5.7 DESIGN OFBEAM - COLUMN In the preceding sections, we have discussed the buckling behaviour and the design of an axially loaded column (or strut). However, in practice, a real column is usually subjected, co-existing to both axial load and moments. Such structural member is known as beam-column as it combines the function of a beam (by transmitting moments) with the function of a strut (by transmitting axial forces). It is worth noting that the analytical background on the true behaviour of a beam-column is rather complex.Thus, the design is usually based on semi-empirical procedures. One convenient way to approximate the ultimate strength of a beam-column is to use the interaction equation. 5.7.1 Column in Simple Structures As will be discussed in the succeeding sections, the ultimate strength of beam-column is strongly affected by the slendemness of the column and moment gradient. However, it is appropriate to discuss first the design of a column in simple structures apart from compression member with moment. Asimple structure is applied when the connections between the beam and the column are assumed as not being able to develop significant moment, as detailed in clause 2.1.2.2 of BS 5950, By considering first on elastic behaviour, the design of a column can be based on limiting the sum of the individual stress at a cross-section to the design strength of the material, f, =h (5.25) where is the axial stress due to load Niza c, _ is the bending stress due to moment Mai, about y-y axis co, _ isthe bending stress due to moment Mea, about z-z axis, In terms of actions and resistance ratio, the equation can be expressed as; New Moye Maza _ Newt Myst Mat Where Ne, M,za and M,rq are the axial force and moments at respective axes, and Neza, Mya and ‘M,zq are the axial and moment resistances at respective axes. 1.0 (5.26) In EC3-1-1, clause 6.3.3(4) gives two expressions that should be satisfied for member with combined bending and compression. However for column in simple construction, the two expressions may be replaced by a single equation: Nes, Mose 41s a#_<10 (6.27) Noinstd Myp,na Ma s.pa ‘Where: ‘Nisa is the minimum axial buckling resistance ‘Mgyza_ is the buckling moment resistance at y-y axis M,eupa is the buckling moment resistance at 2-2 axis ‘TheEq, 5.27 is given as the Non-Contradict Complementary Information (NCCI) and stated in Access- steel document SNO48. The equation is valid to use within the following criteria: © The column is a hot-rolled I or H section, or an RHS. ‘The cross section is Class 1, 2 or 3 under compression The bending moment diagrams about each axis are linear ‘The column is restrained laterally in both the y-y and 2-z directions at each floor level, but is, unrestrained between the floors. 5-16The bending moment ratios (y4) as defined in Table B.3 in EC3-1-1 are less than the values given in Table 2.1 or Table 2.2 in the Access-steel document S048. Nee can be obtained by summing the axial load due to accumulated load from the floors above, F and beam's reactions of F; and F,, as shown in Figure 3.5. The nominal moments, M,,..and Mz are the products of beam reactions and their eccentricities to the centre of the column i.e. M,,z, is the product ‘of beam reaction, Fy and eccentricity, ¢, as shown in Figure 5.9. The determination of these eccentricities is given in Cl. 4.7.7which generally can be determined as follows: % & hi2 +100 (5.28) ta/2 +100(for connection connected to the column web) (5.29) where isthe depth of the column ty isthe thickness of web of the column Figure 5.9Loading on a beam-column in a simple structure ‘The determination of the resistance are as follow: Af, te y, = mit [2th sat 4] (5.30) tua” ta HM, My yng = Kir (631) oa LP nz Mag = (632) Tur It is worth noting that Eq.5.27 is a simplified version of the actual consideration on column with moment as it does-not take into account the effect of secondary moment and the beneficial effect of moment gradient. The conservatism is self-evident by its elastic approach. S17Example4: Continuous column in simple structures Design the column (1) — (2) shown in Figure 5.10 in Grade $275. Check whether 203*203%60 UKC is adequate. LeveL 23] Iw = | ¥2 ha 3 g mf] LeveL « ee * « zl Ra 3 LeveL Figure 5.10 Column in Simple Construetion Details: i, The column is pin-ended at the base. ii, ‘The column is restrained at level 3 about major axis and pinned about minor axis iii, ‘The column is effectively restrained about both axes at level 2. Loading The load and its distributions are given as follows: Dead Load (EN) Imposed load (KN) Unfactored | Factored | Unfactored | Factored G) 35%G) | @y (1.5 Q) LEVEL3 RB 18 243 18 27 R33 18 243 18 21 RB 20 27.0 60 90 Assume self-weight of column(2) ~ (3) 20 27.0 - - ‘Axial load in column (2)—(@) 102.6 14 LEVEL 2 RI2 20 270 50 15 R32 20 210 50 5 R22 24 324 150 25 Assume self-weight of, column(1)— (2) 20 27.0 : : 113.4 375 ‘Axial load in column (1)— (2) 216.0 519 Note: Since the loads at each side of the minor axis (z-z axis) are equal, there will then be no moments about the z-z axis ie. Mzza=0. 5-18Step I: Load Analysis Consider column (1)= (2) ‘Use 203*203%60 UKC, $275. From section properties table: 5=205.8 mm, h=209.6 mm, t, =14.2 mm, t, i, =8.96 cm, i, =5.20cm, W,,, =656cm’, W, Amm, ¢,/t, =6.20, ¢, /t, =17.1, (05 cm?, A= 76.4 em? Determination of Nig From load distribution, Ny = 216 +519 =735kN_ Determination of My xz Nominal moment at level 2: May = En (44100) = (24+ nas{ 28 +100 ).10° =52.7kNm Since the column is a continuous member up to level 3, the bending moment is distributed between the column lengths above and below level 2 in proportion to their bending stiffness: 3500 =20.5kNm 9000 ‘There is no moment at the ground level because the column base plate is designed as pinned joint. M, zg =52.7% Determinat M, Since the loads at each side of the minor axis (z-z axis) are equal, there are no nominal moments about the z-z axis. -.Mzzi=0. ‘Step 2: Section classification (refer to Table 5.2) Since f= 14.2 mm <40 mm, f, = 275N/mm* e=(25) =092 275, cfty= 6.29¢, the flange is Class 1 Cliy = 17.1<336, the web is Class 1 The sections is classified as Class 1 section. Step 3: Cross-sectional Resistance (Cl. 6.2.4) ‘The design compressive force, Neg should not be greater than the cross-section resistance Nona. Nw <10 None For Class 1, 2 and 3 eross section, Af, _ 164x215 Nope = 107 =2101kN ot tuo Lose g Nes _ 735 _935<1.0 News 2101 . The compression resistance of the cross section is adequate, 5.19Step 4: Buckling Resistance (C1. 6.3.1) Since the column has the same unrestrained length and support conditions at both major and minor axis, by inspection the resistance to flexural buckling about minor axis may be the critical case in this example. Therefore the flexural buckling resistance (N,,4) is determined for z-z axis. Nw <10 nat For Class 1, 2 and 3 cross section under flexural buckling, My to 1 ole EF = 05[1+a(7-02)+7] <1.0 93.96 = 93.9(0.92) = 86.4 OL =3500mm (2) gy)-07 i, A, (52.0 A864 From Table 6.1 and Table 6.2 of EC3-I-1: hk _ 209.6 =1.02 <1.25 #< 100 mm; $275; .49 Choose curve “c”, @ sh+e(Z, -0.2)+72| oO =0.5[1+0.49(0.78-0.2)+(0.78)"] x foeenuenan | uNaueee .95 + V0.95? — 0.78? =067<1.0 Af, Nyaa = p> = (0.67)(2101) = 1407.7kN ha Nes __735__952<10, Myxer 1407.7 The flexural buckling resistance at major axis is adequate. 5-200.52 < 0.83, the criteria for simplification method are met. Step 5: BucklingMoment Resistance Lay tra where 17y = Fay for class 1 and class 2 cross-sections Mypna = tar Determine Mz _ WEL, [Le , Le Gl SS Te ( 1,’ El, From Table 4.2 of Chapter 4, Ci = 1.879 = ‘22(210000)(2060x10") { [197x10°_, (3500)*(81000)(47.2 x10*) M, =(.879) = | opconio® * 2210000206010") 3500 2060%10* — (210000)(2060 10°) =938.4kNm ‘Non-dimensional lateral torsional slendemess Zur, = IM, Westy _ [656x10° x275 Ze, =| oe = |e = J = 0.438 OY Me M., 938.4x10° o Select buckling curve and imperfection factor a, Using Table 6.5 of EN 1993-1-1, lb = 209.6/205.8 = 1.02 ‘Therefore, for a rolled H-section with h/b<2, use buckling curve “a”, arr = 0.21 from Table 6.3 of EN 1993-1-1. fl Fir $1.0 ut ur = te B10, Bia |r #55 @ p= 0.54 ap (Aer —Aire)+ BAry] ©, =0.5{1+0.21(0.44-0.4)+(0.75)(0.44)? |= 0.58 1 Fa 058+ 1.0; take 7, = 0.98 =0.98<1.0 Buckling moment resistance: 52hW, My ype = tap =0.98 529,10" =176.8kNm a ‘ ‘Step 6: Design requirement for column in simple construction My, Mose 415 Mise 19 Mypra Mecsas =0.64<1.0 e.The use of 203%203%60 UKCis adequate ‘Example 5: Column in Simple Construction ‘Design the column shown in the Figure 5.11 in $275 steel between levels 1 and 2. Level 34} Ff a 3am 7 Level 2: 5m Level 4 TKN Neg a= 115 +112 + 150 Design compression force = 377 +37 + 147 +28 = 589KN ‘Try 203 = 203 x 46 UKC ‘Nominal moment: 5.22Mayypa = FyE-+100)=14 7722 +100)x10° = 29.648 Mase =F ~ PNG +00) = (37-2822 +100)x10° =0.93kNim Mya = 29.64 « 38 = 11.114 Mags = 093 «3/8 035kNm sami s18haim 35h 2 zz wy ‘589KN Section Properties 203 203 * 46 UKC S275 ‘The limiting value for Class 1 flange: 9e=9 x 0.92 = 8.28 > ct; Flange is Class 1 ‘The limiting value for Class 1 web: 396e 130 oof |-o But-1 0.5 14589000 275x7.2x160.8. 396e _ 396x0.92 13a 13()-1 Web is Class 1; This cross-section is Class 1. =30.4>¢,/t, 5.23‘Simplified interaction criterion Nex Moss 415 Mest <19 min, Rd Mya 1b Rd Reduction factor for flexural buckling: A, = 93.98 = 93.9(0.92) = 86.39 Tay = Lez =L = $000mm, therefore Nasapna on 2-2 axis = _(L, 1 5000 1 7, =| —= || — |=| == |} ef 3 J G a) (53 las) ' Ah _ 203.2 Sat el cH, Flange is Class 1 ‘The limiting value for Class 1 web: 3965 sor a> 05 Ba-1 a=05| 1+ |b 0000 18 Tote 27SxT2x1608 But-1 N, 590 14(2, -0.2)) ——— ]p = 0.6}1+(0.66-0.2)| — aii g Jf «of a ot | { et (cmtara)} a t c,,{1+0.8) “= |} =06 08 aT }}-o8 ” yew! Yur 0.8x16143/1, ‘Therefore, ky = 0.73 5.29wf tet-eal atte) Caati e By 390 2A: -0.6)| ——#2— |) = 0.6)1+(2x1.13-0.6)} ~————— | p= 1. sufi (at) {i+¢ (ana a fi 590 4| “= |} =0.6}141.4{ =" __.=1.25 cuit (} fi (caxttanal Therefore, kor = 1.25 .6k,, = 0.6x1.25=0.75 A, >04 k Ns __|\>,-(_91_]{_Ns__ * Cur ~0-25 J\ ZN em! Tren Cur 0-25 A LN ae! Yar 1-(—% New (eee 590 =075 Cpr 0-25 ZN ee ur 0.6—0.25 )\0.47%1614.3/1.0) ‘ni 7 0.1 New = 0.1 590 nen Guar 0.25 ZN Tarr 0.6—0.25 )\0.47x1614.3/1.0) ‘Therefore, ky = 0.78 For Equation 6.61, Nes 4p Mest Mass, p Me New! tus” LerMy a! Yar = , | 0.8x1614.3/1.0 0.9%136.7/1.0 and For Equation 6.62, Nea ky Most Me Maat My 6 <4 9 Na! tes” HirM ype! Yer Mae! Tar —_ 5 _ 973 39 _st9s_ 0.47x16143/1.0 0.9x136.7/1.0 ~” 63.5/1.0 =0.98<1.0 ‘Therefore, the buckling resistance of the 203 x 203 x 46 UKC $275 under combined bending and compression is adequate. PROBLEMS 5.1. State four main characteristics of a simple construction structure. 5.2. Describe briefly the factors that influence the effective length of columns. 5-305.3. Figure 5.16 indicates the floor plan and elevation of a multi-storey building, The characteristic loads for level 3 and level 2 are as follows: i. ‘Dead load (including finishing and self weight) = 6.2KN/m* ii, Imposed load 4.0 KN/m* iii, Column self weight 8kN/m For level 2 all the external beams have to carry loads from the brick-wall of 7.5 kN/m. ‘Assuming a simple construction and the same size of column will be used until level 3- 4) Determine if section 203203%46UKC grade S275 is safe to be used for column BL between level 1 and level 2. Assume the effective length L = 0.852. b) Determine if section 254%254%73 UKC of grade S275 is safe to be used for column B/2 ‘between level 1 and level 2, assuming the effective length = 0.852. Floor plan at evel 2 and level 3 GH A Ho = |[F @ Ht tit == alee le | 3 @e AH toa son © © Level 3 a Level? 5 4 Level 1 Figure 5.165.4, Check the adequacy of the lower column ‘only which is depicted in Figure 5.17 as a simple ‘construction design. Assuming the column base is pin-jointed and the size of the upper and lower Solumn is 305x305*97UKC (take Zniy = 0.851 and Lz. 1.0L). Use grade steel of $275. All Toads are unfactored loads. (Self weight of the column is not to be considered). DL=20) IL="5 iN DL=S5kN Lt LL=35kN DL=185kN 300mm | T= 90KN Figure 5.17 Columns with pin joint connections6.2 TERMINOLOGY OF TRUSSES Figure 6.3 simply shows the main structural elements of a typical roof truss. Roof load is transferred to the truss at joints by a series of purlins (members running between the trusses). Purlins may also provide lateral support to the top chords. The purlins are spaced at between 0.9m to 2.0m depending on roofing materials and usually based on manufacturer's recommendation. The truss may either be supported by columns or walls. The distance between trusses is termed as a bay. For roof trusses, bays are economically spaced at about 4.5 m to 6.0 m. Diagonal bracings are often provided to the bays to maintain rigidity and stability of the structure. Sloped internal Vertical internal y oq web member web member wea rion chord Figure 6.3 Basic truss terminology 635.4, Check the adequacy of the lower column only which is depicted in Figure 5.17 as a simple construction design. Assuming the column base is pin-jointed and the size of the upper and lower column is 305*305*97UKC (take Lay = 0.852 and L.,.= 1.0L). Use grade steel of $275. All Joads are unfactored loads. (Self weight of the column is not to be considered). Figure 5.17 Columns with pin joint connections 5.325.5. Figure 5.18 shows the part floor plan of an office building using a simple construction system. The floor is of pre-cast concrete slabs supporied on steel beams. The loadings are given as follows: 2) Dead load = 5.0 kN/m? (including self weight of concrete slab, self weight of steel beams, partitions and ceilings). b) id load = 4.0 kN/m* ia c) _ Self-weight of brick wall on external beams, AB and AC=3.0 KNim* aI Reaction loads from beams AB and AC will be transferred to column “A” as shown in FigureS.18. Column “A” at level 1 and 2 consists of 254*254x73UKC section of grade $275 steel. Based on the given data: i. Determine the axial load and nominal moments of column “A” at storey 1. ii, Determine the classification of column “A” at storey 1. iii, Determine the adequacy of 254x254x73UKC section. 6am Plan view 69m 40:0 Side view Figure 5.18 5 5-335.6. Design for a column with intermediate restraint. Check whether section 254x254x89UKC of $355is adequate for the column with the loadings and moments as illustrated in Figure 5.17. ‘Assuming the beam to column connection is a rigid connection with moments from connection ‘transferred to the columnas shown in Figure 5.19.The axial load from the first floor is taken as 350 KN factored load. Fe mee 20K 10kNm » ee Mg = 10%him oO M,=20 Nm sate som J] 10kNm = | Moment of Moment of *Bothends am pin-jointed major axis, rinor axis Figure 5.19 Moment and axial load applied on column. 5:34CHAPTER 6 DESIGN OF TRUSSES 6.1 INTRODUCTION Struotures spanning large openings, beams and plate girders may not always provide the most cconomie or suitable practical structural solution. The use of roof trusses or lattice girders may be more appropriate, Trusses and lattice girders are structures composed of triangulated members joined together at their end points. Welding or bolting of the members or by using gusset plate forms the joint connections. Pitched trusses are usually used for roofs while parallel chord lattice girders are employed to support roofs, floors and for bridges. Planar vareses of a single plane, simply supported single span and statically determinate with pin jointed are commonly used in construction. However, for special structures such as towers vend derricks, space trusses in which members extending in three dimensions are more suitable. As trusses can be delivered to construction sites as one complete unit as several units or even as individual elements, they may provide added advantages. Trusses and lattice girders are commonly used in the following: «Bridge constructions as shown in Figure 6.1. Members are normally selected from rolled sections, compound section and box sections. «Building constructions as shown in Figure 6.2 which are normally formed as part of roof structures or acting as supporting beams for floor slabs. Sometimes trusses are vised as bracings to provide stability. Members may be selected from angles, channels, tees and structural hollow sections. ‘When a truss is subjected to a given action, the forces developed in each member is either tensile or compressive and in certain cases even bending, In order to design ‘the members and the connections of the truss, it is necessary to calculate these forces. 61YANN VAVA NSP AAAI (a) Pratt (b) Howe (©) Warren (@ Baltimore (©) Parker Figure 6.1 Typical trusses for bridges Ze MX (a) Scissors () Fan (© Pratt (@) Howe (© Fink (8 Saw-tooth Figure 6.2 Typical roof trusses62 TERMINOLOGY OF TRUSSES Figure 63 simply shows the main structural elements of a typical roof truss. Roof load is transferred to the truss at joints by a series of purlins (members running between the trusses). Purlins may also provide lateral support to the top chords. The purlins are spaced at between 0.9m to 2.0m depending on roofing materials and usually based on manufacturer's recommendation. The truss may either be supported by columns or walls. The distance between trusses is termed as a bay. For roof trusses, bays are economically spaced at about 4.5 m to 6.0 m. Diagonal bracings are often provided to the bays to maintain rigidity and stability of the structure. Concentrated loads ‘Top chord Sloped internal web member Vertical internal x ~ web member t eA —__ Node’ Bottom chord Figure 6.3 Basic truss terminology 636.3 TYPICAL MEMBER SECTIONS The choice of sections (see Figure6.4) for trusses, lattice girders and bracings depend on the usage, span, location, and type of connection. For buildings, the choice includes the open section (single angles, channels, and tees), and the closed sections (structural hollow sections of SHS, RHS, and CHS)or the compound sections (double angle and channels). The elements may be connected to each other directly or a gusset plate may be inserted between them. LL Cold-formed stee! Channel Joist cus RS sections Figure 6.4 Typical member sections 6.4 ACTIONS The types of action, which normally govern the design of trusses and lattice girders, are permanentactions, variableactions and wind actions. Permanent actions. These include sheeting, decking, insulation, roof or floor slab, purlins, ceiling, services, finishes and self-weight. These may range from 0.3 to 1.0 KN/m’. Estimations are based on the weight of materials given in handbooks or manufacturer's manual. Variable actions. These may be taken from BS EN 1991-1-1: 2002, section 6 for various types of buildings and roofs. For roofs the loading may be summarised as follows: © where there is only access to the roof for normal maintenance and repair (category H) ~ 0.0 to 1.0kN/m?; © where there is access in addition to that in the above condition (category I and K), the action may be selected according to the specific use.Figure6.5 : Wind Map of Peninsular Malaysia ‘Wind actions. The guides to estimate these loading are given by BS EN 1991-1-4: 2005. The load depends on the location of the buildings, their dimensions as well as roof slope. In Malaysia, the wind map of Peninsular Malaysia (Figure 6.5) may be used instead of UK maps to suit the local conditions. The wind loads act normal to the roof surfaces. The wind may cause the uplift on the roof, which may cause load reversal in truss members. The wind also gives rise to horizontal loadings in multi-storey buildings. Bracings are usually applied to such buildings to resist the lateral loads. 6.5 ANALYSIS OF TRUSS ‘The analysis of trusses is carried out to determine the axial forces in members and in certain cases the bending moments due to the effect of actions. The loading is applied to the truss through the purlins. Ideally the purlins are positioned at node points (i.e. no eccentricity). However, it is not always possible as the actual positions may not be known initially or the possibility of purlin position changes in future re-roofing, As such a random position of purlin is often allowed. 656.5.1 Primary Forces ‘The most commonly used truss or lattice girder is a single span, a simply supported and a statically determinate structure. The joints are considered to be pinned although in most constructions, continuous members are used for members. The primary forces in all members are calculated by applying loads at the nodes and assuming the truss is pin-jointed and statically determinate. Several manual methods of analysis are available. Methods such as joint resolutions, force diagram, tension coefficient and methods of sections can be applied and may be referred to structural analysis books. Several computer programsare also available to expedite the analysis. The axial forces in members may be tensile or compressive. 6.5.2 Secondary Stresses In addition to primary forces, secondary stresses may also occur in trusses and lattice girders. ‘These secondary stresses are caused by: (a) Loads applied between the nodes of the truss (b) Eccentricity at connections (© Rigid jointed and deflection of trusses. In most cases, it is not necessary to consider secondary stresses in the design of trusses and lattice girders. However, for heavy trusses used in bridges and industrial buildings, secondary stresses ought to be calculated and considered. Load applied between the nodes This situation often occurs to the rafter of the trusses where the purlins are not positioned at the nodes. Bending moments induced by this situation should be calculated and combined to those due to the primary axial loads and included in the design. Calculations may be carried out by moment redistribution or computer analysis. ‘Alternatively bending moment for the top chord where the purlins are not positioned at nodes may be conservatively taken as gL7/6 where q is the total load per unit length applied perpendicular to the rafter and is the length between the nodes. Eccentricity at connections Ideally, the centroidal axes of members or the bolt gauge line should be detailed out to meet at point at the node. If it is not the case, the effect of moments due to eccentricity should be considered when designing the members and connections. However, stresses due to small eccentricities can be neglected. Rigid jointed Secondary stresses resulting from moments due to rigid jointed are important {in trusses with short, thick members. In buildings, loads are primarily static and the calculation of these stresses is often not necessary. 666.6 | PURLINS AND TRUSS MEMBERS ‘Trusses are subjected to several class of actions namely, permanent, variable and wind. The effect of these actions must be combined and factored so that the most critical conditions are considered for design. As mentioned previously, the actions are transferred to the truss through purlins either located on the nodes or otherwise. These actions cause the truss members to resist either tensile or compressive forces as well as bending moments in certain cases. The members need to be designed accordingly. 6.6.1 Design of Pui [As depicted in Figure 6.6, purlins are those members in a truss system which carry the roof ‘sheets and transfer the load to the rafters. It is normally placed perpendicular to the rafters and sag rods may be added to reduce the bending moment of purlins. Figure 6.6 Purlins and sagging rod ‘The purlins are not necessary to be analysed as complicated as the other structural members. ‘They may be designed as beams especially for flat roofs where the slope of the roof is less than 10°. Example 6.1 Design the purlins using single angle sections for the sloping truss given in Figure 6.7. Use the following data: Slope 1:2.5 Spacing between trusses = 5.5 m Distance between purlins = 1.6 m Permanent action = 0.3 KN/m’ (on slope) 67‘Variable action = 0.75 KN/m* (on plan) I Permanent action, | Variable action one len Roof sh ton ane Top chord = \\ Figure 6.7 Purlins on a sloping truss. Permanent action (on slope) Gi= 0.3 * 5.5 x 1.6 = 2.64 KN ‘Variable action (on slope) Q1= 0.75 * 5.5 * 1.6 * 2.5/2.69 = 6.13 KN Design load,Q= (0.925 * 1.35 2.64) + (1.5 x 6.13) = 12.49 KN Design by beam method, Section should be at least class 3 section. Mapa= Way Yo Design bending moment, Mep= OL/8 = 12.49 x 5.5/8 = 8.59 KNm Therefore, 8.59 x10° = 275 * Way Way = 31.24 om? “Thus, use the single angle 120 x 120 x 10L (Way = 36 em’) Check the deflection, 59,0 x won Se __5*6.13 1025300) = =20.2mm 3842], 384% 210%10° x313%10" ‘Allowable deflection L/200 = 5500/200 = 27.5 mm > 20.2 mm. The deflection is satisfactory. 686.6.2 Design of Truss Members ‘Trusses are subjected to several load cases namely, permanent, variable and wind. The effect of these actions must be combined and factored so that the most critical conditions are considered for design. Usually the members are designed to resist the tension or compression forces and in certain cases, the bending moment. 6.6.3 Design Of Tension Members The design for tension members is given in Clause 6.2.3, with reference to clause 6.2.2 for the calculation of cross-section properties. The design of tension member is not as complicated as the compression member. No effective length needs to be determined. The tension member capacity depends on the material properties, the size of the hole and the connection’s eccentricity. Generally the design tension resistance Na of a member is given as the smaller of Nova Ay Le nd Nagy = OSA Tuo Yaa where, A isthe gross area of a section ‘Ape is the net area of the cross-section isthe design strength (taken from Table 3.1 in BS EN 1993-1-1: 2005) Je _ is the ultimate strength (taken from Table 3.1 in BS EN 1993-1-1: 2005) ‘hwo and yxq is the partial safety factor (recommended values are 1.00 and 1.25 respectively) 6.6.3.1 Net area in tension (Ase) ‘The net area in tension depends on the cross-sectional area of the material. If there is no hole in the member, no reduction should be done to the cross-sectional members. Therefore, the net area Agais equal to the gross area, A. The gross cross-section should be taken from the actual cross-sectional area of the sections. If there is a hole in the member, the net area of a cross-sectional area should be taken as its gross area minus the area of bolt holes given in clause 6.2.2 in BS EN 1993-1-1: 2005. For staggered holes, the effective net area should be taken as the larger of:- (J) the deduction for non-staggered holes (see failure plane (2) in Figure 6.8), and Q) Had, 2a where: is the staggered pitch, the spacing of the centres of two consecutive holes in the chain ‘measured parallel to the member axis : p is the spacing of the centres of the same two holes measured perpendicular to the member axis t isthe thicknessI nis the number of holes extending in any diagonal or zig-zag line progressively across the member or part of the member, see Figure 6.8 dy is the diameter of hole 8 pS 1. 5 | Figure 6.8 Staggered holes and critical fracture lines 1 and 2 In an angle or other member with holes in more than one plane, the spacing p should be measured along the centre of thickness of the material (see Figure 6.9). rr | | esa) Figure 6.9 Angles with holes in both legs For angle connected by a single row of bolts in one leg (see Figure 6.10), the design ultimate resistance should be taken as: Nyy = 78 Sd Me (with one bolt); Yuer Yur I 6-10Bo and f are reduction factors dependent on the pitch p; as given in Table 6.2 (From BS EN 1993-1-8: 2005). For intermediate values of p; the value of Bmay be determined by linear interpolation; ‘Ave is the net area of the angle. For an unequal-leg angle connected by its smaller leg, ‘Ape: Should be taken as equal to the net section area of an equivalent equal-leg angle of leg size equal to that of the smaller leg. Table 6.2 Reduction factors Bo ana Pitch, pi $2.5 do 530d 2 bolts, Be 04 07 3 or more bolts, By 05 07 a) 4 bolt b) 2 bolts - ¢) 3bolts fue eet Ot Bs 1 rr ¢ 1 [ees © © Figure 6.10 Angles connected by one leg Example 6.2 A member of a truss subjected to tensile design force of 134.8 KN is connected to a gusset plate using 2 bolts of M20 grade 8.8 as shown in Figure 6.11. The spacing between the centres of bolts is 120 mm. Propose a suitable angle section of grade $275. bolt M20 8.8 Om OF > 134.8 KN — 120mm Figure 6.11 tension truss member Solution: Select trial section, Neo! fy = 134.8 « 10° /275 = 490.2 mm” 611try single angle 60 x 60 x SL (A = 5.82 cm’) Af _ 582%275 _ 169 05kN 1.00 Neves = Tuo dg=20+2=22 mm Aver = Ag — dot = 582 - (22 x 5) = 472 mm? pi = 120 mm > 5.0dp (110 mm”), thus f= 0.7 1, = Padua, _ 0.7X4T2X 430 _ 115 gop Yur 1.25 N pg =113.66KN <134.8KN , thus the section is not adequate. It is recommended that the size of the single angle needs to be increased or try double angle. Try double angle 2/60 x 60 x 5 (A = 5.82 cm?) A Mfy _ 2%582%215 _ 599 19py Tan 1.00 Nppe = 2x 0.7% 472.430 1.25 =227.32kN Npg = 227.32KN > 134.84 Therefore, use double angle 2/60 x 60 * 5. Example 6.3 Calculate the tension capacity of a plate as shown in Figure 6.12 for steel grade of $275. 8275 plate > s=50mm Figure 6.12 steel plate with bolted connection‘Net area Aner: (at cross-section A-A) = (150 x 12) ~2 x (22 x 12)= 1272 mm? 50 4x50 2 Net area Anee2 (at cross-section B-B) = ht—1(nd— Ip =12%150-12(2x22-—_) ip = 1422 mm* Take the smallest net area, therefore the net area Ane: = 1272 mm”. The design plastic resistance of the gross cross-section, 50x12%275 _ soe 1.00 The design ultimate resistance of the net cross-section Niagg = OAuth = 0.9%1272%430 _ 595 guy a Tuer 1.25 The tensile resistance, N:pa is taken as the smaller of Npiza (495 KN) and Nurs (393.8 KN). ‘Therefore, Nera = 393.8 KN 6.6.4 Design of Compression Members ‘Three properties namely (i) material strength, (ii) section classification, and (iii) member slenderness govern the compression resistance of members. In the Code, the compression resistance, Nea of a member is given by: 4 @ Nope = for Class 1, 2 or 3 cross-sections ‘uo ©) Nope = teh for Class 4 cross-sections Tuo where A isthe gross area of the section ‘Acq is the effective area of the section Jy isthe design strength yo is the partial safety factor However, for members of uniform cross-sections in axial compression the design buckling ZI resistance, (Nyy =“) always governs unless oversized or slotted holes are used. The resistance of a member to overall buckling very much depends on the non-dimensional 613slendemess 2 and the buckling length L,. For the case of flexural buckling only, the slendemess A is generally taken as the ratio of Ler, divided by its radius of gyration i. For axial compression in members, the value of yfor the appropriate non-dimensional slenderness Amay be determined from the appropriate buckling curve according to: 1 pee but z <1 where $=05f1+a(2-0.2)+2] a isan imperfection factor A Ne is the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode. For flexural, or 2 strut buckling, Neris the Euler load (1, = ) ‘Table 6.3 Selection of flexural buckling curve for a cross-section - na - L_Buckling curve Cross-section Limits eee $275 $355 a y- : 2 tr<40 mm tl s g S| 40mm 25m 12 equa panel, 2.088m each in length Actions Permanent actions: 1. Load on roof: a. Steel Sheeting 0.075KN/m? b. Insulation 0.020kN/m? c. Fixings 0.025kN/m? d. Services etc. 0.100KN/m Total 0.220kN/m? 6m * 25m =33.0kN, 2. Purlins (selfweight) 0.0787KN/m? = 6m 25m = 11.8kN 6-203. Truss (selfweight) 0.34KN/m? x 3.5m x 25m. =30.0KN Total Permanent Load = 33 + 11.8 +30 Total Permanent Load per node = 74.8/12 Variable actions: Roof is not accessible, except for maintenance and repair. Therefore, Category “H” roof is chosen. Imposed load, qx = 0.6kN/m? Imposed load per node, Qe= 7.5KN (Note: half of these value is applied at the nodes over the supports) Analysis 19.62KN Design load = 1.35Gy + 1.5Q¢ = 1.35(6.2) + 1.5(7.5) = 19.62kN. At support = 19.62/2 = 9.81kN By using the joint resolution, Top Chord AB -249.87KN ‘Compression BC -227.25KN ‘Compression cD =208.20kN ‘Compression DE -242.28kN ‘Compression EF -242.28kN ‘Compression FG =214.07KN ‘Compression Bottom Chord | Ab 225.24N Tension be 225.24KN Tension ed 232.83kN Tension. 621de 232.83KN Tension ef 229.40KN Tension fg 229.40KN Tension ‘Web Members Bb 0 Ce 41.67EN Tension Dd 0 Ee =19.62KN ‘Compression Ff, 0 Gg 56.13KN Tension Be ~22.77KN ‘Compression D ~42.53KN ‘Compression De. 8.31KN Tension F 16.04kN Tension Fg -33.80KN Compression Member design Hollow sections will be used for all members. 1. Design of Top Chord ‘The most critical member is AB: -249.87kN L=2311m Try section 80 x 80 x 3.6 SHS (S355) i=31.1mm I= 1.05 x 10°mm* 090mm* SSN /mom 10000 N/mm” eft = 19.2 e= 33-081 355 Section classification Limit for Class 1 = 33e = 26.8 >c/t Therefore, this section is Class 1. Cross-section compression resistance Nagy = Afr = 10807355 19 = 386.94 tuo 10 Nas > Noa (249.87KN) ‘Therefore, the cross-section resistance is adequate.Member flexural buckling resistance ' Leris taken as 0.9L = 0.9 x 2311 = 2080mm mE] _ x°(210000\(1050000) No= pa SENS = 5035 a Seen 503.1KV ja [He — [1090C53) _ 995 N,V 503100 For hot-rolled square hollow section, use curve ‘a’, a= 0.21 @ =0.5[1+a(A-0.2) +A] =0.5[1+0.21(0.88—-0.2) + 0.88") = 0.96 1 1 an ie 0.96 + 0.96? —0.88? A 1 Nye = poe = 0,75 1090855) 19 ‘a. =0.75 = 289.8kN Nea > New Therefore, the buckling resistance of this section is adequate. 2. Design of Bottom Chord The most critical compression member is ed and de, while the most heavily loaded tension member is ef and fg. Maximum compression force = 113.4KN Maximum tension force = 225.5KN ‘Try same section size as top chord 80 x 80 x 3.6 SHS (S355) L=2083mm i=31.1mm I= 1.05 x 106 mm* A= 1090mm? f= 355N/mm? E= 210000 Ninm? eft = 19.2 235 355 Section classification As before, this section is Class 1. 6-23Cross-section compression resistance [As before, N, py =386.9kN > Ns (113.4kN) ‘Therefore, the cross-section resistance is adequate. Member flexural buckling resistance As with the upper chord, the buckling length L., for the bottom chord is taken as 0.9L for both in- and out-of-plane buckling where L is considered as the distance between nodes for in-place buckling and the distance between lateral restraints for out-of-plane buckling. Longitudinal ties are positioned at every second nodal point along the bottom chord, thus resulting in as out-of-plane system length of 4167mm. 9(2083) = 1875mm 0.9(4167) =3750mm In-plane buckling length, Le, = 0.9L Out-of-plane buckling length, Ler= 0.9 In-plane buckling As before, N,_y =289.8KN > N,(113.4EV) ‘Therefore, this section is adequate for in-plane member buckling. Out-of-plane buckling = wEl x? (2100001050000) “2 3750" Af, _ [109055) _; sg N. 154800 For hot-rolled square hollow section, use curve ‘a’, ¢= 0.21 154.8EN p= 0.54 aa 0.2) +27] = 0.5[1 + 0.2101 58-0.2) +1.587]=1.90 1 1 a =034 o+ Ie — 1.90+-V1.90? -1.587 4 ners, 341090859) 19 =131.64N geen ran 1.0 Nore >Neg Therefore, this section is adequate for out-of-plane member buckling. Cross-section tension resistance 1090355 19-9 = 386.9kN 1.0 6-249A f, _ 0.9x1090x510 Ny pg =e 3 OO. Tua 1.25 Nn =386.9RN > Np, (225.5KN) Therefore, the tension resistance of this member is adequate. 10° = 400.22kN 3. Design of web members The most critical tension member is Gg, while the most heavily loaded compression: member is cD. Maximum compression force = 41.2KN ‘Maximum tension force = 54.4kN Try section size 80 x 60 x 3 RHS (S355) iy = 30mm i, = 24mm y= 0.7 = 10° mm* T,= 0.449 x 105 mm* A=781mm f= 355Nimm? fy = 510N/mm* E=210000 N/mm? owit=21.7 oft 15 Section classification [235 355 Limit for Class 1 = 33¢ = 26.8 > cyt and cyt ‘Therefore, this section is Class 1. 1 Cross-section compression resistance 4 Nagy = Abe = T8355 19 or ge Yo «1.0 Nojag > Neg(AV.2EN) ‘Therefore, the cross-section resistance is adequate. ‘Member flexural buckling resistance The buckling length is taken as 1.0L for both in- and out-of-plane buckling of web members, where L is considered as the distance between nodes. By inspection, member cD is the most heavily loaded compression member and the length of this member is 3159mm. However, the buckling resistance is also related to the buckling length of the 6.25member and consideration should be given to longer member. In this example, member cD was found to be the most critical member and was chosen in this design. Leris taken as 1.0L = 1.0 x 3159=3159mm ‘As the buckling lengths are identical in both directions, only the buckling resistance in z-z axis will be checked. 2 a EL (210000)(449000) x10? =93.20N 3159 arc Af, '781(355) Now ¥ 93200 For hot-rolled square hollow section, use curve ‘a’, a N, 21 g=0.5S1+a(A-0- ) Sf + 0.21(1.72 - 0.2) 41.727] = 2.15 eee Eee ore -2 2.154215? 1.72 Nong = 122 = 0.29 81859) c10° 30.9kN Va Nora > New ‘Therefore, the buckling resistance of this section is adequate, Cross-section tension resistance = B1X355 19? =2773kN 0.9x 781x510 1.25 Ny pg = 277 BEN > N pg (54.4KN) ‘Therefore, the tension resistance of this member is adequate. 10° = 286.78kN 6-26Final truss design {All shop connections to be welded 808003 6SHS Postions of shgitudinal tes 125mCHAPTER 7 CONNECTIONS 7.1 INTRODUCTION Connections determine how the forces (moment and axial load) are being transferred between two structural members. The terms rigid-connections (continuous design), semi-rigid connections (semi- continuous design) and simple connections (simple design) therefore indicate the degree of moment transferred between members. The rigid connection and simple connection are the idealized assumptions that indicate full-moment transfer and zero-moment transfer, the semi-rigid connection is in actual condition which stands in between. Figure 7.1 shows the difference between the effects of connection types to the force distribution in a structure. Simple Semi-continuous Continuous Construction Construction Construction imation A J ‘No moment at beam end Sagging moment govern the beam size ‘Beam end connection Moment due to transfers a portion of eccentricity of beam- moment to the end force (based on BS columns 5950) Figure 7.1 Moment distribution in various types of connections Recall the concept of effective length in the previous chapter, the single-bolt connecting two ‘russ member is considered pin-jointed; double-bolts consideredare semi-rigid. In this sense, the rigid connection can be achieved if an appropriate amount of bolt is assigned to the connection. Normally welding is assumed a rigid connection. Figure 7.2 shows some examples of the connection types mentioned above, and Figure 7.3 shows the moment rotation characteristic of several types of connections.== + = i -dlfo i 4 i dibo Web cleat and end lia i do] + bearing simple i construction) —S i Secondary beam-main beam connection iJ (web cleat) (assumed as pin connection) i a + + + + i i iJ i i i | ire i [fre i 4 1 Wes) + 1 URS i 1: i ifs i i it i+ 1 i id i i i ‘eb cat Gssimed to be * - simple construction) Fin plate (assumed to be Extended end plate (prior simple construction, could for semi-continuous) be semi-continuous) +r i i a+ is I ig ele ig T ole i I i s\6 i i + Flush end plate (simple semi-continuous) Beam splice (mandatory to an Sone anion Column splice (continuous) } + i i i i i + i i i i 43 ‘Welded (continuous) Portal frame eave connection (continuous) Figure 7.2 Various types of connection