Fml-Infml Word List PDF

Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung Hong Duc University Thanh Hoa
Collected and Shared by Tran Manh Trung Foreign Language Department

Hong Duc University Thanh Hoa Province
************************
THE BEST GUIDES

TO IELTS WRITING
Thanh Hoa City 12/2012
FORMAL AND INFORMAL WORD LIST

(Collected and selected by Tran Manh Trung Hong Duc University)
Rules for formal writing are quite strict, though often unstated. Formal writing is used in academic and
scientific settings whenever you want to convey your ideas to a wide audience, with many possible backgrounds
and assumptions. Unlike casual conversation or emails to friends, formal writing needs to be clear,
unambiguous, literal, and well structured.
Table 01:
Ord
INFORMAL/EVERYDAY
FORMAL/ACADEMIC
VIETNAMESE MEANING
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
a lot of/ loads of/ plenty of

a bit
to get together
to start/to begin
big
thing
stuff
to find out
to do again
a great deal of /numerous/ several

Somewhat (before adj. or adv.)/ slightly
to collaborate with sbd on smth
to initiate/to commence smth/v-ing
large (number/percentage), considerable
device/object
material
to ascertain/discover
to repeat
nhiu
mt cht t
cng tc
bt u khi u
ln, to ln
vt dng/vt th
cht liu, vt liu
tm ra, tm thy
lp li
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
37
38
to do well
to set up
to cut down on
to go up
to come up with
to look into
to go up and down
to bring up a question
to get rid of
to turn down smth
to turn out smth
to take smth back
to put off smth
to put up with
to put away smth
to put down to smth
to come about
to give up
to go back/give back
to give off smth
to give away
to carry out smth
to seem
to climb
to help
to stop
to use
to shorten
to show
to go
to succeed
to establish
to reduce
to increase
to create
to investigate
to fluctuate
to raise a question
to eliminate
to refuse
to produce
to retract (a statement)
to postpone smth
to tolerate
to save
to attribute to
to occur
to relinquish
return to swh/ smth
to produce (heat)
to betray
to conduct
to appear
to ascend
to assist/ aid
to cease
to consume
to decrease/ to abbreviate
to demonstrate
to depart
thnh cng
thit lp
gim bt
tng ln
to ra
iu tra
dao ng
a ra vn
loi b
t chi
lm ra, to ra
rt li
hon li
chu ng
tit kim, dnh
quy cho, gn cho
xy ra
t b
tr li/ tr li
sn sinh, to ra
tit l, phn bi
tin hnh
hnh nh, dng nh
i ln, tng ln (s lng)
gip
dng li
dng, tiu dng
gim bt/ rt ngn
ch ra, chng minh
i, khi hnh
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
67
to want
to end
to tell
to keep
to say no
to free
to mend/ to fix
to need
to live
in the end
at once
at the same time
at first
on and off
mainly
next
again and again
so
understanding
lack
chance
sweat
house
sight
friendly
whole
lively
lucky
to desire
to finish/ to terminate
to inform
preserve/ retain
to reject
to release/ to liberate
to repair
to require
to reside
finally/ultimately
immediately
simultaneously/ concurrently
initially
intermittently
principally/primarily
subsequently
repeatedly
therefore/ consequently
comprehension
deficiency
opportunity
perspiration
residence
vision
amiable
complete
energetically/animated
fortunate
mong mun
kt thc
thng tin, cho bit
gi gn/ gi
t chi
tr t do, phng thch
sa cha
cn
ti, trti
cui cng
ngay lp tc
ng thi, cng lc
u tin
gin on, lc clc khng
ch yu
tip theo
lp i lp li
vth, vvy
s hiu
s thiu ht
c hi, dp
m hi
ni c tr (count)
kh nng nhn, th gic
thn mt
ton b
y sinh lc/ sng ng
may mn
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
childish
wrong
worse
cheap
dim
mad
to lay back
in charge of
enough
better
clear
empty
to ask for
hot (topic)
more and more
to get
bad
to get worse
horrible
to come in
to talk about
to go down
to come up with
to look at
to pin down
to experience the influence of
Lets consider
I love/like/prefer
On top of that
immature/ infantile
incorrect/questionable
inferior to
inexpensive
indistinct
insane
to relax
responsible for
sufficient
superior to
transparent
vacant
to require/ to request
controversial
Increasingly/ unceasingly/non-stop
to obtain/ to receive
disappointing
to deteriorate
unacceptable
to enter
to discuss
to descend
to suggest
to examine
to determine
to be influenced
It is important to consider
Personally, I favour
Another point is
nh tr con (tnh cch)

sai/ cvn
thp km hn
r
khng rrng, m
in
th gin
chu trch nhim
y
tt hn, gii hn
rrng
trng khng
i hi, yu cu
ang gy tranh ci
tng ln khng ngng
t c, ly , mua
ti t, ng tht vng
tr nn xu i
khng th chp nhn, kinh khng
i vo
tho lun
i xung, gim xung
gi , a ra
xem xt
quyt tm , dt khot
chu nh hng
hy cn nhc, xem xt
Ti thch, ti ng h
mt im khc na l
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
126
Government must make laws

In a nutshell
Every coin has two sides
by chance
to try
to swap
as far as x goes
to skip
by accident
kids
O.K
to make up for
to catch on smth
to go down with a disease
to go up
to get in touch with
to let somebody know
to call off
to sort out
to deal with
small
to think of
about
to do (research)
hard
to keep up
a lot
stand for
next
There is a need for laws

To state it briefly/ In brief
There are advantages and disadvantages to
Incidentally
to attempt/ to endeavor
to exchange
in respect of / with respect to
omit/not attend smth
accidentally
infants/offsprings
acceptable/ satisfactory
to compensate for
to understand
to contract a disease
to increase
to contact
to inform
to cancel
to resolve
to handle/ to address
minimal/limited/ modest
to conceive of/imagine
an estimated, approximately, roughly
to carry out, perform, undertake
difficult, problematic,challenging
to maintain
a substantial amount, a considerable sum
denote, represent
adjacent
cn clut v
tm li
mi vn u cu im vnhc im
nhn tin
c gng
trao i
i vi, v phn
b qua, khng tham d
ngu nhin, tnh c
tr em
c, chp nhn c
n b, bli
nm bt, hiu
mc bnh
tng ln
lin h. lin lc
cho bit
hu b, bi b
gii quyt, i n quyt nh
gii quyt, x l
nh, b
ngh v, suy tnh
khong chng
tin hnh (nghin cu), m nhim
kh khn
duy tr
nhiu
ch, thay cho
k cn
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
152
153
154
155
156
prove
rich
the same as
drink
man
old people
crooks
great, awesome
sick of, fed up with
feature
before
to think (that)
Because
Nobody can say
I think that
About
And
but
to write a cheque
carefull/cautious
to check
to agree with
to go over
to hand / to give
In accordance with
to involve
lost
to make sure
to order
confirm
affluent, wealthy, prosperous
equivalent to
beverage (count)
male
senior citizens, retirees
offenders, lawbreakers
preferable, desirable
dissatisfied with
characteristic
Prior to
to assume (that)
Owing to or due to the fact that/As a result of
It is impossible to predict
It seems that/ It could be argued that
Regarding/ Concerning
as well as
while/whereas
to issue a checque
prudent (imprudent)/prudential
to verify
to be bound by
exeed
to submit
Pursuant to
to entail
inadvertently mislaid
to ensure
to authorise
khng nh
giu c
ging nhau, tng ng
ung
n ng
ngi cao tui
ti phm
tuyt vi, ng ao c
khng hi lng
c im
trc
cho rng
v
Khng cth d on trc
nNi ta ni rng
V, v phn
cn, cng nh
nng, khi m
vit t ngn phiu
cn thn, thn trng
kim tra
ng vi
vt qu, qumc
trnh ln, np
Phhp vi
ko theo, km theo
vtnh tht lc
m bo rng
u quyn
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
to pay
to supply
to take away
when we get
Whenever we like / want
One after the other
There are no big differences between
This shows that
to put smth into action
etc./ and so forth./ and so on.
i.e
e.g
vs.
nice/ cute
smart
come
lifestyle
19th century
workmate
tired
drunk
sad
who
to get your money back
to pay your bills
really
to go up to
to work
breathing
to settle
to furnish
to withdraw
On receipt of
Without prior notice
At regular intervals
No significant differences emerges between
This demonstrates that
To be implemented/ carried out
among other examples
namely, / that is,
For example,
versus/as apposed of
attractive
intelligent
arrive
way of life / manner of life
The nineteenth century
colleague
exhausted
intoxicated
dejected
whom ( i t tn ng, sau gii t)
refund your payment
to settle your account
extremely
to reach
to function
respiration
tr tin, thanh ton

cung cp
ly ra, rt (tin) ra
Khi nhn c
Khng bo trc
u n
Khng cs khc bit ng k no
iu ny ch ra rng
c tin hnh, c a vo hot ng
vv.v
tc l, chng hn
vd
chng li, ngc vi
hp dn, li cun
thng minh
n
li sng
Khng vit tt
ng nghip
mt mi
b say ru
bun, chn nn
ai
ly li tin
tr tin hon mua hng, thanh ton
cc k, vcng
ln ti (con s), t ti
hot ng
s hhp
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
meat-eater
chance
wrong
died out
relevant
relatives
copy
break
mix
preference
to come across
to do away with
to build up
to finish off
to back up
to put forward
to put across
to obey a law
poor country
Thats why/ why
new
dependence
quarrel
In the same way
to look for
way
money
to imagine
place
carnivore
opportunity
erroneous
extinct
pertinent
kindred
imitate
fracture
blend
predilection
to find
to abolish
to accumulate
to conclude
to support/to advocate
propose
to express
to comply with a law
developing country
For this reason, / the reason for
novel
surbodination
debate/dispute
Similarly,
to seek
manner/solution
currency
to conceive / conceivably
location
ng vt n tht
c hi
sai st
tuyt chng
thch ng, ng ch
h hng thn tc
bt chc
p v
pha trn
s thin v
tm thy
bi b
tch lu
kt lun
ng h
xut, ngh
biu l, by t
tun th php lut
nc ngho
Vldo ny
mi
s ph thuc
Ci nhau
Tng t nh vy
Tm kim
gii php
tin t
tng tng
ni, v tr
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
viewpoint
fast/quickly
how much
when (conj)
In/For many years
to make smth better /to get better
To put on weight
verb + not + any + noun
verb + not + many/much + noun
to give
as you can be seen
wood
to describe
to learn by heart
to go on
may be
somehow
job
to take on
to give
dad
plane
(not) smoke.
to follow these guidelines.
gran/granny/nana
every year/ each year
glasses
shop
fridge
stance
rapidly/ as a matter of urgency
to what extent (not applicable to price or amount)
At the time of
During a considearble period of years
to improve/to upgrade
to gain weight
verb + no + noun
verb + few/little + noun
to provide
as can be seen
timber
to depict
to memorise
to continue
possibly, perhaps
in a certain way
occupation
employ
donate, contribute
father
aeroplane
to refrain from smoking
to adhere to these guidelines.
grandmother
annually
spectacles
retail outlet
refrigerator
10
lp trng, quan im
nhanh
ti mc no
Khi m
Trong nhiu nm
ci thin, lm cho tt hn
Tng cn
khng (ci g)
khng (ci g)
a cho, cung cp
nh ta cth thy
g
mt
ghi nh
tip tc
cl
bng cch no
ngh nghip
thu
cho, tng
b
my bay
khng ht thuc
theo s ch dn
b
hng nm
knh eo mt
ca hiu
t lnh
245
246
247
248
249
250
TV/ telly
boss
change
phone you back
bin man
and so on. / and so forth / etc.
television
employer
transform
return your call
refuse collector
among other examples. / or avoid using them
tivi
ng ch
chuyn i
gi in li
ngi thu rc
v.v.
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as
classrooms, college or universities. Moreover, it is the language of textbooks and exams. Academic language is the
language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills. It differs in structure and
vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions. This means that academic language includes
specialized vocabulary, as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups, i.e., groups of
words that provide more information about particular concepts. For example, the language of linguistics includes
words like morphology, language acquisition, or language learning.
Features of Academic Language

The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written. For
example, an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects
spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used. The three features of academic
languag are lexical, grammatical, and discourse.
11
IELTS Writing Task 2: Useful Language

Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score. Try
learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when
writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2.
Introducing the topic
Some people argue that

Have you ever considered ?
The question raises the issue of
Stating an opinion (thesis statement)
I believe that
It is my belief that
This essay will argue that
Indicating the scope of the essay
In this essay, I will state

This essay will examine
will be covered in this essay.
12
Giving reasons
One reason for this is that

This can be explained by
This can be attributed to the fact that
Giving further reasons
Not only that, but

A further reason is
It should also be stated that
Citing general opinions
It has been claimed that

It is widely believed that
There is a widespread belief that
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this, however.

However, this is not necessarily the case.
There are some faults with this reasoning, however.
Hedging strategies
It could be argued that

One explanation might be that
13
This suggests that
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt that

Therefore, we can say beyond any doubt that
These are just some of the reasons why
Concluding and summarising
To sum up, / In summary, / In short,

Overall, / On the whole,
To return to my original idea,
14
IELTS Writing Task 1: Useful Language

1. THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation. Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number. There are a number of reasons for doing this.
Firstly, it is easier for people to understand and remember. Secondly, the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary.
Table 02:
Ord
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
numbers/statistics
65 %
28 %
21 %
49 %
74 %
33.333 %
92 %
98,5 %
19.98 %
26 %
48.873 %
74.25 %
similar fractions
about two-thirds of
just over a quarter of
about a fifth of
just under a half of
almost three quarters of
a third of
most of
almost all
about a fifth of
just over a quarter of
almost a half of
nearly three - quarters
Ord
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
numbers/statistics
1,043
115
9
2
4
6/7
749,982
1,256,890,534
101,997
248.112
1,695,193
97
15
similar fractions
over a thousand
over a hundred
fewer than ten
a small number
a few
several
about three-quarters of a million
over 1.2 billion
about 100,000
a quarter of a million
about 1.7 million
just under a hundred
2. THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS:

Table 03:
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
16
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend

to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
17
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
18
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS:

A. Introduction
1. The graph (biu )/table (bng)/ shows (cho thy)/indicates (ch)/ illustrates (minh ho)/ reveals (tit l)/
represents (trnh by)
2. It is clear from the graph/table
3. It can be seen from the graph/table
4. As the graph/table shows
5. As can be seen from the graph/table
6. As is shown by the graph/table
7. As is illustrated by the graph/table
8. From the graph / table it is clear
B. Verbs
1. to constitute/ make up: to thnh
2. to comprise: bao gm
3. to account for: chim n
4. to amount to : ln n (s)
5. to stand at: gi (s)
6. to treble: gp ba ln
7. to double: gp i
8. to increase three fold: tng gp ba ln
9. to halve: chia i, gim i mt na
10. to diminish: st gim, lm st gim
11. to slow down: chm li
12. to remain the same/ unchanged: khng thay i, gi nguyn
19
13. to deplete: lm gim
14. to lessen: gim bt, lm gim bt
15. to escalate: leo thang, tng nhan
16. to stand at the same level: gi nguyn
17. to fall to %: gim ti %
18. to fall from %: gim xung di %
19. to fall by %: gim khong %
20. to drop to : gim ti %
21. to rise to %: tng ti %
22. to rise by %: tng khong
23. to rise from %: tng t %

24. to increase at % /reduce at %: tng/gim %
25. to increase to /reduce to : tng/gim ti (s)
26. to remain relatively steady: vn duy trtng i n nh
C. Adverbs
1. exceptionally: cbit, khc thng
2. remarkably: ng ch
3. moderately: va phi
4. extremely/enormously: cc k, rt
5. substantially: to ln, ng k
6. marginally: hi, i cht
7. hardly/ scarcely: hu nh khng
8. slowly: chm
20
D. Prepositions and prepositional phrases

1. In/within the range of and :Trong phm vi
2. For/During the first six months, : Trong su thng u
3. During the remainder of the year, : Trong thi gian cn li ca nm
4. During the first half of this century, : Trong na u th k ny
5. Between 1950 and 1960, : Gia nm 1950 v1960
6. In the period from 1960 to 1990, :Trong giai on t 1960 to 1990
7. In the period between 1950 and 1960, : Trong giai on gia nm 1950 v1990
8. From that time on: T thi gian tr i
9. Over a ten-year period, : Trong giai on 10 nm
10. Throughout the nineteenth century: Trong sut th k 19
11. Unlike : Khng ging vi
12. In contrast to : so vi /tng phn vi
13. In comparison with : so snh vi
21
E. Nouns and noun phrases

1. overview: ci nh
n khi qut, ci nh
n tng quan
2. a large number /percentage of : mt s ln /mt t l phn trm ln ca
3. the whole/total amount/quantity of : tng lng ca
4. the total number of : tng s ca 5. An increase of %: s tng ln %
6. trend: khuynh hng
7. correlation: mi lin h
8. a drop of %: s gim %
9. an increase in : s tng v
10. a slight increase: s tng nh
11. a drop in : gim v .
F. Comparison
1. Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 : So snh cc con s ca nm 1990 vnm 2000
2. Compared to/with x, y is : So vi x, y th
3. Comparing with x, y is more : so vi x , y thhn
4. Comparing X with Y we find that : So snh X vi Y chng ta nhn thy
5. Comparing x with y, it can be seen by us that : So snh x vi y chng ta cth thy rng
22
Types of Trend
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED

PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01: Avoid using contractions or abbreviations. (Ex. Use can not instead of cant)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives. These are very common in informal speech and writing, but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing.
Non-academic: I dont think that Im working hard.
Academic: I do not think that I am working hard.
For example: cant, couldnt, wouldnt, didnt, Ill, Ive, Id, wont, etc
Note that cannot is one word.
Do not use abbreviations or symbols.
Spell the words out. Ex: & = and; dept. = department
31
Rule 02: Use third person voice or impersonal language.

(Ex. One can interpret...instead of You can interpret...)
In other words, the impersonal language should be used. Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality, an air with which the personal pronouns I, me, and my seem inconsistent. In truth,
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices, but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective. Moreover, some professors prohibit their students from using firstperson pronouns as a kind of discipline: many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence, and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency.
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author. The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work "objectively", as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is, unbiased) researcher. So, one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun "I". This can be difficult, as lecturers often say, "tell me what you think". Well, they do want
to know what you think, but presented as a rational, objective argument. For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language; instead we let the "facts" - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us.
It is important to note that while the avoidance of "I" has long been part of the academic tradition, these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable. So, you may encounter different views about the use of "I" over
the course of your degree. In any case, you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
"personal element". Your lecturer, Cathi Lewis, for example, has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of "I" in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturer's Advice section of this tutorial). Regardless of your
32
particular lecturer's views, you will need to learn how to use "I" sparingly. So let's look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun.
Avoid personal "I", "you", and "we", except for the thesis statement. So, instead of: "As I mentioned
above...", write" "As was mentioned above..." except for the thesis statement. So, instead of: "As I mentioned
above...", write" "As was mentioned above..."
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun "I":
One way is to let the assignment "speak for itself": for example,
"I show..." becomes "The report shows..."
"I interpret the results as..." becomes "The results indicate..."
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction:
Instead of
write
"We administered the questionnaire..." "The questionnaire was administered..."

(active voice)
(passive voice)
"I surveyed the literature"
"The literature was surveyed"
(active voice)
(passive voice)
"I took a sample..."
"A sample was taken"
33
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE: for further help with using the passive voice, go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website.
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual. Consider the following sentence:
You eat peas with a fork, not with a knife.
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another. The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like, "Peas should be eaten with a fork, not with a knife." This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one, and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons.
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing. Since your reader, too, is you, the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
reader's space for the maintenance of an impersonal air.
34
Rule 03: Be sure to use transitions between points, within a paragraph.

Use appropriate linking words/phrases to show the links between paragraph, as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs. Do not use simple linking words (e.g. and, but, so) except for variety.
Conjunctions: avoid weak conjunctions such as "but." This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence. Look in the thesaurus for others, such as "however," "moreover," "nevertheless," "nonetheless,"
"regardless," etc. Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with "And", Or, and "Because," you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly.
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and, but, or, yet, so):
Put a comma before these conjunctions. (Don't use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing.)
example: The movie has already started, but my friend has not arrived yet.
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts: either . . . or):
* Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences).
example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher, but he is also a gourmet cook.
* You don't need a comma if it only connects words or phrases.
example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook.
- Transitional Words and Phrases:
* Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence.
example: I like to travel. Specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.
35
* Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences.

example: I like to travel; specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.
* Use a comma before and after the transitional word/phrase in the middle of a clause.
example: I like to travel, and, specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases

Adding Information
and
not only . . . but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice, and now we want to see it again.
Not only did my brother break his leg, but he also bruised his rib.
My friend speaks Korean and English. She also speaks Chinese.
Cheating is dishonest. Moreover, it hinders students from learning.
Students should be on time. Furthermore, they must be prepared.
You must complete this essay by 5 p.m. In addition, you must do the exercises on page 47.
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second, another, etc.)
example/reason is . . .
Examples
I have been to many countries. For example, I have been to Russia, Canada, Mexico, and
Spain.
He often eats strange foods. For instance, he once ate cow brains.
I like to travel. Specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.
I love fruit. In particular, I like bananas, pineapple, and berries.
My friend hates skiing for several reasons. The first reason is that she dislikes being cold.
Another reason is that she often falls.
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay, but Susan got a B.
We wanted to leave at 8:00. However, Mike arrived too late.
36
on the other hand

otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning. On the other hand, she doesn't mind cooking.
Students should attend class. Otherwise, they may lose their status.
I am not going out tonight. Instead, I will stay home and watch a video.
Women usually enjoy shopping. In contrast, men often dislike it.
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that . . .
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework, yet he never does it.
I need to wear reading glasses. Nevertheless, I hate how I look in them.
I know you don't like to study. Even so, you must pass your exam.
There are many benefits to exercising. However, you must take some precautions to avoid
injury.
Even though the book is difficult to read, it is very interesting.
Although the book is difficult to read, it is very interesting.
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis, she lost the match.
Despite Kate's skill at tennis, she lost the match.
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school. Likewise, it is hard in college.
Houseplants require much care and attention. Similarly, outdoor plants must be cared for
properly.
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill. In the same way, learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice.
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam, so she is very happy.
Tim was late. As a result, we could not go to the concert.
James is not feeling well. Therefore, he will not be here today.
The committee voted against the proposal. Thus, we must consider another idea.
I forgot that the cake was in the oven. As a consequence, it burned.
Tina lost her keys. Consequently, she could not drive home.
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Establishing Time Relation or

Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First, I think that she is studying hard.
Second, I believe that she is a bright student.
Finally, I know that she has great potential.
In conclusion, I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship.
In summary, we should offer her some financial help.
Jeff was working hard to clean the house. Meanwhile, his brother was watching television.
Showing a Condition
or
whether . . . or
if . . . (then)
Examples
I must study hard, or I will fail my exam.
Whether you are coming or not, I am still going to Amy's party.
If you want to get good grades, then you must do your homework.
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards. In fact, they have the best cards around.
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa.
He was late to class again. In other words, he didn't wake up on time.
The plan needed only two things to succeednamely, time and money.
Giving an Alternative
or
either . . . or
neither . . . nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach, or we can go to the mountains.
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment.
I like neither that person nor his brother.
38
Rule 04: Use present tense

In writing about literature the present tense must be used.
Ex: The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away.
NOT: The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away.
DO: When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley, he feels pain in his stomach.
DONT: When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man, he felt pain in his stomach.
In English, the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events, and those that are usually
true. It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly, or that
something is true in general. As shown in the following examples:
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 oclock.
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals.
Moreover,it is used to express facts. For example, the planets go round the sun. In the present simple, the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns: I, you, they, and we. However, in the third person
singular (he, she, and it), the verb ends with s or es, as in the following examples:
- I usually goaway at weekends.
- Sarah catchesthe early train.
More precisely, in academic writing, the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used. For example, in linguisticsessays, it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true.
- A child acquires language during the critical period.
39
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate.

- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies.
Tense-shifting: NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays. Although the
past tense is acceptable, (as long as there is no switching to other tenses), try to always use the present tense.
Even though the novel/short story/play/poem, etc. obviously has been written in the "past," writing/discussion of
texts should be in present tense.
Rule 05: Avoid using colloquialisms (slang).

For example: kids, dude, gal, guy, homies, etc
Don't use slang. This is the time to show off the best English you know. Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas, without resorting to slang. Be aware that certain expressions, such as "kids"
instead of "children" and "guys" or "gals" instead of "men" or "women", also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided.
Rule 06: Use gender neutral language (replace he, she with they, the character, or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use "he" when referring to both men and women, it is no longer
acceptable to do so now. Why? Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act. If pronouns are always "he," and certain professions are always fireman, policeman, chairman,
congressmen, etc, then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions, and that women will feel that they do not belong in them. Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles.
40
Even if you disagree with the above theory, using "he" only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style. You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use "they" or "their" when referring back to
that subject. Or you can choose "he or she," but if you need to write "he or she" more than twice in the sentence,
you might give your reader a headache. Try to avoid "s/he" or "he/she" simply because it is unsightly. Really the
best solution is pluralization. (When implementing the plural solution, remember the principle of agreement.
"Everyone needs their umbrella" is not grammatical, because "everyone" is a singular subject.)
o
o
o
o
o
o
Sexist: If a medical student wants to succeed, he has to learn to budget his time wisely.
Liberated: If medical students want to succeed, they have to learn to budget his time wisely.
Sexist: If one wants to become a DJ, he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow.
Liberated: If one wants to become a DJ, he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow.
Sexist: A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience.
Liberated: Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience.
Use non-sexist language: Avoid the word "man" and "he/his/him" when referring to general phenomena.
When writing sentences, there are two ways to do this:
A) Make it plural.
Sexist Language
Give each student his paper
as soon as he is finished.
The average student is
worried about his grade.
Good Alternative
Give students their papers
as soon as they are finished.
The average student is
worried about grades.
41
B) If necessary, use ONE, HE/SHE.

Sexist Language
If a student got an A, he did not
have to do the extra work.
Anyone who wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring
his money.
Good Alternative
Anyone who got an A, did not
have to do the extra work.
If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow, she/he
should bring money.
C) Also, see this table:

Usually Inappropriate
mankind
manfs achievements
man-made
the common man
man the ship
six man-hours
chairman
businessman
fireman
mailman
steward and stewardess
policeman and policewoman
congressman
Good Alternatives
humanity, people, human beings
human achievements
synthetic, manufactured, machine-made
the average person, ordinary people
staff the ship
six staff-hours
coordinator (of a committee or department), moderator (of a meeting), presiding officer,
head, chair
business executive
firefighter
mailcarrier
flight attendant
police officer
congressional representative
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Rule 07: Avoid repetition.

Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently.
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated.
For example, in this section, the phrase lexical cohesion is repeated more than twice. In addition, repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms. However, the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous, i.e., it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions. This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence.
Use rich vocabulary: You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know.
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as "good" or "bad". Instead, use more dramatic, expressive words, such
as excellent, wonderful, superb, or adverse, horrible, terrible, etc. Choose the more precise word over the more
general one. This will make your language come alive, in speech or in writing, and earn you higher marks.
Rule 08: Avoid using imperative language.

Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper, because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now!). E.g. do not say "Recall that ...". Of course, an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (e.g. "(see Walker 1996 for more details).").
Rule 09: Be sure to use but and however correctly

(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework, but I understand its important.
- I wish I studied more; however, I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test, however, this will give me more time to study.
43
"But" and "however" are not interchangeable

The words "but" and "however" have similar meanings, but they are not interchangeable. If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing "but" and replace it with "however", or vice versa, the result will almost
always be incorrect, mainly because of comma punctuation.
Correct examples:
"I like oranges, but I do not like tangerines."
"I like oranges. However, I do not like tangerines."
"I like oranges; however, I do not like tangerines."
"I, however, do not like grapefruits."
"I like oranges however they have been prepared."
If you exchange any of these "but"s and "however"s, then the sentences would become incorrect, and in
some cases meaningless.
Rule 10: Avoid using it and this at the start of a sentence.

If necessary, however, join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon. See examples below. Use 'It' as
a subject; e.g. 'It is impossible to...'
Incorrect: I love the snow. It is fun to play in.
Correct: I love the snow; it is fun to play in.
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes: It is aceptable to use it as a preparatory subject. (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases:
44
1. It goes without saying that / Of course,

2. It is quite clear that / Obviously,
3. It is worth pointing out that / Another point is
4. It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that / In my opinion,
5. It is often argued that / People say that
6. It is sometimes suggested that/ People say that
7. It is particularly significant that / Importantly,
8. It could be argued that ? Perhaps,.
9. It is likely that / Probably, .
Rule 11: Avoid very strong language

E.g. I know. I am sure
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty
seldom, rarely, never,
improbable, impossible,
unattainable ...
Medium certainty/Hedging
High certainty
probably, perhaps, likely, occasionally, sometimes,

generally, may, might, can, could, appears to be,
seems to be, tends to be, suggests, considers ...
undoubtedly, absolutely, certainly, definitely,

incredible, amazing, unbelievable, particularly,
very, vitally, totally, wholly, often, must, would,
should ...
In addition to a formal voice, you should also maintain a cool-headed, objective tone. Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion, for example, or cultural values.
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea, avoid getting "emotional" in your expression. Avoid seeming angry,
45
or condescending, or rude. Keep your calm and remain scholarly, and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation.
Emotional: We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage. For the sake of equality, the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential!!! Don't let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone. This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats!
Objective: Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws.
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individual's freedom was vitally important, and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society, the actions should not be decriminalized.
Rule 12: Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences.

E.g. Many people think so. They are wrong.
Rule 13: You should NOT:

- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks (!!!) in your essay
46
Rule 14: Avoid very emotional language

e.g. I absolutely detest people who
Rule 15: Do not express personal opinions too strongly

e.g. I know; instead, use milder expressions (e.g. It seems to me that Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (e.g. It seems that, I therefore feel, etc.)
Rule 16: Do not use over-generalisation (e.g. All politicians are)

Avoid:
Everyone knows that
What goes around comes around
Rule 17: Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source.
e.g. "A recent study showed" - which study?)
47
Rule 18: Do not use cliches

e.g. Rome was not built in a day.
Clichs are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing. They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing.
Examples: Dont count your chickens before they have hatched.
Let sleeping dogs lie.
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech; however, in
writing, they appear to be substitutes for clear thought.
We cannot build a new school at this point in time.
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age?
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated.
Some more examples of clichs are:
Raining like cats and dogs.

Like a pig in mud.
48
Over the hill.

In the dog house.
Back against the wall.
Under the gun.
My two cents.
Stubborn as a mule.
Bite your tongue.
Dyed in the wool.
Wrong side of the bed.
The calm before the storm.
Hair of the dog,
On thin ice.
Eye for an eye.
Tongue-in-cheek.
The third time is the charm.
Rule 19: Do not use personal examples

e.g. In my school
49
Rule 20: Do not use colloquial language

Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang.
Examples: - Lets do lunch.
- Im going to get back at him.
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English, but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations, and in written English.
Rule 21: Do not use metaphor

A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example, 'a glaring error', 'the heart of the matter', 'pillar of the community', 'wave of terrorism', and so on.
Rule 22: Do not use similes

A simile compares a person, action or object with something else - for example, 'fly like an eagle', 'solid as
a rock', 'as happy as Larry', 'pleased as Punch', and so on.
50
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power. Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clich, it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader. Consequently, instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style, you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say.
Rule 23: Do not use figures of speech

Figures of speech are closely related to clichs. Like metaphors and similes, figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing.
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else.
Management has been on a steep learning curve.
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack.
Rule 24: Do not use euphemisms

Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey.
Examples: - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
51
Euphemisms are good if they spare someones feelings, but they are bad if they obscure meaning, or give a
positive connotation to something illegal, immoral, or otherwise unacceptable.
Rule 25: Do not talk about parts of the paragraph.

Do not write:
this paragraph shows
The topic sentence is
A quote that proves this is
Rule 26: Do not begin a sentence with numerals.

For example, instead of writing: "400 people..." write: "Four hundred people..."
Spell out all numbers less than 10. Ex: 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out.
Ex: 15 students. = Fifteen students
Use numerals 10 or above. Instead of writing: "There were 9 people...", write: "There were nine people..."
Rule 27: Do not use non-specific words.

For example: stuff, things, lots, etc
52
Rule 28: Do not use ambiguous words.

For example: this, these, his, it, they, there is, there are, etc
These words have no meaning in themselves, but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context.
In written text, however, the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader, because there are many
possible interpretations of "it" and "this".
Notes:
1. It is aceptable to use this, that, these, and those when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun.
Eg: This character traits
2. It is aceptable to use it as a preparatory subject. (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held, you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject.
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years.
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way:
accept
acknowledge
argue
53
claim
estimate
predict
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations.
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem. In the
sentences overleaf, the subject of appear and seem is it. As you can see, they are followed by that-clauses.
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover.
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai.
3. It is aceptable to use there is as a preparatory subject. (See Rule 44)
Rule 29: Do not ask rhetorical questions.

Readers want answers! So, instead of: "Do you know where the origin of tea is?" Write: "Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India."
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected. A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer, or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text. Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing: readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement. You should not risk your point being
misunderstood: make your point clear and 'up front'; for example:
54
Informal (includes rhetorical question)
Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental

pollution, so why do we still use them?
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites, given

their vast pollution production, still remains.
What is a team? A team can be one person but will

usually end up including many more.
A team can include one person but usually involves many more.
The question is, however, does the "Design School

Model" provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy?
It is questionable whether the "Design School Model" provides a

practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation.
Rule 30: Write "most people, instead of the incorrect "most of people"
Likewise, "most women", "most animals", etc. But "most of the people" is OK.
Rule 31: Do not use the expressions and so on or etc.

Instead use such as.
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing. Thus, instead of the informal "Japan imports
potatoes, corn, wheat, and so on," write "Japan imports food such as potatoes, corn and wheat."
Run on expressions include phrases such as 'and so forth', 'and so on' or 'etc'. Try to complete the sentence
properly; do not use these if you can avoid them; for example:
55
Informal (includes run on)
Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into

consideration patients' dietary
needs resulting from allergies,
medication, medical conditions
and so on.
Nurses must take into

consideration patients' dietary
needs resulting from allergies,
medication and medical
conditions.
Public transport includes vehicles Public transport includes vehicles

for public use on the roads,
for public use, such as buses,
airways, waterways etc.
trains and aeroplanes.
Rule 32: Place adverbs within the verb

Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions. In informal English,
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences; for example:
Informal
Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be

discarded.
The solution can then be

discarded.
The blood is withdrawn slowly.
The blood is slowly withdrawn.
Rule 33: Avoid phrases such as "I believe," "I feel," and "I think."
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb, such as "I strongly believe." Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface.
56
Rule 34: Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence.
Unnecessary words like "Actually", "Really" or "Basically" can be omitted. 8
Rule 35: Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay.

For example, instead of writing: "Will you come?" You should write: He asked me if I would come.
Rule 36: Do not use informal language

- In formal English one would use the word whom instead of the word who in certain situations.
Formal: Whom did they elect?
Informal: Who did they elect?
Formal - Use 'whom' as an object: Whom have they chosen for the position?
Informal - Use 'who' as an object: Who have they chosen for the position?
Formal : With whom did you study?

Informal : Who did you study with?
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures.
57
Formal: To which nation does he belong?

Informal: Which nation does he belong to?
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language.
In informal language we often leave out some words.
Formal: She said that she would come.
Informal: She said she would come.
Formal: Have you seen Annie?
Informal: Seen Annie?
Rule 37: Avoid using unnecessary words

Wordy phrases
Using better English
1. it would appear that ...
1. apparently ...
2. with the exception of ...
2. except ...
3. in connection with ...
3. about ...
4. are found to be in agreement with ...
4. agree ...
5. a large majority of ...
5. most ...
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6. in the event that ...
6. if ...
7. a disproportionate number ...
7. few ...
8. arrive at a decision ...
8. decide ...
9. for a further period of ten years ...
9. for another ten years ...
10. such is by no means the case ...
10. this is not so ...
11. in the field of education ...
11. in education ...
12. they are without legal representation whatsoever ...
12. they have no legal representation ...
13. in the case of the third question ...
13. in the third question ...
14. at the present time, overseas companies are ...
14. overseas companies are now ...
15. there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health ... 15. the Department of Health is obliged ...
Rule 38: Use singular determiners with plural verbs

Determiners like each, every, either and neither are singular. They should be followed by singular verbs. Of
course, in an informal style, you can put plural verbs after them, but if you do that in your IELTS essay, the
examiner will not be too happy with you.
Non-academic: Neither of us like him.
Academic: Neither of us likes him.
59
Rule 39: Avoid idiomatic language

English is highly idiomatic, but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing. Of course, it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either. You can use some idioms, but
you must avoid the more colourful ones like raining cats and dogs, hit the nail on the head or throw the baby
out with the bathwater. Some idioms, on the other hand, are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing.
Rule 40: Do not start sentences with And, Also, So, Or, Even so, and But
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate. A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable. Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions. However, the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them.
You must, however, make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side.
Instead of these, use `In addition', `However', `Hence', `Consequently', `Alternatively', `Nevertheless' at the
beginninge of the sentence.
Rule 41: Do not use informal phrasal verbs

You cannot avoid all of them in your writing. It is not necessary either. Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay. (See Table 01, p2)
60
Rule 42: Use passives

Passives without agents are common in academic and scientific writing. By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns. Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action, but are not interested in saying who or what did / does it.
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English. It is contrasting with active voice. In the passive, the
object of the active voice becomes the subject, and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action.
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples.
- In recent years, researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence).
- In recent years, several analyses of survey data have been published.
Furthermore, the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language. Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English. So, passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language. Moreover, the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writers objectivity. This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said that... he is said to) as shown in the following examples:
- The child acquires the language in short period of time.
61
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time.
Similarly, using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43: Employ tentative rather than assertive language.

- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases; e.g. 'This is possibly caused by...' or 'This is
probably the most important factor.'
- using the modal verbs may and might; e.g. 'This may be the most important factor.'
- using appears to + V and seems to + V; e.g. 'This appears to be the most important factor.'
- avoiding always and every, and replacing them with often and many/much.
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader.
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language. To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers. To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions, academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language. Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below.
62
Tentative expression
Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved.
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
Modal verbs such as could, may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness. Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to, as well as adverbs of
probability: perhaps, possibly, probably, likely, unlikely.
Of course, depending on viewpoint and the available evidence, a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty. Look at the examples in the table below.
1. Positive and assertive:
Clearly, then, Hong Kong students standard of written Chinese is declining.
2. Suggesting likelihood:
The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong students standard of written
Chinese is declining.
3. Expressing less likelihood:
It may/might/could be the case that Hong Kong students standard of written

Chinese is declining.
63
4. Negative:
It is unlikely that Hong Kong students standard of written Chinese is declining.
Rule 44: Use 'One' and There as a subject

e.g. 'One may ask whether...' ('One' is a formal version of 'You' [plural] in general) and Use 'There' as a subject;
e.g. 'There is a serious risk of...'
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that / Perhaps,
- One could draw the conclusion that / In conclusion,
- As one might expect / Naturally
- There is not a shadow of doubt that / Certainly,
There is the possibility that . / Possibly,
There can be no doubt that / I am sure
There are those who maintain that / Some people say .
There is a school of thoughts that / Some people say .
There is a strong likelihood that / Probably,
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Rule 45: Use It is because and This is because correctly.

Language Analysis:
It is because is used in the following situations:
1. To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because:
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place. (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does.
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible.
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living.
Structure:
It is because + cause + that + effect.
Grammar:
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + that+ effect (clause).
e.g. It is because of your smile that I feel happy.
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + that + effect (clause).
e.g. It is because you smiled that I feel happy.
65
2. To refer back to a cause, then give an effect, use it is because of this:

These countries economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem.
I know you. I understand you, and it is because of this that I love you.
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object. It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones.
Structures:
Cause + and + it is because of this that + effect
Cause + . + It is because of this that + effect
3. To give an effect first, then explain the cause, use this is because:
Examples:
- Out in space, the sky looks black, instead of blue. This is because there is no atmosphere.
- As the sun begins to set, the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you. More of
the light is reflected and scattered. As less reaches you directly, the sun appears less bright. The colour of the sun
itself appears to change, first to orange and then to red. This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered. Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes.
66
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week. They must often work in the evenings or on weekends. This
is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times.
4. To answer questions, use it is because, this is because, or because:
- How can it be that an awesome God knows me by name and loves me without reservation? It is because He
created me.
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration? I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy.
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear, as evidenced by the popularity of shocker, gross-out, supernatural
and altogether scary books. Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart? Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road?
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye? This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye, is just too much for the eye to stand.
- Why are you doing that? Because I like it.
- To answer questions, use it is because, this is because, or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye? This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye, is just too much for the eye to stand.
- Why are you doing that? Because I like it.
5, In 'if ' and 'when' sentences use it is because:
67
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking.

- If we have no peace, it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other.
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are.
Rule 46: Use Relative Structures

Formal - Use relative structures: The woman thought that it was important to be on time.
Informal - Drop certain relative structures: The woman thought it was important to be on time.
Rule 47: Use use nominalisation

Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones.
For example, instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned.
Write:
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police.
In general, academic writing tends to be fairly dense, with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses. Remember, however, that your main aim is clarity, so dont be too ambitious, particularly
when youre starting to write.
68
Rule 48: Use some sort of hedging language and to qualify statements that you make.
HEDGING/AVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what youre writing and yourself as writer, to be cautious rather than
assertive, you should:
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine, suggest, claim, suppose
- use attitudinal signals such as apparently, arguably, ideally, strangely, unexpectedly.
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language.
- use verbs such as would, could, may, might which soften what youre saying.
- use qualifying adverbs such as some, several, a minority of, a few, many to avoid making overgeneralisations.
Rule 49: Do not start a sentence with Therefore.

Instead, write, for example, They, therefore, ....
Rule 50: Use full names when citing.

The first time you mention the authors or someones name, use his/her entire name. For the rest of the essay,
use only his/her last name.
Thanh Hoa City 12/2012
69

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Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung Hong Duc University Thanh Hoa

Collected and Shared by Tran Manh Trung Foreign Language Department

THE BEST GUIDES

Thanh Hoa City 12/2012

FORMAL AND INFORMAL WORD LIST

a lot of/ loads of/ plenty of

a great deal of /numerous/ several

nh tr con (tnh cch)

Government must make laws

There is a need for laws

tr tin, thanh ton

Features of Academic Language

IELTS Writing Task 2: Useful Language

Some people argue that

Stating an opinion (thesis statement)

Indicating the scope of the essay

In this essay, I will state

One reason for this is that

Giving further reasons

Not only that, but

Citing general opinions

It has been claimed that

I would dispute this, however.

It could be argued that

This suggests that

There can be no doubt that

Concluding and summarising

To sum up, / In summary, / In short,

IELTS Writing Task 1: Useful Language

2. THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS:

to show an upward trend

MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS:

2. It is clear from the graph/table

3. It can be seen from the graph/table

4. As the graph/table shows

5. As can be seen from the graph/table

6. As is shown by the graph/table

7. As is illustrated by the graph/table

8. From the graph / table it is clear

3. to account for: chim n

5. to stand at: gi (s)

8. to increase three fold: tng gp ba ln

9. to halve: chia i, gim i mt na

10. to diminish: st gim, lm st gim

11. to slow down: chm li

12. to remain the same/ unchanged: khng thay i, gi nguyn

13. to deplete: lm gim

14. to lessen: gim bt, lm gim bt

15. to escalate: leo thang, tng nhan

16. to stand at the same level: gi nguyn

17. to fall to %: gim ti %

18. to fall from %: gim xung di %

19. to fall by %: gim khong %

20. to drop to : gim ti %

21. to rise to %: tng ti %

22. to rise by %: tng khong

23. to rise from %: tng t %

6. marginally: hi, i cht

7. hardly/ scarcely: hu nh khng

D. Prepositions and prepositional phrases

E. Nouns and noun phrases

10. a slight increase: s tng nh

11. a drop in : gim v .