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Spillway Design PDF
Spillway Design PDF
33.1 Introduction
Spillway is a passage in a dam through which the design flood could be disposed off
safely to the downstream. The ogee-crested spillway, because of its superb hydraulic
characteristics, has been one of the most studied hydraulic structures. Its ability to pass
flows efficiently and safely, when properly designed, with relatively good flow measuring
capabilities, has enabled engineers to use it in a wide variety of situations. Although
much is understood about the general ogee shape and its flow characteristics, it is also
understood that a deviation from the standard design parameters such as a change in
upstream flow conditions, slightly modified crest shape, or construction variances can
change the flow properties. These small changes often require engineers to evaluate
the crest and determine whether or not the change or deviation will be detrimental to the
spillway's performance. Such is the case when an updated probable maximum flood
calculation requires a spillway to pass a larger flow than it was designed to handle.
In general, spillways comprise five distinct components namely: (i) an entrance channel,
(ii) a control structure, (iii) a discharge carrier, (iv) an energy dissipator, and (v) an outlet
channel. The entrance channel transfers water from the reservoir to the control
structure, which regulates the discharge from the reservoir. Water is then conveyed
from reservoir to the low-level energy dissipator on the riverbed by the discharge
conveyor. An energy dissipator is required to reduce the high velocity of the flow to a
nonscouring magnitude.
Most common types of spillway-control system used are roller, tainter, vertical-lift, and
drum gates. In view of the varying conditions, the choice of suitable gate is bound by the
cost , the head on the crest, the height of dam, and the hydraulic behaviour of the gate.
Piers are located on the spillway crest for the purpose of supporting the control gates,
the gate-operating mechanisms or a roadway. Their size and shape will vary
accordingly with their function. The piers should be streamlined both in the upstream
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and the downstream sides to reduce contraction of the overflowing jet and to provide a
smooth water surface.
The element which introduces the energy-reducing action is generally known as " stilling
basin." One of the most common methods out of several methods are dissipating the
flow at the toe of a spillway, is the hydraulic jump. Other types used in conjunction with
spillways are roller and trajectory buckets. Spillway outlets means the combination of
structures and equipment required for the safe operation and control of the water
released for different purposes for which the dam is planned. These structures may be
river outlets, penstocks, canal outlets. The size and number of river outlets satisfy the
discharge requirements at various stages of the reservoir . If the outlets are located in
the overflow portion, the conduits should be aligned downwards to minimise disturbance
to the flow over spillway. The discharge from an outlet, (gates, valves, or free-flow
conduits) has a relatively high velocity. Flow must expend the energy in order to prevent
scour of the bed and banks of the river channel. This may be accomplished by
constructing a stilling basin immediately downstream from the outlet.
The crest of the spillway is usually provided at F.R.L (Full Reservoir Level). However, in
order to control floods the gates could be provided at the top and the water level could
be increased upto maximum water level. The height between F.R.L and M.W.L is called
the "Flood lift". Reservoir level should not cross MWL. Following are different types of
spillways usually adopted in practice.
1. Overflow spillway.
2. Side channel spillway.
3. Shaft spillway.
4. Siphon spillway.
5. Chute.
6. Breaching section (emerging spillway).
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Major dam will be usually provided with an overflow spillway with crest gates. However,
the type and location of spillway depends on the site conditions of topography.
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5.0
0.0
Separation
4.5
q
Discharge intensity __
___________________
= 1.5
1.5
Ha
Actual Head
4.0
p
(__
)min
-2.0 ________
Hd
q
__
1.5
Ha
3.5
3.0
-1.0
p
(__
)min
________
Hd
-3.0
-4.0
4
Ha
Normalised Head (actual head to Design head). i.e., ____
Hd
However, in practice, this pressure reduction is not normally a serious problem unless H
> 1.5 Hd. Indeed, separation will not occur until H 3Hd. The acceptable range is 1.5
to 3.0 Hd.
If H < Hd - positive gauge pressure on crest.
If H > Hd - negative pressure develops on the surface.
Conditions in the flow down the spillway face may be quite complex, since
(i) the flow is accelerating rapidly, and may be 'expanding' as it leaves a bay-pier
arrangement;
(ii) frictional shear promotes boundary layer growth.
(iii) the phenomenon of self - aeration of the flow may arise;
(iv) cavitation may occur (Velocity may reach 30 m/s for occurance of cavitation).
For these reasons, the usual equations for non-uniform flow developed for Gradually
Varied Flow cannot really be applied. If it is necessary to make estimates of flow
conditions on the spillway, then empirical data must be used.
(i) In a region of rapidly accelerating flow, the specific energy equation is usually
applied. It is possible to obtain very rough estimates of the variation of V and y down the
spillway on this basis, accuracy will be slightly improved if a head loss term is
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
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incorporated. Nevertheless, in the light of (ii) and (iii), below, conditions on the spillway
are far from those which underly the energy equations.
(ii) A boundary layer will form in the spillway flow, commencing at the leading edge of
the crest. The boundary layer thickness, , increases with the distance downstream of
the crest. The depth of the boundary layer, , will meet the free surface of the water
(Fig. 33.2).
Ha
Hd = design head
Boundary layer
P.I (point of inception)
point of tangency
face
m
1
toe
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appearance. The additional air causes the bulkage of the flow. Observations of aeration
have led to the suggestion that the point at which aeration commences coincides with
the point at which the boundary layer depth meets the free surface called Inception
point (Thandaveswara). The entrainment mechanism appears to be associated with the
emergence of streamwise vortices at the free surface. Such vortices would originate in
the spillway crest region.
The geometric elements of an ogee spillway are shown in Fig. 33.3. A typical layout of
the spillway is shown in Fig. 33.4.
Hd
origin
X
r2
r1
0.85
x1.85 = 2Hd
h
b
y a = 0.175 Hd
r1 = 0.5 Hd
r2 = 0.20 Hd
b = 0.282 Hd
Y
n -1
xn = KH d y
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X
Y
Hd = design head
Y = X*/K
0.6
1.0
Point of tangency
1
Spillway face
m = 1.67
l slope of face
m
= m:1
toe
K
2.00
1.936
1.939
1.873
n
1.85
1.836
1.810
1.776
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Reservoir
2
1
8
3
7
4
Hd
Ha
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(L '
- 0.1 NH )
= 5 to 10
h
H
h
( MKS)
1.5
H
C w = 2.952 1 +
= 10 to 15
h
h
2
Q = Cd ( L 0.1NH ) 2g H3/ 2
3
2
C w = Cd 2g
3
C w is a function of depth of flow, ranges between 1.6 to 2.3 (MKS)
Pier shapes vary and has to be choosen carefully. Figure 33.5 shows typical pier
shapes.
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0.133 Hd
Pier Type II
Nose Shape semi circular
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in which Q is the total discharge; L is the crest width; He is the total head upstream from
the crest; g is the gravitational constant; and Cd is the discharge coefficient. It may be
noted that He, the total head, includes the velocity head. Generally, this requires an
iterative solution technique as the velocity head is unknown, as it depends on flow rate
which is to be calculated. However, as the velocity head is generally small , the
equation converges quickly.
The discharge coefficient Cd is not constant. It depends on several factors such as the
depth of approach flow, crest shape related to the ideal nappe shape, upstream face
slope, downstream apron, and downstream submergence.
Basic considerations affecting the design of spillways include design flood, crest control
(gates), control system, structural stability, and adequate dissipation of energy. The
capacity of a spillway must be sufficient to accommodate the maximum discharge
without allowing the reservoir surface to rise above a predetermined (maximum
reservoir elevation).
Determination of the maximum flood to be used as a basis for spillway design results
from hydrological studies and available flood peak data.
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A spillway crest may be uncontrolled, thereby permitting water to spill from the reservoir
whenever the water surface is higher than the crest level, or it may be controlled by
gates installed on the crest. The length of the spillway crest affects the elevation of the
crest and also the required control. The spillway length is decided based on other
parameters such as cost, type of gate.
Reference
Chow V.T., "open Channel Hydraulics", McGraw Hill Publciation, student edition, 1958.
This type of study was completed at the Utah Water Research Laboratory (UWRL) to
compare the discharge and crest pressures from flow over an uncontrolled ogeecrested spillway using a physical model, computational model, and design curves from
the USBR and USACF.
To determine the shape of the crest of an overflow spillway, different methods are
available that depend on the relative height and upstream face slope of the spillway . In
1888, a comprehensive laboratory investigation was first made to study the ogee shape.
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Cassidy, in 1965 using potential flow theory and mapping into the complex potential
plane, he obtained the solution for free surface and crest pressures and his results were
in good agreement with experimental data. Better convergence of Cassidy's solution
was obtained by Ikegawa and Washizu in 1973 and Betts in 1979 using linear finite
elements and the variation principle. Li et al. in 1989 improved on the 2D irrotational
gravity flow by using higher-order elements to model the curved water surface and
spillway surface.
Quo et al. in 1998 extended the potential flow theory by using the analytical functional
boundary - value theory. This method was applied successfully to spillways with a free
drop. Biirgisser and Rutschmann in 1999 used finite elements and an eddy viscosity to
iteratively solve the incompressible 2D vertical steady Reynolds-averaged NavierStokes (RANS) equations. Given a flow rate, they successfully computed the free
surface and velocity and pressure fields using a finite-element grid that adapts locally
for a changing water surface. Olsen and Kjellesvig in 1998 also included viscous effects
by numerically solving the RANS equations in two and three dimensions, using the
standard k
excellent agreement for water surfaces and discharge coefficients for a limited number
of flows. However, pressure data were only recorded at five locations downstream from
a nonstandard crest at one flow and showed some variability.
Savage and Johnson approached the problem numerically using the RANS equations.
Crest pressures are compared at three different flow rates. Furthermore, the pressures
are compared over the entire length of the spillway, including the flip bucket. Although
there seems to be considerable data in the literature of crest pressures up to the
tangent section located at x / Hd = 1.4 and at flip buckets, there is a dearth of
information on pressures extending from the tangent section to the flip bucket. These
pressures are required if one intends to complete an overall stability analysis of the
dam.
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The commercially available CFD package Flow-3D uses the finite-volume method to
solve the RANS equations. Fractional Area / Volume Obstacle Representation (FAVOR)
method can be used for computing the free surface over uncontrolled spillway. To
numerically solve the rapidly varying flow over an ogee crest, it is important that the free
surface be accurately tracked. Tracking involves three parts: locating the surface,
defining the surface as a sharp interface between the fluid and air, and applying
boundary conditions at the interface. The VOF method is similar to the FAVOR method
in defining cells. However, the VOF method allows for a changing free surface over time
and space. VOF numerical techniques tend to be dissipative in nature.
The general governing continuity and momentum equations for non compressible flows
are solved. It has been established that the relative error of the numerical model agrees
within 1% with the physical model for He /Hd > 0.7.
For uncontrolled flow over an ogee spillway, numerical tools are sufficiently advanced to
calculate discharge and pressures on the spillway. New numerical techniques provide
practicing engineers with an additional tool in the design or analysis of spillways. This
tool may be very useful when reevaluating a dam for higher flows or improved
hydrologic event flood calculations.
Physical model studies are still considered the basis from which all other methods are
compared. However, model studies cost more and take more time to complete than a
numerical study. If only approximate discharge and pressures are required, design
nomographs provide quick solutions. As an alternative, numerical methods may offer
accurate solutions, within given parameters, at a cost and time that may be less than
model studies. Also, numerical models have the advantage of providing more details of
pressure and velocity.
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The spillway has been designed for an outflow of 45,300 m3 / s . It has 22 radial gates of
15.35 * 14.71 m. and the total length of the spillway is 425.2 m. The F.R.L. is at
R.L.105.15 m and the invert of the ski-jump bucket is at 51.82 m and the lip level at
R.L.58.22 m. Immediately downstream of the lip a concrete apron 15.0 m long and 1.5
m thick has been provided horizontally.
The spillway was designed for an outflow capacity of 31, 400 m3 / s . It has 21 gates of
15.54 * 14.02 m high. The energy dissipation is by a roller bucket. As there was
foundation difficulty in spillway spans No. 9 to 11, the invert of the roller bucket has
been kept 3 m above seperating the spillway in three parts.
In 1973 there were heavy floods throughout Gujarat and damage worth crores of rupees
had taken place. Almost all the major rivers of Gujarat had unprecedented floods. The
Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, the Sabarmati and the Banas had very heavy floods. As a
result, the design floods of all the dams were revised. Accordingly the design flood of
Kadana was revised from 31, 400 m3 / s to 44 ,900 m3 / s ; only two spans could be added
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on the main river . As such an additional spillway with a capacity of 10 ,000 m3 / s was
planned in the adjoining saddle by cutting the hill beyond the right flank.
Additional spillway has six radial gates of the same size as the main spillway i.e. 15.54 *
14.02 m. The width of the spillway is 113 m. Immediately downstream of the glacis the
width converges to 52 m (46 %) in a short distance. A narrow and deep channel has
been excavated in the hills about 50 m high width side slopes 4:1. It has a bed slope of
1 in 93. Coming out of the gorge it meets a small natural nala which drains in the Mahi
at a short distance from the main dam.
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