CHANGING CULTURAL TRADITIONS

Besides formal education what were the other ways by which the minds of the people.
Sculptor

Art architecture and books effectively transmitted humanist ideas

Artists revived the ancient Roman culture.
Remains of their culture was studied by artists
The Romans in those days admired figures of perfectly proportioned men and women, this
inspired the Italian artists. They continued this style.
Italian artists sought the help of scientist to study the human body accurately , they went
to the laboratories of medical schools to do so
Important Sculptor: Donatello: Made life like statues.
Andreas Vesalius: A Belgian professor of medicine at the University of Padua was the first
to dissect the human body.

Painters had no Roman models to copy but they tried to paint as realistically as possible
They used the knowledge of geometry to understand perspective and by changing quality
of light their picture acquired a three dimensional quality.
Oil was used as medium of painting which gave richness that was never seen before.
Colours and costumes seen the paintings reflect Chinese influence.
Conclusion: Thus we see that anatomy, geometry, physic, as well as a strong sense of what
was beautiful gave a new quality to Italian art which was called realism.

Describe how the architecture of the city of Rome was revived during the 15th
century?
Development of a new discipline-Archaeology led to the excavation of old Roman cities.
This brought to light the ancient Roman architecture which was revived by the architects.
This style was copied by the architects, then known as classical.
Artists and sculptors were also to decorate the building with paintings, sculptor and relief.
Artist of this age were not known as a group or guild but as an individual.
Important creations of the time.
Painting on the ceiling of the Sistine chapel by Michelangelo Buonarroti. He also designed
a sculpture called the Pieta and the dome of St Peters church in Rome.

What was the chief reason of the spread of humanist culture of Italy during the 16th
century?
Why were the earlier intellectual movements localized to a particular region?
Italian literature during the 15th
century started travelling to distant land due to greatest
th
revolution of the 16 century- the mastery of the technology of printing.

The Europeans are indebted to the Chinese, for learning print technology and the Mongol
rulers for making this technology available universally.
In 1455, 150 copies of the Bible were printed in the workshop of Johannes Gutenberg the
German who made the first printing press.
By 1500 many of the classical texts were printed in Italy.
As printed books were now available students were nor solely dependent on lectures and
notes.
Printed books promoting new ideas could reach hundreds of readers at the same time.
Individuals processes copies of books and reading habit was developed.
Conclusion: the chief reason that the humanist culture spread briskly from the end of the
15th
century due to the circulation of printed books. This also explains why earlier
intellectual movements were limited to a particular area.
Describe very briefly the new concept of human being that emerged in Italy during the
early 15th
century.
OR
State the salient features of Humanist culture.
The humanist culture can be identified by these qualities:
Reduction of control of religion from human life.
Men and women had strong attachment for material wealth power and glory at the same
time was religious by nature.
It was believed that study of history can lead to life full of perfection.
The Christian stigma for pleasure was overlooked.
A lot of emphasis was given to good manner how to speak, dress, what to learn, became
a matter of concern.
Humanism also implied that individuals were capable of shaping their own lives through
means other than pursue of power and money.
It was believed that human nature is many sided which was against the medieval theory of
three orders.

Describe the position of women in 15th

century Europe.
The new ideal of individualism excluded women.
Position of women in aristocratic families
Men of aristocratic families dominated public life and were the decision makers in the
families too.
Sons were educated and the eldest was entrusted with the family business and the
youngest joined the church.
Women had no say in their husbands business however their dowries could be utilised for
the same.
Marriages were intended to strengthen business alliances.
If dowries could not be arranged daughters were sent to convents to lead a life of nun.
Women did not enjoy any public role and were supposed to look after the household.
Position of women in merchant families.
Shopkeepers were often assisted by their wife to look after their shop.
Wives of merchants and bankers looked after their business in their absence.
In case of early death of husband women of such families played a larger public role.
Education
A few women intellectually creative and sensitive to humanist education.
One of the few women who attained knowledge was Venetian Cassandra Fedele.
She questioned the idea that women were incapable of achieving the qualities of humanist
scholar.
She was well known for high proficiency in Greek and Latin.
She was invited to give orations (lecture) to the University of Padua.
Who was Venetian Cassandra Fedele? Discuss her achievements.
One of the few women who attained knowledge was Venetian Cassandra Fedele.

She questioned the idea that women were incapable of achieving the qualities of humanist
scholar.
She was well known for high proficiency in Greek and Latin.
She was invited to give orations (lecture) to the University of Padua.

In her writing she criticised the republic for creating a limited definition of humanism
which favoured the desire of men over women.
Describe the Copernican Revolution.
The Earth Centric View of the Christians:
The Christians believed that the earth was sinful place and a heavy burden of sin made it
immobile. The earth stood at the centre of the universe around which orbited all the
celestial planets.
The new view by Copernicus:
Copernicus asserted that the planets, including the earth rotate around the sun.
His apprehension
As he was a devout Christian he did not want to go against the church and did not publish
his manuscript De Revolutionibus.
At his deathbed he passed on this manuscript to his follower Joachim Rheticus.
At first it was difficult for people to accept this idea.
Sun Centric theory proved by Kepler and Galileo
The works of Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei helped in propounding the Sun centric theory
of the universe.
Keplers Cosmographical mystery proved that the planets moved around the sun in ellipses
and not circles.
Galileo confirmed the notion of dynamic world in his work the motion.
This theory was further strengthened by Isaac Newtons theory of gravity.

THEME 8 CONFRONTATION OF CULTURES.

WHAT WERE THE RESULTS OF THE EUROPEAN EXPLORATIONS ON THE NATIVE CULTURE
OF AMERICA.
Indians of the new world belonged to a different cultural group which was neither a part
of Asia nor Europe.
Their economies were small and subsistent type located in the Caribbean and Brazil
region.
They were also powerful monarchical system based on well-developed agriculture and
mining.
The Incas, Aztecs and the Mayans also had monumental architecture.
European explorations had disastrous consequences on the American Civilizations.
It marked the beginning of slave trade.
Europeans formed a triangular trading system: Slaves were purchased from Africa and
sold in the American colonies to work in the plantations and mines.
The produce of the mines and plantations were sent to Europe and the rest of the world.
The coming of the Europeans led to the degeneration and decline of the European
civilizations.
WHO WERE THE ARAWAKS? DESCRIBE THEIR LIFESTYLE AND OCCUPATION.
The Arawaks lived in the hundreds of clusters of Island located in the Caribbean Sea .
These islands are known as the Bahama and the Greater Antillies.
They were people who preferred negotiation to conflict.
They were skilled boat builders, the built boats by hollowing tree trunks which could sail
in the open sea.
They lived by hunting fishing and agriculture.
They grew corn sweet potato, tubers and cassava.
Their social system
The society was organised to produce food collectively and feed everyone in the
community.
The society was organised under the clan elders.
Polygamy was common
The Arawaks were animists (everything including inanimate objects has life).
Shamans played a very important role as healers and intermediaries between this world
and that of the supernatural.
DISCUSS THE RELATION BETWEEN THE ARAWAKS AND THE SPAINISH INVADERS.
The Arawaks used gold ornaments but did not attach any value to it.
They happily exchanged gold with colourful glass beads brought by the European sailors.
The Arawaks willingly and generously collaborated with the Spanish to search for gold.
However they were forced to fight with them when the Spanish gave them a harsh
treatment.
This resulted into a disaster, the Spanish destroyed most of the Arawak civilization.
WHO WERE THE TUPINAMBAS? MENTION ANY FOUR IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT
THEIR LIFESTYLE.

The Tupinambas lived along the east coast of South America and in villages in the forest
rich in Brazil wood trees.
They could not clear the dense forest for cultivation as they did not have access to iron.
They had a healthy and plentiful supply to fruits vegetables and fish so they did not have
to depend upon agriculture.
The Europeans envied their freedom, with no king army or church to regulate their lives.
HOW DID MEXICO BECOME THE HOMELAND OF THE AZTECS? ELUCIDATE THE SOCIAL
HIERARCHY THAT PREVAILED.
The Aztecs had migrated from the Isthmus of Panama to the central valley of Mexico,
named after their God Mexitili.
The Aztec society was hierarchical.
The king was regarded as the representative of sun on earth.
The nobility included those who were noble by birth, priests and others who had been
awarded the rank.
The hereditary nobility was a small minority who occupied the senior position in the
government they also joined the army and became priests.
The respected groups were the warriors priests and nobles.
The traders were also respected and enjoyed privileges and often served the government
as ambassadors and spies.
Talented artisans, physicians and teachers were also respected.
DESCRIBE THE ARCHITECTURE AGRICULTURE AND THE EDUCATION OF THE AZTECS.
ALSO MENTION THE CAUSE OF ITS DOWNFALL.
ARCHITECTURE
The Aztecs undertook land reclamation projects by constructing artificial islands called
chinampas.
These islands were built in lake Mexico by weaving huge reed mats and covering them
with mud and plants.
These exceptionally fertile islands had canals and other constructions on them.
The city of Tenochititlan was built in1325. The palace and pyramids in the lake.
The most impressive temples were dedicated to gods of war and sun.
The Aztecs were frequently engaged in war.
AGRICULTURE
The empire rested on a rural base.
Corn, beans, manioc root, potatoes, pumpkin, squash and other crops were grown.
Land was not owned by clans and not by individuals.
Clans also organised public construction work.

Peasants cultivated the land of the nobles in exchange of a share of the cultivation.
The poor would some time sell their children as slaves.
The slavery however was for a limited period they could buy their freedom back.
EDUCATION
The Aztecs ensured that all the children went to school.
The children of the nobility went to calmecac
They were trained to become military and religious leaders.
The others went to tepochcalli in their neighbourhood.
They learned history, myth, religion and ceremonial songs.
Boys received military training and training in agriculture and trade.
Girls were trained in domestic skills.

DECLINE OF THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION

During the early 16th
century the Aztec empire started showing signs of strain.
The strains were due to the discontent among the recently conquered people who wanted
to break free from the centralized control.

LIST THE SALIENT FEATURES OF THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION.

The Mayan civilization flourished between the 11th
and the 14th
centuries.
Corn cultivation was central to their culture.
Many religious ceremonies were central to the planting growing and harvesting of corn.
An efficient system of production helped the ruling class (consisting of priests and chiefs)
in architecture, development of mathematics and astronomy.
They devised a pictorial script.
The script could be partially deciphered.

HIGHLIGHT THE IMPORTANT FEATURES OF THE INCAS CIVILIZATION.

The Incas civilization was the largest of all the indigenous civilizations of South America.

The capital was at Cuzco.

The empire spread between Ecuador to Chile for about 3000 km.
The empire was highly centralized and the king represented the highest authority.
Every subject was expected to speak Quechua the language of the court.
Each tribe was ruled independently by a council of elders but he tribe as a whole owed
their alliance to the ruler.
The local rulers were rewarded from time to time for their military cooperation.

THE INCAS WERE MAGNIFICIANT BUILDERS. JUSTIFY.

They build roads through mountains from Ecuador to Chile.

Their forts were built of stone slabs that were perfectly cut and did not need mortar.
They used labour intensive technology to carve and move rocks from neighbouring rock
falls.
Masons use a technology called flaking to shape the blocks.
Stone blocks which weighed more than 100 metric tonnes could not be transported by any
wheeled vehicle but by the help of labour force.

Describe the agricultural activities and other occupations of the Incas.

Agriculture was the chief occupation.
As the land was not fertile they made terraces on the hill slopes and cultivated them .
They developed a drainage system and irrigation system.
The Incas grew corn and potatoes and reared Ilamas for food.

LIST THE COMMON FEATURES OF THE INCAS AND THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION

The society of both the civilization was hierarchical.

No private ownership of resources.

Priest and Shamans were given an exalted status.

Large temples were built.
Gold was used for performing rituals in these temples .
No value was attached to gold and silver.
Mention the factors that encouraged the Europeans to go out on voyages of discovery.
The invention of magnetic compass helped in identifying directions accurately.
Many improvements were made in the sailing ships
Larger ships were constructed which could carry a lot of cargo and arms and ammunitions
to defend them.
Circulation of travel literature and books on cosmography and geography created
widespread in this field.
Ptolemy an Egyptian geographer divide the regions of the world in terms of latitudes and
longitudes creating points of references which helped the sailors.