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Purpura PDF
Purpura PDF
ALEXANDER K.C. LEUNG, M.B.B.S., University of Calgary Faculty of Medicine, Alberta, Canada
KA WAH CHAN, M.B.B.S., University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
Purpura is the result of hemorrhage into the skin or mucosal membrane. It may represent a relatively benign condition or herald the presence of a serious underlying
disorder. Purpura may be secondary to thrombocytopenia, platelet dysfunction,
coagulation factor deficiency or vascular defect. Investigation to confirm a diagnosis or to seek reassurance is important. Frequently, the diagnosis can be established
on the basis of a careful history and physical examination, and a few key laboratory tests. Indicated tests include a complete blood cell count with platelet count, a
peripheral blood smear, and prothrombin and activated partial thromboplastin
times. (Am Fam Physician 2001;64:419-28.)
urpura results from the extravasation of blood from the vasculature into the skin or mucous
membranes. Therefore, purpuric
lesions do not blanch with pressure. Depending on their size, purpuric
lesions are traditionally classified as petechiae
(pinpoint hemorrhages less than 2 mm in
greatest diameter), purpura (2 mm to 1 cm)
or ecchymoses (more than 1 cm).1 Although
purpura itself is not dangerous, it may be the
sign of an underlying life-threatening disorder. This article reviews the etiology of purpura in children and suggests an approach to
evaluating the problem.
Normal Hemostasis
The normal hemostatic mechanisms are
vascular response, platelet plug formation and
activation of coagulation factors with the formation of fibrin to stabilize the platelet plug.
Following a vascular injury, vasoconstriction and retraction usually occur immediately
and decrease blood flow to the affected area.
Factor VIIIvon Willebrands factor (factor
VIIIvWF) is released from endothelial cells
and adheres to the exposed collagen matrix.2
Facilitated by factor VIIIvWF, platelets
adhere to the endothelial cells of the damaged
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Coagulation Cascade
Intrinsic pathway
Extrinsic pathway
Tissue
thromboplastin
VII
XIIa
VIIa
XIa
XI
IXa
IX
VIII
Common pathway
X
Prothrombin (II)
Xa + V
Thrombin
Fibrinogen (I)
XIIIa
Fibrin monomer
Fibrin polymer
XIII
Stable fibrin
Clot formation
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The Authors
ALEXANDER K.C. LEUNG, M.B.B.S., is clinical associate professor of pediatrics at the
University of Calgary Faculty of Medicine, pediatric consultant at Alberta Childrens
Hospital and medical director of the Asian Medical Centre, which is affiliated with the
University of Calgary Medical Clinic, all in Alberta, Canada. Dr. Leung is also honorary
pediatric consultant to Guangzhou Childrens Hospital, Peoples Republic of China. Dr.
Leung graduated from the University of Hong Kong Faculty of Medicine and completed an internship at Queen Mary Hospital, Hong Kong. He also completed a residency in pediatrics at the University of Calgary.
KA WAH CHAN, M.B.B.S., is professor of pediatrics at the University of Texas M.D.
Anderson Cancer Center, Houston. Dr. Chan graduated from the University of Hong
Kong Faculty of Medicine and completed an internship at Queen Mary Hospital. In
addition, he completed a residency in pediatrics at Vancouver General Hospital, British
Columbia, Canada, and a residency in pediatric hematology and oncology at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, N.Y.
Address correspondence to Alexander K.C. Leung, M.B.B.S, Alberta Childrens Hospital, 1820 Richmond Road SW, Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2T 5C7. Reprints are not
available from the authors.
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Purpura
Hereditary deficiencies of virtually all coagulation factors have been described, but most
are quite rare. The most commonly encountered disorders are coagulation factor VIII
deficiency, coagulation factor IX deficiency
and von Willebrands disease. Coagulation
factor VIII deficiency and coagulation factor
IX deficiency (hemophilia type A and B) are
inherited as an X-linked recessive trait. Spontaneous hemarthrosis is common in patients
with these deficiencies but is rarely encountered in other coagulation factor deficiencies.
Types I and II von Willebrands disease are
autosomal dominant, whereas type III is autosomal recessive. Type I disease is most common. Its severity is quite variable, and laboratory findings in the individual patient may
vary over time.9
Acquired deficiencies of coagulation factors
may be due to disseminated intravascular
coagulopathy, circulating anticoagulants, liver
disease, vitamin K deficiency or uremia.3
Vascular Factors
CONGENITAL CAUSES
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ACQUIRED CAUSES
TABLE 1
2 to 4 years
4 to 7 years
Onset/chronicity
Acute onset
Long duration
Pattern of bleeding
Mucosal bleeding
Intramuscular and
intra-articular bleeding
Possible etiology
Historical data
Possible etiology
Drug use
Alkylating agents
Thrombocytopenia
Antimetabolites
Thrombocytopenia
Past health
Antecedent viral infection,
especially an upper
respiratory tract infection
Idiopathic thrombocytopenic
purpura, Henoch-Schnlein
purpura
Idiopathic thrombocytopenic
purpura
Liver disease
Henoch-Schnlein purpura
Renal disease
Family history
von Willebrands disease
TAR syndrome
TAR syndrome
Idiopathic thrombocytopenic
purpura, Henoch-Schnlein
purpura, medication,
mechanical cause
Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome
Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome
Abnormality of platelets,
coagulopathy
Maternal history
Maternal idiopathic
thrombocytopenic purpura
Immune thrombocytopenia
Thrombocytopenia,
von Willebrands disease
Immune thrombocytopenia
Hemophilia
Associated symptoms
Abdominal pain, blood
in stools, joint pain
Henoch-Schnlein purpura
Leukemia
Intermittent fever,
musculoskeletal symptoms
Uremia
Idiopathic thrombocytopenic
purpura
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Purpura
TABLE 2
Possible etiology
General findings
Poor growth
Chronic disorder
Fever
Infection
Hypertension
Characteristics of purpura
Location on lower extremities
Henoch-Schnlein purpura
Rickettsial infection
Palpable purpura
Vasculitis
Associated signs
Arthritis, abdominal tenderness,
subcutaneous edema, scrotal
swelling
Henoch-Schnlein purpura
Hemarthrosis
Hemophilia
Lymphadenopathy
Liver disease
Leukemia
Skeletal anomalies
Fanconis syndrome
Telangiectasia
Hyperelasticity of skin,
hypermobility of joints
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome
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Diagnosis of Purpura
History and physical examination
Etiology clear
Etiology unclear
Trauma, drug,
infection,
hemangioma,
malignancy,
syndrome
Thrombocytopenia
No
Yes
Prolonged PT and aPTT
Yes
Sepsis
Disseminated
intravascular
coagulopathy
No
Idiopathic thrombocytopenic
purpura
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome
Thrombotic
thrombocytopenic purpura
Systemic lupus
erythematosus
Bone marrow aplasia
Sequestration of platelets
No
Yes
Coagulation factor
deficiency
von Willebrands
disease
Circulating
anticoagulant
Liver disease
Bleeding time
Normal
Child abuse
von Willebrands
disease
Vascular purpura
Prolonged
Platelet dysfunction
von Willebrands
disease
FIGURE 2. Algorithm for the diagnosis of purpura in children. (PT = prothrombin time; aPTT =
activated partial thromboplastin time)
Adapted with permission from Cohen AR. Rashpurpura. In: Fleisher GA, Ludwig S, et al., eds. Textbook of
pediatric emergency medicine. 3d ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1993:430-8.
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Purpura
Management
The treatment of purpura should always be
directed at its underlying cause. Specific treatment of the various causes of purpura is
beyond the scope of this article but is discussed
in standard pediatric hematology textbooks.9,20
Children with bleeding tendencies generally
should not participate in strenuous activities
or contact sports. In most instances, they
should not receive intramuscular injections.
The use of aspirin and other NSAIDs also
should be avoided. Transfusion of platelets or
coagulation factors may sometimes become
necessary. Genetic counseling is useful in families with inherited bleeding disorders.
The authors thank Dianne Leung and Eleanor Sit for
expert secretarial assistance and Sulakhan Chopra,
University of Calgary Medical Library, Alberta,
Canada, for assistance in preparing the manuscript.
The authors indicate that they do not have any conflicts of interest. Sources of funding: none reported.
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REFERENCES
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