Table Ref PDF

CS 5614: Basic Data Definition and Modification in SQL
67
Introduction to SQL
Structured Query Language (Sequel)
Serves as DDL as well as DML
Declarative
Say what you want without specifying how to do it
One of the main reasons for commercial success of DBMSs
Many standards and implementations
ANSI SQL
SQL-92/SQL-2 (Null operations, Outerjoins etc.)
SQL3 (Recursion, Triggers, Objects)
Vendor specific implementations
Bag Semantics instead of Set Semantics
Used in commercial RDBMSs
Example:
Create a Relation/Table in SQL
CREATE TABLE Students

(sid CHAR(9),
name VARCHAR(20),
login CHAR(8),
age INTEGER,
gpa REAL);
Support for Basic Data Types
CHAR(n)
VARCHAR(n)
BIT(n)
BIT VARYING(n)
INT/INTEGER
FLOAT
REAL, DOUBLE PRECISION
DECIMAL(p,d)
DATE, TIME etc.
68
69
More Examples
And one for Courses
CREATE TABLE Courses

(courseid CHAR(6),
department CHAR(20));
And one for their relationship!
CREATE TABLE takes
Why?
(sid CHAR(9),
courseid CHAR(6));
Can also provide default values

(sid CHAR(9),
....
age INTEGER DEFAULT 21,
gpa REAL);
Examples Contd.
DATE and TIME

Implementations vary widely
Typically treated as strings of a special form
Allows comparisons of an ordinal nature (<, > etc.)
DATE Example
1999-03-03 (No Y2K problems)
TIME Examples
15:30:29
15:30:29.3875
Deleting a Relation/Table in SQL
DROP TABLE Students;
70
71
Modifying Relation Schemas
Drop an attribute (column)
ALTER TABLE Students DROP login;
Add an attribute (column)
ALTER TABLE Students ADD phone CHAR(7);
What happens to the new entry for the old records?

Default is NULL or say
ALTER TABLE Students ADD phone CHAR(7)
DEFAULT unknown;
Always begin with ALTER TABLE <TABLE_Name>
Can use DEFAULT even with regular definition (as in Slide 69)
How do you enter/modify data?
INSERT command
INSERT
INTO Students
VALUES (53688,Mark,mark2345,23,3.9)
Cumbersome (use bulk loading; described later)
DELETE command
DELETE
FROM Students S
WHERE S.name = Smith
UPDATE command
UPDATE Students S
SET S.age=S.age+1, S.gpa=S.gpa-1
WHERE S.sid = 53688
72
73
Domains
Domains: Similar to Structs and other user-defined types
CREATE DOMAIN Email AS CHAR(8) DEFAULT unknown;

....
login Email // instead of login CHAR(8) DEFAULT unknown
Advantages: can be reused
junkaddress Email,
fromaddress Email,
toaddress Email,
....
Can DROP DOMAINS too!
DROP DOMAIN Email;
Affects only future declarations
Keys
To Specify Keys
Use PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE

Declare alongside attribute
For multiattribute keys, declare as a separate line
CREATE TABLE takes
( sid CHAR(9),
courseid CHAR(6),
PRIMARY KEY (sid,courseid)
);
Whats the difference between PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE?
Typically only one PRIMARY KEY but any number of UNIQUE keys
Implementor allowed to attach special significance
74
75
Creating Indices/Indexes
Why?
Speeds up query processing time

For Students
CREATE INDEX indexone ON Students(sid);

CREATE INDEX indextwo ON Students(login);
How to decide attributes to place indices on?

One is (typically) created by default on PRIMARY KEY
Creation of indices on UNIQUE attributes is implementation-dependent
In general, physical database design/tuning is very difficult!
Use Tools: Microsoft SQLServer has an index selection Wizard
Why not place indices on all attributes?
Too cumbersome for insertions/deletions/updates
Like all things in computer science, there is a tradeoff! :-)
Other Properties
NOT NULL instead of DEFAULT

(sid CHAR(9),
name VARCHAR(20),
login CHAR(8),
age INTEGER,
gpa REAL);
Can insert a tuple without a value for gpa
NULL will be inserted

If we had specified
gpa REAL NOT NULL);
insert cannot be made!
76

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CS 5614: Misc. SQL Stuff, Safety in Queries
81
What is still to be covered

(and will be)
Declaring constraints
Domain Constraints
Referential Integrity (Foreign Keys)
More SQL Stuff
Subqueries
Aggregation
SQL Peculiarities
Strange Phenomena
More on Bag Semantics
Ifs and Buts
Embedding SQL in a Programming Environment
Accessing DBs from within a PL
(will be covered in Module 3)
What will be mentioned

(but not covered in detail)
Triggers
Read Cow Book or Boat Book

More SQL Gory Details
Recursive Queries (SQL3)
Why do we need these?
Security
Authorization and Privacy
Trends towards Object Oriented DBMSs
82
83
Tuple-Based Domain Constraints
Already Seen
NOT NULL
UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY etc.
In General

(sid CHAR(9),
name VARCHAR(20),
login CHAR(8),
age INTEGER,
gpa REAL,
CHECK (gpa >= 0.0)
);
Note: Implementations vary, but this is the general idea
Other Complicated Forms

Constraints on whole relations, Assertions
Referential Integrity Constraints
Foreign Keys
An attribute a of R1 is a foreign key if it references
the primary key (say b) of another relation R2
In addition, there is a ref. integrity constraint from R1 to R2.
Example
login is a FOREIGN KEY for Students

(sid CHAR(9) PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(20),
login CHAR(8)
REFERENCES Accounts(acct),
age INTEGER,
gpa REAL
);
CREATE TABLE Accounts
(
acct CHAR(8) PRIMARY KEY
);
84
85
Alternatively
Can use FOREIGN KEY construct

(sid CHAR(9) PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(20),
login CHAR(8),
age INTEGER,
gpa REAL,
FOREIGN KEY login
REFERENCES Accounts(acct)
);
CREATE TABLE Accounts
(
acct CHAR(8) PRIMARY KEY
);
Note: acct should be declared as PRIMARY KEY for Accounts!
in both cases
SQL Subqueries
Given
Students(sid,name,login,age,gpa)
HasCar(sid,carname)
Find
the car of the student with login=mark

Traditional Way
SELECT carname
FROM Students, HasCar
WHERE Students.login=mark
AND Students.sid=HasCar.sid;
The Subway
SELECT carname
FROM HasCar
WHERE sid=
(SELECT sid FROM Students
WHERE login=mark);
86
87
Aggregation
Given
Find
the average of the ages of all the students

Solution
SELECT AVG(age)
FROM Students;
Other Operations
SUM (summation of all the values in a column)

MIN (least value)
MAX (highest value)
COUNT (the number of values), e.g.
SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM Students;
COUNTs the number of Students!
Ordering
Given
List
the students in (ascending) alphabetical order of name

Solution
SELECT *
FROM Students
ORDER BY name;
and that for DESCending ORDER is
SELECT *
FROM Students
ORDER BY name DESC;
Default is ASC
88
89
Grouping
Given
Find
the names of students with gpa=4.0 and

group people with like ages together
Solution
SELECT name
FROM Students
WHERE gpa=4.0
GROUP BY name;
More on Grouping
Given
Find
the names of students with gpa=4.0 and

group people with like ages together and
show only those groups that have more than 2 students in it
Solution
SELECT name
FROM Students
WHERE gpa=4.0
GROUP BY name
HAVING COUNT(*) > 2;
90
91
Summary of SQL Syntax
General Form
SELECT <attribute(s)>
FROM <relation(s)>
WHERE <condition(s)>
GROUP BY <attribute(s)>
HAVING <grouping condition(s)>
Order of Execution
FROM
WHERE
GROUP BY
HAVING
SELECT
Views
Can be viewed as temporary relations

do not exist physically BUT
can be queried and modified (sometimes) just like normal relations
Example:
CREATE VIEW GoodStudents(id,name) AS

SELECT sid,name
FROM Students
WHERE gpa=4.0;
SELECT *
FROM GoodStudents
WHERE name=Mark;
Can we update the original relation using the GoodStudents VIEW?
92
93
Beginning of Wierd Stuff
SQL uses Bag Semantics

meaning: does not normally eliminate duplicates
e.g. the SELECT clause
BUT (a big BUT)
this doesnt apply to
UNION, INTERSECT and DIFFERENCE
Either way, it provides facilities to do whatever we want
If you want duplicates eliminated in SELECT clause
use SELECT DISTINCT .....
If you want to prevent elimination of duplicates in UNION etc.
use (SELECT ...) UNION ALL (SELECT ...)

Likewise for INTERSECT and DIFFERENCE
... and thats just the tip of the iceberg
What happens with the following code?
SELECT R.A
FROM R,S,T
WHERE R.A = S.A or R.A = T.A
when R(A) has {2,3}, S(A) has {3,4} and T(A) is {}
Confusion Reigns!
94
95
Safety in Queries
Some queries are inherently unsafe
should not be permitted in DB access

Example
Given only the following relation
Students(id)
Find all those who are not students
Easy to distinguish unsafe queries via common-sense

Final result is not closed
Is there an automatic way to determine safety?
Answer: Yes!
Easiest to spot when written in Datalog
Answer(id) <- NOTStudents(id).
Golden Rule
Any variable that appears anywhere must also

appear in a non-negated body part
In this case, id causes the query to be unsafe
Example of a Safe Query
Answer(id) <- People(id), NOT Students(id)
This produces all those people who are NOT students

safe because the People relation provides a reference point
id which appears in a negated body part also appears non-negated
96
97
More Dangers
Problem not restricted to negated body parts
occurs even with arithmetic body parts (why?)

Given
only the following relation
Students(id,age)
Find all those numbers that are greater than the age of some student
Answer(x) <- Student(id,age), x>age.
Extension to previous rule
Any variable that appears anywhere must also

appear in a non-negated, non-arithmetic body part
In this case, x causes the query to be unsafe
bcoz it doesnt appear in a non-negated, non-arithmetic part
98
One More Example
Given
a relation Composite(x)
which lists all the composite numbers
Write a query to find
the prime numbers
Wrong Way
Prime(x) <- NOT Composite(x).

Right Way
Prime(x) <- Number(x), NOT Composite(x).

Safety in Other Notations
Relational Algebra: via the subtraction operator

SQL: via the EXCEPT construct
Notice how SQL and Relational Algebra do not allow unsafe queries
because there is no way to write such queries with the given constructs
how clever, eh? :-)
It is always amazing how languages force you to think in a certain manner
a problem long studied by philosophers
99
Recursion in Queries
Used to specify an indefinite number of applications of a relation

Example
Given only the following relation

Person(name,parent)
Find all the ancestors of Mark
Easy to find an ancestor at a predefined level

parent: Use Person
grandparent: Join Person with Person
great-grandparent: Join Person with Person with Person
and so on.
To find an ancestor at no predefined level
Need to join Person with Person an indefinite number of times
SQL3 provides support for recursive definitions
Solution in Datalog
First, the base case
Ancestor(x,y) <- Person(x,y).
Then, the inductive step
Ancestor(x,y) <- Person(x,z), Ancestor(z,y).
Can also write the previous rule as
Ancestor(x,y) <- Ancestor(x,z), Ancestor(z,y).
why?
100
101
Recursion in SQL3
Use the WITH RECURSIVE ... SELECT construct

Example
WITH RECURSIVE Ancestor(name,ans) AS

(SELECT *
FROM Person)
UNION
(SELECT Person.name,Ancestor.ans
FROM Person, Ancestor
WHERE Person.parent=Ancestor.name)
SELECT * FROM Ancestor;
Use with caution: Some kinds of recursive queries will not be allowed!
example: the following Datalog query might not be allowed in SQL3
Ancestor(x,y) <- Ancestor(x,z), Ancestor(z,y).
because the rule involves 2 applications of the recursively defined predicate

Linear recursion allows only one (as in the SQL code above)
Final Example
Be careful when combining negation, aggregation and recursion

perfect recipe for disaster!
Mutual Recursion
Odd(x) <- Number(x), NOT Even(x).

Even(x) <- Number(x), NOT Odd(x).
What are the problems?
Notice that the query appears safe (per Slide 96)

cycles indefinitely!; no proper base cases
Illegal in SQL3
not because of mutual recursion
but due to the fact that there is no unique interpretation to the query
Eg: 6 could be either in Odd or in Even; both are acceptable!
Sometimes mutual recursion is good and fruitful, if written properly
with proper limiting constraints and base cases
102
103
Introduction to Deductive DBMSs
Intersection of traditional RDBMSs and Logic Programming

Example Systems
CORAL (Univ. Wisc.)

LDL++ (MCC)
XSB Systems (SUNY, Stony Brook)
Can be viewed as
extending PROLOG-type systems with secondary storage
extending RDBMSs with deductive functionality
Mappings: Commonalities between PROLOG and DBMSs
Predicate: Relation
Argument: Attribute
Ground Fact: Tuple
Extensional Definition: Table (defined by data)
Intensional Definition: Table (defined by a view)
PROLOG vs. RDBMSs
Characteristics of PROLOG
Tuple-at-a-time
Backward Chaining
Top-Down
Goal-Oriented
Fixed-Evaluation Strategy (Depth-First)
Characteristics of RDBMSs
Set-at-a-time (recall relational algebra)
Forward Chaining
Bottom-Up
Query Optimizer figures a good evaluation strategy
Example
ancestor(X,X). parent(amy,bob).
ancestor(X,Y) <- parent(X,Z), ancestor(Z,Y).
Query
Find the ancestors of bob: ancestor(X,bob)?
104
105
PROLOG Pitfalls
Previous Example
Linear Recursion
Tail Recursion
What if we reverse the order of clauses in
What if we make it
ancestor(X,Y) <- parent(X,Z), ancestor(Z,Y).

PROLOG goes into an infinite loop (why?)
ancestor(X,Y) <- ancestor(X,Z), ancestor(Z,Y).
Not Linear Recursion
Inference = Resolution + Unification

Entailment in First Order Logic is Semi-decidable
106
Example of Deductive Query Optimization
Same-Generation: Hello World of DDBMSs
sg(X,Y) <- flat(X,Y).

sg(X,Y) <- up(X,U),sg(U,V),down(V,Y).
Magic: A Rewriting Technique
Rewrite query such that advantages of bottom-up evaluation

goal-oriented behavior are combined
Example: For the query
Magic produces
sg(john,Z)?
sg(X,Y) <- magic_sg(X),flat(X,Y).

sg(X,Y) <- magic_sg(X),up(X,U),sg(U,V),down(V,Y).
magic_sg(john).
How do you know when to stop?
Iterative Fixpoint Evaluation (when the answer stops changing)
107
SQL in a Programming Environment
Incorporating SQL in a complete application

Why?
There are some things we cannot do with SQL alone

e.g. preserving complex states, looping, branching etc.
Typically embed SQL in a host-language interface
Problems: Impedance Mismatch
SQL operates on sets of tuples
Languages such as C, C++ operate on an individual basis
Solution
easy when SELECT returns only one row
When more than one row is returned
design an iterator to run over the results
called a cursor
How are these implemented?
Vendor-Specific Implementations
ORACLE: PL/SQL (procedural extensions to SQL)
Open Database Connectivity Standard
Provides a standard API for transparent database access
used when database independence is important
used when required to connect to diverse data sources
108
109
Tradeoffs
ODBC
originated by Microsoft in 1991

adds one more abstraction layer
not as fast as a native API (does not exploit special features)
least-common denominator approach
constantly evolving
PL/SQL etc.
tailored to the details of the underlying DBMS
might not extend to heterogeneous domains
modeled after a specific programming language (e.g. Ada for Pl/SQL)
110
In Between: Stored Procedures
Used for developing tightly-coupled applications

push computations selectively into the database system
avoid performance degradation
work in database address space instead of application address space
Advantages
No sending SQL statements to and fro
eliminate pre-processing
speedup by an order of magnitude
Example Applications
Database Adminstration
Integrity Maintenance and Checks
Database Mining
Disadvantages
Non-standard implementation
Difficult to enforce transactional synchronization
Without traditional SQL optimization, can lead to performance degradation
111
Introduction to Query Optimization
Helps attain declarativeness of RDBMSs
One of the main reasons for commercial success of DBMSs

A motivating example
Find all students with 4.0 gpa enrolled in CS5614
SELECT name
FROM Students, Classroll
WHERE Students.name = Classroll.studentname
AND Students.gpa = 4.0
AND Classroll.coursename = CS5614
Two Strategies
Do join and then filter out the ones with gpa <> 4.0 and course <> CS5614
Filter first the ones with gpa <> 4.0 and course <> CS5614 and then Join
Which is Better?
Always good to push selections as far down into the query parse tree
How does a Query Optimizer work?
Three Requirements
A Search Space of Plans
A Cost Model (for Plan evaluation)
An Enumeration Algorithm
Ideally
Search Space: contains both good and efficient plans
Cost Models: cheap to compute and accurate
Enumeration Algorithm: efficient (not a monkey-typewriter algorithm)
Example of a Search Space
See Previous Slide
Examples of Cost Models
#(tuples) evaluation
#(main memory locations) etc.
Example of an enumeration algorithm
Sequential enumeration of a lattice of plans
Dynamic Programming vs. Greedy Approaches
112
113
A Simple Measure of Cost
#(Tuples) in a query
Easiest to compute for
Cartesian Product: #(R X S) = #(R)#(S)

Projection:#(Pi(R)) = #(R)
A Notation for Other Operations
V(R,A) = Number of distinct values of attribute A in R
formulas assume that all values of A are equally likely in R
Holds in average case for most distributions (e.g. Zipf)
Selectivity Factors for Selection Operations
Equality Tests: Use 1/V(R,A)
< or > Tests: Use 1/3
<> Test: Use (V(R,A)-1)/V(R,A)
AND Conditions: Multiply Selectivity Factors
OR Conditions: Three Choices
Sum of results from individual selectivity factors
Max(sum,total size of relation): why?
n(1-(1-m1/n)(1-m2/n)) formula : most accurate
Estimating the Size of a Join
Assume: R(X,Y) Join S(Y,Z)

Range of Values
Minimum: 0
In-between: #(R) (if Y is a foreign key for R and a key for S)
Maximum: #(R)#(S) (if Ys in R and S are all the same)
Assumptions for Join Size Estimation
Containment of Value Sets
Preservation of Value Sets
Containment of Value Sets
If V(R,Y) <= V(S,Y) then the Ys in R are a subset of the Ys in S
Satisfied when Y is a foreign key in R and a key in S
Preservation of Value Sets
#(R Join S,X) = #(R,X)
#(R Join S,Z) = #(S,Z)
why is this reasonable?
114
115
The Actual Estimate
Assume that V(R,Y) <= V(S,Y)
Every tuple in R has a chance of 1/V(S,Y) of joining with a tuple of S

Every tuple in R has a chance of #(S)/V(S,Y) of joining with S
All tuples in R have a chance of #(R)#(S)/V(S,Y) of joining with S
What if V(S,Y) <= V(R,Y)
Answer: #(R)#(S)/V(R,Y)
In general: #(R)#(S)/(max (V(S,Y),V(R,Y)))
What if there are multiple join attributes
Have a max factor in the denominator for each such attribute!
How to Estimate #(R Join S Join T)?
Does it matter which we do first?
Surprise!
Estimation formula preserves associativity of Joins!
In other words, it takes care of itself!
Thus, for a Join attribute appearing > 2 times
3 times: Use two highest values
4 times: Use three highest values etc.
More on Join Associativity and Commutativity
Which is better: (R Join S) or (S Join R)

Good to put the smaller relation on the left
Why? Most Join algorithms are assymmetric
Example:
Construct a good query tree for the following
SELECT movietitle
FROM Actors,ActedIn
WHERE Actors.name = ActedIn.actorname
AND Actors.age = 23
Number of Possible Trees of n Attributes
Arises from the shape of the trees: T(n)

Arises from permuting the leaves: n!
Total choices: n! T(n)
116
117
What is T(n)?
Sample Values
1: 1
2: 1
3: 2
4: 5
5: 14
A formula
T(1) = 1 (Basis)
T(n) = T(1)T(n-1) + T(2)T(n-2) + ..... + T(n-1)T(1)
Classifications
Left-Deep Trees: All right children are leaves
Right-Deep Trees: All left children are leaves
Bushy Trees: Neither Left-Deep nor Right-Deep
Choosing a Join Order: Restricted to Left-Deep Trees
By Dynamic Programming: O(n!)
Greedy Approach: Make local selections
Example
Consider
R(a,b): #(R) = 1000, V(R,a) = 100, V(R,b) = 200
S(b,c): #(S) = 1000, V(S,b) = 100, V(S,c) = 500
T(c,d): #(T) = 1000, V(T,c) = 20, V(T,d) = 50
Possible Join Orders
(R Join S) Join T
(S Join R) Join T (same as above; why?)
(R Join T) Join S
(T Join R) Join S (same as above)
(S Join T) Join R
(T Join S) Join R (same as above)
Cost Estimation = Sizes of Intermediate Relations
(R Join S) Join T: 5000
(R Join T) Join S: 1000000
(S Join T) Join R: 2000
Best Plan = (S Join T) Join R
118
119
Database Tuning: Why?
Two Families of Queries
OLTP (Access small number of records)

OLAP (Summarize from a large number of records)
Sources of Poor Performance
Imprecise Data Searches
Random vs. Sequential Disk Accesses
Short Bursts of Database Interaction
Delays due to Multiple Transactions
What can be done?
Tune Hardware Architecture
Tune OS
Tune Data Structures and Indices
Examples of Database Tuning
To normalize or not to
Sacrificing Redundancy Elimination
Sacrificing Dependency Elimination
Several Choices of Normalized Schemas
Vertical Partitioning Applications
Recomputing Indices
Histograms etc. might be outdated
Restricting Uses of Subqueries
Unnesting query blocks by Joins
Declining the Use of Indices
Table Scans for Small Tables
Rule-based optimization: Rewrite A=6 as A+0=6
Provide Redundant Tables
Decision-Support/ Data Mining Queries
120

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CS 5614: Basic Data Definition and Modification in SQL

Structured Query Language (Sequel)

Serves as DDL as well as DML

CS 5614: Basic Data Definition and Modification in SQL

Create a Relation/Table in SQL

CREATE TABLE Students

Support for Basic Data Types

CS 5614: Basic Data Definition and Modification in SQL

And one for Courses

CREATE TABLE Courses

And one for their relationship!

CREATE TABLE takes

Can also provide default values

CREATE TABLE Students

CS 5614: Basic Data Definition and Modification in SQL

DATE and TIME

DROP TABLE Students;

CS 5614: Basic Data Definition and Modification in SQL

Modifying Relation Schemas

Drop an attribute (column)

ALTER TABLE Students DROP login;

Add an attribute (column)

ALTER TABLE Students ADD phone CHAR(7);

What happens to the new entry for the old records?

Always begin with ALTER TABLE <TABLE_Name>

CS 5614: Basic Data Definition and Modification in SQL

How do you enter/modify data?

Cumbersome (use bulk loading; described later)

CS 5614: Basic Data Definition and Modification in SQL

Domains: Similar to Structs and other user-defined types

CREATE DOMAIN Email AS CHAR(8) DEFAULT unknown;

Advantages: can be reused

Can DROP DOMAINS too!

DROP DOMAIN Email;

Affects only future declarations

CS 5614: Basic Data Definition and Modification in SQL

Use PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE

Whats the difference between PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE?

CS 5614: Basic Data Definition and Modification in SQL

Speeds up query processing time

CREATE INDEX indexone ON Students(sid);

How to decide attributes to place indices on?

CS 5614: Basic Data Definition and Modification in SQL

NOT NULL instead of DEFAULT

Can insert a tuple without a value for gpa

NULL will be inserted

gpa REAL NOT NULL);

insert cannot be made!

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CS 5614: Misc. SQL Stuff, Safety in Queries

What is still to be covered

CS 5614: Misc. SQL Stuff, Safety in Queries

What will be mentioned

Read Cow Book or Boat Book

Authorization and Privacy

Trends towards Object Oriented DBMSs

CS 5614: Misc. SQL Stuff, Safety in Queries

Tuple-Based Domain Constraints

CREATE TABLE Students

Note: Implementations vary, but this is the general idea

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