pay attention
to any wear wake flow of the control valve and orifice and elbows. If the degree of wear is too high, it is
desirable to take action to improve resistance against wear by fitting a ceramic piece, etc.
(2) Preventive maintenance and technology to assess remaining life
For the preventive maintenance of desulphurization equipment, it is required to recognize accurately the state of
each device/unit of the system at the time of inspection and predict the progress of the corrosion, wear, and
deterioration thereafter and assess the remaining life accurately by the time of the next inspection. Here, an
example of inspection of the lining, which is a specific material for desulphurization equipment, and the method
of the remaining life assessment is explained.
[1] Non-destructive test
a) External inspection:
By providing sufficient lighting, carry out visual and finger touch inspection of any flaws, cracks,
blisters, floating, swelling, softening, peeling, deterioration, discoloration, flatness of flange face, etc.
b)
Pinhole inspection:
Use a pinhole tester for inspection. The setting of inspection voltage may be changed depending on the
rubber material or lining coat. However, it should be 2000 4000 V/mm in principle per lining
thickness. In the case of butyl rubber, it should be 2000 v/mm.
c)
Lining thickness inspection

In the case of rubber lining, inspect the lining thickness using a magnet thickness gage. For FGL, use
the electromagnetic thickness gage. For the portions with lining whose thickness is visible, it can be
measured using calipers.
d)
Hitting inspection:
Hit the lining face lightly with the hitting rod (a rod on whose edge a small steel ball has been attached)
and check for any floating, blistering, etc. according to the hitting sound. In the case of soft rubber,
check it by finger pressure inspection.
[2] Destructive test

a) Hardness check:
Measure the hardness using a durometer. Rubber durometers are available for soft rubber (Type-A
449
durometer) and hard rubber (Type-D durometer). Because the rubber hardness is likely to be affected by
the temperature, it is desirable if the temperature is measured at the same time. In the case of FGL,
measure the hardness of the lining using a bacall durometer. When using these methods, a hole for the
durometer needle may be made on the lining surface, which needs to be repaired after inspection.
b)
Adhesive strength inspection:

Measure the adhesive strength of the lining by the 90 peeling method or 180 peeling method using
an adhesion tester. The portion on which adhesive strength inspection was carried out needs to be
repaired.
c)
Physical properties inspection:

At the stage at which the remaining life has become short, add inspection items as required to check
such physical properties as tensile strength, elongation, etc., and the degree of deterioration of thickness
using a film cross-section microscope.
[3] Method of remaining life assessment of lining

The results obtained from the lining inspection are judged according to the judgment criteria specified in
advance and used as judgment data for remaining life assessment. By referring to past operation records
and maintenance records in addition to these data histories, comprehensive remaining life assessment is
determined. An example of the concept for the judgment criteria is shown below.
a)
External inspection:
Record the inspection results in a quantitative manner and rank them in a several steps for each item
such as the number of blisters that occurred per unit area, number of cracks, size of blisters, degree of
wear, discoloration, etc.
b)
Pinhole inspection:
There should be no pinhole detected.
c)
Lining thickness inspection:

Periodically, measure the lining thickness of the same portion and check the degree of wear and
swelling compared with the previously measured values or any other measured values in the past. If you
prepare an aged change chart of lining thickness, it will be helpful for remaining life control.
d)
Hitting inspection:
Use the results of this inspection together with the results of the external inspection and any other
inspection results as material for judgment of the lining conditions.
e)
Hardness inspection:
Periodically, conduct sampling of the portions under the same conditions for use, put the inspection
results in an aged manner, and assess the remaining life using the time reaching the boundary limit
hardness for use specified in advance by selected materials. In the case of FGL, it is possible to raise the
surface hardness by reinforcement coating after removing the deteriorated portion from the surface
layer.
f)
Adhesive strength inspection:

Periodically, conduct sampling of the portions under the same conditions for use, put the inspection
results in an aged manner, and assess the remaining life using the time reaching the boundary limit
adhesive strength for use specified in advance by selected materials. In the case of partly deteriorated
FGL, the deterioration speed may be lowered by applying reinforcement coating.
g)
Comprehensive judgment:
It is important that all inspected items are still within the boundary limit for use. Immediate repair is
required for the items whose assessed life will not last until the next inspection or whose assessed life
will end before the next inspection timing approaches. Those items assessed to have long enough life
until the next inspection must be judged by the results of the next inspection and inspections thereafter.
The accuracy of such judgment can be improved by accumulating as many result data as possible and
putting them in good order.
4.5.2.2 Gas-gas heater

(1) Description of maintenance and inspection
The following types are available for gas-gas heaters (GGH):
(1) Rotary-type regenerative GGH
(2) Heat medium recycle-type GGH
450
(3) Gas-reheating furnace

Use of the above (3) gas-reheating furnace has been stopped completely for industrial power generation
equipment as the emission standard of exhaust gas has become severer. Considerable months and years have
passed with existing equipment since its installation.
As such, explanation is given in this section of the rotary-type generative GGH and heat medium recycle-type
GGH.
[1] Rotary-type regenerative GGH

This type of GGH is also used for air heaters, etc. The gas in the low-temperature area is a type of wet gas
containing the mist leaving the absorber, which should be noted well when performing maintenance and
inspection. The main items for maintenance and inspection are shown below:
Corrosion of element, adherence of dust, etc.
Corrosion/damage of rotor (main body, driving unit, seal, etc.)
Soot blower (nozzle, driving unit, etc.)
Related devices (scavenging device, connection duct, etc.)
In view of the nature of gas as explained above, the points requiring special attention are corrosion of elements,
adherence of dust/scale, corrosion of the connection duct, and damage to the lining. Rotating equipment is
considered the same as a GGH of a similar type such as the air heater, etc.
[2] Heat medium recycle-type GGH
For flue gas desulphurization equipment equipped with a GGH, cases where the heat medium recycle-type
GGH without gas leakage from un-treated gas to treated gas are increasing, in order to cope with recent severe
emission regulation. Fig. 4.5.2-1 shows the external appearance of the heat medium recycle-type GGH.
Collector
Gas
Steel ball Steel ball-switching

conveyor valve
Steel ball distributor
Gas
Steel ball tank

Steel ball spreader
Handle
Steel ball supply valve
Handle
Soot blower
Steel ball-unloading device
Reheating device
Fig. 4.5.2-1 Heat medium recycle-type GGH

The GGH itself is a tube-type heat exchanger. The steel ball-spraying type and soot blower type are available as
dust removal equipment for heat recovery devices. The above sketch shows the ball-spraying type. A soot blower
is adopted by the reheating device. It is the same device currently used for boilers. Therefore, no explanation of it
is given here.
The items for inspection of the heat medium recycle-type GGH are shown in Table 4.5.2-1. The points of
inspection for this type of GGH are the degree of corrosion of and scale adherence to the heating surface of the
reheating device. This is scaling and corrosion caused when mist passes through the upstream absorber and
absorber mist eliminator, and the cleaning water for the mist eliminator reaches the heat exchange tube of the
reheating device. During an inspection with a lot of allowable time, it is necessary to wash and clean the heat
exchange tube of the reheating device.
In view of such quality of exhaust gas that the amount of soot and dust becomes larger against SO3 contained in
451
the exhaust gas at the heat recovery device in the ultra-low-temperature EP system, there is almost no concern
about corrosion of the heat exchange tube. If the dust removal equipment is a type of steel ball-spraying system, it
is especially required to check for any wear of the heat exchange tube and casing caused by the collision of steel
balls.
(2) Preventive maintenance and technology to assess remaining life
Explanation of such devices generally used for other equipment as pumps, tanks, soot blowers, etc. of the
devices comprising the GGH is not given here. Instead, heat exchange tube and steel ball-spraying-type dust
removal equipment specific to the GGH are explained here.
The thickness of the heat exchange tube becomes smaller due to corrosion and wear occurring in the exhaust
gas atmosphere, which, however, can be captured through thickness measurement during regular inspection.
According to the results obtained from measurement, the remaining life of the heat exchange tube can be
estimated. Because wear caused by steel balls is unavoidable in the case of the steel ball-spraying-type dust
removal equipment, it is required to capture the degree of wear of the heat exchange tube, hopper, casing, etc.
through visual inspection and thickness measurement, repair if necessary and, at the same time, assess the
remaining life.
Table 4.5.2-1 Items for inspection and maintenance of heat medium recycle-type GGH
Device
Reheating device
Auxiliary devices related to heat medium

Dust removal equipment for heat recovery
device (Steel ball-spraying system)
Description of inspection and maintenance

Washing inside the casing with water
(Heat exchange tube, etc.)
Inspection of the degree of wear and corrosion
(Heat exchange tube, hopper, casing, etc.)
Washing inside the casing with water
(Heat exchange tube, etc.)
Inspection of the degree of wear and corrosion of heat
exchange tube
Disassembling, inspection, and maintenance of pumps
Internal inspection of heater and tank
Disassembling and inspection of auxiliary rotation
device
Degree of wear and clogging of each portion
452
4.5.3
Denitration equipment
4.5.3.1 Description of maintenance and inspection
Because the moving parts are very limited in the case of denitration equipment, it is very rare that any
mechanical issue could occur during operation. However, the NOx removal catalyst tends to lower its activity
slightly due to the compounds contained in the exhaust gas. It is required to carry out complete inspection and
performance control because NH3 to be used as a reduction agent is a poisonous and flammable gas.
Portions to be inspected and points to pay attention to in the operation of denitration equipment are shown in
Table 4.5.3-1.
4.5.3.2 Preventive maintenance and technology to assess remaining life
In order to use denitration equipment for a long period of time under a stable condition, it is required to capture
any aged efficiency change according to NOx removal efficiency control data, etc., evaluate the life of the catalyst,
and establish a long-term plan for the catalyst.
It has been confirmed from the records to date and results obtained from actual operation of a gas pilot plant
that aged deterioration of the activity of the catalyst advances very slowly, except for the initial deterioration
occurring within some thousands of hours after the start of operation. It is difficult to quantify the cause of such
deterioration, because crystallized particles of the catalyst grow slowly under the influence of temperature,
resulting in a decrease in specific surface area, and this occurs through the combination of several affecting factors
such as a very small amount of poisoned compound (halogen, alkali metal, etc.) contained in the gas and dust. As
long as the operation conditions are kept constant, the speed of deterioration does not change suddenly.
Under the circumstances, this method of estimating the efficiency until the next regular inspection and for a
longer period of time according to daily operation data, data obtained from regular performance tests, and the data
obtained from aged change investigation of sample catalysts used for actual devices is currently considered the
most adequate. The NOx removal efficiency of actual equipment varies depending on the initial allowable amount
of filled catalyst and practical operation conditions. Therefore, even when the efficiency drops, NOx removal
efficiency can be maintained to some extent by adjusting the mol ratio (NHinjection amount). The degree of
deterioration of the activity of NOx removal only cannot be the basis for assessment of life. Therefore, it is
required to improve the accuracy in life assessment through accumulation of aged data at each plant. Fig. 4.5.3-1
shows an outline of NOx removal efficiency control. A performance test using the actual equipment required for
efficiency control is normally carried out once every other month, and a laboratory test using a sample catalyst is
normally carried out at every regular inspection. Examples of test items in the laboratory test are shown below:
(1) Activity of NOx removal
(2) SO3 conversion ratio
(3) Specific surface area
(4) Pore volume
(5) Strength
(6) Analysis of adhered substances
(7) Observation through microscope
Replacement of the catalyst at the proper timing will be possible if the above maintenance/inspection and
performance control are carried out, whereby denitration equipment can be operated under a stable condition and
in addition, its economic effect will be improved.
453
Table 4.5.3-1 Example of points to be inspected and items for observation of denitration equipment
Ammonia injection
pipe
Soot blower
Acquisition of data
from operation of
actual equipment
Analysis of data
obtained from operation
of actual equipment
Change in
efficiency
No
To capture features of aged

change from the data
obtained from operation of
actual equipment
To determine
remaining life
Yes
Sampling and
evaluation of
catalyst
To capture features of aged

performance change of
performance by evaluating
data obtained from operation
of actual equipment and
sampled catalyst
Not required
Replacement
required?
To continue
operation
NOx removal
efficiency
Observation items
Falling off of thermal insulating materials
Gas leakage
Differential pressure
Opening/closing of valve and damper
Movement of cutoff valve for ammonia gas injection and control valve for
ammonia gas injection
Gland leakage from valve
Leakage of operation air
Leakage from injection flexible tube
Indications on instruments
(Ammonia gas pressure gage, thermometer, ammonia dilution air pressure gage)
Temperature of, vibration of, or abnormal sound from any motor
Oil leakage from gear box
Leakage of gland from head valve or leakage from flange
Rotation of lance tube or any damage to gear
NOx removal
efficiency
Points of inspection
NOx removal reactor
To capture features
of aged performance
change by
evaluating sampled
Performance
catalyst and local
evaluation
performance test
Performance results
evaluation
matches.
Performance does not match.
Impossible
To study amount
for replacement
To study any issue

related to equipment
Clogging of ammonia
injection nozzle, defective
gas sealing in reactor, etc.
Fig. 4.5.3-1 Flowchart of method of estimating the life of the catalyst
454
Time passed
Required
Possible
Implementation of
Possibility of
recycling
recycling
Local
performance
test
(Outline for
evaluation)
Time passed
4.5.4
Dust removal equipment
4.5.4.1 Description of maintenance and inspection
Important checkpoints of EP during operation and operation stop are shown below. Basically, if operation of the
equipment once starts, the operation will continue for a long period of time. When operation is stopped, it is
important to always carry out inside inspection and do your utmost in carrying out its preventive maintenance.
(1) During operation
Inspect and check for any abnormal event by observing the charging of the DC power supply, movement of the
rapping device, etc.
(2) During operation stop
The points to be checked are any disconnection of the discharge electrode, movement of the rapping device,
leakage from the casing, and degree of corrosion. In the event that any failure should be detected, never leave it
unattended. It is required to take adequate action on each occasion.
4.5.4.2 Preventive maintenance and technology to assess remaining life
This cannot be explained sweepingly because it varies because there is a difference in the structure and design
concept of such major components as the casing, collecting electrode, and discharge electrode. General examples
are explained below.
According to recent records, the life of the collecting electrode and discharge electrode is 10 15 years in the
case of oil-fired boilers and 15 20 years in the case of coal-fired boilers.
(1) Casing
In the investigation of casing deterioration, it will be determined as follows, and proper actions are to be taken,
by capturing the thickness decrease through measurement of the wall thickness of each portion using an ultrasonic
thickness gage.
1) No action is required to be taken in general if the maximum thickness decrease is kept within the
designed permissible value (within the corrosion allowance).
2)
When the maximum thickness decrease is beyond the designed permissible value, carry out individual
checking through strength calculation, and study what reinforcement action is required.
3)
When the average thickness decrease is beyond the designed permissible value, overall repair is
required in general. Its final judgment should be made through strength calculation.
(2) Collecting electrode

In the investigation of collecting electrode deterioration, the thickness decrease should be captured by
measuring the wall thickness. For the measurement of deflection at the edge of the collecting electrode and
checking of the mating, inspect the portion in which the displacement or crack has occurred.
If the investigation result should fall into any of the following cases, replacement is desirable in order to secure
safety. When any crack has been detected:
Disengagement of the mating has occurred continuously over several years.
Many portions have been deflected.
Many collecting electrodes have lost their thickness.
(3) Discharge electrode

The investigation of discharge electrode deterioration is divided into 2 types: one is investigation on site and the
other is laboratory testing. Depending on the degree of corrosion, carry out necessary inspection.
[1] Investigation of thickness decrease through wire diameter measurement (on site)
[2] Detailed investigation by picking up samples (at laboratory)
(1) Surface hardness
(2) Dimension
(3) Tensile strength
(4) Hardness
(5) Macro structure
(6) Micro structure
455
(7) Fatigue strength test

If any of the following cases applies to any discharge electrode as a result of the above investigation,
replacement is desirable because a problem may be caused by disconnection of the discharge cable.
When 2 cables were disconnected consecutively in any given year after 10 years or longer from the start
of operation
When the fatigue strength has reached the stress of the equipment in use, as a result of a fatigue strength
test using picked-up samples
When the surface of the picked-up samples has become rougher
When the thickness decrease rate has become higher as a result of wire diameter measurement
(4) Interval of deterioration investigation

It is desirable if the interval below is followed, a long-term repair plan is developed and EP is operated under a
stable condition.
a) 1st investigation: About 5 years after the start of operation
It is desirable if this investigation is carried out as an intermediate check. If any abnormal point is
detected in the deterioration speed, the method of investigation should be altered.
b)
2nd investigation: About 10 years after the start of operation

Do not forget to carry out this investigation in order to assess the remaining life.
c)
3rd investigation and thereafter: If it is detected that the degree of thickness decrease is too high as a result
of the 2nd investigation, it is desirable to carry out every regular inspection thereafter. This inspection
should be carried out at least 1 2 years before the assessed life ends as a result of the 2nd investigation in
order to determine the timing of renewal.
456
4.6 Waste treatment and effective use

4.6.1 Byproducts produced by a power generation plant
The objectives of a power generation plant are to fire fuels to generate steam and to generate power using its
energy. Like other manufacturing plants and living creatures, a power generation plant generates byproducts as
well as its targeted electric power and the importance treating such materials properly is obvious, even when
referring to the examples of living creatures. Although typical byproducts would include the NOx and Sox
contained in exhaust gas, CO2, which is the major product generated by combustion, has also become the subject
of treatment in recent years. Among the byproducts, although solids become industrial waste if disposed of
untreated as unnecessary substances, they can also be resources if utilized effectively as necessary substances.
Here, the actual state of handling of solid byproducts daily, undertaken as a matter of course at a thermal power
generation plant, and efforts toward the effective use of the same, are explained.
4.6.1.1 Kinds of byproducts
The byproducts produced in the operation of a thermal power generation plant include the following;
(1) Limestone ash
(2) Desulphurized gypsum
(3) Heavy (crude) oil ash
(4) Sludge produced by waste water treatment
(5) Living creatures adhering to cooling water channel, etc.
Apart from the above, waste from construction work, as set forth in applicable laws, is also included in the
byproducts, but in relatively low volume and not on a continual basis. As such, the treatment and effective use of
solid byproducts produced during power generation will be the subject of this Section.
4.6.1.2 Importance of treatment and the effective use of byproducts
It is an essential element for a thermal power generation plant to adapt to environmental aspects such as
atmospheric air, water quality, etc. As such, the proper treatment of byproducts is critical, although not directly
related to power generation. In addition, they must be utilized as resources in an effective and aggressive manner
by stepping in further, with the current Resources recycling society in mind.
4.6.1.3 Outline of treatment and the effective use of byproducts
The byproducts from the thermal power generation plant can be roughly divided into coal ash, desulphurized
gypsum, oil ash and seashells, etc. and their ratio is as shown in Fig. 4.6.1-1.
Coal ash and oil ash are the residues collected by the boiler or precipitator during the combustion of respective
fuel. Desulphurized gypsum is one of the reaction products generated in the desulphurization equipment based on
the wet type Limestone ? Gypsum Process, which is used to handle the SO? contained in the exhaust gas.
Seashells, etc are living creatures adhering to the seawater cooling channel of the steam condenser and can be
removed by regular cleaning.
With respect to the generation trend, the amount of coal ash has increased while that of oil ash has fallen and
the level of desulphurized gypsum remains unchanged.
The oil ash generated during heavy (crude) oil burned thermal power generation is used as a base material for
cement and supplementary fuel. From the incinerated ash processed following interim treatment in the
incineration furnace, valuable metals such as vanadium, nickel, etc. are recovered.
Most desulphurized gypsum is collected by cement manufacturers and used for construction material like
gypsum boards, etc. In fact, almost all desulphurized gypsum is presently used in effectively.
However, the volume of seashells collected remains negligible and most are disposed of, since no method to use
them effectively has yet been established.
457
Environmental protection technology/equipment for a thermal power generation plant
Heavy crude
oil ash:
0.5 %
Living creatures
adhering to the
cooling water
channel:
0.3%
Sludge from treated

waste water:
0.4 %
Desulphurized
gypsum:
22.0 %
Gypsum ash:
76.8 %
Fig. 4.6.1-1 Ratio of each byproduct generated by the thermal power generation plant
(Unit: 10,000 tons)
Waste
Description
Cinders
Soot and dust
(Gypsum ash)
Debris
(Waste from construction work)
Bypr
oduct
Metal scrap
Desulphurized limestone
Amount generated
Amount recycled
(Recycling rate)
Amount generated
Amount recycled
(Recycling rate)
Amount generated
Amount recycled
(Recycling rate)
Amount generated
Amount recycled
(Recycling rate)
2005
724
697
(96%)
36
35
(97%)
19
18
(99%)
190
190
(100%)
* Valuable articles are included in the waste.

* All desulphurized limestone is sold in the form of byproducts.
* The recycling rate has been calculated based on actual figures. (Figures for the amounts generated and recycled
respectively are rounded off.)
Information source: Environmental activity planning in electric enterprise, 2006
Fig. 4.6.1-2 Effective usage ratio of byproducts from thermal power generation plant
The effective usage ratio of gypsum is about 96 %, most of which is used in the civil work segment. Unused
gypsum is buried at own ash disposal site, while partially disposed of by industrial waste treating companies.
The ratio of the effective use of each discharged substance is shown in Fig. 4.6.1-2.
4.6.2 Coal ash

Because coal contains about 5 to 30 % ash content (Analyzed ash content based on the JIS industrial standard:
Residual content of coal after being heated at 815 C in the atmospheric air), coal ash is generated as residue after
pulverized coal has been fired at a thermal power generation plant, etc. The coal ash is currently roughly divided
into fly ash and clinker ash according to the location of the generation in the pulverized coal fired main boiler. If
the coal ash is divided into respective products in view of its effective use, it becomes raw particles, fine particles
and rough particles of fly and clinker ash respectively, which are outlined in Table 4.6.2-1, while the process the
coal ash generates is shown in Fig. 4.6.2-1.
The fly ash quality, which used to be only one type under the JIS Standard for fly ash for concrete, was divided
into 4 types based on the amendment made in 1999, as shown in Table 4.6.2-2. This was the result of research and
development, based on the view that it was necessary to put the supply system of fly ash in good order in order to
promote its use as an item to be mixed with other materials.
458
IX. Waste treatment and effective use
Table 4.6.2-1 Name and meaning of coal ash

(1) Terms of JIS thermal power generation
Term
Cinder ash
Fly ash
Clinker ash
Bottom ash
Meaning
Rough particle ash generated by combustion
Fine particle ash generated by combustion
Ash generated by combustion which becomes a lump
Ash generated by combustion which has dropped down onto the furnace bottom
(2) Classification according to the location of generation

Name
Location of generation
Coal ash collected by the dust collector from the combustion gas coming from the pulverized coal
Fly ash
fired boiler
Coal ash collected after dropping down while the combustion gas from the pulverized coal fired
Cinder ash
boiler passes through an air pre-heater, economizer, etc.
Clinker ash
Coal ash collected after dropping down on the furnace bottom of the pulverized coal fired boiler
(Note):
1. Fly ash and cinder ash may be collectively called fly ash.
2. Bottom ash is called clinker ash.
Ash distribution (%)

Approx. 80 - 90
Approx. 5
Approx. 15 - 5
(3) Classification according to product

Name
Fly ash
Clinker ash
Classification according to product type

Fly ash immediately after being generated from a boiler
Ash collected in the dust collecting area located after the precipitator,
or fine ash made by classifying the raw particles and then by adjusting
the particle size
Rough particles: Rough ash made by adjusting the particle size of raw particles
There are 2 types, namely one where the particle size has been adjusted and another
where it has not, respectively.
Raw particles:
Fine particles:
Remarks
These are used as fly ash for
concrete and Class I - IV are
specified by JIS Standards.
Boiler
Economizer
Air
pre-heater
Precipitator
hopper
To chimney
Clinker
hopper
Classification according
to the location of
generation
Clinker
ash
Cinder
ash
Fly
ash
Classifier
Dehydrati
on tank or
sediment
ation tank
Fine
particle
silo
Rough
particle
silo
Fine
particles
Rough
particles
Raw
particle
silo
Classification according
to product type
Clinker ash
Raw
particles
Fig. 4.6.2-1 Process of coal ash generation
459
Table 4.6.2-2 Quality of fly ash (JIS A 6201)

Type
Class I fly ash

Class II fly ash
Class III fly ash
Class IV fly ash
Item
Silicon dioxide
%
45.0 or more
Moisture content
%
1.0 or less
Ignition loss
%
3.0 or less
5.0 or less
8.0 or less
5.0 or less
Density
g/cm3
1.95 or less
10 or less
40 or less
40 or less
70 or less
Particle
Residual content after passing
size (2)
through a sieve of 45 m
mesh
(Mesh sieving method)(3) %
Specific surface area
5,000 or less
2,500 or less
2,500 or less
1,500 or less
(Blaine Method)
cm2/g
Flow ratio
105 or less
95 or less
85 or less
75 or less
Age: 28 days
90 or less
80 or less
80 or less
60 or less
Activity index
%
Age: 91 days
100 or less
90 or less
90 or less
70 or less
Note (1) Measurement of the unburned carbon content ratio may be carried out, as specified by JIS M 8819 or JIS R 1603, by
ignition loss instead, whereupon the subsequent specified ignition loss value may be applied to the measured results.
(2) Measurement of the particle size shall follow the method by mesh sieve or Blaine Method.
(3) If the mesh sieve method is used for particle size measurement, add the test result of the specific surface area obtained by
the Blaine Method for reference purposes.
4.6.2.1 Property of coal ash

4.6.2.1.1 Physical property
Most coal ash is grey-white in color, darkening as the unburned content (carbon content) in the ash increases,
while a large amount of iron will cause the color becomes slightly red.
Clinker ash is made from dropped and solidified ash within the clinker hopper on the water sealed furnace
bottom after the ash pulverized coal has melted in the furnace by crushing such solidified ash via a crusher to a
particle size of 25 mm or less. Most clinker ash is sandy and porous by nature, and the particle size distribution is
as wide as about 50 % for 0.1 to 1 mm and about 50 % for 1 mm or larger.
Fly ash is discharged together with exhaust gas from a furnace and collected by an economizer and air
pre-heater (cinder ash) and in the hopper of an electrostatic precipitator (fly ash). The particle diameter is 0.1 to 1
mm for the former and 0.1 mm or smaller for the latter. Meanwhile, the particle size distribution is 90 % or more
for the size of 0.1 mm or smaller. The fly ash is further classified into rough particles of size 0.1 to 0.05 mm and
fine particles of size 0.05 mm or smaller.
An example of the particle size distribution of fly ash and clinker ash (typical examples of fine and rough
particle sizes) is shown in Fig. 4.6.2-2 and Fig. 4.6.2-3, while a photograph of fly ash from imported coal, taken
by an electronic microscope, is shown in Photo 4.6.2-1.
460
Passed weight percentage (%)
Particle diameter (mm)
Passed weight percentage (%)
Fig. 4.6.2-2 Particle size distribution of fly ash
Particle diameter (mm)
Fig. 4.6.2-3 Particle size distribution of clinker ash
Photo 4.6.2-1 Fly ash from imported coal

The powder level of coal ash is an important element when using the coal ash for scattering purposes or for the
material to be mixed in the concrete. As an index to indicate the powder level, residual content after sieving
through 45 m mesh (mesh sieving method) and the specific surface area (Blaine Method) are available. In Class
II fly ash, the residual content after the 45 m mesh sieving method is specified as 40 % or less and 2,500 cm2/g
or more after the specific surface area method. Presuming the particle shape to be spherical, the particle diameter
diminishes when the specific surface area is large, resulting in better liquidity and reactivity. This is why fly ash is
used as materials to be mixed in the concrete.
The ignition loss is a value mainly indicating the index of the unburned carbon ratio, which has been specified
as 5 % or less in Class II fly ash.
The density of both the clinker ash and fly ash is within the range of 1.9 to 2.3 g/cm3, while the bulk specific
weight (bulk density specific weight) is 0.8 to 1.0
An example of the property of fly ash is shown in Table 4.6.2-3.
4.6.2.1.2 Chemical property

In the coal ash, although each individual chemical element is not present independently, it exists as a chemical
compound produced by melting. The crystallized mineral is mainly composed of quarts (SiO2), mullite (2SiO2
461
3Al2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), etc., while a large amount of non-crystallized glass content also exists.
Although a difference in the chemical compound composition of coal ash is recognized to some extent, silicon
dioxide (SiO2) and aluminum oxide (3Al2O3) occupies 70 to 80 % of the entire chemical compound. In addition, a
small amount of oxides such as Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, SO3, Na2O,. K2O, etc is also contained.
Table 4.6.2-3 Example of the property of fly ash (equivalent to Class II)
Chemical compound
Name of
the power
generation
plant
Moisture content
(%)
Ignition loss
(%)
Silicon dioxide
(%)
Density
(g/cm3)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
0.16
0.00
0.32
0.10
0.20
0.05
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.10
0.00
0.10
0.10
0.10
1.92
2.96
4.00
1.50
2.40
3.70
1.03
0.31
0.60
2.60
0.90
1.50
2.20
2.60
1.90
61.7
61.8
52.0
59.4
57.7
66.7
59.2
55.9
50.8
53.4
62.7
64.0
59.7
60.2
57.0
2.29
2.25
2.25
2.30
2.23
2.24
2.20
2.26
2.29
2.20
2.25
2.23
2.26
2.26
2.26
Physical property
Powder level
Residual content
after sieving
Specific surface
through 45 m
area
mesh
(cm2/g)
(%)
4.5
3,828
5.2
3,644
11.1
4,694
8.3
3,370
17.2
3,465
15.3
3,875
3.9
3,240
4.2
4,590
16.7
3,306
29.3
3,036
3.3
4,074
3.8
4,142
4.2
4,263
18.1
4,483
13.0
3,200
Because the composition is similar to that of soil and clay, much coal ash has been effectively used as a clay
replacement for the raw materials of cement. In Table 4.6.2-4, the chemical ingredients of coal ash are shown.
Table 4.6.2-4 Ingredients of coal ash
Ingredient
Silica
Aluminum
Iron
Calcium
Magnesium
Potassium
Sodium
(SiO2)
(Al2O3)
(Fe2O3)
(CaO)
(MgO)
(K2O)
(Na2O)
Coal type
Domestic coal
Imported coal
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
50 to 55
25 to 30
4 to 7
4 to 7
1 to 2
0 to 1
1 to 2
40 to 75
15 to 35
2 to 20
1 to 10
1 to 3
1 to 3
1 to 2
Soil
(example of
mountain soil)
62.8
24.0
1.6
0
0.3
1.4
0
(Information source: Thermal Power Generation Association: Treatment and effective use of waste <old version>)
The ash content in the coal ash is composed of inorganic matter contained in its originated plant and clay and
rocks mixed into the coal during its creation and differs depending on the location in which the coal was produced.
In some cases, minute amounts of all types of mercury, cadmium, lead, and arsenic, etc are also contained.
Generally speaking, the concentration of these ingredients is virtually the same as their concentration in the soil.
As the elusion property of coal ash into water, Ca, Na, OH, CO3 among the chemical compounds are dissolved.
In general, the pH value tends to become higher. In the case of the disposal of ash on the sea, the ash becomes
neutralized by absorbing carbon dioxide in the air over time, due to the seawater buffer action. The coal ash does,
as shown in Table 4.6.2-5, satisfy the judgment criteria pertaining to disposal by reclamation, as provided for by
the Prime Ministers Office, which specifies the judgment criteria of industrial waste, including metals, etc.
4.6.2.2 Disposal and effective use of coal ash

4.6.2.2.1 Recycling Law and coal ash
The amount of waste has increased in line with economic growth and improved living standards in recent years,
while there has been an obvious shortage of treatment/disposal sites. In view of the fact that the allowable
capacity of waste treatment/disposal by conventional methods is approaching its limit, the need has become urgent
to use resources effectively and limit the amount of waste in order to preserve the environment. To cope with such
issues and also based on the necessity to promote the cooperation of enterprises, the Use of recyclable resources
promotion law (so-called Recycling Law) was established.
462
Coal ash falls on the recyclable resources as specified in that law (useful substances obtained as byproducts in
the course of energy supply and usable as raw materials or potentially usable as such).
Table 4.6.2-5 Coal ash elusion test results (Example)
(Unit: mg/l)
Type
Alkyl
All types
Organic
Cadmium
Lead
Hexachromium
Arsenic
Solvent
mercury of mercury
phosphate
Type
Domestic
Pure
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.19
ND
coal
water
Seawater
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.19
ND
Chinese
Pure
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
coal
water
Seawater
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
South
Pure
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.10
ND
African
water
coal
Seawater
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.15
ND
Australian
Pure
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.06
coal
water
Seawater
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.20
Criteria for the
(Note)
judgment of disposal by
ND
! 0.005
! 0.3
! 0.3
! 1.5
! 0.3
!1
reclamation (*)
ND:
Indicates below detection boundary
(Note): Coal ash is not an item subject to the criteria for judgment of disposal by reclamation.
(*):
The above criteria for judgment are based on the Order of the Prime Ministers Office, notified on June 10, 1998.
Cyanogen
PCB
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
(Note)
!1
(Note)
! 0.003
In addition, the coal ash produced as a byproduct from a power generation enterprise with an annual power
supply capacity of 120 million kWh (about 20 MW) has been specified as a byproduct, of which the effective use
must be especially promoted as recyclable resources.
With respect to the effective use of coal ash, the following statement was made in the Basic policy toward the
promotion of use of recyclable resources (officially announced in October 1991):
Although coal ash being generated in line with the combustion of coal has been used as a raw material for
cement, etc, its use as a recyclable resource must be further expanded in future. To that end, those enterprises
engaged in the electricity related business shall endeavor to develop such technology by arranging for processing
facilities, expanding usage and improving quality in order to promote commercialization in accordance with
related standards and specifications and utilize the material as a recyclable resource in an effective manner.
As such, the above requirement for the effective use of coal ash must be satisfied in a manner far more
aggressively than before in all fields.
Because coal ash has been designated as industrial waste in its use under the Waste Disposal and Public
Cleaning Law, the relationship with the said law must be understood. The said law is not applied to overall coal
ash and its applicability depends on whether or not the coal ash is handled as a valuable item.
The criteria for judgment of whether or not it is a valuable item depends on whether or not it can be sold for
value to a third party, which depends on the law.
Sale for value means the occupant delivers the item to the receiving party and actually receives the payment for
such delivery from the same.
463
Table 4.6.2-6 Coal ash treatment system

Owning of
the ash
disposal site
Advantages of owning an ash disposal site

(1) Long-term and stable disposal method
(2) After disposal, the ash can be used for various
purposes.
Constraints on owning the disposal site
(1) Difficult to reserve enough capacity (Public water
surface reclamation method)
Land use plan/period of reclamation work
Operation according to the actual ash
disposal
Sea
reclamation
(2) Handling of coal ash of the type under control (Waste Disposal Law,
Marine Pollution Prevention Law)
Record of reclamation in the past, elusion test results, river wall
construction costs, image to the local community
Disposal by
reclamation
Ash treatment
method
Designation as industrial waste as a

stable type
Common ash
disposal site
Establishment of measures to handle increasing amounts of coal ash
Concept of the ash treatment center

Land
reclamation
Capacity is small and plays a supplementary role only

(Restraints) Handling of coal ash of a type under control (Waste Disposal Law)
Preparation of land " Preparation of land for agriculture/housing, Materials for reclamation "
Because handling is of the type under control, the preparatory and reclamation costs increase.
Land/construction materials " Cement mixed materials, replacement of clay for cement, etc.
Others: Man-made gathering place for fish, ocean structures
(1) Development of demand, fluctuation
(2) Commercial value " Many uncertain elements
(3) Competition with related industries
USA " Preparation of vast land for ash disposal sites
Europe " Promotion of effective use, Capacity of ash disposal sites reserved for 10 - 15 years
Effective use
Example in
USA and
European
countries
Table 4.6.2-7 Amount of coal ash being generated and its effective usage
in the electricity related business (history)
(Unit: 10,000 tons)
Item
Year
Amount of coal ash being
generated
Effective usage
(Effective usage ratio %)
Reclamation
Sea
Land
Usage of coal
(Ash generation ratio %)
1994
441.1
1995
513.5
1996
528.7
1997
540.8
1998
502.9
1999
576.6
2000
633.2
240.2
(54.5)
106.6
94.3
3,327.9
(13.3)
310.7
(60.5)
106.7
96.1
3,848.8
(13.3)
337.4
(63.8)
112.1
79.2
4,053.4
(13.0)
351.1
(69.8)
112.5
93.1
4,378.9
(12.5)
351.1
(69.8)
65.0
86.8
4,334.7
(11.6)
444.9
(77.2)
53.2
78.5
4,910.1
(11.7)
493.2
(77.9)
140.0
54,761
(11.6)
Superficial or unlawful sale is not regarded as a sale for value.

Any and all unnecessary substances yielded in the course of handling valuable items are regarded as industrial
waste. The same law is applied if such substances are used as valuable items thereafter.
As such, it is important to strive ones utmost to ensure effective use as resources when handling coal ash,
regardless of the viewpoint whether the waste is a valuable item or just industrial waste.
In Table 4.6.2-6, the coal ash treatment system is shown, while in Table 4.6.2-7, the history of yielded coal ash
and its effective usage in the electricity related business is shown.
4.6.2.2.2 Ash recovery equipment

The outline of an ash treatment system in a pulverized coal fired boiler is shown in Fig. 4.6.2-4 and the wet type
treatment process is used for clinker ash. With respect to fly ash however, the dry type treatment process is
relatively more advantageous in view of its effective use. Regarding fly ash treatment in general, classified fine
particles are to be recovered as much as possible in the form of JIS fly ash, with high value as a commercial
product, and its use is to be promoted. Subsequently, raw particles and rough particles other than fine particles are
to be recovered, according to the level of effective use, to expand overall use. Finally, the remaining portion,
which is difficult to use effectively, shall be disposed of through reclamation.
In order to expand the effective use of coal ash, there is a need to have such equipment that can satisfy the
demand from those who need it and silos able to store ash of uniform quality. To that end, the following points
464
should be taken into consideration;

1) To establish a best pattern to draw ash when recovering it into the raw particle silo from EP
2) To prepare silos for raw particles for effective use and collect the ash, dividing it in several types depending
on quality
To enable ash recovery for each silo, as required
3) To make the ash quality even by installing a quality stabilizer
4) The classifying machine should be able to adjust the particle size.
5) To store ash according to the particle size and the purpose for use by installing several silos
6) It is desirable to install an automatic sampling machine and an automatic measuring device for quality
control.
7) To install a crusher and/or mixer in order to expand the usage
Dehydrator
Rough
particles
Fine
particles
Classifying
machine
Storing silo
Storing silo
Storing silo
Storing silo
Bulk
Bulk
Bulk
Bulk
Bulk
Raw
particles
Bulk
Bulk
Bulk
Raw
particles
Raw
particles
Blending
silo
Storing silo
Clinker
Cinder
Bulk
Bulk
NOx
removal
Packer
Flexible
container
Or boat
Fig. 4.6.2-5 Example of a coal ash recovery system
Boiler
ECO
hopper
AH
hopp
er
Clinker
ash
Air intake
valve
Clinker
hopper
Electrostatic
precipitator
To chimney
Cinder
ash
Fly ash
Crusher
Ash discharge
valve
Clinker
ash
Classification
Bag filter
Jet pulse pump

Rough
Fine
particles particles
silo
silo
Dehydration
tank
Ash precipitation
tank
Water storage
tank
Grab crane
To an ash
disposal station
via a dump truck
or boat
Ash disposal Dump truck Ash sedimentation

station
station
Vacuum
pump
JIS fly ash
Ash treatment
pump
Effective use
JP vehicle
or boat
Overflowing
water
Raw
particles
silo
Dump
truck or
boat
To ash disposal
station by a dump
truck or boat
Fig. 4.6.2-4 Ash treatment system (Pulverized coal fired boiler)

8) To install a packaging machine and flexible container filling machine for common use with other silos, in
addition to bulk storage
An example of a coal ash recovery system taking above points into consideration is shown in Fig. 4.6.2-5.
4.6.2.3 Technologies for effective utilization of coal ash

As explained in the properties in Paragraph 2.1, coal ash has a property resembling that of clay, as well as many
other properties, such as pozzolanic activity and self hardening property. An example of the composition of
465
various types of substances is shown in Table 4.6.2-8. The effect of fly ash when mixed in concrete is shown in
Table 4.6.2-9 while the usage, efficiency, etc. of fly ash according to its quality is shown in Table 4.6.2-10.
Next, an example of classification of the technologies using coal ash is shown in Table 4.6.2-11 with an
explanation.
Table 4.6.2-8 Example composition of various types of substances
Composition
(Note) *Fe2O3,
Al2O3
(%)
23.4
5.1
8.9
14.5
1.5
22.0
-
SiO2
(%)
56.6
22.2
62.4
33.4
10.9
59.6
60 to 75
Substance name
Fly ash
Portland cement
Concrete
Slug from blast furnace
Slug from converter furnace
Mountain soil
Clay (of Japan)
Fe2O3 FeO
(%)
5.8
3.2
*
0.4
20.7
**
5 to 8
CaO
(%)
3.8
65.4
16.5
41.0
42.9
0.4
10 to 25
MgO
(%)
1.7
1.2
1.2
6.0
7.2
0.8
-
**FeO
Table 4.6.2-9 Features of concrete mixed with fly ash

Improvement of
liquidity
Decrease of
unit water
quantity
Improvement of
workability
Ball bearing
effect
Note:
Pozzolanic reaction
effect
Suppression effect of the alkali
aggregate reaction
Delaying effect of the
hydration reaction
Improvement of
airtightness
Enforcement of
long-term strength
Improvement of water
tightness
Improvement of
resistance against
chemicals
Improvement of
durability
Low heat
generation
Prevention of
cracking
Reduction of dry
shrinkage ratio
Note: Pozzolan: A mineral fine particle material that hardens itself by yielding insoluble matter
through a reaction with calcium hydroxide under room temperature where water is
present, although alone it has almost no hydraulic setting characteristics.
Table 4.6.2-10 Usage, efficiency, etc of fly ash for concrete

Class
Class I fly ash
Class II fly ash
Class III fly ash
Class IV fly ash
Usage, efficiency, etc.

Fly ash that takes effect by mixing, especially in the form of high strength concrete, the provision
of liquidity and suppression of alkali silica reaction, and has an initial strength similar or superior to
that of concrete with no fly ash mixture
A standard type of fly ash which, when mixed, particularly suppresses heating by the hydration of
concrete and improves long-term strength
It has a sufficient effect on concrete liquidity and the suppression of the alkali silica reaction, just
the same as concrete with no fly ash mixture.
Fly ash that has an effect equivalent to that of Class II, especially in terms of the suppression of
heating by the hydration of concrete, the suppression of the alkali silica reaction and improvement
in long-term strength. However, special care should be paid to concrete liquidity and the air
accompanying the property when mixing.
Fly ash that has an equivalent effect to that of Class II and suppression of the alkali silica reaction
can be expected
In view of the strength yield, it can be used for low strength concrete, factory products, etc.
When using for normal concrete for reinforced-concrete, the yielded strength must be checked in
advance.
466
Table 4.6.2-11 Technology to use coal ash in an effective manner

! Cement/concrete field
* Materials for cement
* Materials to be mixed in cement
* Materials to be mixed in concrete
! Civil work/construction field

* Materials for road
* Materials for civil work

Banking/reclamation materials
Bank protection materials
Ground improvement materials
Soil quality improvement materials

Undersea foundation work
* Construction materials
Artificial aggregate
Construction materials
! Agriculture, forestry and fisheries field

* Agriculture materials
* Ocean structure
! Other fields
* Desulphurization materials
* Absorbent
* Others
Replacement of clay
Regular Portland cement (Ash content: 5 % or less)
Fly ash cement (Ash content: 10 to 30 %)
High volume FA concrete (Ash content: 30 % or more)
RCD Method (Concrete for a huge dam)
High liquidity concrete
High performance classified fly ash (fine ash)
Asphalt filler materials
Roadbed materials (Clinker ash)
(The use of newly generated ash)
(Pozzotech)
(Ashroban (Solidified pulverized coal ash))
(Naruton (Solidified liquid ash))
Pozzotech
Non-diffusing high density reclamation
FAC light weight civil work materials (Fly ash with Air and Cement)
Slurry method
Pre-mixing method
FAC light weight civil work materials
Slurry method (Surface layer treatment)
FGC deep layer mixing method (Fly ash + Gypsum + Cement)
SCP materials
Use for the soil generated from construction
Use for the soil dredged from the ocean floor
PC method
CAP method
Slurry method
Lightweight coarse aggregate (FA light)
Ultra lightweight aggregate (specific gravity: 1.25 or less)
High strength aggregate (specific gravity: 1.7 to 1.9)
High pressure steam cured aggregate (Specific gravity: 0.9 to 1.5)
Building materials, (Wall materials, sound insulation materials, blower
materials)
Ceramics (roofing tile)
Cement products (pole, block)
Fertilizer (special fertilizer, potassium silicate fertilizer)
Soil improvement materials
Snow melting materials
Man-made fish gathering structure (FGC, HFA structure, kelp structure, seaweed
structure)
Mound materials for a gushing outflow
Dry type desulphurization agent
Artificial zeolite
Rubber filling materials, corrosion prevention agent, technology to recover valuable items
4.6.2.3.1 Effective use in the cement field

Presently, about 70 % of the effective use of coal ash is for the fields of cement and concrete. Its effective use in
the cement field has been recorded historically from old days, which is considered important.
Cement is made by mixing, burning and crushing materials such as limestone (CaO), clay (SiO2 Al2O3), silica
(SiO2) and ferrous materials (Fe2O3) such that 4 compounds of CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 are composed as
shown in the above Table 4.6.2-8. An outline of the cement manufacturing process is shown in Fig. 4.6.2-6 and the
materials, fuel and power needed to manufacture 1 ton of cement are shown in Table 4.6.2-12. The cement
manufacturing method was patented in the UK in 1824 and because the solidified cement resembles Portland
Stone, it was formerly known as Portland cement.
467
Heavy
oil
Air
blending
tank
Crusher
Mixer
Suspension
pre-heater
Coal
Assisted
combustion
furnace
Shredder
Shredder
Chimney
Exhaust heat
power
generation
Ferrous
materials
Silica
Clay
Limestone
Coal ash
(Clay
replacement)
Electrostatic
precipitator
Rotary kiln
Air separator
Mixer
Cooler
Clinker
Portland cement
Shredder
Shredder
Gypsum
JIS standard fly ash

5 % or less
Mixer
Fly ash cement

Mixer
Type A: 5 - 10 %
Type B: 10 - 20 %
Type C: 20 - 30 %
Fly ash
(JIS standard
product)
Fig. 4.6.3-6 Cement production process and coal ash
Table 4.6.2-12 Raw materials, fuel and power required to manufacture 1 ton of cement
Material (Unit: kg)
Limestone
Clay
Silica
1,088
210
70
Note:
Ferrous
materials
31
Gypsum
35
Fuel (Unit: kg)

Fuels such as coal,
etc
105
Power
(kWh)
98
1. The value of fuel has been converted into that of coal (6,200 kcal/kg).
2. Power is based on actual consumption (including power generated by waste heat).
Table 4.6.2-13 Usage of coal ash in the cement field

Cement plant
Materials for
manufacturing cement
Clay replacement
(Limestone can replace up to
50 % of the clay amount.)
Materials mixed in
cement
Regular Portland cement

(mixture up to 5 %)
Fly ash cement
(Mixture from 5 % up to 30 %)
Ready mixed concrete

Concrete secondary product plant
Materials mixed in concrete
(Mixture up to about 30 %)
Materials mixed in concrete
The usage of coal ash in the cement field is roughly divided, as shown in Table 4.6.2-13.
The typical use is as a replacement for clay and the SiO2 and Al2O3 contained in the coal ash are utilized. The
SiO2/ Al2O3 of coal ash is about 3.5, which is lower than that of clay, which is 7 (less SiO2). If a large amount of
coal ash is used as a replacement for clay, the usage of silica (SiO2) also increases, hence the use of coal ash is
limited to some extent and the use of 40 % - 50 % of clay is considered to be the limit.
The next typical use involves mixing a small amount into cement. 5 % (by mass) of a single or combined slug
from a blast furnace, silica mixture, fly ash (JIS) and limestone can be mixed into regular Portland cement. This
468
addition of 5 % can help save 4% of energy during the manufacture of cement, which has a significant effect,
because 80 % of total cement production is from Portland cement.
The third typical use is for fly ash as a mixing material. There are 2 cases, one involving the sale as fly ash
cement by mixing with regular Portland cement during cement production, and the other involving mixing with
Portland cement in the course of concrete manufacturing.
Fly ash and blast furnace forms of cement are collectively known as mixed cement, which is classified into
Types A, B and C, each of which has a designated mixing ratio. The standards for fly ash cement are shown in
Table 4.6.2-14.
Concrete or mortar using fly ash has the characteristics as shown in the above Table 4.6.2-9 and is very suitable
for mass concrete and ocean structures. In particular, the effect of suppressing the alkali aggregate reaction is
drawing attention in these years.
4.6.2.3.2 Effective use in the field of civil work

The manufacture of concrete using fly ash, as explained in the preceding Paragraph, has been widely used in
civil work structures. Its characteristics facilitate its use, especially for such vast structures as dams, bridge piers,
abutments, hydraulic power generation plants/thermal power generation plants/nuclear power generation plants,
etc.
With respect to the materials used for road construction, the Outline of asphalt paving was amended in 1988
as a result of various testing recently performed by related institutes.
Consequently, the use of fly ash was permitted for filler materials and that of clinker ash was also permitted for
lower layer roadbeds, frozen soil controlling materials and shielding layer materials. However, the record of
practical use is not so notable.
Table 4.6.2-14 Standards of fly ash
Type
Quality
Concentration
Specific surface area
g/cm3 (1)
cm2/g
Start min
Setting
End h
PAT testing
(2)
Stability
Le Chatelie's Principle
3d
Shrinkage
resistance
7d
N/mm2
28d
Magnesium oxide %
Sulfur trioxide %
Ignition loss %
1. Note
mm
Type A
Type B
Type C
2500 or more
60 or more
10 or less
Good
10 or less
12.5 or more
22.5 or more
42.5 or more
5.0 or more
3.0 or more
3.0 or more
2500 or more
60 or more
10 or less
Good
10 or less
10.0 or more
17.5 or more
37.5 or more
5.0 or more
3.0 or more
-
2500 or more
60 or more
10 or less
Good
10 or less
7.5 or more
15.0 or more
32.5 or more
5.0 or more
3.0 or more
-
(1) The measured value is reported.

(2) Measurement of stability follows PAT testing of the JIS R 5201 main body or Le Chatelie's Principle in the attachment.
Types of fly ash cement and amount of fly ash contained
Type
Type A
Type B
Type C
Amount of fly ash (% by mass)

From 5 and up to 10 or less
2. Fly ash: Fly ash as specified in JIS A 6201 (fly ash) shall be used.
3. Method of cement manufacturing: Fly ash cement is manufactured by adding an adequate amount of limestone to clinker and fly ash
and then mixing/crushing or by mixing cement and fly ash evenly.
If any crush facilitating agent is used when crushing, it must be confirmed that the agent has no adverse effect on the cement quality
and the amount used shall be equivalent to 1 % or less of the cement.
With respect to banking materials, testing work and high banking verification work, etc. have been carried out.
Consequently, its usefulness was recognized and it tends to be used in bulk.
Filling materials are used to fill tunnels, etc. In addition, by mixing coal ash with a small amount of cement and
additives and converting it into slurry, it has been used practically in bulk as a river wall water sealing material.
In addition, there are examples of use as a mixing additive for the deep layer mixing work method, where it
functions as a ground improvement material and ocean bank building with soil improvement, via a mixture of coal
ash using the dredged soil/sand disposing method.
4.6.2.3.3 Effective use in building fields

With respect to the use of coal ash in the building field, there are examples of cement mixture materials of
concrete secondary products (concrete blocks, foamed concrete, etc.) as clay replacement materials for such
469
ceramic products as clay roofing-tiles, bricks, tiles, etc, taking advantage of the fact that coal ash contains similar
compounds to the chemical structure of conventional building materials. By adding the characteristics of coal ash,
it contributes to reducing the production cost and improving quality.
As potential building materials, heat insulating materials using the physical and chemical properties of coal ash
are expected.
4.6.2.3.4 Effective use in the agriculture and fishery field

As the methods of use for coal ash in agriculture and fishery fields, usages of fertilizer, soil improvement
materials, artificial potting compost, snow melting agent, and man-made structures for gathering fish, etc. can be
mentioned.
Fly ash was designated as a special fertilizer in 1960, while clinker ash was also designated as a special
fertilizer but with limitations to its shape and particle diameter.
Meanwhile, Potassium silicate fertilizer, with coal ash as its main raw material, was successfully industrialized
and approved as regular potassium fertilizer. Its production and marketing started in 1979.
Coal ash cannot be used as a soil improvement material, based on the perspective of the promotion of soil
strength, but it is effective as a soil improvement material. In particular, clinker ash has been utilized on golf
courses, taking advantage of its water permeability and water holding capacity.
Since submerging tests of man-made structures used to gather fish were carried out in 1978, several
corporations submerged various types of structure and have continued such research.
Research to develop new fishing spots, by building man-made ocean mountain chains in order to create large scale
artificial outpours in the ocean, has also been promoted, and is presently at the practical application stage.
4.6.2.3.5 Effective use in other fields
With respect to the use of coal ash in other fields, various research institutes and other related centers are
studying methods of potential reuse by recovering resources such as desulphurization agents, absorbents and other
valuable items.
Hokkaido Electric Power Co., Ltd. found that a mixture of coal ash, hydrated lime and gypsum had excellent
desulphurization efficiency and succeeded in practically implementing the use of a dry type desulphurization
agent in a joint effort with Babcock-Hitachi.
4.6.2.4 Points of issue and prospects for the effective use of coal ash
The total amount of coal ash generated in 2000 reached 8,430,000 tons, of which 6,330,000 tons were generated
by electricity related businesses and 2,100,000 tons by other industries, representing an increase of 830,000 tons
on the previous years figure. The amount of effective use is 6,930,000 tons, which indicates the use is steadily
increasing.
The usage ratio was 78 % for electricity related businesses, 98 % for other industries and an average of 82.2 %.
In Fig. 4.6.2-7, historical movement in the effective use in each field is shown and the amount of use in the
cement field is increasing year by year. Its usage during 2000 was 4,890,000 tons, which represented 70.6 % of
the total effective use of 6,930,000 tons.
However, the production volume of cement has experienced a declining trend in recent years, meaning no large
scale production increases are expected.
Other industries
Others
Electricity related
businesses
Agriculture
and fishery
Building
field
Civil work
field
Cement
field
Year of 1994
Year of 1995
Year of 1996
Year of 1997
Year of 1998
Year of 1999
Year of 2000
(Unit: 1,000 tons)
Fig. 4.6.2-7 Historical movement in the effective use of coal ash in each field
With respect to the amount of coal ash to be generated in future, the estimation of demand for electric power
generated by electricity related businesses, of which the coal ash generation ratio is 75 % of total generation, is
470
shown in Table 4.6.2-15, while the plan for power source development is shown in Fig. 4.6.2-8. With respect to
the trend of future demand for electric power, power generation is expected to increase by an average of 1.5 %
each year until 2010. Although the coal supply is maintained at a stable level and coal has economical advantages,
the power supply from thermal power generation by coal will be positioned at mid and peak levels, because of the
high environmental load with prevention of the greenhouse effect in mind.
Table 4.6.2-15 Expected demand (10 electric power companies)
Year
Item
Electric power for sale
(Unit: 100 million kWh)
Maximum electric power
in August
(at transmission end, Unit:
10,000 kWh)
Annual load rate
(%)
1999
(Actual
records)
2005
2010
Annual
increase rate
(%)
11 - 22
8.169
8,937
9,644
1.5
16,567
18,488
19,897
1.7
59.4
58.5
58.6
It is expected that thermal power generation by coal will increase to 201.5 billion kWh in 2010, which
represents an increase by 20 % on the figure for 2000, namely 168.1 billion kWh.
Therefore, a simple calculation demonstrates that the total generation of coal ash in 2010, including the same
from other industries, will approach 10 million tons or so. However, although this may vary with high probability
depending on the economy and trends in greenhouse effect prevention, etc, it is indisputable that the overall
amount of coal ash generated will tend to increase. Against this, the development of technology to utilize coal ash
effectively has become a critical issue, with its bulk use in mind. Points of issue and prospects for expanding the
effective use of coal ash are shown in Table 4.6.2-16.
Table 4.6.2-16 Points of issue and prospects of expanding the effective use of coal ash
Technical issues
Environmental issues
Classification and quality control

Development of processing technology
Development of technology for use
Acquisition of an official certificate
Characterization of material
Evaluation and checking of the environmental effect by
each usage
Abundant practical records of use

Economical issues
Cooperation among
industry, government
and academy
Cost competitiveness with other competing materials
Product with improved added value

Establishment of a logistics base system
(Optimal location and establishment of systems)
Balance adjustment
between supply and
demand
Actions to be taken for reserved supply

Supply to large demand
Actions to be taken for medium/small class demands
471
Development of a local base

concept, enabling logistics bases
to be linked to large scale
projects
Expansion of the use of

coal ash
Power generation per individual power source

(power, wholesale electricity, wholesale supply and others)
(940.5
billion kWh)
(1,010.5
billion kWh)
(1,089.35
billion kWh)
Nuclear
Thermal
Coal
Others
Geothermal
heat
Petroleum
2005
2010
(Year end)
2000
(estimated actual record)
(Note 1)
shows the composition rate (%), ( ) shows the generated power (in kWh).
(Note 2) Because the figures have been rounded off, the total is not always correct.
Fig. 4.6.2-8 Plan for power source development
4.6.3 Desulphurized gypsum

Gypsum can be classified according to its supply source into naturally produced gypsum (not produced in
Japan) and chemical gypsum, the latter of which is produced as a byproduct during the production of phosphoric
acid liquid and the treatment of sulfur content.
The types of gypsum are shown in Fig. 4.6.3-1.
Natural gypsum
Gypsum dihydrate
Anhydrous
gypsum
Byproduct
gypsum
Gypsum
Chemical gypsum
Recovered
gypsum
Domestically produced gypsum

Imported gypsum
Phosphoric acid gypsum

Hydrofluoric gypsum
Gypsum from salt
manufacturing
Organic acid gypsum
Other gypsum
Titan gypsum
Flue gas desulphurization
gypsum
Gypsum neutralized by water
in the mine
Glaubers salt gypsum
Waste acid treatment gypsum
Other gypsum
Fig. 4.6.3-1 Classification of gypsum
4.6.3.1 Generation of desulphurized gypsum

Desulphurized gypsum is recovered SO2 SO3 contained in the exhaust gas from the thermal power generation
plant, metal refining plant, chemical plant and other plants using fuel containing sulfur content by the limestone
process (flue gas desulphurization equipment).
472
At 47 thermal power generation plants (owned by 10 electric power companies, J-Power, Joint Electric Power),
79 units of flue gas desulphurization equipment have been installed, of which 78 units employ the process to
produce gypsum as a byproduct (predominantly the wet type Limestone - Gypsum Process). The reaction process
is shown in Fig. 4.6.3-2.
(Limestone slurry)
Absorber/scrubber
Exhaust
gas
Non-reacted
content
Substances generated by
reaction
Reaction tank
Oxidation tower
Centrifugal separator
(Gypsum)
Fig. 4.6.3-2 Reaction process in flue gas desulphurization equipment (Wet type Limestone - Gypsum Process)
Table 4.6.3-1 Amount of generated desulphurized gypsum and its treatment

(Unit: tons)
Total amount
of generation
1,467,412
Raw material
for cement
869,011
Treatment method
Soil
improvement
Gypsum board
material
593,304
14
Final disposal
5,183
The amount of desulphurized gypsum generated by the thermal power generation plant is as shown in Table
4.6.3-1. The thermal power generation plant has a heavy weight in the gypsum market.
4.6.3.2 Features of desulphurized gypsum

The physical properties revealed by a features test of gypsum produced by the thermal power generation plant
as a byproduct are as shown in Table 4.6.3-2. The quality is high and no trouble has been experienced in its use for
cement, boards, etc. 99.6 % or more of the gypsum is presently put into practical use, as shown in Table 4.6.3-1.
The quality of desulphurized gypsum required for the use for cement and gypsum board is as shown in Table
4.6.3-3.
Table 4.6.3-2 Properties of desulphurized gypsum
Measurement result
Testing item
Specific gravity
Particle size
Compressive strength
Adhered moisture content
Combined water
Calcium oxide
Sulfur trioxide
pH
Aluminum oxide
Silicon dioxide
Iron (II) oxide
Sulfur dioxide
Chlorine
Free acid
Measured value
cm2/g
kg/cm2
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
473
2.49 2.56
2,020 2,470
40 96
0.7 12.3
18.0 20.9
31.1 32.9
43.1 46.2
4.8 9.3
< 0.01 1.68
< 0.02 5.24
0.01 0.44
< 0.002 0.78
< 0.01 0.08
< 0.005 0.065
Average
value
2.53
2,250
75
6.4
20.1
32.4
45.5
7.2
< 0.17
< 0.50
0.10
< 0.09
< 0.02
< 0.011
Table 4.6.3-3 Quality standard for desulphurized gypsum

(1) For cement
Sulfur trioxide SO3
Free carbon
Calcium carbonate
CaCO2
CaS3 1/2H2O
Other small contents
(%)
(%)
Quality standard (boundary limit)

< 10
> 44
Same level as or whiter than color sample No. 5
Quality standard (Endeavoring target)

<8
> 45
<1
Minimize as far as possible
(%)
(%)
Gypsum dihydrate
(2) For gypsum board

Sulfur trioxide SO3
Free carbon
Calcium carbonate
CaCO2
CaS3 1/2H2O
Sodium oxide
Na2O
Other small contents
pH
Crystal size
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
()
Calcined
gypsum
Amount of water to be mixed(%)

Setting time
(min)
Wet tensile strength
(kg/ )
Adhesion
Bulk specific gravity ratio (Gypsum
dehydrate/Calcined gypsum)
Quality standard (boundary limit)

< 10
> 44
Quality standard (Endeavoring target)

<8
> 45
<1
< 0.03
< 0.01
57
< 90
< 40
> 80
Should be good

57
Width: 30 - 70
Length: 50 - 250
70
30
120
Should be good
> 0.9
1.0
4.6.3.3 Relationship between the desulphurization method and properties

No remarkable relationship between each desulphurization method and gypsum properties is detected.
Instead, fuel, raw materials or operation conditions have a heavier impact. The ash separation process and ash
mixing process are available for treating soot and dust collected by the flue gas desulphurization equipment of the
coal fired boiler and the selection of either process is made depending on the required gypsum quality and the
economic effect of the flue gas desulphurization equipment. If a severe level of gypsum quality is required, the
ash separation process can be recommended, whereas the ash mixing process is recommended with the economic
effect in mind.
4.6.3.4 Expansion of use
Plans have been made to increase coal fired power generation, in view of the stability in fuel supply and its
economic effect. The generation of desulphurized gypsum is also expected to increase.
The production amount of cement in Japan has been decreasing in recent years, meaning its effective
applications must be expanded beyond that of cement raw materials or gypsum board.
4.6.4 Sludge from waste water treatment
This sludge is recovered from waste water treatment equipment for desulphurized waste water from thermal
power generation plants, in the form of drained water after cleaning of equipment during regular inspections, etc.
This is treated as Sludge in Article 2, Paragraph 4, Sub-paragraph 1 of the Waste Disposal and Public Cleaning
Law.
4.6.4.1 Properties of sludge
Most of the sludge discharged from the thermal power generation plant is of the non-organic type sludge, with a
high ash content in its dried and solidified state, such as a non-organic content of 65 - 93 %, with a small
combustible organic content and a high moisture content.
4.6.4.2 Treatment of sludge
When treating sludge, it must initially be dehydrated in order to reduce the volume and facilitate subsequent
handling, such as transportation. 2 types of treatment methods are employed, namely to dispose of it by
reclamation after dehydration by the sludge dehydrator or to dispose of it by reclamation after incinerating by a
waste incineration furnace.
474
(1) Disposal by reclamation

In accordance with Article 6, Paragraph 3 of the Waste Disposal and Public Cleaning Law, the sludge is
dehydrated to a level of moisture content of 85 % or less and then disposed of by reclamation at the final disposal
site under control. Because the standards for reclamation vary depending on the contents of the sludge, the
disposal standard must be applied to each content.
(2) Disposal by incineration
Because the sludge contains a high level of moisture and a low level of combustible ingredients, and because it
requires the considerable addition of combustion improver, it is incinerated by adding heavy (crude) oil within the
waste incineration furnace.
4.6.4.3 Dehydration equipment
The dehydration system for sludge includes centrifugal separation, vacuum filtering, pressurized filtering, etc.
Because sludge generally contains a high level of moisture, it is improved before treating by dehydration
equipment by adding dried lime, Iron (II) chloride, diatom earth, polymer coagulant, etc.
(1) Vacuum filtering equipment
Various types of this equipment are available, such as the Oliver type, string type, Young type, belt type, etc.,
all of which work on virtually the same principles. The portion submerged in the liquid sludge is vacuumed by
a vacuum pump and the sludge is adsorbed by a filter cloth. Under such condition of decreased pressure, the
sludge adsorbed by rotary pressing rollers is pressed. Following dehydration, the adsorbed sludge is peeled off
in a cake state before being re-submerged in the liquid sludge.
(2) Pressurized filtering equipment
Filter and roller presses are typical examples of such equipment. In the filter press system, the sludge is
pressed in-between 2 pieces of filter cloth, supported by a filter plate. This press includes the plate frame type
and dent type. Although most of the systems are of the batch type, recently, a continuous type has also been
developed.
(3) Centrifugal separator
This is known as a decanter and includes the cylinder and cone types. Both types have a mechanism whereby
the screw that discharges dehydrated cake from the unit rotates at a slightly different RPM from that of the
main body. The system has an excellent dehydration capability.
475

References
Chapter 1
1.1 About Us, and other English version websites of Federation of Electric Power Companies of Japan
1.2 Current Status of Electric Power Industry website of Federation of Electric Power Companies of
Japan
1.3 - Chapter 1: Introduction of Thermal Power Generation Efficiency p1118 - Vol.54 No.10 (Oct.
2003) of Thermal and Nuclear Power Generation by Mitsumaki, Thermal and Nuclear Power
Engineering Society
- I. Prospect of Power Generation Technology of Thermal Power Generation Efficiency p1204,
Vol. 52, No.10 (Oct. 2001) of Thermal and Nuclear Power Generation by Tanaka, Thermal and
Nuclear Power Engineering Society
- Chapter 1: Technique of Raising Power Generation Efficiency using Coal as Fuel p734 - , Vol. 57,
No.10 (Oct. 2006) of Thermal and Nuclear Power Generation by Otsuka et al., Thermal and
Chapter 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
I. Outline of Operation of p7 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar

No.30 Operation of Thermal Power Plants, by Uchida et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power
Engineering Society
2. Boilers (Manually-Operated Boilers and Auxiliary Boilers) in II: Conventional Thermal
Power Generation Facility p83-, Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar No. 30
Operation of a Thermal Power Plant by Nakamura et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power
Engineering Society
3. Turbines, Power Generators (Manually-Operated Machines and Auxiliary Machines) and
In-Plant Electric Facilities p99 - , Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar No.
30 Operation of a Thermal Power Plant by Nakamura et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power
Engineering Society
1. Start-up/Stop in II: Conventional Thermal Power Generation Facility p75- , Thermal and
Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar No. 30 Operation of a Thermal Power Plant by
Nakamura et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
I. Outline of Operation p7 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar No.30
Operation of Thermal Power Plants, by Uchida et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering
Society
III. Functions of a Steam Turbine and a Generator, p57 of Thermal and Nuclear Power
Engineering Society Seminar No.31 Turbine, Power Generator and Heat Exchanger by Minami,
Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
II. Characteristics of a Boiler, p23 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar
No.32 Boiler by Takagi, Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
1. Heat Exchangers used in a Turbine Plant (1), of VIII. Structure and Functions of a Heat
Exchanger, p187 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar No.31 Turbine,
Power Generator and Heat Exchanger by Mochida, Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering
Society

2.5
2.6
FY2004 TNB/JEPIC Seminar (Sep. 2004) Heat Rate Improvement of Thermal Power Plant
V-1. Combustion of Coal, p119 - of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar
No.14 Fuel and Combustion by Matsuda, Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
Chapter 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
XI. Maintenance of administration of Aged Thermal Power Plant, p287 of Thermal and Nuclear
Power Engineering Society Seminar No.22, Construction, Commissioning and Operation
Maintenance of a Power Plant by shimamoto, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering
Society
- VIII. Operation and Maintenance of Boilers, p111 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering
Society Seminar No.32, Boilers by Aoyama, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering
Society
1-2. Boiler Main Body (2), p57 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar
No.27, Preventive Maintenance and Remaining Life Assessment of Equipment and Components
used in a Power Plant by Umaki, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society.
- I. History and Outline of Water Treatment Technology, p2 of Thermal and Nuclear Power
Engineering Society Seminar No.19, Water Quality Control and Water Treatment Facility by
Kawanabe, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
- Study on Application of Oxygen Treatment Method at the No. 1 Unit of Chita No.2 Power
Generation Plant, Vol. 45, No.9 (Sept. 1994) p1008 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Generation,
by Wakahara, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
- VI. Water Quality Control at a Thermal Power Plant, p128 of Thermal and Nuclear Power
Engineering Society Seminar No.19, Water Quality Control and Water Treatment Facility by
Tsubotani, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
- Structure of a Steam Turbine 1. Steam Turbine used at a Thermal Power Plant, p77 of Thermal
and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar No.31, Turbine, Power Generator and Heat
Exchanger by Hamano, Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
- A Guidance to Open Inspection of a Steam Turbine (Mar. 1987) p332 - by Thermal and Nuclear
Power Engineering Society
- 1. Heat Exchangers used in a Turbine Plant (1), of VIII. Structure and Functions of a Heat
Power Generator and Heat Exchanger by Mochida, Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering
Society
Power Generator and Heat Exchanger by Iwata, Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
Power Generator and Heat Exchanger by Kawazato, Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering
Society
- 2-1. Main Body of Steam Turbine, p111 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
Seminar No.27, Preventive Maintenance and Remaining Life Assessment of Equipment and
Components used in a Power Plant by Sobate, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering
Society
VI. Corrosion and its Countermeasure of a Steam Turbine, p93 of Thermal and Nuclear Power
3.5
3.6
Engineering Society Seminar No.24 Corrosion and its Prevention of a Thermal Power Plant, by
Muto, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
- VII. Corrosion and its Countermeasure of Heat Exchanges used in Steam Systems, p105 of
Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar No.24 Corrosion and its Prevention of a
Thermal Power Plant, by Muto, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
- VIII. Corrosion and its Countermeasure of a Seawater System and its Pipes, p121 of Thermal
and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar No.24 Corrosion and its Prevention of a Thermal
Power Plant, by Ishikawa, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
- 4-1. Turbine Generator, p191 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar
used in a Power Plant by Ishizuka, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
- X. Corrosion and its Countermeasure of a Power Generator and Power Distribution and
Transformation Systems, p148 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar
No.24 Corrosion and its Prevention of a Thermal Power Plant, by Omachi, et al., Thermal and
- 2-1. Main Body of Steam Turbine, p111 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
Seminar No.27, Preventive Maintenance and Remaining Life Assessment of Equipment and
Components used in a Power Plant by Sobate, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering
Society
-1-2. Boiler Main Body (2), p57 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar
used in a Power Plant by Umaki, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society.
Chapter 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
I. Environmental Protection Measures of Thermal Power Plants, p7 of Thermal and Nuclear

Power Engineering Society Seminar No.29 Technologies and Facilities to Preserve the
Environment of Thermal Power Plant, by Asakura, Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering
Society
II. Related Laws and Regulations, p35 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
Seminar No.29 Technologies and Facilities to Preserve the Environment of Thermal Power Plant,
by Fukazawa, Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
III. Smoke Treatment System, p55 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar
No.29 Technologies and Facilities to Preserve the Environment of Thermal Power Plant, by
Asano et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
IV. Dust Precipitator, p63 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar No.29
Technologies and Facilities to Preserve the Environment of Thermal Power Plant, by Sakakibara,
et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
V. Desulphurization equipment, p81 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
Seminar No.29 Technologies and Facilities to Preserve the Environment of Thermal Power Plant,
by Tsukida, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
V. Denitrification equipment, p99 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar
No.29 Technologies and Facilities to Preserve the Environment of Thermal Power Plant, by Takei,
et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society
6. Environmental System, p101 of Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Seminar
No.27 Protective Maintenance and Remaining Life Diagnosis of Power Generation Facility, by

4.6
Iiyama, Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society

IX. Treatment and Effective Use of Industrial Waste, p169 of Thermal and Nuclear Power
Engineering Society Seminar No.29 Technologies and Facilities to Preserve the Environment of
Thermal Power Plant, by Ihara, et al., Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society Actions against the Environment: Environmental Action Plan for Power Generation
Businesses; website of Federation of Electric Power Companies of Japan

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ASIA-PACIFIC PARTNERSHIP on Clean Development and Climate

This textbook has been prepared by Japanese electric power companies as a

ASIA-PACIFIC PARTNERSHIP on Clean Development and Climate

Section Manager, Affair Infrastructure Sec. Thermal Power Dept.

Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society

Deputy General Manager, Thermal Power Department, Thermal And Nuclear

Manager, Siting and Environment,

ASIA-PACIFIC PARTNERSHIP on Clean Development and Climate

Summary of Thermal Power Generation in Japan

History of Electric Power Companies in Japan

Movements in Thermal Efficiency of Thermal Power Plants in Japan and Outlook

for Thermal Power Generation Technology in the Future

Chapter 2 Functional and Operational Control of Thermal Power Plants

Power Supply Operations

Start-up and Stop Operation Control

Example of Operation Control and Performance Management

Examples for the Operation of Soot Blowers

Chapter 3 Maintenance and Efficiency Control of Thermal Power Plants

Maintenance and Administration of Aged Thermal Power Plants

Boilers and Auxiliary Machines

Water Quality Control of Boiler

Turbines and Auxiliary Machines

Efficiency and Operation Improvement of Thermal Power Plants

Chapter 4 Environmental Preservation Provision of Facilities

Environmental Preservation Measures of Thermal Power Plants

Maintenance of Environmental Protection System

Waste Treatment and Effective Use

1. Summary of thermal power generation in Japan

Fig. 1.1-1 Service Areas by Company

Ratio of electric power accounting for primary energies

Domestic supply of primary energies

denotes the percentage that electric power accounts for

(Note) 1PJ equals a heating value of about 25,800 kl of crude oil.

Fig.1.2-1: Ratio of electric power accounting for primary energies

Track record and outlook of power generated by source.

Power generated yearly

Track record and outlook of power generated by Source.

Movements in how electricity is used over one day in midsummer

July 20, 2004

July 31, 1975

Survey conducted by the Federation of Electric Power

Movements in how the electricity is used over one year

Survey conducted by the Federation of Electric Power

Fig.1.2-4: Movements in how the electricity is used over one year

Supply capacity to cope

Supply capacity to cope

Run-off river-type hydro/geothermal power generation

Fig.1.2-5: Combination of sources for electric power demand

Table 1.2-1: Characteristics of respective sources and optimum combination

LNG, LPG, and other

Finds application as a supply capacity to cope with sudden

Although the initial cost is high, this is excellent

Supply capacity for peak demand:

Although the capital cost is high, the running cost is low,

A source whose amount of electricity to be generated can easily be

Gross thermal efficiency [%] HHV

main/reheat steam pressure: 600/610 C), which have started operation.

Shinkokura#2 Anesaki#1 Kashima#5

Steam power generation

Sumitomo joint electric

Sumitomo joint electric

Hitachi, Ltd. Hitachi, Ltd.

Hitachi, Ltd. Hitachi, Ltd.