JOllillUlL Of

GMGHEIlGAl

ELSEVIER

EWPLIMATIOY
Journal of Geochemical

Exploration

57 (1996) 175- 185

The application of soil geochemistry to gold exploration in the

black Flag Area, Yilgam Block, Western Australia
Richard H. Mazzucchelli
Seurchtech Pty Ltd. P.O. Box 189, Kalamundcr, W.A. 6076, Australia
Received 26 October

1995: accepted 9 July 1996

Abstract
Soil geochemistry has proved an effective technique in exploration for gold since the 1980s in the Black Flag area,
situated some 50 km northwest of Kalgoorlie in Western Australia. Between 1991 and 1995 Mining Corporation of Australia
Ltd (MCA)
conducted a systematic programme of soil geochemistry within a tenement area of some 400 square
kilometres, much of which had been previously explored by many different exploration groups using a variety of
geochemical techniques. A GIS database incorporating nearly 40,000 samples, partly from MCA work, but also using data
from previous exploration where appropriate, was assembled. This compilation provided a good basis for evaluating the
effectiveness of soil geochemistry through the varying regolith types encountered, and allowed a direct comparison between
various sampling and analytical techniques.
The MCA programme was based on the sampling of near-surface soil at depths of lo-20 cm, pulverising and analysing
the < 2 mm fraction for Au and As. Sampling grids varied from 400 by 100 m for reconnaissance,
to 40 by 40 m for
detailed delineation of anomalies prior to drilling. Each sample was described in terms of its mechanical (grain size)
composition, distinguishing characteristics and likely origin during collection. These data were used in conjunction with a
broad classification of geomorphological
setting in the interpretation of results.
The simple low-cost sampling procedures adopted by MCA proved robust and effective in delineating mineralisation,
even under extreme conditions of concealment. Mineralisation located by recent work ranges from palaeochannel deposits,
covered by 30 metres or more of transported overburden, to deeply weathered primary lodes under thin residual soil.
Anomalies related to mineralisation were usually better developed in near-surface soil than deeper bedrock samples,
which were frequently taken by explorers in the early 1980s from the zone of leaching. Mineralisation was also detectable in
soils over complete laterite profiles, closely reflecting anomalies in the underlying ferricrete horizon, although at lower
concentration levels. Surface sampling has also been used in playa lake environments, where the most effective samples
often consist of saprolitic bedrock. In areas previously tested by the bulk cyanide leach (BCL or BLEG) method, essentially
similar dispersion patterns for gold were delineated by the simpler and lower-cost MCA techniques. There is no evidence
that the BCL method provides any advantage, either in terms of enhanced anomaly contrast, anomaly extent or
reproducibility in soil geochemistry in the Black Flag area.
Keywords:

soil geochemistry; gold; geomorphology; regolith; Yilgam Block; Australia

0375-6742/96/$15.00
Copyright
PII SO375-6742(96)00033-7

0 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The Archaean greenstone sequences which host
many gold deposits in the Eastern Goldfields of
Western Australia are extensively concealed by a
complex regolith. which includes remnants of a former deep tropical weathering cycle and various superficial formations, many of transported origin (Butt,
1992). Despite this, gold anomalies related to bedrock
mineralisation
are generally well developed in near-

surface soils and lags, and geochemical techniques

using these media have been highly successful in
locating new deposits and extensions to existing
deposits. This paper describes the application
of
geochemical soil sampling in exploration for gold
within an Archaean greenstone terrane which encompasses a range of geomorphological
settings. The
cast: histories presented demonstrate that soil geochemistry is a robust and cost-effective tool for gold
exploration in this environment.

-------------Palaeochannel
-Proterozoic

Dyke

Felsic Volcanics
Ultramafics

u,

Fig.

I.

Black Flap Projrct: Location ;UKI rrgmml prolog~al

plan.

WESTERNAUSTRALIA

R.H. Mazzucchelli/ Journal

of Geochemical Exploration 57 (1996) 175-185

2. The Black Flag Project

The Black Flag Project was a tenement area of
some 400 square kilometres, 20 to 60 kilometres
northwest of Kalgoorlie covering prospective greenstone lithologies (Fig. 1). An Archaean sequence of
ultramafic, mafic and felsic volcanics with interbedded sediments, has been intruded by mafic and felsic
sills and dykes and folded into a granite-cored anticlinal structure, known as the Mount Pleasant Anticline (Witt, 1987). The rocks are traversed by a
series of faults and shear structures, of which those
trending NNE, E and ENE are major controls on
gold mineralisation.
In excess of 3000 kg of gold have been located in
the area, mostly since 1980. The main primary deposits are hosted by mafic units such as the Mount
Pleasant Layered Gabbro Sill and the porphyritic
Victorious Basalt, but gold mineralisation
has been
located in most of the lithologies represented in the
area (Chapman, 1987; Mining Corporation of Australia
Ltd,
1993; Witt,
1993). The Tertiary
palaeodrainage
system, which is still incompletely
known, is also an important
host for so-called
palaeochannel
deposits, a type of remobilised
placer gold occurrence which has contributed
approximately 50% of the gold produced from deposits
varying in size from 50,000 to > l,OOO,OOOtonnes
(Commander et al., 199 1; Devlin and Crimeen, 1990).
The Black Flag Project typifies the problems of
changing outcrop conditions and regolith types. The
northwestern
half of the area tends to be slightly
more elevated, with disconnected
remnants of latcritic duricrust and a deep water table. The southeastern sector is marginal to a major east-flowing
chain of playa lakes, and is characterised
by
widespread transported overburden
and a shallow
water table (Craig and Anand, 1993). Recent transported overburden conceals the important Racetrack
complex (Siggs, 1988) and the Golden Kilometre
deposit (Lawrance, 1988), although fresh rock crops
out strongly at Mt Pleasant itself, approximately
1
km east of the latter. The Golden Flag deposit is
situated within a playa lake environment
where
transported lake silts and associated wind-blown deposits impede exploration (see Fig. 1).
Parts of the project area had been explored previously by earlier ground-holders,
using a variety of

171

geochemical echniques. This, together with the numerous occurrences of gold mineralisation
in a variety of geomorphologic
settings, provided a unique
opportunity to compare the relative effectiveness of
different geochemical techniques over the range of
regolith types developed in the Eastern Goldfields.

3. Geochemical exploration programme

Geochemical exploration carried out between 199 1
and 1995 by Mining Corporation of Australia Ltd
(MC,)
was based on orientation
studies and
previous experience in the southern Yilgarn Block.
Near-surface soils were sampled at depths of lo-20
cm, and the < 2 mm fraction pulverised and analysed for gold to 1 ppb by graphite furnace AAS,
following an aqua regia digestion. Later samples
were also analysed for As to 5 ppm by AAS on the
same leach solution. Sampling grids varied from 400
by 100 metres in reconnaissance,
to 40 by 40 m for
detailed delineation of anomalies prior to drilling.
Each sample was described in the field in terms of
its mechanical (grain size) composition, distinguishing characteristics and likely origin, according to the
scheme set out in Fig. 2. The descriptive data were
used in conjunction
with a broad classification
of
geomorphological
setting in the interpretation of results.
A GIS database, incorporating nearly 40,000 samples, largely from MCA work, but also using data
from previous exploration where appropriate, was
assembled, with the dual aim of enhancing interpreLEGEND FOR CODED DESCRIPTION OF SOIL TYPE
Generd Form

Four Chomcten

R-ltesldud

A - AllUVhl

c - Clay

c - cc4luvid

c - cdcareous

L-Loam

T-lmlupcded

D-Drolroge

S-SOM

D - Dklwbed

L-lcdmtc

G - Gravel

s - contanindw

5. Skdetd

UND _ UndaMed

W-WIKblawtl

c.

PIerent
. Absent

Y - Play0

Fig. 2. Legend for coded descriptions

of soil type.

15

30

60

120

240

AU PPB IN <2MM FRACTION SOILS

Fig. 3. Statistuxl distributmn of Au in < 2 mm ~~1s

tation and data management for statutory reporting

purposes. The statistical distribution of Au values
represented in the database is shown in Fig. 3. in
groupings which correspond to the contour intervals
used for the project. Abundance levels for Au vary
considerably through the area, with higher concentrations in the northwestern area, where residual and
lateritic soils predominate, compared to the southeastern area, where transported soils are more prevalent.
The scheme used to classify soil samples shown
in Fig. 2 allows for numerous permutations
and
combinations. Fig. 4 compares statistics for the more
common soil codes represented in the total database
with their representation in an arbitrarily designated
which contain more than 60
Anomaly
Subset.
ppb Au. The dominant group with 30% of the total
are the undifferentiated samples (UND), incorporated
from programmes before MCAs involvement.
The
fact that these make up a higher percentage of the

Anomaly Subset is due to the concentration and high

density of the early sampling in known mineralised
arcas. The two most commonly described soils are
the residual lateritic loams (RLL) and residual undifferentiated loams (RUL). Their relative abundance is
higher in the total data set than in the anomalous
hubset, as is the case for calcareous lateritic loams
(RLLC). This may reflect the fact that these soils are
commonly recorded in areas with thick cover. The
relative abundances for anomalous and total subsets
are reversed for the other soil types listed, which
basically consist of lateritic and skeletal gravels, with
or without pedogenic carbonate.
Although these
statistics are inconclusive,
there is little doubt that
the presence of coarse laterite and bedrock fragments
enhance the expression of gold anomalies. The correlation between the presence of pedogenic carbonate
and anomaly development noted by Lintern and Butt
( 1093) is supported in that a higher proportion of
samples with a carbonate component are anomalous
compared to the equivalent soil types without carbonate. The remaining 21.8% of the total data and
20.8% of the anomaly subset, not detailed in Fig. 4,
is tnade up of numerous minor designations,
each
accounting for less than 2% of the relevant group.
Among the minor soil types represented
in the
Anomaly Subset are some exotic transported materials, including playa lake clays (TYC) and transported
windblown sands (TWS).

4. Comparison
and weathered

between dispersion
bedrock

patterns in soil

During the 1970s and early I!%&, much geochemical exploration in the Yilgarn Block was based
on samples of weathered
bedrock obtained
by
drilling. in the belief that surface soils were unreliable as a geochemical sampling medium. This ignored the fact that dispersion patterns in bedrock are
more restricted laterally than in soils, and are complicated due to the development of zones of depletion and enrichment in the regolith (Mazzucchelli.
1989). Many areas, previously
explored by this
method, still retain potential for further discoveries.
The Zsa Zsa area (Fig. 1) provides an illustration of
thi\.

R.H. Mu.zzucchelli/Joumal

of Geochemical

Exploration

179

57 11996) I75-I(35

15

-1
0

RAE
I
:

l
*

8
l

DRILL-HOLES

~0.01

*
0

Au pprn

0.01~0.25Au

ppm

400

Fig. 5. Au distribution

in soils (contours)

600

and weathered

Detailed soil sampling was conducted in this area,

despite previous negative bedrock geochemical exploration, because of the interpreted presence of the
two favourable host units, the Mount Pleasant Gabbro and the Victorious Basalt, in an area of structural
complexity. The strong dispersion patterns for gold
in a completely soil-covered area of suspected Victorious Basalt (Fig. 5) led to the discovery of the Zsa
Zsa mineralisation,
where drilling later outlined a
small but deep resource (70,000 tonnes at a grade of
2.65 g/t), and several other intersections which are
still incompletely explored.
Drilling has shown that weathering extends to
depths of 100 metres in this area, and mineralised
zones are strongly leached to depths of 25 metres
below surface. This makes the strong geochemical
response in near-surface soils the more remarkable

800Metres

bedrock (symbols),

Zsa Zsa Prospect.

compared with the results of sampling by previous

holders of the tenements, who used RAB drilling to
sample weathered bedrock at a depth of 15 metres on
a 200 by 100 metre grid. In hindsight it is clear that
the bedrock samples were taken from the depleted
zone, and were too sparsely spaced to see any hint of
the mineralization.
One of the weaker satellite anomalies was found
by drilling to reflect a small but rich palaeochannel
deposit, dubbed Coca, at a depth of some 15 m.

5. Gold response
profiles

in soils over complete

laterite

Near-surface
soil sampling is very effective in
areas where a complete laterite profile has been

No
Data

-~

0
FIN. 6. Comparison
Woop\

between

Im auger smlpltr\:

500
Im a~aq

ioioo
Au ppb (A). ltnd near-wrtace

2000
wil\:

Metres
aqua repia/graphite

iurnace AAS Au pph.

Prospect (6).

preserved. At the Woops Prospect (Fig. I) a complete laterite profile overlies mineralised
Mount
Pleasant Gabbro. Fig. 6 shows that dispersion patterns for Au in near-surface soils are remarkably
similar to those for samples taken by auger at I m
depth by a previous explorer. The auger samples
were taken just above or within the ferricrete horizon
and tend to exaggerate the anomaly. both in tenor
and lateral extent. The 60 ppb contour in near-surface
soil corresponds closely with the occurrence of gold
values in the range 0.4-1.0 g/t in the sub-surface
laterites. which are developed over weak mineralisation associated with altered saprolitic gabbro at depth.
At the very least, the near-surface data are comparable with those from the more expensive auger sam-

pling. and may in fact provide a more specific guide

to underlying mineralisation.

6. Soil anomalies
alisation

related to palaeochannel

miner-

One interesting finding from the geochemical propramme at Black Flag has been the extent to which
palaeochannel
deposits are reflected in surface soil
geochemistry. The Palace, Rose, and Coca deposits
(Fig. I) are examples of numerous palaeochannel
gold occurrences found to be associated with anomalous gold in soils, demonstrating dispersion through
IS-40 m transported overburden.
A diffuse soil
anomaly in transported alluvial loams, with a peak

R.H. Muzzucchelli/

Journal

of Geochemical

Exploration

57 (199fi)

175-185

181

VARlSCHElTl
PIT

Fig 7. Au distribution

._A
200

400

in soils associated

value of 80 ppb Au, was tested by three campaigns

of drilling before it became apparent that it was
related to palaeochannel
mineralisation.
The Palace
deposit of some 85,000 tonnes at a grade of 4.45 g/t
Au was quickly delineated by follow-up drilling,
tracing the course of a tributary to the major Black
Flag palaeochannel
(Fig. 7), with a second smaller
deposit, the Varischetti (65,000 tonnes at 3.8 g/t
Au) further upstream (Mining Corporation of Australia Ltd, 1994). The gold in the Tertiary drainage
appears to have been derived from the Black Flag
and Racetrack primary deposits, which are situated
in the headwater catchment for the tributary. The
geochemical dispersion patterns in soils suggest further branching of the palaeochannel which has yet to
be drilled.

600

600

Metres

with the Palace palaeochannel

7. Geochemical
ments

deposit.

response

in playa lake environ-

Playa lakes are prominent in the eastern part of

the Black Flag Project and pose a considerable challenge to exploration. Although little effort has been
made to explore the deeper lake basins where sediment columns up to 100 m thick are present, soil
geochemistry can provide useful results around lake
margins. The Golden Flag deposit, a resource of
some 190,000 tonnes at a grade of 2.8 g/t Au,
occurs in such an environment
on the northwestern
margin of the major Black Flag Lake. The regolith is
complex, alternating
between small bedrock outcrops, lake-floor sediments, mounds of fluviatile grits
which have been subjected to lateritisation and sub-

IX2

Surface projection of
Golden Flag deposit
.

240

120

60

30

15

a
0

200

sequently invaded by pedogenic carbonate and hum

mocks of recent windblown dune sands.
The anomaly associated with the northeasterlyplunging Golden Flag deposit (Fig. 8) is mainly
developed in saprolite (soil code RSC) immediately
underlying lake sediments, and is actually a modified
bedrock pattern. Interpretation in such areas is assisted by an appreciation of the soil codes, although
it can be seen from Fig. 8 that anomalous values at
Golden Flag have been recorded from a wide and
rapidly changing variety of sample types. Recent
windblown sand (TWS) is the only soil type that
consistently
masks bedrock geochemical
response.

300

400

Metres

samples with this designation

sidered ineffective.

being generally

8. Gold response in recent transported

con-

soils

Transported soils, of alluvial and aeolian origin.

occur extensively in the southern and eastern parts of
the Black Flag Project. Sampling of near-surface
soils was continued in such areas. on the basis that
several important gold discoveries have been made
in the Yilgarn Block, e.g. Junction and ChallengeSwordsman (Bonwick,
1995). by applying surface

R.H. Mazzucchelli/Journal

of Geochemical Exploration 57 (1996) 175-185

geochemistry in terrains concealed by transported

overburden. It was also reasoned that, even if part of
the soil survey was ineffective, the resources expended would still be insignificant in relation the
cost of a drilling-based bedrock sampling programme, which itself is likely to be less than 100%
effective (Mazzucchelli, 1989).
It is probably too early to say whether this approach has been justified at Black Flag. The discovery of several occurrences of palaeochannel gold
mineralisation, which were marked by anomalies in
near-surface soils despite 15-40 m of transported
overburden, demonstrates that significant dispersion
patterns for gold are developed in transported cover.
An interesting group of weak but distinct anomalies
has been located in wind-blown sand, gypsum and
lake sediments up to 5 m thick overlying pyritic
felsic tuffs on the eastern margin of Black Flag Lake.
The best bedrock gold intersected from the very
limited drill-testing completed was less than 0.2 g/t
Au. It is questionable whether this would be sufficient to account for the development of a coherent
40 ppb Au anomaly through 5 m of clearly exotic
overburden. A local source seems the most likely
explanation for such an anomaly, which would suggest that further exploration is warranted.

9. The role of the BLEG technique in soil surveys

The Bulk Leach Extractable Gold (BLEG) technique, sometimes called BCL, for Bulk Cyanide
Leach, was pioneered in the southwest of Western
Australia, primarily as a means of overcoming the
nugget effect in drainage surveys for gold. Following its success in this arena it was applied in the
much more sample-intensive field of soil geochemistry, in a variety of different environments, frequently without the benefit of any objective orientation studies. The results of BLEG surveys carried out
in areas of gold mineralisation at Black Flag by
previous explorers show essentially the same anomalous features as those delineated by subsequent MCA
sampling in the same areas.
In the Accord area (Fig. 91, it is evident that the
main trends and concentration levels are similar,
despite the differences in the methods of sampling
and analysis. Differences in detail can be attributed
to the more dense sampling by MCA (80 by 40 m)
compared to 100 by 100 m for the BLEG sampling.
The main anomalous feature, shown by strongly
anomalous soils in the western section of the area
reflects an auriferous laterite developed over oxide
mineralisation hosted by the Mt Pleasant Gabbro, on

I
1600

Fig. 9. Comparison

between aqua regia/graphite

183

Metres

furnace AAS Au ppb (A) and BLEG Au ppb, Accord Prospect(B).

which a reserve of 95,000 tonnes at a grade of 1.50

g/t Au has been established.
In view of these results. and similar evidence
from Ora Banda, it is difficult to justify the extra
cost of BLEG analysis (approximately twice the cost
of a total
aqua regia/AAS
determination)
and
field sampling (2-5 kg samples compared to 250 g)
in soil surveys for gold in the Black Flag environment.

10. Discussion
The geochemical
anomalies for gold in nearsurface soils at Black Flag are the result of one ot
more dispersion processes by which geochemical
evidence of bedrock gold mineralisation
is either
brought to the surface or retained at the surface.
despite the frequently transported nature of some
components of the regolith. These dispersion processes include:
. normal elastic dispersion processes (downslope
movement, sheetwash etc.);
- concentration
of gold and associated pathfinder
elements in lateritic sesquioxide particles, which
are retained in the near-surface soils following
degradation of the original lateritic profiles due to
climate change;
- upward movement of gold-bearing
groundwatel
and concentration by evaporative processes. usually with accumulations
of calcium carbonate
formed by a similar mechanism;
- uptake of anomalous gold from depth and deposition in surface soils through the vegetation cycle:
- bioturbation by burrowing animals such as termites, lizards and mammals.
At any given mineralised location, one or more of
these processes is likely to be effective in bringing
anomalous gold to the near-surface soils at Black
Flag and elsewhere in the Yilgarn Block. An appreciation of the local geomorphology
is an essential
pre-requisite to assessment of the interplay of the
many relevant factors.
The dispersion
mechanisms
responsible
for
anomalies in surface soils over palaeochannel
gold
deposits are not yet known with any certainty.
Evapo-transpiration.
vegetation cycling and the relict
imprint from earlier elastic processes could all be

important. However, the occurrence of geochemical

anomalies over palaeochannel deposits is sufficiently
common to warrant the application of soil geochemistry. purely on empirical grounds, in the search for
this type of orebody.
Two alternative approaches can be adopted in
regional geochemical exploration in such areas:
I. Detailed geomorphological
analysis followed by
use of different specialised sampling and/or analytical techniques appropriate to each geomorphic
unit.
2. Uniform
sampling
and analytical
techniques
throughout the area. with reliance on geomorphological and soil type classification to assess the
significance
of anomalies and determine areas
where the technique might not be effective.
Both strategies have advantages and disadvantages. The former has scientific merit but results in
data discontinuities both across the boundaries of the
interpreted geomorphic units and with small-scale
departures from the dominant regolith type. The
absence of specific sample media at some locations
(e.g. pedogenic carbonate) can also detract from the
integrity of the data set. The latter has the advantage
of seamless geochemical data. but the potential for
the collection and analysis of some ineffective samples is undoubtedly increased.

11. Conclusion
Near-surface soil sampling is a cost-effective and
extremely robust technique in geochemical exploration for gold in the various geomorphologic environments represented in the Black Flag area. It has
led to several significant
gold discoveries,
some
overlain by thick transported cover. Use of the assembled geochemical database will very likely result
in more discoveries through systematic interpretation
in conjunction with geological, geophysical and, in
particular, an appreciation of the geomorphological
environment sampled.

Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Mining Corporation of
Australia Ltd for permission to publish this paper.

185

R.H. Mazzucchelli/ Journal ofGeochemica1 Exploration 57 (1996) 175-185

The contributions of MCA staff members Andrew

Viner, Bryan Alexander, Martin Spivey, David
Flanagan, Cameron Brearley, Justin Meredith and
Miles Bailey to the data presented are gratefully
acknowledged.

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