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The dissociative experiences

of Fine Arts students
a

Mara Jos Prez-Fabello & Alfredo Campos

a

University of Vigo

University of Santiago de Compostela

Published online: 11 Jul 2012.

To cite this article: Mara Jos Prez-Fabello & Alfredo Campos (2011) The
dissociative experiences of Fine Arts students, Nordic Psychology, 63:1, 72-81
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The dissociative experiences

of Fine Arts students
Mara Jos Prez-Fabello1
Alfredo Campos2
Address correspondence to: Mara Jos Prez-Fabello, University of Vigo, Faculty of Fine Arts, Ra
Maestranza, 2, 36002 Pontevedra (Spain), E-mail: fabello@uvigo.es

Abstract
The study of dissociative experiences has witnessed significant advancements
since the publication of the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) for the assessment of dissociation. The DES, a self-report instrument, is one of the most extensively used scales and has become fertile ground for research in clinical and
nonclinical populations. The high level of dissociation observed in nonclinical
populations has been ascribed to factors such as age, personality and cognitive
factors. As certain types of activity or environments have been reported to be
conducive to dissociation, the purpose of this study was to assess dissociative
experiences in a sample of students from the Faculty of Fine Arts in comparison
to a sample of students from the Faculty of Psychology. Significantly higher scores
were obtained for students of Fine Arts. High scores were also observed in items
that could be associated to a greater tendency towards fantasizing, imagination
and absorption. The results are assessed in terms of the sociocognitive model.
Keywords: Dissociation; Dissociative experiences; Fine Arts students.

The dissociative experiences of Fine Arts students

Dissociation is a mental process involving the unlinking of normally associated
elements of experience that nonetheless remain unconsciously, implicitly, bound
and related (Chefetz, 2006). The range of dissociative symptoms is extensive,
and some are so common to normal human experience (absorption, fantasizing,
daydreaming) that they are classed as normative dissociation (non-pathological).
Research, however, has tended to focus primarily on pathological processes.
1 University of Vigo
2 University of Santiago de Compostela
Nordic Psychology 2011, Vol. 63(1), 72-81

DOI 10.1027/1901-2276/a000028

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Dissociative experiences and Fine Arts students

The 1980s witnessed a rapid increase in the study of dissociative disorders, in

particular multiple personality disorder, primarily due to the publication of selfreport instruments designed to assess dissociation (for a review, see Ross, 1989;
Ross, 2006). One of the most extensively used tests is the Dissociative Experiences
Scale (DES, Bernstein & Putnam, 1986), which has undergone replication study
(Ross, Norton, & Anderson, 1988). The DES has been translated into many languages, and its reliability and validity have been confirmed in many countries
(e.g., Ensink & Van Otterloo, 1989; Krlin, Edman, & Nybck, 2007; Zorogly, Sar,
Tuzun, Tutkun, & Savas, 2002). In Spain, the validity of the translated instrument
has been investigated by Icarn, Colom, and Orengo (1996).
The DES is frequently used to assess dissociation in clinical populations (e.g.,
Carlson et al., 1993; Van Ijzendoorn & Schuengel, 1996) and nonclinical populations (e.g., Ross, Joshi, & Currie, 1990, 1991; Vannucci & Mazzoni, 2006). In
clinical populations, the DES has proved to be a good indicator of post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) and dissociative identity disorder (DID) (Van Ijzendoorn
& Schuengel, 1996). In general, it appears that a high DES score predicts the
likelihood of experiencing severe trauma and the risk of dissociative disorders.
Patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD) have scored between 18 and
20, PTSD patients between 26 and 41, complex trauma and disorders of extreme
stress (DESNOS) patients between 30 and 40, and DID patients between 40 and
55 (Carlson et al., 1993).
The first DES based studies to provide data on the prevalence of dissociative
experiences in the general population were undertaken by Ross and co-workers
(Ross et al., 1990; Ross, Joshi et al., 1991; Ross, Ryan, Anderson, Ross, & Hardy,
1989; Ross, Ryan, Voigt, & Eide, 1991). The findings suggest that dissociative
experiences, as measured by the DES, are common in the general population
and decline with age, and stabilize by the age of 40 onwards (Ross et al., 1989;
1990; Ross, Joshi et al., 1991). Work undertaken on a sample of college students
revealed that 70% of the high DES scores had a DSM-III-R dissociative disorder
whereas no cases were reported with low scorers. Extrapolation from the data
yields a prevalence of DSM-III-R dissociative disorders among college students
of 11% (Ross, Ryan et al., 1991).
Mild dissociative symptoms are rather common in the general population,
with 80% to 90% of respondents indicating that they had at sometime experienced these symptoms (Gershuny & Thayer, 1999), what is more, the DES factor
imaginative involvement does not appear to be specific of dissociative disorder (Moyano & Claudon, 2003). Recently, research has focused on personality,
cognitive, and metacognitive factors in relation to dissociation in nonclinical
samples i.e., mainly university students. The results have shed light as regards
the very nature of dissociation by associating it to the predisposition to fantasy
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Mara Jos Prez-Fabello & Alfredo Campos

and imagination (Lynn & Rhue, 1988; Merckelbach & Muris, 2001; Merckelbach,
Muris, Horselenberg, & Stougie, 2000; Rauschenberger & Lynn, 1995; Waldo &
Merritt, 2000, Wilson & Barber, 1983). It has been suggested that deviant sleep
experiences contribute to the overlap between fantasy proneness and dissociation (Giesbrecht & Merckelbach, 2006), and the greater degree of dissociation,
the greater the proneness to daydream or fantasize (Merckelbach & Jelicic,
2004; Waldo & Merritt, 2000). Merckelbach (2004), in a sample of university
students, found that a high propensity to fantasize (as measured by the Creative
Experiences Questionnaire, Merckelbach, Horselenberg, & Muris, 2001), was
correlated to high scores for dissociative symptoms on the DES (M = 28.22, SD
= 14.01). Conversely, low scores for fantasizing were matched by low scores for
dissociative experiences (M = 13.01, SD = 7.50), the difference being significant
(p < 0.01). Another sample studied confirmed the observation that high fantasy
prones had significantly higher dissociative levels than low fantasy prones, mean
DES-C scores (Wright & Loftus, 1999) being 45.41 (SD = 15.46) and 31.44 (SD
= 13.94), respectively (p < 0.01).
Giesbrecht, Geraerts, and Merckelbach (2007) in a sample of undergraduates
found that fantasy proneness was found to be related to high dissociators commission errors. Thus, it seems that a pattern of heightened emotional reactivity
and commission errors is typical for people with elevated dissociation scores.
Vannucci and Mazzoni (2006) have suggested that dissociation in the normal
population may be associated to specific cognitive styles based on the use of
mental imagery given that high dissociative experience scores were found to
generate mental imagery of uncertain future events. Other studies have observed
a positive relationship, though low, between dissociative experiences and absorption (Frischholz et al., 1991; Norton, Ross, & Novotny, 1990), and between
absorption and the openness to experiences, the latter often being closely associated to creativity (Wild, Kuiken, & Schopflocher, 1995). Parra (2007) observed
that the pronenes to fantasize was associated to psychological absorption, dissociative experiences, and hallucinatory experiences in nonclinical populations.
Individuals have a great capacity for absorption, intense vivid visual imagery,
intense sensorial and imaginary experiences, and a predisposition to hallucinatory experience, all under the umbrella of normal dissociation.
Butler (2004, 2006) proposes that normative dissociation fulfils general adaptive functions: a) Normative dissociation in the form of daydreaming enables
mental processing and working. In daydreaming individuals foresee, test, create,
plan, and recall things as well as imagine alternative ways of how to do things,
and problem solve. b) Dissociation involving absorbing activities or engaging
in fantasy are common forms of escapism. Externally derived absorption or
internally directed fantasies bring about adaptive benefits that alleviate through
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Dissociative experiences and Fine Arts students

evasion, at least temporarily, of our own more spontaneous internal productions.

These activities can offer entertainment, enjoyment or escapism (Ludwing, 1983;
Singer & Pope, 1981). c) The third function of normative dissociation involves
dissociative experiences and flow episodes that reinforce positive activities. The
benefits of dissociation, in particular flow episodes, is that absorption enables full
commitment to the activity and reduces distraction thus it maximizes performance during training or favours the flow of creativity.
As dissociative experiences are highly prevalent even in nonclinical populations, and are influenced by factors such as age, personality, and cognitive factors,
it seems plausible to believe that professional and environmental factors may also
influence dissociative experiences. Hence the artistic milieu of students of Fine
Arts and their academic assignments associated to the search for knowledge is
characterized by the tendency to fantasize, and the ability for mental imagery
and creativity (e.g. Arnheim, 1969; Prez-Fabello & Campos, 2007a, b; PrezFabello, Campos, & Gmez-Juncal, 2007; Runco, 2007; Sheikh, 1983), may be
conducive to dissociative experiences. Thus, the aim of this work was to assess
dissociative experiences in a sample of Fine Arts students in comparison to a
group of Psychology students.

Method
Participants
The simple consisted of 264 university students (136 students from the Faculty of
Psychology, and 128 from the Faculty of Fine Arts), of which 221 were women
and 43 men, mean age 19.51 yrs. (SD = 1.21, range 18 to 22 years). All participants were second year undergraduates from their respective faculty who freely
volunteered to participate in the study.

Material and Procedure

The Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986, Spanish
version by Icarn, Colom, & Orengo, 1996) is a self-report instrument that
requires participants to indicate the frequency of 28 dissociative experiences,
which are useful for both clinical and nonclinical populations. These include
experiences of amnesia, gaps in the continuity of awareness, depersonalization,
derealization, absorption, and identity alteration. Examples of DES items include
having no memory for important past events in ones life (autobiographical
amnesia), being in a familiar place and finding it strange and unfamiliar (derealization), feeling as if ones body is not ones own (depersonalization), becoming
so absorbed in undertaking an activity or a move that one is unaware of what
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is happening (absorption), and feeling as if one is two different people (identity

alteration). Instructions on the cover sheet specify that participants should not
include experiences that occurred when they were under the influence of alcohol
or drugs. The 28 items on the scale score on a range from 0 to 100. Participants
scored the frequency of each experience by placing a cross on a dotted line
where 0 meant never (i.e., 0% of the times), the midpoint on the line indicated
often (50% of the times), and 100 always (100% of the times). Total scores were
calculated by averaging the 28-item scores.
The participants completed the DES in their classrooms in small groups of
approximately 20 students, and students were told that at all times their results
would remain confidential.

Results
The internal consistency of the scale was .90 for Fine Arts students, .89 for
Psychology students, and .91 for the entire sample (Cronbachs ). The results
are similar to those obtained in other studies (Ensink & Van Otterloo, 1989;
Giesbrecht et al., 2007; Giesbrecht & Merckelbach, 2006; Icarn et al., 1996;
Icarn, Colom, & Orengo-Garca, 1996).
To examine the differences in dissociative experiences between Fine Arts students and Psychology students, and between men and women, a mixed-factor
analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed with factors Faculty (2 levels) and
gender (2 levels). Significant differences were found between both groups of
students, F(1, 243) = 7.87, p < . 01, power = .80 (see Table 1). Fine Arts students
obtained significantly higher scores on the DES than the Psychology students.
However, no significant differences were observed between men and women,
F(1, 243) = .25, p > . 05, nor in terms of the interaction between Faculty and
gender, F(1, 243) = 3.55, p > . 05.
To determine which items on the test exhibited significant difference in terms

Table 1: Means and Standard Deviations for Men and Women, Fine Arts and Psychology
Students, and Total Students in DES Scores
Fine Arts

Psychology

Total

SD

SD

SD

Men

24.83

13.72

22.71

9.78

24.12

12.45

Women

28.03

14.49

17.21

10.78

21.99

13.63

Total

27.32

14.33

17.76

10.78

22.33

13.45

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Dissociative experiences and Fine Arts students

Figure 1: Mean Scores of Fine Arts and Psychology Students in the DES

60

FineArts
Psychology

MeanscoresDES

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50
40
30
20
10
0
1

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Items

of the scores obtained by Fine Arts students and Psychology students (see Figure
1), a MANOVA was carried out with the Faculty (i.e., Fine Arts or Psychology)
as the independent variable, and each item of the DES as a dependent variable.
The Faculty was found related to dissociative experiences (Lambda de Wilks =
.76, F(28, 218) = 2.450, p < .001, power = 1). Subsequent univariate analysis
indicated that all of the items were significant p < .05, save items 3, 4, 10, 21, and
27. Fine Arts students obtained higher scores on each item than the Psychology
students.

Discussion
Fine Arts students obtained significantly higher scores on the DES than Psychology
students, and these scores were significantly higher for most of the items. It is
worth noting that the rate of increase in the scores for each item was similar in
both samples and the high scores mainly corresponded to items that are related
to the propensity to fantasize, imagination, and absorption. This may be due
to factors such as the age group, and that Fine Arts students are encouraged to
develop these qualities and aptitudes.
Strikingly, however, high scores were obtained in both samples, a finding
substantiated by previous studies (Candel, Merckelbach, & Kuijpers, 2003;
Icarn, Colom, & Orengo-Garca, 1996; Merckelbach, 2004). Icarn, Colom and
Orengo-Garca (1996), suggesting the variability of the high scores in nonclinical
population may be due to the way the items on the scale are interpreted by the
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participants. Following the interviews with the university students, Icarn, Colom
and Orengo-Garca (1996) concluded that participants tended to normalize the
content of the items e.g., the item hear voices in your head was interpreted
as referring to a type of inner subvocal language which is unlike having hallucinatory experiences.
Of the different explicative models of Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) (the
posttraumatic model, PTM e.g., Putnam, 1989; Ross, 2000; and the sociocognitive model, SCM, e.g., McHugh, 1995; Pope, Oliva, Hudson, Bodkin, & Gruber,
1999; Spanos, 1996), the SCM fits best explanation with our findings. This model
posits that alterations arise as a consequence of a therapists influences, media
portrayals, and socio-cultural expectations. One would, consequently, expect
pathological dissociation to be absent in any culture free of contamination and
role demands for it to occur; whilst in cultures where pathological dissociation
does occur, it is caused by contamination and iatrogenesis.
Though in clinical terms SCM theory has been the subject of controversy (for
a review of different approaches see Gleaves, 1996; Manning & Manning, 2007;
Lilienfeld et al., 1999), it may prove to be useful for explaining the high scores in
nonclinical populations. As a continuous variable, dissociation (see Parra, 2007)
may be high in specific groups of the general population, stemming partly from
a conducive environment and have, in nonclinical environments with peculiar
circumstances. Fine Art students work in an environment where creativity is
fundamental, and where the type of methodology for achieving this knowledge
favours divergent thought and requires considerable personal commitment.
Absorption, the tendency to fantasize and daydreaming favour creative work
and enrich the artistic outcomes. The absence of previous studies underlines the
need for further studies with other populations to contrast and substantiate these
findings. Moreover, further research is required on nonclinical populations with
different sociocultural backgrounds.

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