41

Forty First
Annual Meeting 2005
GUADELOUPE
Vol. XXXXI - Number 1
T-STAR - Invasive Species Symposium

PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
41st ANNUAL MEETING
Caribbean Food Crops Society
41st Annual Meeting
10-16 July 2005
Salako Beach Resort
Gosier, Guadeloupe, French Caribbean
Alternatives to High Input Agriculture in the Caribbean : Towards the Elaboration of
Innovative Systems

United States Department of Agriculture,

T-STAR Sponsored Invasive Species Symposium

EMBEDDING A CARIBBEAN INVASIVE SPECIES SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY

WITHIN A REGIONAL INTEGRATION FRAMEWORK : INSTITUTIONAL AND
TECHNICAL ISSUES

Special Workshop Edition

Edited
by
Waldemar Klassen, Carlton G. Davis,
Alain Xand, Claude Vuillaume, and Harry Ozier-Lafontaine

Published by the Caribbean Food Crops Society

 Caribbean Food Crops Society, 2005

ISSN 95-07-0410

Copies of this publication may be obtained from :

Secretariat, CFCS
c/o University of the Virgin Islands
USVI Cooperative Extension Service
Route 02, Box 10,000
Kingshill, St. Croix
US Virgin Islands 00850
or from :
CFCS Treasurer
P.O. Box 506
Isabela, Puerto Rico 00663

Mention of company and trade names does not imply endorsement by the Caribbean Food Crops
Society.
The Caribbean Food Crops Society is not responsible for statements and opinions advanced in its
meeting or printed in its proceedings : they represent the views of the individuals to whom they
are credited and not binding on the Society as a whole.

2005 CFCS BOARD OF DIRECTORS AND OFFICERS

BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Chair :
Vice Chair :
Secretary :
Treasurer :
2005 President :

Dr. Aiberto Beale, University of Puerto Rico

Dr. Guy Anas, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique,
Guadeloupe
Mr. Kofi Boateng, University of the Virgin Islands
Mrs. Aurora Lugo-Lpez, Puerto Rico
Dr. Guy Anas
REGIONAL REPRESENTATIVES

English :
Mr. Kwame Garcia, University of the Virgin Islands
Dr. Richard Harrison, Ministry of Agriculture, Jamaica
Dr. Compton Paul, Food and Agriculture Organization, Honduras
Spanish :
Dr. Wilfredo Coln, Universidad del Este, Puerto Rico
Mr. Jerry Dupuy, Secretaria de Estado de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales,
Dominican Republic
Dr. Alberto Beale, University of Puerto Rico
French :
Dr. Guy Anais, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Guadeloupe
Mr. Marceau Farant, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Guadeloupe
Mr. Xavier Merlini, Association Martiniquaise pour le Dveloppement des Plantes
Alimentaires, Martinique
Dutch :
Dr. Lydia Ori, Centre for Agricultural Research, Suriname
ADVISORY BOARD
Mr. Hiplito Meja, Honorary Member, Dominican Republic
Mrs. Altagracia Rivera de Castillo, Centro para el Desarrollo Agropecuario y Forestal,
Dominican Republic
Dr. Lawrence Lewis, Department of Agriculture, US Vingin Islands
Dr. Alain Xande, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique
Dr. William Bnown, University of Florida
Mr. Angel Castillo, Instituto Dominicano de Investigacin Agropecuaria y Forestal,
Dominican Republic
Dr. Alberto Pantoja, University of Puerto Rico
Dr. Charles McDavid, University of the West Indies
SPECIAL ADVISORS
Dr. Miguel Lugo-Lpez, Special Advisor to the Chairman
Dr. Darshan Padda, Special Advisor to the Chairman for Fund Raising

Caribbean Food Crops Society

41st Annual Meeting
10-16 July 2005
Salako Beach Resort, Gosier, Guadeloupe, French Caribbean
Alternatives to High Input Agriculture in the Caribbean: Towards the Elaboration of
Innovative Systems
United States Department of Agriculture, T-STAR Sponsored Invasive Species Symposium
Embedding a Caribbean Invasive Species Safeguarding Strategy within a Regional
Integration Framework: Institutional and Technical Issues
TABLE OF CONTENTS
WELCOME AND BACKGROUND1
W. F. Brown, Pierre Ehret, Jimmy Cheek, Arlington Chesney, Wendel Parham and
Alberto Beale
SESSION I: INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES
INVASIVE SPECIES SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY AND THE CARICOM
SINGLE MARKET AND ECONOMY (CSME)9
Desiree Field-Ridley and Margaret Kalloo
THE INVASIVE SPECIES SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY WITHIN THE
ALLIANCES FRAMEWORK FOR THE REPOSITIONING OF AGRICULTURE
IN THE REGION THE JAGDEO INITIATIVE...16
Arlington Chesney
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC POTENTIAL AT THE UWI IN SUPPORT
OF A COMPREHENSIVE REGIONAL RISK REDUCTION STRATEGY WITH
RESPECT TO INVASIVE SPECIES21
Ranjit Singh
FACTORING BIODIVERSITY, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND NATURAL RESOURCES
CONSIDERATIONS INTO A REGIONAL SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY...27
Vyju Lopez, Sean Murphy, Marion Seier2, and Moses Kairo

STRATGIE DE LUTTE CONTRE LES ESPCES EXOTIQUES ENVAHISSANTES

DANS LE BASSIN DE LA CARABE: LE POINT DE VUE DES SERVICES DE LA
PROTECTION DES VEGTAUX DES DPARTEMENTS FRANAIS D'AMRIQUE .......34
Pierre Ehret
TOWARDS OPERATIONALIZING THE CARIBBEAN REGIONAL INVASIVE
SPECIES INTERVENTION STRATEGY (CRISIS)..44
Everton Ambrose
SESSION II: TECHNICAL ISSUES
A SYNOPSIS OF THE USDA APHIS CARIBBEAN INVASIVE SPECIES STRATEGIC
PLAN.54
Trang T. Vo, Carolyn Cohen, and C. E. Miller
THE T-STAR SUPPORTED CARIBBEAN BASIN/FLORIDA INVASIVE SPECIES
COORDINATING AND FACILITATING INITIATIVE58
Carlton Davis and Waldemar Klassen
THE T-STAR SUPPORTED TRADE AND INVASIVE SPECIES INITIATIVE..64
John VanSickle, Edward A. Gilly Evans, and Ram Ranjan
UPDATE ON FRENCH CARIBBEAN SAFEGUARDING INVASIVE SPECIES
CIRAD-INRA INITIATIVES.......81
Claude Vuillaume, Pierre-Yves Teycheney, Michel Dollet, Jean Heinrich Daugrois,
Claudie Pavis, Alain Palloix, Cica Urbino, Christian Lavigne, and Thierry Goguey,
Dominique Martinez, Thierry Lefranois et Sophie Molia
TOWARDS A BETTER CON.TROL OF VIRAL CONSTRAINTS HAMPERING THE
MULTIPLICATION AND EXCHANGE OF MUSA GERMPLASM.87
Pierre-Yves Teycheney, M. Folliot, S. Galzi, N. Laboureau, M.-L Caruana, P. Piffanelli,
J.C. Noa Carazzana, Armelle Marais, Laurence Svanella-Dumas, Thierry Candresse et
F.-X. Cte.
STRATEGIES ET METHODES INNOVANTES DEVELOPPEES PAR LA
RECHERCHE DANS LES TERRITOIRES FRANAIS DU PACIFIQUE ET
DE LOCEAN INDIEN OCCIDENTAL POUR LIMITER LIMPACT DES
ESPECES ENVAHISSANTES....89
Nicolas Barr, Thomas Le Bourgeois, Michel de Garine-Wichatitsky, Jacques Tassin,
Vincent Blanfort et Dominique Strasberg
CARIBVET: A TOOL TO FACILITATE CONTROL OF EMERGING AND EXOTIC
ANIMAL DISEASE THREATS.96
Sophie Molia, T. Lefrancois, N. Vachiery, and D. Martinez

vi

UPDATE ON INVASIVE SPECIES INITIATIVES IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC...110

Colmar A. Serra
RESEARCH EFFORTS TO DEAL WITH INVASIVE SPECIES IN THE CARICOM
REGION..125
Dionne Clarke-Harris and F. Bruce Lauckner
A DEMONSTRATION OF DDIS (DISTANCE DIAGNOSTICS AND
IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM) IN PUERTO RICO..135
Consuelo Estevez de Jensen, Ruben Quinonez and Timur M. Momol
REFLECTIONS ON THE SYMPOSIUM..136
Arlington Chesney
SESSION III: TECHNICAL REPORTS
STEPS TOWARD MANAGING THE ARMORED SCALE, ANDASPIS PUNICAE, IN
LITCHII IN FLORIDA AND PUERTO RICO...138
Jorge E. Pena
BIODIVERSIT TROPICALE ET SUBTROPICALE DANS LES ESPACES
INSULAIRES: POUR UNE GESTION DURABLE DE LA BIODIVERSIT DANS
L'OUTRE-MER EUROPEN.149
Philippe Feldmann and N. Barr
DEVELOPMENT OF THRIPS TRAPS FOR FRANKLINIELLA OCCIDENTALIS AND
SCIRTOTHRIPS DORSALIS...151
C. C. Chu, M.A. Ciomperlik, Niann-Tai Chang, Marcus Richards, Tian-Ye Chen, Glenn
Fitzgerald, Barbara Hefne, P. A. Alexander, and T. J. Henneberry
FIELD TRIALS TESTING THE EFFICACY OF 'CC TRAPS' FOR DETECTING AND
MONITORING SCIRTOTHRIPS DORSALIS IN HOT PEPPERS IN ST. VINCENT..156
Matthew A. Ciomperlik, M. Richards, C.C. Chu, and C. Cohen
EVALUATION OF VARIOUS INSECTICIDES IN CONTROLLING CHILLI THRIPS,
SCIRTOTHRIPS DORSALIS HOOD (THYSANOPTERA: THRIPIDAE), ON PEPPER.161
Dakshina R. Seal, M. Ciomperlik, M. L. Richards, and W. Klassen
CURRENT STATUS OF INTRODUCED SPECIES OF ACHATINIDAE AND OTHER
ECONOMICALLY SNAIL AND SLUG PESTS IN THE EASTERN CARIBBEAN..170
David G. Robinson and H. Angela Fields
MITIGATING THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS AND THREATS OF THE CACTUS
MOTH, CACTOBLASTIS CACTORUM (LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE), TO NATIVE
AND CULTIVATED CACTUS IN THE CARIBBEAN AND MEXICO.171
Mayra Perez Sandi Cuen and Helmuth G. Zimmermann.

vii

POSTERS
DON'T LET CACTO BLAST US! : A COOPERATIVE EFFORT TO DETECT AND
TEST CONTAINMENT OF THE CACTUS MOTH, CACTOBLASTIS CACTORUM
(BERG) ON THE US GULF COAST.....181
Joel Floyd, Kenneth A. Bloem, Stephanie Bloem, James E. Carpenter, and Stephen Hight
DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHILLI THRIPS, SCIRTOTHRIPS DORSALIS HOOD
(THYSANOPTERA: THRIPIDAE), IN PEPPER FIELDS ON ST. VINCENT182
D. R. Seal, M. Ciomperlik, M. L. Richards and W. Klassen

viii

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):1-8. 2005

WELCOME AND BACKGROUND
OPENING REMARKS by Dr. William F. Bill Brown, Assistant Dean for Research, Florida
Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Florida, 1022 McCarty Hall, PO BOX 110200,
Gainesville, FL 32611-0200, Phone: 8-1-352-392-1784; Email: WFBrown@ifas.ufl.edu .
Honorable Pierre Ehret, Dr. Cheek, Dr. Chesney, Dr. Parham, Dr. Beale, distinguished
colleagues, ladies and gentlemen. I am very happy to moderate the opening session of this
TSTAR Symposium on Embedding a Caribbean Invasive Species Safeguarding Strategy within
a Regional Integration Framework: Institutional and Technical Issues.
In 1999 TSTAR, the Tropical and Subtropical Agricultural Research program funded by
the U.S. Department of Agriculture sponsored a workshop at Homestead, Florida as a first
attempt to gain an in-depth understanding of invasive species issues. A follow-up workshop was
held in 2001 at the University of Guam. The consensus from these two workshops was that the
alarmingly increased spread of highly damaging invasive species that has accompanied the
globalization of markets and burgeoning growth in trade is doing unprecedented damage to
agriculture and to the natural environment. Consequently the U.S. Congress increased the level
of funding of the TSTAR program to enable greater research support of programs to mitigate
invasive species.
At the 38th annual meeting of the CFCS in Martinique in 2002 the CFCS Board of
Directors took the decision to hold a symposium at the 39th annual CFCS meeting in 2003 in
Grenada on Challenges and Opportunities in Protecting the Caribbean, Latin America and the
United States from Invasive Species; and TSTAR was asked to take the lead in organizing this
symposium. The Grenada TSTAR Symposium made a large stride in formulating a regional
strategy to safeguard the Greater Caribbean Region against invasive species. Also in Grenada
the Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group was formed to work toward the
operationalization of a Greater Caribbean safeguarding strategy. Thus in June 2004 the
Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group conducted a workshop in Port of Spain on
Facilitating Safer US-Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species Issues.
These TSTAR symposia and the workshop highlighted, inter alia, the critical need for
timely and reliable information on invasive species to trigger precautionary and preventive
measures. However to enable the construction of an invasive species information system certain
institutional arrangements must first be put in place.
Thus the main purpose of todays TSTAR symposium is to gain an understanding of
institutional and technical issues that must be taken into account as we chart the way forward in
our efforts to operationalize a regional safeguarding strategy.
Dr. Guy Anais, President of CFCS, invited the Caribbean Invasive Species Working
Group to come to Guadeloupe in February, 2005 to meet with him, the CFCS Program
Committee and the CFCS Local Arrangements Committee. The agenda for this TSTAR
symposium was largely developed during this very pleasant visit.
Finally I wish to acknowledge the hard work of my fellow Caribbean Invasive Species
Working Group members: Everton Ambrose, Carlton Davis, Gilly Evans, Moses Kairo,
Margaret Kalloo, Waldy Klassen, Bruce Lauckner, Aaron Parke, Gene Pollard, Martha Roberts,
Mike Shannon, Ranjit Singh and Claude Vuillaume.

OPENING REMARKS by Mr. Pierre Ehret, Charg de mission pour la rglementation

phytosanitaire des DOM Ministre charg de l'agriculture DGAL/SDQPV, ZAC d'Alco - BP
3056, 34034 MONTPELLIER CEDEX 1, Tel : 33 4 67 10 18 17, email:
pierre.ehret@agriculture.gouv.fr
J'improvise quelques salutations, en l'absence de Mme Sophie Villers, la Directrice Gnrale de
l'Alimentation, puisque je reprsente ici l'une des sous-directions incluses dans la Direction
Gnrale de l'Alimentation, en l'occurrence la Sous-Direction de la Qualit et de la Protection
des Vgtaux.
Les problmatiques lis aux effets nfastes et aux alternatives l'intensification de l'agriculture
de la Carabe sont au cur des activits de cette direction charge de la scurit et de la qualit
des aliments, mais galement des problmatiques de sant animale et de sant des vgtaux, qui
sont de fait trs lies la problmatique alimentaire.
Personnellement, j'aurai l'occasion de prsenter des travaux relatifs la rglementation
phytosanitaire et la protection des territoires et des filires de productions en s'appuyant sur les
analyses de risque phytosanitaire, mais je ne doute pas que des collgues vtrinaires ne
manqueront pas de vous prsenter d 'autres facettes des actions de notre direction gnrale.
Je profite de cette tribune pour remercier les organisateurs de la rencontre, la CFCS et l'INRA et
en particulier leurs directeurs, pour cette invitation et pour l'occasion qui nous est donner de
prsenter notre travail et celui des collgues des Antilles. Merci beaucoup.

Im improvising a greeting, in the absence of Mrs. Sophie Villers, the General Director of the
General Food Directorate, because I represent here one of the divisions included in this
Directorate, the Plant Protection and Plant Quality Division.
Problems connected to the negative effects of intensification on Caribbean agriculture and their
alternatives are in the heart of the activities of this directorate in charge of food safety and food
quality, but also in charge animal health and plant health, which are actually very connected to
the food issues.
Personally, I will have the occasion to present work done in relation with the phytosanitary
regulation and to the protection of territories and agricultural productions with the help of
phytosanitary risk assessment, but I do not doubt that veterinarian colleagues will present you the
other facets of the actions of our Directorate.
I take advantage of this opening speech to thank the organizers of the meeting, for this invitation
and for the opportunity given to us to present our work and the work of the colleagues of the
French West Indies. Thank you very much.

OPENING REMARKS by Dr. Jimmy Cheek, Senior Vice President for Agriculture and
Natural Resources, University of Florida, 1008 McCarty Hall, P.O. Box 110180, Gainesville, FL
32611-0180; email: JGCheek@mail.ifas.ufl.edu .
Distinguished colleagues, Honorable Pierre Ehret, Dr. Chesney, Dr. Parham, Dr. Beale,
ladies and gentlemen. It is a great pleasure for me to participate in this symposium on invasive
species. Invasive species, from both an ecological and an economic perspective, are certainly
very important to the Caribbean and South, Central and North America.
When we look at agriculture and natural resources in Florida, we see that they are
threatened on a daily basis by new and emerging pathogens viruses, bacteria, fungi and by
insects, invasive plants and invasive animals including invasive fish. New introductions of
invasive species into Florida can come about in several ways: First, some of the new
introductions can be attributed to natural events such as hurricanes. Four of these violent storms
struck Florida in 2004, and one of these, Hurricane Ivan, brought Asian soybean rust into
Florida. A second pathway of introduction is international trade and tourism, which in Florida,
as in the Caribbean, involves the arrival of large numbers of visitors and large quantities of
goods; and they are sources of some of the introductions of invasive species from throughout the
world. And then there are the potential acts of bioterrorists. While no catastrophic bioterrorist
attack has occurred in Florida, this certainly is a possibility.
If we look at Florida, we see that during a short period of time a number of invasive pests
have come into our state: sudden oak death, melaleuca, hydrilla, tropical soda apple, air potato,
geranium wilt that affects potatoes, the snakehead fish and other exotic animals. We have also
had much greater spread of citrus canker within Florida as a result of the hurricanes last year. In
addition, the Burmese python and several other species of non-native snakes now live in the
Everglades, and they are becoming major problems in the state of Florida. These are some of the
issues that we face.
Among the concerns that we have as a university are the recognition of the invasive
species within our state and the development of the means to respond to them in appropriate
ways. We need to diagnose them and find out what they are as a basis for coping with them. In
this respect, we have the Plant Diagnostic Laboratory in Gainesville, which serves as the
headquarters of the Southern Plant Diagnostic Network. This network connects the diagnostic
capabilities of the twelve southern states and Puerto Rico and employs distance digital
information technology for engaging experts at various dispersed locations. The network,
centered in IFAS at Gainesville, is very important in making diagnoses, finding out exactly
where these harmful species are located and issuing recommendations on how to manage them.
With respect to the impacts of invasive species in the state of Florida, as well as in the
Caribbean and Latin America, the ecological damage is of very great concern. If you travel
through South Florida, you will see that invasive plants such as melaleuca have taken over the
entire landscape. In addition to tremendous ecological damage, there are also immense
economic impacts, which include both direct losses and costs of control. The control costs are
borne not only by the agricultural sector, but also by the environmental and natural resources
sectors. Recently I participated in a meeting of state agencies and universities in Tallahassee. A
major concern of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection expressed at this meeting
was the urgent need for substantial resources to control invasive species on public lands and in
public bodies of water. We have extensive tracts of natural lands in the state of Florida owned
by our government that are being taken over by hard-to-manage invasive species. We need to
generate scientific information on the effects of invasive species on our ecosystems and develop
technologies for managing and mitigating their impacts.
3

Programs to cope with invasive species must be built on a foundation of public

awareness. Citrus canker is an example of an invasive species problem that many people living
in Floridas cities do not understand. Many urban dwellers do not understand how citrus canker
spreads, nor the great danger it poses to our economy, nor the urgent need to swiftly remove
diseased trees from back yards and destroy them. Consequently, many urban homeowners have
been unwilling to cooperate with the program to eradicate this invasive disease, even though it is
a dire threat to the citrus industry of our state. So public awareness is a critical aspect of the
invasive species issue. We need to gain and communicate a deeper understanding of the invasive
species problem including how to slow or stop the spread of harmful species and of the need
to develop technologies for managing them. In some cases we need to build public support to
fund programs to cope with invasive species, and we need to shore up public resolve to maintain
a campaign once it is started. So the public must be deeply involved in invasive species issues.
If we look at the University of Florida and IFAS, we believe that we are in a unique
location to address these issues along with our colleagues in the Caribbean and Central and
South America. Invasive species are a major concern to our agricultural producers, our natural
resources managers, our university, and our government within the state of Florida, and the
meeting in Tallahassee that I described a moment ago is an example of that. The ecological and
economic impacts of invasive species are immense for the state and for the region, and how we
deal with and resolve this issue will be critical to the future of our agriculture, natural resources
and international programs.
I am delighted to be here to represent the University of Florida. I am delighted to be a
partner with the Caribbean and with Central and South America in addressing this issue, and I
think the number of scientists the university has here is indicative of the priority of the issue, as
is the overall emphasis that the University is placing on invasive species. Thank you very much!
OPENING REMARKS by Dr. H. Arlington D. Chesney, Director, Caribbean Regional Office
and Adviser to the Director General, Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture,
IICA Headquarters, San Jose, Costa Rica. Phone 506-216-02-22; FAX: 506-216-02 58;
Arlington.Chesney@iica.int .
Mr. Chairman, Honourable Pierre Ehret, Professor Brown, Professor Jimmy Cheek, Dr.
Parham, Dr. Beale, a special salutation to the agricultural scientists of the Caribbean on whose
shoulders a significant responsibility resides for the repositioning of agriculture in the Region,
members of the media, other distinguished ladies and gentlemen, Good Morning.
First of all, let me apologise for the absence of my Director General, Dr. Chelston
Brathwaite, who because of last minute changes to his schedule of visits throughout the
Caribbean had to leave the lovely island of Guadeloupe this morning. However, he has asked me
to assure you that IICAs support for not only this Symposium Session but indeed the entire
Invasive Species Initiative remains steadfast and unwavering.
Mr. Chairman, this support is natural to IICA, as our official involvement with Invasive
Species is longstanding. It dates back to 1977, when the VIIth Inter-American Conference of
Agriculture in Honduras expressed its concern regarding the pest and disease problems of plants
and animals throughout the Western Hemisphere.
Immediately, in 1978 based on our client-led approach to the development of our Work
Programme, a Special Committee of the 18th Annual Meeting of our Board of Governors
recommended that the Institute develop a proposal to establish a mechanism to coordinate
Hemispheric efforts to fight pests and diseases of animals and plants that were causing
significant economic losses. Consequently, IICA established a Hemispheric Animal and Plant
4

Protection Programme to prevent, control and, if possible, eradicate pests and diseases which (i)
cause economic damage to plants and animals in the Hemisphere and (ii) threaten to spread from
one region to the other within the Hemisphere. This second objective in a true sense is dealing
with Invasive Species, which I am advised, are defined as species that evolved elsewhere and
have been intentionally or unintentionally relocated. As such, Mr. Chairman, IICA has been
addressing the issue of Invasive Species, as part of a well respected and established Agricultural
Health Programme in the Caribbean, for over a quarter of a century.
Within the last decade, our focus has sharpened as a consequence of the invasion into the
Regions agricultural sector of Hibiscus Mealy Bug, Papaya Mealy Bug, Fire Ants, Giant
African Snail, Black Sigatoka and Water Hyacinth; the knowledge that these invasions could
escalate with increased trade due to globalisation and trade liberalization, with the greater
movement of people due to a growing tourism industry in the Caribbean; and with the greater
frequency of hurricanes acting as a mechanism for spread.
(i) Consequently, in the sharpening of this focus, with as appropriate, the support of some
of our Strategic Partners, such as the CARICOM Secretariat, FAO, and PAHO, we
initiated a number of actions: (ii) An assessment of countries capabilities in animal and plant health;
(iii) Based on these national assessments, sensitisation of the scientific and political
community of the need to address the institutional and infrastructural deficiencies
that were identified.
(iv) Promotion of the concept of the Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food Safety
Agency (CAHFSA) that will be supportive and add value to effective and
functioning National Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agencies or Systems; and
(v) Advocating the notion of the need for countries to shift emphasis in the prevention of
entry of pests and diseases from borders inwards to borders outwards.
We were therefore very pleased when the USDA in 1999, through its Tropical and SubTropical Agricultural Research (T-STAR) Programme, recognized the major challenges posed to
Caribbean countries by Invasive Species and the need for concerted action, and organized a
Workshop on Mitigating the Effects of Exotic Pests on Trade and Agriculture Part A: The
Caribbean. In Keeping with our previous work, we presented a paper entitled, Assessment of
the Plant Health Systems in the Caribbean.
Mr. Chairman, I have chronicled IICAs involvement in this area, to exemplify why it
was so easy for us to become totally involved in this recent set of actions, led by the University
of Florida, to rekindle efforts to deal with the threat of Invasive Species in a coordinated fashion.
With Everton Ambrose very effectively leading our charge, we have been actively involved in all
of the Symposia, Workshops and Working Group meetings starting with the Symposium held at
the 39th Meeting of the Caribbean Food Crops Society in 2003 in Grenada. Further, along with
CABI, we have worked on the development of the Strategy Document Caribbean Regional
Invasive Species Intervention Strategy (CRISIS). Today, Everton Ambrose, on behalf of the
Invasive Species Working Group (CISWG) will present on a very important subject, Some
ideas on the operationalisation of CRISIS. That is, how to move from paper and talk to Action.
Mr. Chairman, let me close by repeating that at least under this Administration, IICAs
support to the Invasive Species Initiative is irrevocable. We see it as an important plank in the
efforts of Caribbean Countries to facilitate the competitiveness of their agricultural commodities
in national, regional and extra regional markets. However, for this Initiative to live up to this
expectation there is need for national, regional, hemispheric and international institutions to have
one vision, an agreed set of goals and outputs and a clear understanding of the required efforts,
singly and jointly. We recommend to you our slogan, Working Together. In this way we will
eliminate institutional and national borders and recognize only ecological borders.
5

Mr. Chairman, thank you very much and we trust that with Gods Blessings the results of
this Symposium will contribute significantly to enhancing the quality of life of our peoples.
OPENING REMARKS by Dr. Wendel Parham, Executive Director, Caribbean Agricultural
Research and Development Institute (CARDI), P.O. Bag 212, University Campus, St Augustine,
Trinidad and Tobago. Phone: +1 868 645 1205/6/7; Fax: +1 868 645 6357;
executive@cardi.org .
Thank you Mr. Chairman Professor William F Brown, University of Florida/IFAS. Honourable
Pierre Ehret, Charge de mission DOM, Mission de Cooperation Phytosanitaire, Ministry of
Agriculture, France, Dr Alberto Beale, CFCS/University of Puerto Rico, Professor Jimmy Cheek
Senior Vice President, University of Florida, Dr Arlington Chesney, Director for Caribbean
Operations and Advisor to the Director General of IICA, Participants, Colleagues, Ladies and
Gentlemen: A very pleasant Good Morning!
It is a pleasure for me to be here and to join others at the Head Table in welcoming you to
this T-Star Invasive Species Symposium Session which is a part of our 41st Annual Meeting of
the Caribbean Food Crops Society.
This special workshop entitled Embedding a Caribbean Invasive Species Safeguarding
Strategy within a Regional Integration Framework: Institutional and Technical Dimensions is
sponsored by the USDA-funded Tropical and Subtropical Agricultural Research (TSTAR)
Program of the Universities of Florida, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. On behalf of CFCS
and CARDI, I wish to thank the Principals of the TSTAR programme for this kind sponsorship
and to consider this CFCS Meeting as an appropriate Forum.
At this time, I once again convey greetings on behalf of the CARDI family (The Boards
of Governors and Directors and the staff of CARDI) and on my own behalf. As you may be
aware CARDI has been actively involved with the work on Invasive Alien Species in the Region
and maintains a special interest in this area as we seek to protect and sustain agricultural
production and trade in agricultural and food products.
Most of the flora and fauna we see around us in the Caribbean are invasive in some
sense or other, and this includes humans who either invaded the area, were brought into the area,
or migrated to the area for various reasons including political, economic, social and other. Very
little of the Region is as Columbus found it 500 years ago; the small land area of most islands
has ensured that human influence has been able to penetrate, settle and cultivate all but few small
areas of original forest mainly in the larger, more mountainous islands.
There is no doubt that human influence has been responsible for the introduction of most
invasive species, many have been deliberate introductions. Animals were introduced for food
and domestic use; plants were introduced for food and ornamental purposes. The mongoose was
introduced as an early form of biological control. CAB International listed 552 species as alien
to the Caribbean Region and noted that 23 species were considered to becoming major invasive
threats.
Although not all the deliberate introductions of species have had the expected benefits,
the accidental introductions have rarely been beneficial and have quite often been quite
catastrophic. A good example of this was the Pink Mealy Bug (PMB) invasion of the mid 1990s.
Somehow a few Pink Mealy Bugs were accidentally imported into Grenada and within a very
short time period the whole island was very highly infested and many ornamental and food
crops, notably hibiscus, ochro and sorrel were wiped out.
CARDI was very proud to have been in the forefront of the successful regional fight
against the PMB. We sourced the expertise in the form of Dr Gautam from India. Dr Gautam
indicated and demonstrated the biological control methods necessary; laboratories to multiply the
6

biological control agents were set up in Grenada and other infected countries and the problem,
which at one time seemed set to destroy the environment of the region, was brought under
control. The coconut lettuce yellowing, the carambola fruit fly, the Giant African Snail and
Asian Chilli thrips are current major concerns.
The PMB experience demonstrated to the general public how dangerous invasive species
can be. It also was one of the prompts behind the Caribbean Food Crops Society organising a
seminar on invasive species during its 39th meeting in Grenada in 2003.
Out of this seminar came a working group on Invasive Species, which CARDI has been
very proud to chair. Our agreement with the University of Florida (UF) has facilitated the very
efficient functioning of this working group, as UF has thrust considerable human and financial
resources into the group. As most people know the group comprises (besides CARDI and UF),
CABI, CARICOM, CIRAD, FAO, Florida A&M University (FAMU), IICA, and UWI.
A product of this working group is the drafting of a document entitled Caribbean
Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy (CRISIS) which was drafted by IICA (thanks
to Everton Ambrose), by UF (thanks Gilly Evans) and the other members of the group. The
CARICOM Secretariat presented it to COTED and COTED mandated CARDI to circulate the
document for comments to the CARICOM Governments. This is work in progress.
This group led by CARDI, also organised the workshop entitled: Facilitating Safer US
Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species Issues Workshop with funding from CDB, UF, IICA, FAO.
This was held on 2-4 June, 2004 in Trinidad and Tobago and participants from English, French,
Spanish, Caribbean, US, Europe and South Africa attended. An output of that Workshop was a
resolution signed by UWI, CARDI, IICA, CABI and UF and sent to governments of the
Caribbean Basin countries sensitising them on the issue of invasive species.
Another output of the working group is this session being held here today at this 41st
Annual meeting of the CFCS. We are thankful to CFCS for allowing us this opportunity. The
working group is also holding meetings and discussions during the time we are all here in
Guadeloupe. I wish to recognise and thank our colleagues in the group for their dedication and
hard work in this most important area.
I am looking forward to hearing the presentations today and I am sure that we are all
going to learn a lot to apprise ourselves of the situation with respect to Invasive Alien Species
and will be better prepared to carry the work forward.
Once again, welcome and do enjoy and participate in the deliberations. I thank you!
OPENING REMARKS by Dr. Alberto Beale, Agronomy and Soils Department, University of
Puerto Rico, Botanic Garden South, Guayacan Street 1193, San Juan, PR 00926-1118
Phone: (787)-767-9705 x 2165; Email a_beale@upr.edu .
Distinguished colleagues, Honorable Pierre Ehret, Dr. Cheek, Dr. Chesney, Dr. Parham,
ladies and gentlemen.
The Caribbean Food Crops Society is delighted to host this second symposium on
invasive species. Recently I read the Proceedings of the first annual meeting of the Caribbean
Food Crops Society held 40 years ago, and it records discussions by members of the Society
concerning important problem areas in which they could work together. And one of the areas
identified for working together was invasive speciesinsects and other pests that were invading
the Region. So it is synergistic to first have TSTAR and now the larger Caribbean Invasive
Species Working Group to come and join us in a symposium on this common problem.
Our Society offers the 39 Nations, Territories and States in the Greater Caribbean Basin
as an audience for this invasive species symposium. I would like to mention an area that we

should emphasize, and that is institutional collaboration. Indeed greater and more effective
institutional collaboration is one of the aims of this specific invasive species symposium.
So I heartily welcome all of you to this symposium, and already I can announce that next
year at the 42nd annual meeting of the Caribbean Food Crops Society in Puerto Rico we will have
a follow-up symposium on this particular topic.

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):9-15. 2005

SESSION I: INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES
INVASIVE SPECIES SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY AND THE CARICOM SINGLE
MARKET AND ECONOMY (CSME)
Ms. Desiree Field-Ridley1 and Ms. Margaret Kalloo2. 1 CARICOM Single Market and Economy
Unit, CARICOM Secretariat, Turkeyen, Greater Georgetown, Guyana, Phone: 592 222 0001
0075, dfr@CARICOM.org ; 2Agricultural Development Unit, CARICOM Secretariat, Turkeyen,
Greater Kingston, Guyana S.A. Phone: 592 225 2961-5, Fax: 592 225 7341,
mkalloo@CARICOM.org .
ABSTRACT. The threats from invasive species could increase for CARICOM Member States
with the increase in movement of people and trade in goods within the CARICOM Single
Market and Economy, and from arrangements for greater liberalisation in the wider Caribbean,
the Hemisphere, and in the current international trade arena. The likelihood of increased threats
also arises from the aggressive pursuit of tourism by CARICOM countries. Weak sanitary and
phytosanitary systems and infrastructure and scarce human and physical resources in CARICOM
countries exacerbate this risk. Effective safeguarding cannot be achieved individually and must
be based on smart use of the regions resources to formulate policy measures. A mix of policy
prescriptions for safeguarding against invasive species in the CSME must be based on a holistic
approach to the principles of prevention, eradication and management. Strategies for monitoring
and active surveillance which provide early detection for the prevention of the introduction of
more invasive species in the Region must be developed. Modernisation of legislation and
strengthening of the national capacity and capability of Member States to identify, analyse and
take preventative measures must be prioritised at the regional and national levels. Harmonisation
and/or convergence of measures, guidelines protocols and laws must occur. Effective
partnerships must be fostered among individuals and across all relevant, departments, institutions
and organisations at the national, regional and international levels and the public and private
sectors must become intimately involved in any safeguarding initiatives with respect to the
threats of invasive species. The proposed Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food Safety
Agency (CAHFSA) is intended to take a lead role in the development of policies, programmes
and projects that would strengthen the systems and infrastructure of CARICOM Member States
thereby instituting some of the much needed safeguards against alien invasive species.
KEY WORDS: Trade liberalisation, sanitary and phytosanitary systems, legislation,
harmonisation, CAHFSA, Regional Transformation Programme, holistic approach
INTRODUCTION
The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) comprises of 15 Member States which can be
characterised as small vulnerable and developing economies. Until recently the traditional
primary agricultural export crops of bananas, sugar and rice were prime sources of foreign
exchange for some of the CARICOM States particularly Belize, Guyana and the Eastern
Caribbean States. Today, except for Guyana, the contribution of agriculture to the Gross
Domestic Product of these States is generally less than twenty percent. The countries are net
importers of food with the exclusion of Guyana. Services and tourism have become increasingly
significant contributors to Gross Domestic Product and foreign exchange earnings. Except for
9

Guyana, services account for more than seventy percent (70%) of GDP at the national level. In
Trinidad and Tobago, agricultures contribution to GDP is relatively insignificant compared to
that of petroleum, natural gas and petrochemicals1.
In general, the countries enjoy a rich diversity of tropical flora and fauna, cuisine, culture
and political stability. These assets provide the basis for a prosperous tourist industry including
prime prospects for ecotourism in territories such as Belize, Guyana, Jamaica, and Suriname.
Within the context of increased trade in agricultural products, movement of people and cargo, the
threats from invasive species introductions must be seen as an important factor which can impact
negatively on the economic well being of CARICOM States.
The Caribbean Community Member States are bound by the Treaty of Chaguaramas and
its revision which provides for the establishment of the CARICOM Single Market and Economy
(CSME). The Treaty set forth the primary objectives for the agricultural sector and the
implementation of regional policy is guided by the Regional Transformation Programme for
Agriculture (RTP). The execution of the RTP has recently being given a further thrust by the
recently proposed strategy which directly addresses several key binding constraints in the
agricultural sector of the Community. It includes the issues of agricultural health and food safety
and its links with the transportation and tourism sub-sectors.
INITIATIVES TO COPE WITH INVASIVE SPECIES
An alien invasive species is a species, which when introduced to an area outside of its normal
ecological range, causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm, or harm to human
health. Invasive or alien species can have serious economic, environmental, and socio-economic
impacts on agricultural and other ecosystems. Many of these species are characterized by their
adaptability to new environments making them competitive against native species. Alien
invasive species respect neither a countrys boundaries nor its legislative enforcements, whether
weak or strong.
There are a number of international initiatives including conventions, organisations, and
programmes that address various facets or issues related to alien invasive species. Among these
is the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity, United Nations Environment Programme,
CAB International (CABI) and the 1997 Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP). GISP is a
partnership with a mission to conserve biodiversity and sustain human livelihoods by minimizing
the spread and impact of invasive species. In the first phase of its programme the global invasive
species problem has been assessed and toolkits for policy, regulation, prevention and
management have been developed. Phase II is now underway to engage and inform
governments and to stimulate action and cooperation nationally, between governments and
between sectors (e.g. environment and agriculture) to address invasive alien species threats.
It is known that invasive species can negatively impact on agriculture, aquaculture,
floriculture, forestry and tourism, and reduce the value and usage of land and waterways.
Invasive species can damage buildings, including farm structures, and stored products. Aquatic
invasives can obstruct waterways, disrupt transportation and affect the mechanical operations of
irrigation pumps and other such machinery and equipment. Their effects can manifest in the
reduction of productivity of plants and animals and reduce the saleable value of products and
commodities. Their effects with regards to humans cannot be over-emphasised when we
consider recent pandemics such as avian influenza.
While invasive species may impact on human health, as carriers of disease causing
organisms, agents and their vectors, invasive species are also considered to be the greatest threat
TP

1
PT

CARICOMs Selected Economic Indicators. CARICOM Secretariat

10

to biodiversity in geographically and evolutionarily isolated systems such as islands of the

Caribbean that are well known for its rich biodiversity in flora and fauna and capitalises on this
for its tourism.
Cognisant of the impact of invasive species with respect to the environment and the
associated linkages with sustainable development issues, the 1992 United Nations Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) calls on signatory nations which includes, ten of the fifteen
CARICOM Member States to "prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate those alien
species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species."
INCREASING VULNERABILITY OF THE CARIBBEAN TO INVASIVE SPECIES
Perhaps, the best known introduction of an invasive species in CARICOM in time gone
by, is that of the Small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus), which was deliberately
imported by Jamaican authorities for use as a biological control agent against rats in sugar cane
fields. Such was its adaptability to the environment that it has subsequently been linked to the
extinction of five endemic species including one rodent species, one lizard species and two
species of birds2. A more recent example of an invasive species in CARICOM countries is that
of the Pink Hibiscus Mealy Bug (Maconellicoccus hirsutus) with prevalence in Grenada and
Trinidad and Tobago and now in the wider Caribbean. One of the features of this invasion was
the rapidity with which it spread. Hard lessons were leant by both countries with respect to
pathways, management and preparedness and much has been subsequently documented. Other
known examples of invasive species in the Region include the citrus black fly, mango seed
weevil and the tropical bont tick.
There are a number of factors which predispose CARICOM countries to the risk of entry
of invasive species. All Member States of the Community are signatory to the WTO-GATT
Agreement and the Agreement on Agriculture and are therefore obliged to grant increased
market access for goods. Inherent in increased market access is the increased risk of entry of
pest and diseases across the borders of countries. Increased trade translates into increased
introduction and movement of packaging material, plant and plant products, biologicals, animal
and animal products, fish and fish products, plant and animal ornamentals, pets, insects and their
larvae, and humans, all of which are pathways for invasive species. Weak sanitary and
phytosanitary systems and infrastructure and scarce human and physical resources in CARICOM
Countries exacerbate this risk and herein lies the fundamental problem and challenge to
CARICOM countries in safeguarding against the threats of invasive species.
To add to this problem, international standards setting bodies are moving towards
increased market access in new and innovative ways with respect to the application of science in
the removal of barriers to trade. These standard setting initiatives are opening new channels
whereby agricultural products which were previously denied entry by many developing
countries, by virtue of their legislation, can gain access in the near future. For example, the
concept of compartmentalisation being considered by the WTO-SPS Committee and introduced
by the OIE (know as the World Animal Health Organization) would allow meat and meat
products to be exported from specific enterprises or operations within countries with known
incidence of diseases including those such as BSE and Avian Influenza. Of course, the
enterprise wishing to export must provide evidence of established bio security measures for
scrutiny by the importing country.

TP

Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Threats in the Caribbean Region REPORT TO THE NATURE CONSERVANCY.
Moses Kairo and Bibi Ali CAB INTERNATIONAL Caribbean and Latin American Regional Centre Trinidad and Tobago,
Oliver Cheesman, Karen Haysom and Sean Murphy CABI Bioscience UK Centre.
PT

11

The application of this concept is currently confined to an entire region or zone within the
country desirous of exporting. Therefore, depending on the situation, compartmentalisation can
be an advantage or a serious threat to importing countries and the issue of trust between trade
partners plays a fundamental role in the trade equation. Therefore, in the present trading
environment, increasing pressure is being placed on the inspection, monitoring, surveillance and
detection, and the disease disaster preparedness systems of CARICOM Member States in order
to safeguard the human, plant and animal health population, natural habitats and the
environment.
CSME WILL INCREASE VULNERABILITY TO INVASIVE SPECIES
The threats from invasive species increase for CARICOM Member States due to the
likely increase in movement of people and trade in goods within the CARICOM Single Market
and Economy (CSME), and from arrangements for greater liberalisation in the wider Caribbean,
the Hemisphere, and the current international trade negotiations arena. The likelihood of
increased threats also arises from the aggressive pursuit of tourism by countries in CARICOM.
The CSME is a concept which is designed to represent a single economic space where
people, goods, services and capital can move freely among CARICOM Member States and is
based on the prerequisite of harmonisation and coordination of social, economic and trade
policies by participating Member States. The Single Market is expected to come into full effect
by January 2006. The Single Economy in which there will be convergence of macroeconomic
policies and integration of regional sectoral policies in the Community is expected to be
established in 2008. The CSME is seen as an important platform for the regions trade and
economic linkages with the rest of the world.
Within the framework of the CSME, preventive and management safeguards, policies
and legislation related to invasive species threats at the national level vary considerably amongst
CARICOM countries. The status of legislation (agriculture, health and transportation) varies
among countries and it is doubtful whether current legislation has been scrutinised specifically
with respect to invasive species. For example legislation, in agriculture and to some extent
human health, is being upgraded and strengthened for plant and animal health and food safety
insofar as achieving the basic international sanitary and phytosanitary standards, guidelines and
measures.
In regards to policy on biodiversity and sustainable development, some countries such as
the Bahamas, Belize, Jamaica, St. Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago have a defined biodiversity
policy while others have none, or at best, are in the rudimentary stages of development.
INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANISATION ACTS TO LIMIT SPREAD OF
INVASIVE SPECIES
In the maritime and air transportation sub-sectors in CARICOM, legislation, measures
and guidelines have not as yet been upgraded specifically with respect to invasive species.
However, the International Civil Aviation Organisation of which all CARICOM Member States
except Dominica are members, adopted at its 35th Assembly in 2004, Resolution A35-19:
Preventing the introduction of invasive alien species which recognizes the threat to biological
diversity posed by invasive alien species and that international transportation, including civil air
transportation, represents a potential pathway for the introduction of invasive alien species. In
this regard, the Resolution urges all Contracting States to support one another's efforts to reduce
the risk of introducing, through civil air transportation, potentially invasive alien species to areas
outside their natural range and requested the ICAO Council to continue to work with the
12

appropriate concerned organizations to identify approaches that ICAO might take in assisting to
reduce the risk of introducing potentially invasive alien species to areas outside their natural
range.
Maritime transport regulations for the prevention of pollution by garbage from ships are
stated in the Protocol of 1978 and relates to the International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships (1973), as amended (MARPOL) 73/78). This Protocol entered into force in
1983 and as of December 2003 has been acceded to by all CARICOM states except Grenada and
Haiti. Although most countries might have enabling legislation, many do not have the capacity
to monitor or enforce the proper disposal of garbage from cruise ships and leisure crafts whilst at
sea or anchored off shore. The capacity to monitor or enforce the proper disposal of garbage may
also apply to aircrafts. Another issue is the spraying of insecticides on board aircrafts on
international flights. This practice sometimes appears to be ineffective insects and flies are
sometimes seen alive on arrival at the destination. Indeed, the Resolution A35-19 adopted by the
ICAO Assembly provides the avenue for collaborative efforts to minimise the threats of invasive
species in CARICOM Member States and for the interfacing of Member States with the global
community.
NEED FOR AN HOLISTIC APPROACH TO MEET THREATS OF INVASIVE SPECIES;
BOTH INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE EFFORTS ARE REQUIRED
In the context of the CSME, the mix of policy prescriptions for safeguarding against
Invasive Species in CARICOM countries must therefore be based on a holistic approach to the
principles of prevention, management and eradication. Eradication initiatives can be onerous
and costly. Management efforts and preventative measures must be targeted at the country level
and at the regional level and synchronised with the global initiatives.
One of the key strategies for implementing policy measures for invasive species
safeguard must be based on an assessment of current legislation and enforcement measures
which exist, with the aim being to update and modernise the legislative framework specifically to
address safeguarding against invasive species. Legislation with respect to animal health, plant
health and food safety should also be reviewed in like manner. Legislation with respect to
transportation (ballast water) and ship garbage disposal should also be targeted for review.
Legislation with regard to watershed and forestry management, preservation and conservation
should be addressed, notwithstanding the obligations imposed by the Convention on Biodiversity
and the Barbados Plan of Action.
Review and upgrade of legislation in itself is however only half the measure. For those
areas requiring enforcement, stringent monitoring and policing of the measures must be effected.
Further, legislation is again only as good as the infrastructure for enforcement of the legislation.
Systems and infrastructure must be put in place to support the legislation so too the necessary
trained human resource pool and the finances to effect and support the legislation.
The strategy for prevention, eradication and management/control, should be based on
both individual and collective efforts. Partnerships among Member States and partnerships with
regional and international agencies and groups should be vigorously fostered and pursued. In the
matter of invasive species within CARICOM, we should seek to be our neighbours keepers.
More cohesive use and sharing of the tools of risk assessments, baseline data, and systematic
surveillance and early warning systems, should be pursued. Attention should be paid to the
pathways of introduction inclusive of ballast water disposal, packaging materials and their
disposal, and last ports of entry by humans.

13

CARICOMS INITIATIVES TO HARMONISE MEASURES VS INVASIVES

The Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas, which provides the legal framework for the
establishment of the CSME, calls for harmonised regimes regarding legislation, sanitary and
phytosanitary measures, guidelines, standards, and technical regulations, consumer protection
amongst others. In this context, Institutions of CARICOM such as the Caribbean Environmental
Health Institute (CEHI)3 and the Caribbean Regional Organisation for Standards and Quality
(CROSQ)4 have been established and are currently assisting in some areas of the harmonisation
process particularly with respect to development and standardisation of technical procedures and
protocols. The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, another Institute of
the Community, is currently targeted to assist in the invasive species initiative through its
research capacity. These Institutions can provide direct and indirect support infrastructure to the
initiatives regarding invasive species.
To address the issues at the regional and national levels regarding the strengthening of
agricultural health and food safety systems and infrastructure inclusive of sanitary and
phytosanitary measures, the Community has been given the green light for the establishment of a
Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agency (CAHFSA). This Agency is charged
with the responsibility for coordinating all matters related to animal health, plant health and food
safety including sanitary and phytosanitary measures. In that context, the agency is charged with
assisting in the modernization and harmonization of legislation, development of databases,
development of monitoring and surveillance programmes, development of risk assessment cadre
of personnel, at the regional level. The Institution is also mandated to assist Member States in
the development and strengthening of their national agricultural health and food safety systems
including, building laboratory capacity and capability, training of port quarantine personnel,
developing and harmonise procedures and protocols such as for port inspection and the like, and
development of databases among other responsibilities5.
STRENGTHENING CARICOMS BORDERS
The approach to safeguarding against invasive species within the framework of the
CSME lies in strengthening CARICOM borders through an informed and effective briefcase of
policy measures. This must include inter alia the development of a regional strategy for invasive
species with provisions for the modernisation and harmonisation of national legislation across
ministries of health, agriculture, transportation and tourism, forestry and natural resources, and in
fostering and building effective partnerships with international regional and national agencies
such as Ministries of Finance and Planning, and encouraging the participation of private sector
and non-government groups so that systems and infrastructure which guard the borders could be
strengthened.
In this context the Community has taken its first step in the building of partnerships and
actively developing regional policy for invasive species. A draft Caribbean Regional Invasive
Species Intervention Strategy (CRISIS)6 initially formulated by the Caribbean Food Crops
Society, advanced by the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA) and
3

More information provided at: www.cehi.org

More information provided at: www.crosq.org
5 th
7 Revised Feasibility Study for the Establishment of the Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agency.
CARICOM Secretariat, FAO, IICA and PAHO. May 2005.
6
CRISIS: A proposed framework for enhanced cooperation and effective actions to safeguard the agriculture,
natural resources and human health of the individual countries, states, nations or islands in the Caribbean Region
from the serious threat and damages of Invasive Alien Species (IAS).
TP

PT

PT

TP

PT

TP

TP

PT

14

CABI has recently been refined in partnership with CAB International (CABI), CARDI, the
CARICOM Secretariat, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO),
University of Florida (UF), and University of the West Indies (UWI), and some technicians of
CARICOM Member States. The draft has been circulated to governments of CARICOM
Member States for their comments and after further refinements, will be tabled for the
consideration at the next meeting of the Council for Trade and Economic Development7 in 2006.
The COTED, cognisant of the importance of the issues of invasive species has endorsed the
proposed activities of the Working Group on Invasive species comprising of CABI, CARDI,
CARICOM Secretariat, CIRAD, FAO, Florida A&M University (FAMU), IICA, UF and UWI,
and has requested further reports including an update on the development of fundable
programmes and projects for the monitoring, management and control of invasive species.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, safeguarding measures for invasive species within the context of the CARICOM
and the CSME must be approached in a holistic manner. Effective safeguarding cannot be
achieved individually and must be based on smart use of the regions resources to formulate
policy measures. Regional Institutions (in particular CAHFSA) of CARICOM and Member
States must work together to create the synergies and maximise the scarce resources in this
initiative in partnership with the international organisations that foster development in the
Community such as CABI, FAO, PAHO, and IICA. Strategies for monitoring and active
surveillance which provides early detection for the prevention of introduction of more invasive
species in the Region must be developed. Modernisation of legislation (agriculture,
environment, transport and tourism) and strengthening of the national capacity and capability of
Member states to identify, analyse and take preventative measures must be prioritised at the
regional and national levels. Harmonisation and/or convergence of measures, guidelines and
laws and protocols must occur. Effective partnerships must be fostered across all relevant
individuals, departments, institutions and organisations at the national, regional and international
levels and finally the public and private sectors must become intimately involved in any
safeguarding initiatives with respect to the threats of invasive species.
REFERENCES
Kairo, M.T.K.; Ali, B.; Cheesman, O.; Haysom, K and Murphy, S. (2003). Invasive species
threats in the Caribbean Region. Report to The Nature Conservancy. CAB International.
134 pp.

TP

7
PT

COTED: Ministerial policy making forum within CARICOM.

15

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):16-20. 2005

THE INVASIVE SPECIES SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY WITHIN THE ALLIANCES
FRAMEWORK FOR THE REPOSITIONING OF AGRICULTURE IN THE REGION
THE JAGDEO INITIATIVE
Dr. H. Arlington D. Chesney, Director, Caribbean Regional Office and Adviser to the Director
General, Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture, IICA Headquarters, San Jose,
Costa Rica. Phone 506-216-02-22; FAX: 506-216-02 58; Arlington.Chesney@iica.int .
ABSTRACT: The Alliance for the Sustainable Development of Agriculture and the Rural
Milieu in the Wider Caribbean is a forum to enable dialogue and the creation of a common
vision and agreed goals and objectives for agricultural and rural development in the Caribbean.
The Conference of Heads of Government (CHG) authorized Mr. Bharat Jagdeo, President of
Guyana, to launch the Jagdeo Initiative on the development and implementation of a process that
would result in the resurgence of agricultural potential in member countries, individually and
collectively. Through this Initiative ten major key Binding Constraints on agricultural
development in the Caribbean have been identified, and corresponding remedial actions required
at the national and regional levels have been prescribed. Examples of constraints and remedial
actions that would assist in the combat of invasive species include the following: Constraint No.
1: Limited Financing and Inadequate New Investments; remedial actions: (a) establish an
Agricultural Modernization Fund (AMF), and (b) define CARICOMs Agri-Food Needs at 2005
to 2015 to identify investment opportunities (incl. tourism); Constraint No. 2: Deficient and
uncoordinated risk management measures including Praedial Larceny; remedial actions: (a)
operate a disaster fund within the AMF, and (b) support mandatory farmer and fresh produce
trader registration; Constraint No. 4: Outdated and inefficient Agriculture Health and Food
Safety Systems; remedial actions: (a) provide funds from AMF to operationalise CAHFSA and
national agencies or systems, (b) strengthen the legislative and regulatory trade framework
through establishment of CAHFSA and National Agencies or Systems, and (c) collective
financing of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points
(HACCP) protocols to improve industry competitiveness.
KEY WORDS: binding constraints, Agricultural Modernization Fund, CAHFSA, Good
Agricultural Practices (GAP), Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) protocols
INTRODUCTION
I have been asked by the Organisers of the Symposium to position the Invasive Species
Safeguarding Strategy (ISSS) within the Agricultural Alliances Jagdeo Initiative. I believe that
most of you know of the ISSS and, if you do not know, by 4:30 pm this afternoon you will
certainly do. Accordingly, this is one element of the presentation that I do not need to define and
/or describe. However, I believe that I do need to provide some background information for the
other two elements, the Alliance and the Jagdeo Initiative. This is especially so for nonCARICOM members.

16

ALLIANCE FOR THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND THE

RURAL MILIEU IN THE WIDER CARIBBEAN
Firstly, the Alliance or to give its complete name, the Alliance for the Sustainable
Development of Agriculture and the Rural Milieu in the Wider Caribbean. This is a Forum that
has been conceptualized by IICA to enable dialogue and the creation of a common vision and
agreed upon goals and objectives by the major stakeholders involved in agricultural and rural
development in the Caribbean. The members are the Forum of Ministers of Agriculture (that
provides the Chairman), the Caribbean Agribusiness Association (CABA), the Caribbean
Council for Higher Education in Agriculture (CACHE), the Caribbean Agriculture Forum of
Youths (CAFY), the Caribbean Network of Rural Women Producers (CANROP) and the
Regional Technology Innovation System (PROCICARIBE). It has, as Observers, regional and
international institutions involved in agricultural and rural development, such as, the Caribbean
Development Bank (CDB), the Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute/Pan American Health
Organisation, the Caribbean Regional Negotiation Machinery (CRNM), Caribbean
Environmental Health Institute (CEHI), and the Caribbean Fisheries Management Project.
The CARICOM Secretariat and IICA initially comprised the Secretariat. They were
joined by the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) in 2003 and the Caribbean Agricultural
Research and Development Institute (CARDI) in 2005.
The Alliance and its members are in the process of establishing functioning national
chapters in each CARICOM Country.
The Jadgeo Initiative has its origin in the request of President Bharat Jagdeo of Guyana,
in his capacity as Lead Head for Agriculture within the Conference of Heads of Government
(CHG), to the Directors General of FAO and IICA in late 2003. This request was to assist him in
the development and implementation of a process that would result in the resurgence of
agricultural potential in member countries, individually and collectively.
Consequently, representatives of the two institutions, along with the CARICOM
Secretariat, assisted President Jagdeo in the preparation of a position paper that he presented to
the 25th Meeting of the CHG in Grenada in July 2004. This paper, which was accepted by
Heads, highlighted, inter alia, the multifunctionality of agriculture, its economic and sociocultural importance, the trend of declining production exacerbated by the rulings of the WTO
and EU Trade Agreements, the need to put in place a New Agriculture to address this decline and
the need for the major stakeholders to identify what were/are the major key Binding Constraints
that would limit the success of this exercise.
To facilitate the process of identification of the major key Binding Constraints, IICA,
with financial support from the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA)
and logistical support from the CARICOM Secretariat and FAO, organized two regional
workshops:
In October 2004, to brief National Focal Points on the conduct and expected
outputs of national consultations with the major stakeholders; and
In December 2004, to synthesise, integrate and prioritise the results of the national
consultations.
These national and regional consultations resulted in the identification of 10 key Binding
Constraints along with some suggested Interventions to address these Constraints. These were
ratified by the Forum of Ministers of Agriculture, as part of the Alliance in Jamaica January
2005, and agreed to by the CHG at its Intersessional Meeting in Suriname February, 2005. You
would note that the process was fast tracked. This is a reflection of the very limited time
available to the Caribbean to reposition its agriculture.

17

I will return to the key Binding Constraints and the Interventions subsequently. At this
time, I would wish to indicate some key characteristics/features of the Jagdeo Initiative.
THE JAGDEO INITIATIVE
The Jagdeo Initiative
(i) Visualizes a Sector that no later than 2015 has:
a.

made substantial progress towards contributing significantly to national and regional

development and to economic, social and environmental sustainability;
b.
a transparent regulatory framework at national and regional levels, that promotes and
facilitates investment and attracts (direct and indirect) inflows of capital;
c.
significantly transformed its processes and products and stimulated the innovative
entrepreneurial capacity of Caribbean agricultural and rural communities; and
d.
enabled the region (as a whole) to achieve an acceptable level of food security that is
not easily disrupted by natural and or manmade disasters; and
(ii) Emphasizes that it:
a.

finds its legitimacy in the Regional Transformation Programme for Agriculture

(RTP), established through Articles 56 and 57 of the Revised Treaty and which has as its
main objective:
b.
the fundamental transformation of the agricultural sector towards market oriented,
internationally competitive and environmentally sound production of agricultural
products.
c.
is not an attempt at a comprehensive reform of the RTP for Agriculture. Rather, it
recognizes that progress within a CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME)
requires that we operationalise the RTP (with appropriate adjustments as necessary);
d.
incorporates and builds on previous actions, such as, the Alliance for the Sustainable
Development of Agriculture and the Rural Milieu (1998), the Caribbean Development
Banks symposium on the Repositioning of Regional Agriculture (2002), the FAO Food
Security Project (2003), and the OECS Policy and Plan of Action (2003/2004);
e.
does not attempt to treat with the traditional sub-sectors of sugar, bananas and rice
which currently are being addressed separately.
A Core Group, comprising the Secretariat of the CARICOM and Organisation of Eastern
Caribbean States, the CARDI, CDB, CRNM, FAO and IICA, has been appointed by the CHG to
develop and monitor the implementation of the Jagdeo Initiative. However, the Core Group has
initiated a process to determine within each Intervention the actions required at the national and
regional level and those ongoing and/or proposed. In this way, a prioritized set of
programme/project actions with cost estimates and appropriate time frames will be developed.
Further, it has identified agencies to lead the implementation of various components of the
Proposal.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The Key Constraints that have been identified by the stakeholders, are:
Limited financing and inadequate level of new financing
Deficient and uncoordinated risk management measures
Fragmented and unorganised private sector
Inadequate research and development
18

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Outdated and inefficient agricultural health and food safety systems

Inadequate land and water distribution and management systems
Inadequate transportation systems, particularly for perishables
Weak and non-integrated information and intelligence systems and services
Marketing weak linkages and participation in growth market segments
Lack of skilled human resources

CONSTRAINTS AND OPERATIONALISATION

SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY

OF

THE

INVASIVE

SPECIES

You will note that almost all of these Constraints have a direct bearing on the
operationalisation of the ISSS. However, because of time constraints, I will use a few examples
of the listed Interventions to illustrate this potential relationship.
Constraint No. 1: Limited Financing and Inadequate New Investments.
Interventions:
i. Establish an Agricultural Modernization Fund (AMF) taking into account the Regional
Development Fund.
ii. Conduct a study on CARICOMs Agri-Food Needs at 2005 to 2015 to identify
investment opportunities (incl. tourism).
iii. Mandatory farmer and business registration to facilitate channeling of financing and
investment from AMF.
Constraint No. 2: Deficient and uncoordinated risk management measures including Praedial
Larceny.
Interventions:
i.
Operate a disaster fund within the AMF.
ii.
Support mandatory farmer and fresh produce trader registration.
Constraint No. 3: Inadequate Research and Development.
Interventions:
i.
Establish, upgrade, consolidate R & D facilities and infrastructure, esp.
modernized laboratories.
ii.
Increase industry collaboration and investment in research and infrastructure.
iii. Governments should prioritize and facilitate skills training
Constraint No. 4: Outdated and inefficient Agriculture Health and Food Safety Systems.
Interventions:
i.
Provide funds from AMF to operationalise CAHFSA and national agencies or
systems.
ii.
Strengthen the legislative and regulatory trade framework through establishment
of CAHFSA and National Agencies or Systems.
iii.
Collective financing of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Hazard
Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) protocols to improve industry
competitiveness.
The above indicates very clearly that the Jadgeo Initiative provides a framework within
which the ISSS can fit. Specially, it has the potential to provide financial and human resources
and the development and operationalisation of the physical laboratories, marketing and

19

transport - infrastructure, as well as the institutional redefining, restructuring and retooling that
are required by the ISSS.
It is now for us to work together to make use of this platform, so as to assist in achieving
increased trade of agricultural trade and improved incomes to our agrientrepreneurs.

20

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):21-26. 2005

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC POTENTIAL AT THE UNIVERSITY OF
THE WEST INDIES IN SUPPORT OF A COMPREHENSIVE REGIONAL RISK
REDUCTION STRATEGY WITH RESPECT TO INVASIVE SPECIES
Ranjit H. Singh, Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Science and
Agriculture, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad, West Indies. Phone: 868-6622003 Ext. 2094 FAX: 868-663-8355; Email: rsingh@fans.uwi.tt
ABSTRACT: While globalization of markets and freer trade may have benefits associated with
the expansion of trade, globalization is also associated with the increased risk to agriculture and
the natural environment from the incidence of invasive / exotic pests. The impact of invasive
species could be severe and long term in nature thereby setting back the development process of
countries so affected. Given the importance of agriculture and environmental resources to the
development of countries in the region comprising the Caribbean Basin, a strategy for addressing
the associated risk and threat is urgently required and timely.
Designing an effective strategy for risk reduction and management with respect to
invasive species requires an efficient intelligence/early warning system so as to ensure the timely
adoption of precautionary measures to prevent entry or measures to contain the spread and
damage caused by invasives where the third border has been breached. The response, however,
must be informed by scientific knowledge. In this regard the S&T/R&D support is an essential
component of any comprehensive strategy to address the threat of invasives. This paper
examines the S&T/R&D capacity resident at one of the Regions major institutions, the
University of the West Indies. The methodology for this assessment includes a review of recent
research at the UWI as well an examination of the competencies in relevant areas of science that
are resident at the various Campuses of the institution.
KEY WORDS: UWI, globalization, Mona, Cave Hill, St. Augustine, contestable fund for R&D,
disciplinary area, specialty area, number of researchers, number of publications
RSUM : Pendant que la globalisation de marchs et fait plus librement du commerce peut
avoir des avantages associs l'expansion de commerce, la globalisation est aussi associe au
risque augment l'agriculture et l'environnement naturel de l'incidence d'envahissants / les
insectes nuisibles exotiques. L'impact d'espces envahissantes pourrait tre svre et long terme
dans la nature retardant ainsi le processus de dveloppement de pays si affects. tant donn
l'importance d'agriculture et de ressources de l'environnement au dveloppement de pays dans la
rgion comprenant la Cuvette Antillaise, une stratgie pour adresser le risque associ et la
menace est d'urgence exig et propos.
La conception d'une stratgie efficace pour la rduction de risque et l'administration en ce
qui concerne les espces envahissantes exige un systme d'intelligence/signe avant-coureur
efficace afin de garantir l'adoption propos de mesures prventives pour prvenir l'entre ou les
mesures pour contenir la propagation et le dommage provoqu par invasives o la troisime
frontire a t faite une brche. La rponse, pourtant, doit tre informe par la connaissance
scientifique. ce propos le S /R le soutien est une composante essentielle de n'importe quelle
stratgie complte d'adresser la menace d'invasives. Ce papier examine le S /R le rsident de
capacit une des institutions importantes de la Rgion, l'Universit des Antilles. La
mthodologie pour cette valuation inclut une rvision de recherche rcente l'UWI aussi un

21

examen des comptences dans les rgions pertinentes de science qui sont le rsident aux Campus
diffrents de l'institution.
MOTS CL : UWI, la globalisation, Mona, la Colline de Grotte, la Rue. Augustine, le fonds
contestable pour R & D, la rgion disciplinaire, la rgion de spcialit, le nombre de chercheurs,
le nombre de publications
1. INTRODUCTION
Invasive species, according to the Ecological Society of America, refers to those non-indigenous
species which have evolved elsewhere and have been purposely or accidentally relocated into an
environment where they persist, proliferate and cause harm to the environment as well as to the
inhabitants of that environment. Invasive species include both plant and animal organisms.
Invasives can adversely affect the environment into which they are transferred in several
ways, ultimately destroying or changing the genetic make up of the environment. Invasives,
according to research have eaten indigenous organisms, interbred, or in some cases have
introduced pathogens or parasites which have severely compromised the environmental integrity
of these ecosystems.
Research in this area, however, has provided some useful tools to deal with the problem
of invasives. Specifically, the approach to invasives can either be proactive or reactive in nature.
Prevention of intrusion by invasives can take the form of decontamination, especially in the case
of transportation equipment in international trade.
The international community has also taken heed to the threats of invasives and has
sought to enact new conventions and protocols of trade which reduce the risk of invasives. At the
other end of the spectrum, the problem of invasive species can be dealt with, through eradication,
where early detection and rapid response is the key to dealing with the invaders. In this situation,
continuous monitoring and evaluation of the system is imperative to prevent any further
invasions. Invasives can also be contained and controlled.
Invasives can be controlled using chemical, mechanical and or biological methods. At
this stage it is important to note that with any method used to deal with invasives, restoration of
the native environment is important. This is an important step to minimize the risk of reinvasion.
The issue of invasive species is currently a hot topic in the international arena,
especially in the agricultural sector due to several reasons, including the increasing pace of trade
and globalization coupled with the expansion of agricultural operations. In the Caribbean Region
where there have been tremendous efforts to revive and revitalize the agricultural sector
researchers have made significant progress. The main tertiary educational institute in the Region,
the University of the West Indies (UWI), has been working with other institutions to address
various problems in the sector including that of invasives.
In an attempt to assess the capacity of UWI to conduct research in disciplinary areas
relevant to invasives, Research Reports from each of the three main Campuses were reviewed,
with some degree of emphasis, placed on the research work and publications from the respective
Medical Sciences, Engineering, Natural Sciences as well as Agricultural Faculties. Some of the
specific publications reviewed included The Mona Campus Report, The Cave Hill Report and
the St Augustine Report. The Annual Departmental Reports were also reviewed to determine the
capacity for invasive research.
This paper provides a summary of research conducted in various disciplinary areas
related to research on invasives. The paper also attempts to measure capacity for research in this
area based on the number of scientists actively working in associated disciplinary areas.

22

2. EVIDENCE OF RELEVANT RESEARCH OUTPUT

As indicated above, an attempt was made to determine the capacity for research on invasives at
UWI using the publication records of scientists at all three campuses. Table 1 below provides a
summary of the number of publications in the key support areas in recent years. The data
suggests a concentration of work at UWI on disease control (18 papers). On the other, hand the
effort in the area of pest control was significantly below (8 papers) that for disease control.
Similarly, work on Genetics and Biotechnology was less prominent.
A total of 84 scientists were associated with the publication output reported with the
concentration/clustering of scientists appearing in the area of disease research, followed by
genetics and biotechnology.
In addition to the publication record, an alternative indicator of capacity for research at
UWI in invasives was the number of scientists working in associated disciplines. On all three
campuses of the UWI a total of 52 scientists were active in disciplines of relevance to invasive
research (Table 2). As it stands, at UWI there are currently 22 active scientists in the area of
biotechnology and genetics research, 14 scientists working in pest and disease control, 13 in
biology and entomology research and 2 in biochemistry research.
Table 1: Summary of Research Publications and the Number of Researchers
in the Disciplines Relevant to Invasives
Disciplinary Area
Bio Technology
Genetics
Pest Control
Disease Control
Management Policy

Number of
Publications
6
7
8
18
1

Number
of Researchers
20
20
15
29
4

Table 2: Indication of Research Capacity for Invasive Species:

Number of Scientist
Area of Specialty

Number of Specialists

Biotechnology and Genetics

Pest and Disease Control
Biology and Entomology
Biochemistry

22
14
13
2

3. BIOTECHNOLOGY AND GENETICS RESEARCH

Biotechnological and genetics research is a key area of focus because understanding the genetic
make up of the invasive specie as well as the organism or environment which it invades, enables
researchers to identify those characteristics which make either the organism or environment
vulnerable. In this regard the University of the West Indies has made some significant strides.
The list below summarizes some of the current research being conducted in this field;

23

9 Biotechnology of Selected Crops with a view to Improving Productivity, Yams, dasheen

and Coco Yams, Anthuriums.
9 Biological and Molecular Characterization of Papaya Ringspot Virus
9 Exploiting Pepper Genetics Resources Towards Developing a Pepper Industry in the
Caribbean
9 Utilization of Cacao Genetic Resources Towards Developing Resistance to Blackpod and
Witches Broom Diseases
9 Construction of a Genome Map for Cacao
9 The Evolution of New Virus Genes
9 Microbial Genetics
The range of individual scientists on the respective campuses conducting research in
biotechnology is given in the Table 3 below. It is clearly evident that the university has a
significant research capacity in terms of the number of specialists conducting publication
oriented research on topics relevant to invasives.
4. PEST AND DISEASE RESEARCH
Pest and disease control is another key support area in the study of invasives. In this regard
the UWI has also made significant strides. The list below gives a snapshot of the current research
being conducted, with the relevant scientists involved in this area of research, being cited in the
Table 4.
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9

Begomovirus and Whitefly in Tomatoes

Management of Cabbage Pest With Companion Crops and Botanical Formulations
Biocontrol Potential of the Nematode; Management of citrus root Weevil
The impact of Botanical Formulations on citrus root weevil
Pesticidal Potential of various Tropical Plants
Strategies of control of Commelina spp. in Banana Plantations
Non Traditional methods for Nematode Control in Bananas
IPM: Integrated Pest management

24

Table 3: Scientists: Concluding Research in the Area of Biotechnology & Genetics

Mona Campus

St Augustine Campus

Helen N. Asemota
M. Chin
Paula Tennant
Mohammed H. Ahmed.
Roye, Marcia E.,
Wayne A. McLaughlin,
D. P. Maxwell
Dwight E. J. Robinson
Wendell Snow
George Grant.

D. A. Iwaro
S. Surujdeo-Maharaj
D. Butler
P. Umaharan
Marissa Moses
Lambert Motilal,
O. Sounigo,
J. M. Thevenin,
C. Lanaud
A. M. Risterucci
I. Pieretti,
J. L. Noyer.

Table 4: Scientists: Activity Conducting Research on Pest & Disease Control

Mona Campus

St Augustine Campus

Kathy M. Dalip
Dwight E. Robinson
Ajai Mansingh.
Jacinth Myers
Dave G. Hutton

P. Umaharan
A. Khan
S. Seepersad
J. Walker
C. Caruth
A. Hosein
V. Gajadharsingh
Wendy Ann P. Isaac
Richard A. I. Brathwaite
Ayub Khan

5. BIOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY RESEARCH

Biology and entomology generally involves the study of living organisms in their natural
habitat. The University, as an institution, has a strong Biology and by extension, Natural
Sciences Faculty. A list of some of the topics being researched currently is given below and the
researchers who are active in these areas are included in Table 5:
9
9
9
9
9
9
9

Cell wall biochemistry

Food ripening
Uses of Caribbean Plants
Crop ecology and sustainable agriculture
Behavioral ecology
Marine ecology
Fisheries Biology
25

9
9
9
9
9
9

Environmental and microbiology

Plant pathology
Soil microbiology
Mangrove ecology
Microbial ecology
Ecological entomology

Table 5: Scientists: Activity Conducting Research in Biology & Entomology

Mona Campus
Karl Aiken
Dr. Dwight E. Robinson
Mona K. Webber
Eric Garraway

Cave Hill Campus

C. M. Sean Carrington
Angela Fields
Louis Chinnery
Julia Horrocks
Wayne Hunte
G. E. Mathison
Leonard OGarro
Sarah Sutrina
Lyndon Waterman

6. BIOCHEMISTRY
The concentration of the current research being conducted in biochemistry at the University of
the West Indies is summarized by the list below.
9 Biochemical and molecular Studies on Tuberization on selected crops:
Sweet Potatoes
Yam bean
cassava
pigeon peas
9 Post Harvest Technology
7. CONCLUSION
This paper sought to examine the R&D effort at the UWI and the cadre of scientists at the
institution as a basis for assessing the capacity for research on invasive. The data reviewed was
limited to recent years and included data from the three main campuses of the University the
Mona Campus in Jamaica, the St Augustine Campus in Trinidad and the Cave Hill Campus in
Barbados.
The general indication is that UWI has a large pool of scientists working in a range of
disciplines relevant to R&D with respect to invasives. The data however suggests significantly
more effort is manifested at Mona and St Augustine than at Cave Hill. While this capacity exists
at UWI, any serious attempt to address the risk of invasive to the Caribbean Region would
necessarily need to mobilize and engage this capacity. Towards this end a range of strategies
may be appropriate, including the establishment of a contestable fund for R&D on invasives.

26

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):27-33. 2005

FACTORING BIODIVERSITY, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND NATURAL RESOURCES
CONSIDERATIONS INTO A REGIONAL SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY
Vyju Lopez1, Sean Murphy2, Marion Seier2 and Moses Kairo3. 1 CAB International Caribbean
and Latin America Regional Centre, Gordon Street, Curepe, Trinidad and Tobago, Phone: 868622-4173, FAX: 868-663-2859, v.lopez@cabi.org, 2CABI Bioscience UK Centre (Ascot),
Silwood Park, Ascot, Berks SL5 7TA, UK, s.murphy@cabi.org , m.seier@cabi.org, 3 Center for
Biological Control, College of Engineering Sciences, Technology & Agriculture, Florida A&M
University, Tallahassee, FL 32307-4100, USA., Moses.Kairo@FAMU.EDU .
ABSTRACT. When dealing with invasive alien species (IAS), attention is usually focused on
economic aspects i.e. agricultural management and trade. However, impacts of IAS on the
environment, often are not considered at least in the first instance and tend to be quite complex.
IAS often have the potential to cause enormous damage to the biodiversity, environment and
living natural resources, particularly on small islands. They can alter the structure and function of
ecosystems, and can also cause extinction of vulnerable species. Since the Caribbean is one the
worlds biodiversity hotspots with a range of endemic species, it is necessary that
environmental considerations are factored into the development of any regional safeguarding
strategy. This involves bringing on board various stakeholders and establishing the key linkages
necessary for effective action planning and implementation.
KEY WORDS: invasive alien species, small islands, ecosystems, structure, functions,
stakeholders
INTRODUCTION
The advent of the hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, in Grenada and its
subsequent spread during the 1990s was a wake-up call in the Caribbean to the potential and real
threat of invasive alien species (IAS), not only to agriculture and trade but also the environment
and natural resources. Grenada not only faced agricultural trade barriers but also had to combat
the danger posed to the watershed area of Grand Etang as a result of the loss of forests
comprising Blue Mahoe, Samaan and Teak trees, which are important hosts of the mealybug
(Kairo et al., 2000; (http://www.ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests/pmb/freg/sa263.html). Indeed, the
mealybug has sometimes been called a blessing in disguise because it helped tremendously in
bringing the issue of IAS to the forefront in the Caribbean and sensitizing decision-makers on the
importance of developing national and regional strategies for combating future introductions. It
also reiterated the need to focus attention not only on agricultural management and trade, but to
factor in biodiversity, environmental and natural resources considerations into any regional
safeguarding strategy.
Over the past few years the importance and impact of IAS on the environment has been
acknowledged and discussed in numerous environmental fora. Article 8(h) of the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD), for instance, recognizes the risk posed by IAS and calls on Parties
to as far as possible and as appropriate: Prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate those
alien species that threaten ecosystems, habitats or species. In 2002, at the sixth Conference of
Parties (COP 6), Decision VI/23 was adopted, which comprised guiding principles and a
programme of work for the implementation of Article 8(h). The Decision also recognized IAS as
27

the primary threat to biodiversity in Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and urged donors
and other funding sources to make financial support available for the development of strategies
and actions in geographically and evolutionarily isolated ecosystems as a matter of urgent
priority.
This paper draws heavily from Kairo (2004), a publication documenting one of the first
attempts in the Caribbean region to collate relevant information on IAS from an environmental
perspective.
CARIBBEAN BIODIVERSITY AND ITS IMPORTANCE
Caribbean biodiversity comprises marine and terrestrial / fresh water ecosystems. The
region contains 7 per cent of the worlds coral reefs (about 20 000 km2) with a great array of
marine biodiversity (UNEP 2001). The marine ecosystems, made up of reefs, mangroves and sea
grass beds, harbour and sustain a wide range of marine species. These include at least 60 species
of coral and 1500 species of fish, of which about a quarter are endemic to the Caribbean. In fact,
the wider Caribbean has the highest concentration of biodiversity in the Atlantic Ocean basin and
also encompasses the second largest reef in the world, off the coast of Belize. While reef damage
resulting from coral bleaching and sedimentation is a major environmental concern, the impact
of other phenomena (including IAS) is poorly understood.
The Caribbean is one of the worlds biodiversity hotspots (Myers et al., 2000). The
development of island biotas is characterized by selective colonization and dynamics of
evolution that often result in highly endemic populations. Thus, many islands have a
disproportionately high biodiversity value. Conservation International estimates that 58% of the
11,500-12,000 plant species in the Caribbean are endemic. In Cuba, for example, 50% of the
6505 species of plants, 30% of mammals, 22% birds, 84% reptiles and 87% amphibians are
considered endemic. Additional information can be found on the following web pages:
http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/caribbean?showpage+Biodiversity
http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/caribbean/.
The tranquil beauty and health of the natural environment provide a superb backdrop to
the tourism industry, which is an important income generator in many Caribbean economies.
Numerous families depend on the biological diversity at the genetic, species and ecosystem level
for their livelihoods. Marine environments provide food and employment for coastal
communities. Agricultural production depends heavily on the biodiversity of soil dwelling flora
and fauna to keep disease-producing organisms at bay. In addition, natural enemies help in the
sustainable management of pest species. Forest species not only provide a suitable habitat for
numerous organisms but also lumber and a range of other materials and products.
THREATS TO CARIBBEAN BIODIVERSITY FROM IAS
Kairo (2004) discussed the threats of IAS on the environment, biodiversity and living
natural resources in the Caribbean, acknowledging that these areas had not received much
attention in the past and were therefore lacking in information and knowledge of relevant issues.
An assessment of the status of biodiversity on islands (UNEP, 2004) revealed that several
factors, including human development, pollution, over-exploitation and IAS, seriously threatened
island biodiversity. UNEP (2003) summarized factors influencing the vulnerability of islands to
environmental threats (including IAS). In the Caribbean context, these comprised geographic
isolation, small physical size, ecological uniqueness and fragility, limited natural resources and
capacity, dependence on marine resources and exposure / sensitivity to natural disasters.

28

The impact of IAS can be particularly severe on the indigenous biodiversity of island
ecosystems. The biological characteristics that bestow unique conservation value on islands also
render them particularly vulnerable to the establishment and impact of invasive species
(DAntonio & Dudley, 1995; Cronk & Fuller, 1995). The introduction of species affects the
isolation of island biotas, the very characteristic that underpins their special patterns of
development. Furthermore, the limited size of islands increases the probability that habitats can
be altered to render them more susceptible to invasive species.
Ballast water and hull fouling have been implicated in the introduction of some IAS, e.g.
spread of the green mussel in the region. Much of the Caribbean region is in the Atlantic
hurricane belt leading to regular habitat disturbances. This opens up new avenues for the
establishment of invasive plants, often as part of natural (Pittosporum undulatum in Jamaica
(Chai, S. 2004. http://www.jamaicachm.org.jm/Articles/pittosporum_invasion.asp)) or manmade (introduced landscaping plants) restoration efforts in the wake of hurricanes and other
disasters. There is generally limited capacity to undertake effective quarantine measures in many
of the small Caribbean countries since officials are often spread thinly and unable to manage the
large number of entry ports and arriving cargo / passengers. The thriving informal trade in live
commodities (fresh fruits and vegetables, animals, birds) between the islands further exacerbates
the situation.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF IAS IN THE CARIBBEAN
In 2003, three countries in the Caribbean (Bahamas, Dominican Republic and Jamaica)
developed lists of invasive species as part of the I3N project under the Inter-American
Biodiversity Information Network. During the same year, CAB International and The Nature
Conservancy began collating information and drew up a list of IAS affecting natural and
managed ecosystems of the insular Caribbean (Kairo et al., 2003). This list, best described as a
work in progress, is far from comprehensive, with terrestrial species dominating the alien, or
naturalized / invasive species (Table 1). The low number of marine species (16 species listed as
naturalized/invasive) is probably more reflective of the poor state of knowledge in this system
than a true representation of facts.
Table 1. Alien species in Caribbean by broad habitat type (Kairo et al, 2003, Kairo (2004))
Broad habitat type
Terrestrial
Freshwater
Marine
Total

Exotic
479
55
18
552

Naturalised and / or invasive

390
10
16
416

Ecological impacts of IAS range from simple competition among predators or

competitors to interactions operating at several, often complex, levels.
The deliberate introduction of the Australian native tree Melaleuca quinquenervia into Florida
and the neighbouring Bahamas Islands is a good example of cumulative effects across biological
scales that can result in complex changes in ecosystem structure and function. This highly
invasive tree threatens native biodiversity on account of its strong tendency to form virtual
monocultures and its high flammability, as well as alteration of hydrological regimes through
soil accretion (Center et. al., 2000). It is also known for its allergenic characteristics.

29

Dichrostachys cinerea a native of the savannas of Africa and India was introduced into Cuba
nearly 100 years ago. It regenerates vigorously even from small fragments of roots and has thus
expanded its adventive geographic range forming immense monocultures, particularly in
disturbed habitats.
The small Indian mongoose, Herpestes auropunctatus, which was deliberately introduced
into Jamaica in 1872 and subsequently spread to several other islands, has been implicated in the
extinction of a number of species (Henderson, 1992). In Antigua for instance, it was one of the
major factors that drove the endemic Antiguan Racer snake (AR), Alsophis antiguae to
extinction in all but the small, Great Bird Island (Daltry et al., 2001). Interestingly, the AR faced
a different threat on this island in the form of introduced rats, Rattus rattus. The situation reached
a crisis in 1995 when it was estimated that only about 50 ARs existed in the world (Daltry et al.,
2001). Concerted efforts by a range of partners that resulted in the survival and conservation of
the AR make an interesting case study (Box 1 below) but even these efforts are hampered
because the Great Bird Island can only support a small population of racers.
Box
1:
Case
study
of
the
http://www.antiguanracer.org/html/home.htm)

Antiguan

Racer

(adapted

from

The Problem: The Antiguan Racer (AR), Alsophis antiguae a gentle, harmless grey-brown snake,
found only in Antigua and the surrounding islands. Until the advent of the Europeans, it lived in
dense forests that covered these islands feeding on lizards and small reptiles. The European
settlers cut down forests for huge plantations of sugar cane. Their ships also brought the black rat
(Rattus rattus), the population of which soon soared on a diet of sugar cane, and among other
things, the eggs of the AR. The smart plantation owners then introduced the Indian mongoose
Herpestes auropunctatus to kill the rats. But they missed a key point in the habits of the two
animals: the rats were mainly nocturnal while the mongoose hunted during the day. So the two
animals rarely met. This was disastrous for a range of non-target species including birds, frogs
and the AR, which instead became prey for the mongoose. Within 60 years, the AR had
completely vanished from Antigua and most offshore islands, the victim of rats, mongoose and
human ignorance.
The Solution: Serendipitously, a few ARs survived on tiny, mongoose-free Great Bird Island
(GB), where local naturalists and other partners discovered them in early 1990s. A 6-week
survey under-taken with permission from Antiguan Forestry Unit revealed that about 50 ARs
still existed on GB. It was also realized that there were several other endangered wildlife species
that needed protection and conservations. This resulted in the formation of the Antiguan Racer
Conservation Project, an international partnership managed by six organizations comprising
professionals from the Caribbean, UK and USA. The project used an integrated approach that
combined biological research, public awareness, skills transfer, ecological restoration,
reintroduction and conservation breeding and habitat management
Mission statement: To conserve the critically endangered Antiguan Racer snake and other
indigenous flora and fauna of the offshore islands of Antigua and Barbuda
The Partners: Antiguan Forestry Unit, Environmental Awareness Group (local NGO), Flora and
Fauna International, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, Island Resources Foundation, Black
Hills State University (USA)
30

Assistance: Antigua and Barbuda Coast Guard, Zeneca Agrochemicals (Syngenta), Invasive
Species Specialist Group, Re-introduction Specialist Group, the Natural History Museum
(London), two Professors from the University of Wales (Bangor, UK); a large group of local,
regional and international persons who provided assistance with field work, research, education,
fundraising and transportation.
Funding: Most by the six managing partners; Additional funds and in-kind contributions:
Government agencies, NGOs, Corporate/Business sectors, Charitable Foundations, Diplomatic
missions
Achievements: The AR saved from extinction; Invasive rats cleared from GB and nine other
islands; Focused world-wide attention on the snake that was (previously) virtually unknown;
Changed public attitudes and turned the snake into a local/national celebrity; Bred ARs in
captivity for the first time; Five years spent studying, tagging and identifying individual ARs,
making them the most-studied wild snake populations in the world; Persuaded the Government
of Antigua and Barbuda to make Antiguan Racer Conservation a priority in its National
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.
Lessons learnt: Wildlife conservation is all about teamwork. A project will only succeed if
people from different organizations work together as a single unit. Different partners have
different strengths such as local knowledge, international experience or specialist expertise. By
pooling their resources, they make the most of their skills and help each other. Each partner may
be responsible for certain tasks, but the overall success of the project depends on how well they
operate as a team.

MANAGEMENT OF IAS AFFECTING THE ENVIRONMENT

In 2002, the COP 6 of the CBD adopted 15 Guiding Principles on the development of
strategies to minimize the spread and impact of IAS. The first principle addresses the need for a
precautionary approach where scientific information is lacking or not easily available. The others
focus on a 3-step hierarchical approach involving, respectively, prevention, early detection and
eradication, and containment. At this time, most countries are still in the early stages of putting
in place strategies and policies to implement these principles.
It is necessary to have a good understanding of the major pathways of IAS in order to
develop effective preventive measures. Increased global trade as well as faster movement of
humans, biological material and other commodities provide a range of pathways for the
unintentional or intentional introduction of IAS (Wittenberg & Cock, 2001). Risk analysis must
be carried out prior to any importation in order to reduce or minimize the risk of potentially
harmful effects of introductions. Considerable progress has already been made in developing the
framework and instruments (especially international standards) necessary for conducting risk
analysis (including assessment of environmental risks) for plant health (IPPC, 1996; 2003). The
same cannot be said of a range of other sectors, e.g. pet trade and aquaculture.
Trade and tourism, two sectors critical to Caribbean economies, often provide the major
unintentional pathways for IAS introductions. Shipping operations in the region are growing
enormously in response to the expanding petroleum industry. In this case, ships transport bulk oil
products on one way routes. With no cargo available on the return route, they often carry huge
31

amounts of ballast water, a large proportion of which is emptied in or near ports. The port of
Willemstad, Curaao is one of the largest in the world in terms of volume and thus the sheer
volume of ballast water, if contaminated, increases potential risks of these organisms being
introduced. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has developed guidelines for the
control and management of ships' ballast water, the major pathway of marine IAS. In February
2004, a new international instrument (the International Convention for the Control and
Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments) was adopted. Many countries in the region
have not adopted the convention - thus, this is a priority.
Terrestrial environments, particularly agriculture, have thus far been the targets of a range
of activities / initiatives to deal with IAS, while marine environments have largely been ignored
until recently. There is generally scant knowledge of marine IAS and their impact in the
Caribbean, thus baseline data is urgently required to inform the process. Raising awareness of the
problem among relevant stakeholders will be vital as will development of capacity. Potential
conflicts of interest, especially as relates to mari-culture, will need to be identified and resolved
(Kairo, 2004).
WHO SHOULD BE INVOLVED IN MANAGING IAS?
As the AR case study above amply demonstrates, management of IAS requires a range of
partners working together as a team to develop appropriate strategies and use a multi-pronged
approach. The characteristics, relative importance and complexity IAS involved and the
magnitude of the problem dictates who the potential stakeholders are and what strategies are to
be developed. For instance, in the AR case study, there were a relatively small number of key
stakeholders since the problem, although complex was localized to an island situation. IAS
management involving island chains, large landmasses, and the sea / ocean will require multicountry coordination as well as planning and action involving a wide range of public and private
entities. These would include at least transport entities (shipping, trade, and tourism) and
production entities (agriculture, fisheries / marine, the environment). Different ministries are
often responsible for dealing with different international instruments involving invasive species
(e.g. those related to the CBD or the World Trade Organizations Sanitary and Phytosanitary
(WTO SPS) Agreement, or marine issues). There are however clear areas of overlap.
Cooperation between the various entities is thus necessary in the development and
implementation of effective and efficient responses. Cooperation and collaboration also needs to
extend regionally as well as internationally, particularly for those IAS that have a transnational
as well as a trans-regional dimension. Thus, organizations with regional and global experience
have a vital role to play, particularly in local, national and regional capacity building both
human and infrastructural. Efforts should also focus on engaging the private sector, which,
although an important stakeholder, has thus far not been involved to a large extent. And last but
not least, the general public, which is often overlooked, must be sensitized and persuaded to
become active participants. In particular the education of youth and children and wherever
possible and appropriate, their active involvement and participation should be an integral part of
any national or regional strategy for the long-term and sustainable management of IAS.
REFERENCES
Chai, S. 2004. Pittosporum invasion of the Blue Mountains
http://www.jamaicachm.org.jm/Articles/pittosporum_invasion.asp
Center, T.D., Giblin-Davis, R.M., Center, B.J., Makinson, J., Thomas, K., Davies, K.A., Purcell,
M., Taylor, G.L., Scheffer, S., Morris, K. & J. Goolsby 2000. Biological control of
32

Melaleuca quinquenervia. In Proceedings of U.S. Department of Agriculture Interagency

Research Forum on Gypsy Moth and Other Invasive Species. January 18- 21, 2000
Maryland. Editors S.L.C. Fosbroke and K.W. Gottschalk pp 6-7.
Cronk, Q.C.B. and Fuller, J.L. 1995. Plant invaders. Chapman & Hall, London.
Daltry, J.C., Bloxam, Q., Cooper, G., Day, M.L., Hartley, J., Henry, M., Lindsay, K. & Smith
B.E. 2001. Five years of conserving the worlds rarest snake, the Antiguan racer
Alsophis antiguae. Oryx 35: 119-127.
DAntonio, C.M. and Dudley, T.L. 1995. Biological invasions as agents of change on islands
versus mainlands. In Islands: Biological Diversity and Ecosystem Function (ed. P.M.
Vitousek, L.L. Loope & H. Adsersen), Pp. 103-121. Ecological Studies 115. SpringerVerlag, Berlin.
Henderson, R.W. 1992. Consequences of predator introductions and habitat destruction on
amphibians and reptiles in the post Columbus West Indies. Caribbean Journal of Science,
28: 1-10.
http://www.antiguanracer.org/html/home.htm
http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/caribbean/ .
http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/caribbean?showpage+Biodiversity
http://www.ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests/pmb/freg/sa263.html
IPPC, 1996. International standards for phytosanitary measures No. 2: Guidelines for pest risk
analysis. FAO, Rome.
IPPC, 2003. International standards for phytosanitary measures No. 11: Pest risk analysis for
quarantine pests including analysis of environmental risks. FAO, Rome.
Kairo, M.T.K. 2004. Invasive species: a Caribbean environment and natural resources
perspective. Paper presented at the Workshop on Facilitating Safer Caribbean Trade:
Invasive Species Issue, 3-4 June 2004, Trinidad & Tobago.
Kairo, M.T.K., Ali, B.S., Cheesman, O., Haysom, K. and Murphy, S.T. 2003. Caribbean
Invasive Species Threats. Report for The Nature Conservancy. 116 pp.
www.iabinus.org/projects/i3n/caribbean_invasives_paper_tnc.PDF
Kairo, M.T.K., Pollard, G.V., Peterkin, D.D. and Lopez, V.F. 2000. Biological Control of the
Hibiscus Mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in the
Caribbean. Integrated Pest Management Reviews 5: 241-254.
Myers, N., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., da Fonseca, G. and Kent, J. 2000. Biodiversity
hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853-858.
UNEP 2004. Status and trends of, and major threats to, island biodiversity. Ad hoc Technical
Expert Group on Island Biodiversity. Puerto de la Cruz (Tenerife), Canary Islands, Spain
6-10 September 2004.
UNEP 2003. Pilot assessments: The ecological and socio-economic impact of invasive alien
species on island ecosystems. Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and
Technological Advice, 9th meeting Montreal, 10-14 November 2003.
http://www.biodiv.org/doc/ref/alien/iasinlandenpdf#search='UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/9/INF/33
Wittenberg, R. & Cock, M.J.W. 2001. Invasive Alien Species: A Toolkit of Best Prevention and
Management Practices. CABI Publishing, Wallingford.

33

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):34-43. 2005

STRATGIE DE LUTTE CONTRE LES ESPCES EXOTIQUES ENVAHISSANTES
DANS LE BASSIN DE LA CARABE : LE POINT DE VUE DES SERVICES DE LA
PROTECTION DES VEGTAUX DES DPARTEMENTS FRANAIS D'AMRIQUE.
Pierre Ehret, Charg de mission pour la rglementation phytosanitaire des DOM Ministre
charg de l'agriculture DGAL/SDQPV, ZAC d'Alco - BP 3056, 34034 MONTPELLIER
CEDEX 1, Tel : 33 4 67 10 18 17, email: pierre.ehret@agriculture.gouv.fr
RSUM: La Guadeloupe, la Martinique et la Guyane, les Dpartements Franais d'Amrique
sont des rgions ultrapriphrique de l'Union Europenne. En consquence, les dispositions du
trait instituant l'Union et le droit driv s'appliquent de plein droit, mais il reste possible
d'adopter des mesures spcifiques en faveur de celles-ci, quand il existe un besoin objectif de
prendre de telles mesures en vue d'assurer le dveloppement conomique et social de ces rgions.
Afin de tenir compte de la ncessit d'appliquer les rgles phytosanitaires europennes aux
spcificits propres assurer la protection des dpartements d'outre-mer franais, il a t dcid
de revoir toutes les listes concernant les organismes de quarantaine (annexes I et II) et les
mesures phytosanitaires (annexes III V) pour ces dpartements. Pour que ces modifications
rglementaires puissent tre prsentes la communaut internationale tel que le prvoient les
accord SPS (accords sur les mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires), des Analyses de Risque
Phytosanitaire (ARP) ont t menes pour 130 bio-agresseurs potentiellement nuisibles de
quarantaine. Les chercheurs et experts du Cirad ont assur la rdaction de ces documents en
coordination avec le bureau de la sant des vgtaux. Le projet a pu tre men bien avec l'appui
des fonds POSEIDOM 2002 et 2003 de l'UE. En 2005, des ARP seront ralises pour faire le
point sur des plantes potentiellement envahissantes et nuisibles.
Paralllement, les services dconcentrs de la protections des vgtaux (DAF/SPV) des
dpartements d'outre-mer ont prpars des bases de donnes informatises regroupant les
informations relatives aux organismes nuisibles l'agriculture dj prsents. Ce travail a t
men en collaboration avec les Fdrations Rgionales de Dfense contre les Organismes
Nuisibles et les centres de recherches des l'INRA, de l'IRD et du Cirad implants localement.
MOTS CLES : Analyse de Risque Phytosanitaire (ARP), rglementation phytosanitaire,
changes d'information, rgions europennes ultrapriphriques, Directive 2000/29/CE.
ABSTRACT: Guadeloupe, Martinique and Guyane, the French Overseas Departments of the
Caribbean Basin are among the European Outermost Regions. Consequently, as specified in the
European Union treaty, they must comply with European rules and have the same rights.
Nevertheless, it is possible to take specific measures in their favour, as long as there is a real
need of taking such measures in order to improve economic and social development of these
regions.
To take into account the necessity to apply specifications related to European phytosanitary rules
for the protection of French Overseas Departments, the decision was made to review all lists of
quarantine organisms (Appendix I & II) and phytosanitary measures (Appendix III to V) specific
to the Overseas Departments. To be able to present these modifications, as it is required by the
SPS agreement (Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures), Pest
34

Risk Analyses (PRAs) were completed for 130 harmful organisms, potentially of quarantine
importance. Experts and researchers of the CIRAD were in charge of writing these documents in
coordination with the Plant Health Office. The project was made possible with funds from EU
POSEIDOM 2002 & 2003. In 2005, PRAs will be conducted on potentially harmful and invasive
weeds.
At the same time, the decentralized plant protection services (DFA/SPV) prepared databases on
agricultural pest and diseases already present in the region. This work was conducted in
collaboration with the Regional Federation for Management of Noxious Organisms (FREDON)
and the local CIRAD, INRA and IRD research centers.
To fulfill the mission of the phytosanitary services, the sharing of knowledge on the regional
situation, as well as on pathways of introduction related to trade, both internal and external to the
region, is considered to be of first importance.
KEY WORDS: Pest Risk Analyses (PRAs), European Outermost Regions, information sharing,
Phytosanitary regulation, Council Directive 2000/29/EC.
INTRODUCTION
La Guadeloupe, la Martinique et la Guyane, les Dpartements Franais d'Amrique sont des
rgions ultrapriphriques de l'Union Europenne aux conditions climatiques et agricoles trs
particulires.
Le flux d'importation trs important de vgtaux et de produits d'origine vgtale provenant
d'aires de productions trs varies impose une vigilance particulire lors des contrles
phytosanitaires aux frontires de ces rgions rattaches l'espace europen.
Une rglementation phytosanitaire intgrer dans l'ensemble europen
Cette surveillance est assure par les services dconcentrs du Ministre charg de l'Agriculture :
les Services de la Protection des Vgtaux des Directions de l'Agriculture et de la Fort
(DAF/SPV)
Elle s'inscrit dans la premire des missions de ses services, qui concerne la surveillance du
territoire et des changes vis--vis des organismes nuisibles.
D'autres missions se sont ajoutes ses missions historiques des SPV, en particulier :
- le contrle de la commercialisation et de l'application des produits phytosanitaires,
ainsi que leur valuation biologique avant homologation ;
- Contrle des organismes gntiquement modifis installs en plein champ et la
mise en place de la bio vigilance.
Jusqu' prsent, les contrles phytosanitaires l'importation dans les dpartements d'Outre-mer
rpondent une rglementation de 1990 (Arrt du 03 septembre 1990, complt par un arrt
du 03 dcembre 1991 spcifique aux DOM). Ce texte prsente la particularit de prvoir
l'utilisation du certificat phytosanitaire entre la mtropole et les DOM. Il rassemble l'ensemble
des informations relatives aux organismes nuisibles de quarantaine, prohibitions et exigences
particulires qui compltent la rglementation "mtropolitaine" pour tenir compte des spcificits
climatiques, bio-gographiques, et agricoles ces dpartements.
35

Avec la cration du march europen en 1993, une nouvelle rglementation phytosanitaire

unique a t adopte pour l'Europe et est venue se substituer la "rglementation mtropolitaine"
de 1990*.
La prise en compte des particularits des DOM pour leur intgration dans cette rglementation
europenne a t demande la France.
Cette intgration est l'occasion de faire le point sur les organismes nuisibles de quarantaine qui
constituent le point majeur de la rglementation phytosanitaire. Aprs prs de 15 ans, une
rvaluation des listes des organismes nuisibles (ON) rglements (soit plus de 350 en tenant
compte des listes d'ON de lutte obligatoire) s'avre ncessaire.
Sur la base des filires prioritaires (importance de la filire de production agricole dans les
DOM, importance des importations), les organismes nuisibles sont examins afin d'apprcier la
pertinence de leur prsence sur les prochaines annexes. Pour chacune de ses filires, sur la base
des connaissances des chercheurs, des bio-agresseurs non rpertoris en 1991 ont galement t
examins et pour certains, le choix de les tudier en dtail a t fait.
Un passage ncessaire par les ARP
En effet, pour un certain nombre des ravageurs ou pathognes, il a t dcid de mener bien
une valuation du risque phytosanitaire. Cette valuation s'appuie sur la norme internationale
d'Analyse du Risque Phytosanitaire (ARP) de la CIPV (Convention internationale de la
protection des vgtaux). Elle permet de rassembler l'ensemble des informations ncessaires
l'argumentation technique en vue de prendre des mesures phytosanitaires l'import, en respectant
l'esprit de l'accord sur l'application des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires (l'Accord SPS).
Pour viter toute entrave au commerce international par des obstacles non ncessaires, cet accord
prvoit de mettre disposition de tout pays demandeur, les informations techniques organises
selon la norme internationale de l'ARP lors des modifications de la rglementation
phytosanitaire.
Tous les ON retenus dans un premier temps pour figurer dans la rglementation n'ont pas fait
l'objet d'une ARP :
- soit parce que leur biologie tait bien connue et que leur statut de quarantaine fait l'objet
de consensus au niveau des organisations rgionales ;
- soit parce que le niveau de connaissance acquis, en particulier sur la rpartition et les
filires d'introductions possibles, cartait toute possibilit de pouvoir les classer comme
ON de quarantaine dans la future rglementation
Ce sont finalement 130 ARP qui ont t rdiges
Ce travail a t men par le Cirad - Centre de Coopration Internationale en Recherche
Agronomique pour le Dveloppement -, en interaction avec le bureau de la sant des vgtaux de
*

Rglementation europenne consolide en 2000 par la directive du conseil 2000/29/CE,

retranscrite en droit franais par l'arrt du 22 novembre 2002.

36

la Sous-Direction de la Qualit et de la Protection des Vgtaux du Ministre de l'Agriculture et

de la Pche. Des financements du fonds europen POSEIDOM - Programme d'Options
Spcifiques l'Eloignement et l'Insularit des Dpartements franais d'Outre-Mer ont permis
d'assurer une partie du cot de ces travaux en 2003 et 2004.
Llaboration de ces ARP pour chacun des pathosystmes tudis a ncessit :
un tat de lart sur la prsence ou labsence dans le DOM concern, et dans les rgions
adjacentes, ainsi quune analyse des extensions gographiques potentielles ;
des connaissances approfondies sur les caractristiques biologiques de lagent pathogne,
du ravageur, et de leur(s) hte(s) : modes de dissmination, capacit dtablissement, vection,
identification des facteurs biotiques et abiotiques favorables au dveloppement des parasites et
ravageurs ;
une capacit identifier les incidences conomiques potentielles de la contrainte
parasitaire en phase dinstallation / propagation ;
une valuation des incertitudes sur les risques (prise en compte de ltat davancement
des recherches en cours, identification des recherches quil conviendrait dengager) ;
une prise en compte de lefficacit des mthodes de lutte mises en place dans les DOM
concerns, mais galement dans les autres pays des rgions proches des DOM concerns.
A l'aide des informations rassembles, et en collaboration avec les SPV des DOM, un projet de
rglementation phytosanitaire, dveloppant les mesures phytosanitaires sous forme de
prohibitions et d'exigences particulires tels que le prvoient les annexes III, IV et V de la
Directive 2000/29/CE est en cours de rdaction. Il sera prsent au Comit Phytosanitaire
Permanent de l'Union Europenne Bruxelles, qui est habilit faire voluer la Directive.
Une ouverture aux espces invasives des milieux naturels
Outre les risques lies aux organismes nuisibles pouvant tre prsents sur les vgtaux,
l'importation volontaire ou involontaire d'un certain nombre de plantes pouvant facilement
stablir dans les espaces cultivs ou les milieux naturels prsente un risque maintenant reconnu
qu'il convient de prciser. Ce constat gnral est particulirement marqu dans les trois
dpartements insulaires, o l'appauvrissement de la diversit biologique du fait de l'introduction
et de ltablissement d'espces invasives est dj observ.
Afin de bien caractriser ce type de risque, dj identifi et matrialis en 1991 par la prsence
de plusieurs plantes suprieures dans la liste des organismes de quarantaine, il est prvu de
procder la ralisation d'analyses de risque phytosanitaire pour des plantes suprieures
caractre envahissant reconnu dans le cadre d'un projet dbutant dans les prochains jours, avec
des malherbologistes du CIRAD. Ce travail profite et souhaite contribuer l'adaptation de la
norme d'ARP la problmatique des espces invasives des milieux naturels ou peu anthropiss,
qui a lieu sous l'gide de la CIPV et de diverses organisations rgionales de la protection des
vgtaux.

37

Tableau rcapitulatif des ARP ralises en 2003 -2004

ARP
dtaille
Canne sucre
11
Bananier et autres Musaces
7
Agrumes
9
Cultures marachres principales 4
(Solanaces,
Cucurbitaces,
Brassicaces)
Cultures
florales
(Orchides, 3
Araces, etc.)
Ananas et autres Bromliaces
3
Alliaces (oignon, ail)
6
Manguier
3
Avocatier
2
Papayer
1
Passiflores
Productions horticoles diverses
Litchi
Fruitiers temprs
Riz
1
Caf / Cacao
2
Palmaces
Vigne
1
Polyphages
53
Total

ARP
simplifies
9
8
6
13

20
15
15
17

Pertinentes
pour les DFA
16
15
12
16

5
6
4
5
6
2
7
2
3
3
4
4
1
3
130

5
6
4
5
5
2
5
0
1
3
1
4
0
2
110

1
3
5
2
7
2
3
2
2
4
1
2
77

Total

Des bases de donnes indispensables

Lors du travail prparatoire l'volution rglementaire, la ncessit de pouvoir accder
rapidement aux informations diverses concernant les organismes nuisibles aux vgtaux dans les
DOM a t identifie. La premire question se posant dans le cas de l'tude prliminaire l'ARP
tant le "statut" de prsence sur le territoire tudi, il s'est avr que pour de nombreux bioagresseurs, mme relativement connus, l'accs prcis ce type d'information pouvait poser
problme du fait de la dispersion des sources (chercheurs, vulgarisateurs, bibliothques, ).
Afin de remdier cette difficult, les informations disponibles sont regroupes dans des bases
de donnes informatiques cres et gres par chaque SPV, aprs que les informations aient t
rassembles en collaboration avec les Fdrations Rgionales de Dfense contre les Organismes
Nuisibles et les centres de recherches des l'INRA, de l'IRD et du CIRAD implants localement.
Une prochaine tape prvoit la mise en commun de toutes ses informations, sur une base unique
consultable via internet.

38

Pour un partage des informations

Cette action s'inspirera des techniques utilises dans le cadre d'un projet rgional dvelopp dans
l'Ocan Indien et impliquant largement le DAF/SPV du dpartement de la Runion.
Comme dans le bassin de la Carabe, les problmes phytosanitaires sont trs similaires dans les
diffrents pays de cette rgion du globe, et la cration dun rseau rgional qui doit permettre
dtablir des communications permanentes et dchanger des informations sensibles en temps
rel est peru comme un outil incontournable au dveloppement des productions vgtales et du
commerce, en particulier des productions horticoles.
Les constats ayant dbouchs sur ce projet dans l'Ocan Indien peuvent aisment tre utiliss
pour le Bassin de la Carabe similitude des cosystmes et des climats, grande homognit
des types de production d'un pays un autre, importance l'activit agricole dans les conomies,
volont et ncessit d'une agriculture ouverte sur les changes. La seule diffrence notable, outre
le nombre de pays concerns, est la prsence d'une Organisation Rgionale de la Protection des
Vgtaux dj active dans le bassin cariben. Les Services de la Protection des Vgtaux des
Dpartements Franais d'Amrique, en association avec la SDQPV sont disposs, l'occasion du
travail de leur rvision de leur rglementation phytosanitaire, partager les informations
collectes et participer aux activits communes d'analyses et de gestion des risques
phytosanitaires pour le bassin cariben.

39

APPENDIX: ENGLISH TEXT

SAFEGUARDING STRATEGY AGAINST INVASIVE EXOTIC SPECIES IN THE
CARIBBEAN: PERSPECTIVE OF THE PLANT PROTECTION SERVICES OF THE
FRENCH DEPARTMENTS OF THE AMERICAS
Pierre Ehret, Scientific Officer for phytosanitary regulation of the French Overseas
Departments (DOM) Agricultural Ministry DGAL/SDQPV, ZAC d'Alco - BP 3056, 34034
MONTPELLIER CEDEX 1, Tel : 33 4 67 10 18 17, email: pierre.ehret@agriculture.gouv.fr
Guadeloupe, Martinique and French Guiana, the French Departments of the Americas,
are among the European Outermost Regions with very distinctive climatic and agricultural
conditions.
The significant flow of plant and plant product imports originating from very varied
production areas necessitates the need for particular vigilance during plant protection inspections
at the borders of these territories.

A phytosanitary regulation to integrate all of Europe.

This monitoring activity is assured by the decentralized services of the Agricultural
Ministry: the plant protection services (Services de la Protection des Vgtaux) of the
departments of agriculture and forestry (Directions de l'Agriculture et de la Fort) (DAF/SPV).
This monitoring activity is one of the primary missions of these services and includes monitoring
the territory and trade for pests.
Other missions have been added to these historical missions of the plant protection
services, in particular:
Oversight of the commercialization and application of plant protection products, as well
as their biological evaluation prior to approval;
Monitoring of genetically modified organisms established in the field and putting in place
biological surveillance.
Up until now, phytosanitary inspections of imports into French Overseas Departments
(DOMs) have resulted from a 1990 regulation (decree from September 3, 1990, which was
amended by a December 3, 1991 decree specifically aimed at DOMs). This text gives the ability
to incorporate the use of phytosanitary certificates between the metropolis and the DOMs, and it
assembles all information relative to quarantine pests, prohibitions and particular requirements
that amend the metropolitan regulation so that it takes into account climatic, bio-geographical,
and agricultural particularities of the Departments.
With the creation of the European Market in 1993, a new and unique phytosanitary
regulation was adopted for Europe and it replaced the metropolitan regulation of 19908.
This new European regulation was requested of France to integrate the above decrees
specifically aimed at the DOMs, while taking into account particularities of the DOMs.
This integration is the occasion to assess the quarantine pests that constitute the major
point of the phytosanitary regulation. After nearly 15 years, a re-evaluation of the list of
regulated pests (that is to say more than 350, including the lists of regulated pests under
mandatory control) becomes necessary.
Based on the most important plant related industries (importance of the agricultural
production in the DOMs, importance of imports), pests are examined in order to assess whether
8

European regulation consolidated in 2000 by the councils directive 2000/29/CE, re-transcribed in

French law by the decree of November 22, 2002.

40

they should be added to subsequent lists. For each of these industries, based on the knowledge
of researchers, the pests not indexed in 1991 were also examined, and for some of these the
decision to study them further was made.
PRAs: a necessary step.
Indeed, for a certain number of pests and pathogens, it was decided to conduct an
evaluation of the phytosanitary risk. This evaluation is based on the international standard for
Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC). It permits the
collection of all data necessary to justify taking phytosanitary measures at import, while
respecting the spirit of the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary
Measures (the SPS Agreement). To avoid the use of unjustifiable measures as barriers to world
trade, this agreement states that technical data shall be organized based on the international
standard for PRA, and shall be made available to all requesting countries when making
modifications to phytosanitary regulations.
Not all pests initially selected to appear in the regulation were subject to a PRA:
either because their biology was well known and their quarantine status is agreed upon at
the level of regional organizations;
or because the level of acquired knowledge, in particular regarding distribution and
possible pathways of introduction, ruled out all possibility of being able to classify them
as a quarantine pest in the future regulation.
In the end 130 PRAs were prepared. This work was conducted by the Center for International
Cooperation in Agronomic Research for Development (i.e., CIRAD, Centre de Coopration
Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Dveloppement), in interaction with the
office of plant health of the sub-directorate of the quality of plant protection (Sous-Direction de
la Qualit et de la Protection des Vgtaux) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
(Ministre de l'Agriculture et de la Pche). Funding from the European POSEIDOM Programme d'Options Spcifiques l'Eloignement et l'Insularit des Dpartements franais
d'Outre-Mer made it possible to ensure a part of the costs of this work in 2003 and 2004.
The development of these PRAs for each of the host-pest systems studied necessitated:
ascertaining the status of the presence or absence of the pest in the DOMs of concern and
in the adjacent regions, as well as an assessment of its potential extension to new
geographical areas;
detailed knowledge regarding the biological characteristics of the pathogen, the pest, and
their host(s): means of dispersal, establishment ability, vectors, identification of biotic
and abiotic factors favorable for the development of the parasites and pests;
an ability to identify the potential economic consequences caused during the introduction
and propagation of the pests;
an evaluation of the uncertainties regarding the risks (taking into account the progress of
current research, identification of research that would be suitable to initiate);
taking into account the effectiveness of the control methods in place in the DOMs
concerned, but also in other countries in close proximity to the DOMs concerned.
With the help of the assembled information, and in collaboration with the plant protection
services of the DOMs, a phytosanitary regulatory project developing the phytosanitary measures,
in the form of prohibitions and particular requirements such as those envisioned by the annexes
III, IV and V of the Council Directive 2000/29/EC, is being prepared. It will be presented to the
Permanent Phytosanitary Committee of the European Union in Brussels, which has the power to
advance the Directive.

41

An opening to species that are invasive in natural areas.

In addition to the risks involved with pests present on plants, the voluntary or involuntary
importation of a certain number of plants able to easily establish in crop production areas or in
natural areas presents a risk now recognized as worth mentioning.
This general
acknowledgement is particularly pronounced in the three island departments, where the decrease
in biological diversity as a result of the introduction and establishment of invasive species has
already been observed.
In order to well characterize this type of risk, already identified and materialized in 1991
by the presence of several higher level plants in the list of quarantine pests, pest risk analyses for
invasive higher level plants will be carried out within the framework of a project with CIRAD
weed scientists, which will be initiated shortly. It is hoped that this work will contribute to the
implementation of the PRA standard relative to the problem of invasive species in natural
undisturbed areas, or in areas only slightly disturbed, which is taking place under the auspices of
the IPPC and diverse regional plant protection organizations.
Indispensable databases.
While conducting preliminary work for the development of the regulation, the necessity
to be able to quickly access diverse information concerning plant pests in the DOMs was
identified. In gathering preliminary information for a PRA, the first question that comes up is
the status of presence in the territory under study; for numerous pests, even those that are
relatively well known, it became evident that precise access to this type of information could be
a problem because of the decentralized location of information sources (researchers,
publications, libraries, etc.)
In order to remedy this difficulty, the available information is gathered in electronic
databases created and managed by each plant protection service, after the information was
gathered in collaboration with the regional federations for defense against pests (Fdrations
Rgionales de Dfense contre les Organismes Nuisibles) and the local research centers of
INRA, IRD and CIRAD.
A forthcoming stage envisages the pooling of all this information into a central database
accessible via the internet.
Sharing of information.
This action will use as a starting point the techniques used in the framework of a regional
project developed in the Indian Ocean and involving in large part the plant protection service of
the Department of Reunion.
As in the Caribbean, phytosanitary problems are very similar in the different countries in
this region of the world, and the creation of a regional network that allows the establishment of
permanent communications and the exchange of sensitive information in real time is perceived
as an indispensable tool for the development of crop production and trade, in particular for
horticultural crop production.
The observations that led to this project in the Indian Ocean can easily be used for the
Caribbean similarity of the ecosystems and climates, large homogeneity of the types of
production from one country to the next, importance of agriculture in the economies, willingness
and necessity of an open agricultural market. The only notable difference, besides the number of
countries concerned, is the presence of a Regional Plant Protection Organization already active
in the Caribbean. The plant protection services of the French Departments of the Americas
(Services de la Protection des Vgtaux des Dpartements Franais d'Amrique), in
association with the SDGPV (Ministre de lAgriculture et la Pche Sous Direction de la
42

Protection des Vgtaux), are willing, when working on their revision of their phytosanitary
regulation, to share collected information and to work together on activities related to risk
analysis and risk management for the Caribbean.
Summary table of the PRAs completed in 2003-2004
Detailed Simplified
PRA
PRA
Sugarcane
11
Banana tree and other Musaceae
7
Citrus
9
Principle market garden products 4
(Solanaceae,
Cucurbitaceae,
Brassicaceae)
Floral crops (Orchidaceae, Araceae, 3
etc.)
Pineapple and other Bromeliaceae
3
Alliaceae (oignon, garlic)
6
Mango tree
3
Avocado tree
2
Papaya tree
1
Passionflowers
Diverse horticultural crops
Litchi
Temperate fruit trees
Rice
1
Coffee / Cacao
2
Palmaceae
Grapevines
Polyphagous
1
53
Total

9
8
6
13

20
15
15
17

Relevant for the French

Departments of the
Americas
16
15
12
16

5
6
4
5
6
2
7
2
3
3
4
4
1
3
130

5
6
4
5
5
2
5
0
1
3
1
4
0
2
110

1
3
5
2
7
2
3
2
2
4
1
2
77

Total

EDITORIAL NOTE: The translation into English of the original French text was made by Ms.
Leah Millar, USDA, APHIS, Raleigh, NC. The editors are very grateful to Ms. Millar for this
service.

43

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):44-53. 2005

TOWARDS OPERATIONALIZING THE CARIBBEAN REGIONAL INVASIVE
SPECIES INTERVENTION STRATEGY (CRISIS)
Everton Ambrose, Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA), P O Box
1223 Castries, Saint Lucia, Phone: 758 451 6760/61 ; Fax: 758 451 6774 ;
Ambroseiica@candw.lc .
ABSTRACT: The Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy (CRISIS)
promotes a comprehensive and integrated approach to addressing the problem of invasive alien
species that variously affect the environment, agricultural production, food security, trade,
tourism, public health and agricultural competitiveness. CRISIS is a plan for assisting the
Region in preventing and mitigating the introduction, spread and impact of invasive alien
species, and for increasing awareness. CRISIS is a framework within which individual country
and regional activities could be developed and strengthened, and the sourcing of funds could be
facilitated. It encompasses all English, French, Dutch and Spanish speaking countries/territories
in the Caribbean Basin including the states of the United States of America (USA) adjacent to
the Gulf of Mexico and all invasive species with potential to be harmful to agriculture, natural
ecosystems and human health. A Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group (CCISWG) is
seeking to secure the adoption of CRISIS by all governments in the Region and by various
international bodies. Currently the Working Group is giving high priority to the implementation
of a two component project: (a) Timely internet-based tracking pest introductions and
interceptions, and (b) Development of a Caribbean pest and disease diagnostic system based on
distance digital imaging and internet-based communications.
KEY WORDS: regional safeguarding, internet-based tracking, distance digital imaging,
Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group, National Agricultural Health and Food Safety
(NAHFS) Committee
RSUM: Le plan stratgique rgional dintervention pour lutter contre les espces
envahissantes vise promouvoir (Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy CRISIS) une approche complte et intgre pour contrler les espces trangres invasives qui
affectent des degrs divers l'environnement, la production agricole, la scurit alimentaire, le
commerce, le tourisme, la sant publique et la comptitivit agricole. CRISIS est un plan
dappui rgional de prvention et de contrle de l'introduction, de la dissmination et de la
rduction des impacts des espces trangres envahissantes, et de la sensibilisation du public ce
problme. CRISIS est un cadre lintrieur duquel chaque pays pourrait dvelopper, coconstruire des activits rgionales renforces et mobiliser des fonds spcifiques. Ce rseau
regroupe tous les tats anglophones, francophones, hispanophones et de langue hollandaise, les
tats du Bassin Cariben dont les Etats-Unis d'Amrique (Etats-Unis) et ceux du Golfe du
Mexique et concerne toutes les espces envahissantes ayant un potentiel de nuisibilit pour
l'agriculture, les cosystmes naturels et la sant humaine. Un groupe cariben de travail sur les
espces envahissantes (Caribbean Invasive Species Working - CISWG) sest mobilis, pour
favoriser ladoption de CRISIS par tous les gouvernements dans la Rgion et par diverses
organisations internationales. Actuellement le groupe de travail accorde la priorit l'excution
de deux projets : (a) Construction dune Base de donnes rgionale sur le web et actualise en
temps rel sur lpidmiologie rgionale, lintroduction et linterception de parasites et maladies,
44

et (b) Dveloppement dun systme cariben de diagnostique de parasites et maladies bas sur la
tl-transmission et la reconnaissance dimages numriques distance via internet.
1.0. BACKGROUND
Invasive species are organisms whose establishment and spread threaten food security,
human health and economic development. They also threaten biodiversity, productive
agricultural systems and natural ecosystems. Once well established, invasive species are costly
to eradicate or manage hence the need to take proactive or timely intervention to prevent
introduction and subsequent establishment. They maybe alien if they were deliberately or
accidentally introduced from another area.
The main driver in the spread of invasive alien species (IAS) is international trade. Many
of these pests hitchhike on board ships, airplanes, trucks, and containers while a large number
travel as or in commodities. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is addressing the
issue of Invasive Species through prevention, eradication, control and mitigation of their impacts
combined with legislation and guidelines at national, regional and international levels. Article 8
(h) notes that each contracting party shall, as far as possible, and as appropriate, prevent the
introduction of, control or eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or
species. Experience has shown that the best way to limit the impact of IAS is prevention rather
than eradication or control after their introduction.
In 1997, the Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) was established to develop the
knowledge base; the scientific, technical, economical and institutional tools; and a global
strategy to deal with invasive species, thus helping to maintain biological diversity. The GISP is
coordinated by the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) in the
conjunction with World Conservation Union (IUCN), Center for Applied Biosciences
International (CABI) and United National Environmental Programme (UNEP).
Regional cooperation and coordination has been encouraged to ensure that all countries in
a region are addressing invasive species issues and that the efforts of one country are not
undermined by the inaction of another. It is against this background that a symposium on
invasive species was organized during the 2003 Caribbean Food Crops Society (CFCS) Meeting
in Grenada. Since then a Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group (CCISWG) has been
established with responsibility for the development, coordination and implementation of a
regional safeguarding strategy Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy
(CRISIS).
CRISIS promotes a comprehensive and integrated approach to addressing the IAS
problem. It encompasses changes in the environment, and those that affect production, food
security, trade, tourism, public health and agricultural competitiveness. It provides a plan that
would assist the Region in preventing and mitigating the introduction, spread and impact of IAS,
increase awareness, and a framework within which individual country and regional activities
could be developed and strengthened, and facilitate the sourcing of funds. It encompasses all
English, French, Dutch and Spanish speaking countries/territories in the Caribbean Basin
including the states of the United States of America (USA) adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico and
all invasive species with potential to be harmful to agriculture, natural ecosystems and human
health.
2.0. PLAN OF ACTION
2.1 Actions implemented. In order to take the strategy forward at the Regional level, a regional
workshop entitled Facilitating Safer United States/Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species Issues
45

was held in Trinidad in June 2004. The Workshop received comprehensive regional
participation. The objectives were to provide a continuing platform to carry out the
recommendations developed at the IAS Symposium in Grenada in 2002 and to convene a cadre
of opinion leaders in dialogue to arrive at consensus on a proactive policy to address the invasive
species issues in the Caribbean.
The Workshop concluded that a Greater Caribbean Basin-wide approach is necessary to
effectively deal with IAS issues in the Region. The Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food
Safety Agency (CAHFSA) is the logical regional coordinating entity to spearhead the regional
IAS safeguarding strategy. The Workshop recognized that CAHFSA is specifically a
CARICOM serving institution, recommended that it be structured such that its sphere of
influence is extended beyond the boundaries of its member states. The Workshop further
indicated that forging appropriate and strategic partnerships with the USA and other entities
should be assigned high priority in structuring CAHFSA. In so doing, CAHFSA will be better
able to mobilize the technical, institutional and financial resources required for extension of both
its scope and effectiveness with the IAS issues. As CAHFSA proceeds with plans for a regional
safeguarding strategy, serious efforts must be made from the very outset to address
environmental, natural resources and biodiversity components of trade. As CAHFSA becomes
operational, it may be prudent, given the resource constraints, but recognizing the urgency of the
IAS problem to start incrementally with a two component project developed from those
identified in the CFCS Action Plan document, (Annex I) viz:
a) Timely internet-based tracking pest introductions and interceptions
b) Development of a Caribbean pest and disease diagnostic system based on distance digital
imaging and internet-based communications
Finally, the Workshop voted unanimously to send a resolution with related material,
outlining the important issue of invasive species to CARICOM, to be brought to the attention of
the CARICOM Council of Trade and Economic Development (COTED). The resolution was
presented to the COTED in June 2004 which requested that the CRISIS document as a regional
strategy on invasive species be presented together with specific project proposals for action.
Additionally, a letter outlining the important issue of invasive species was also sent to individual
governments in the Region. The letter and resolution were also sent to certain agencies in the
Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and the French West Indies.
A planning session of the CCISWG was held during the Caribbean Food Crops Society
Meeting in St. Johns, United States Virgin Islands in July 2004, and another in Trinidad in
March 2005.
At the Trinidad Meeting, it was agreed that CARDI also should send the letter to
appropriate Government agencies in the British Virgin Islands, Bahamas and Cuba as well as to
Ministries of Health, Environment, Trade and Fisheries (where these are not under the
agriculture portfolio). A minor editing of the letter was agreed for non-governmental agencies.
In January 2005, Professor Waldemar Klassen of the University of Florida made a presentation
on behalf of the CCISWG entitled Vulnerability of Agriculture to Invasive Species at the Forum
of CARICOM Ministers of Agriculture. In May 2005, CRISIS together with a progress report of
the activities of the CISWG was presented to the COTED. Member States:
i. Endorsed the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) as
the lead agency in building the necessary strategic partnerships for the control and
management of invasive species in the Region
ii. Recognized the CISWG

46

iii. Requested the CISWG to continue to develop further fundable project proposals with a
view to implementation
iv. Further requested a report from the CISWG on the mobilization of resources and the
strategy for implementing projects
v. Noted the CRISIS paper
vi. Requested CARDI to circulate CRISIS to all Member States for comments by August 31,
2005; and
vii. Urged Member States to facilitate and support the investigation on the current state of
preparedness of the Region regarding invasive species
2.2 Actions Proposed or in Progress.
2.2.1 Coordination of the Plan of Action. The CISWG consisting of the following institutions
has been at the forefront of actions on invasive species:
CABI
CARICOM Secretariat
CARDI
Centre de Cooperation International en Research Agronomic pour le development
(CIRAD)
Florida A&M University (FAMU)
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA)
University of Florida
University of the West Indies (UWI)
This CISWG, chaired by CARDI, will provide policy direction, political guidance, and
coordination for the overall Plan of Action. The University of Florida will coordinate the United
States interests in the multi-institutional initiative. In this regard University of Florida has
obtained a grant from the Tropical and Subtropical Agricultural Research (T-STAR) Programme
for Facilitation and Coordination of the Florida/Caribbean Basin Inter-Institutional Invasive
Species Initiative.
The CISWG will meet at least once a year but will be in contact through other means of
communications. It will ensure that all countries within the Caribbean Basin participate in the
implementation of the strategy. It will encourage cooperation and coordination amongst
countries and the regional organizations in the region. It is worthy of note that the CISWG is
evolutionary in nature and may expand to reflect the diversity of the issues and representation of
the Caribbean Basis entities. The Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) has provided generous
financial support to the work of CISWG could be invited to be a member of the CISWG. Also,
that CAHFSA is in the planning stage as a CARICOM safeguarding agency and that its specific
role and scope is yet to be worked out.
The National Agricultural Health and Food Safety (NAHFS) Committee in the countries
will be designated as the implementation leader for the programmes at the national level. This
Committee is a multi-sectoral committee consisting of the Public Sector (Ministries of
Agriculture, Health, Environment and Trade) and the Private Sector. The NAHFS Committee
would be closely affiliated to Biodiversity Committee or Committee performing such a function
in the country.
2.2.2. Greater Caribbean Basin-Wide Approach. The Greater Caribbean Basin-wide Plan of
Action comprises of the following components Advocacy, Regional Projects and Actions,
National Level Activities and Monitoring and Evaluation.

47

2.2.2.1. Advocacy. An overarching objective of the Greater Caribbean Basin-wide Plan of

Action is for the Strategy to be endorsed by the Governments in the Caribbean Basin. All
countries and institutions in the Caribbean Basin will input to achieve this. Advocacy will be at
the CARICOM Meetings of Ministers responsible for Health and Environment in addition to the
continuation of the initiatives at the Meetings of the Ministers of Agriculture and Trade
(COTED). Advocacy will also be undertaken in the other countries in the Caribbean Basin
outside of CARICOM including those of the French Caribbean, Cuba, Central America, South
America, the USA and the Dependents of the United Kingdom. Support will be given for the
ongoing discussions regarding the establishment of the CAHFSA. However since CAHFSA is
mainly agriculture and food safety, efforts will be made to have areas of environment and natural
resources included.
The Implementation Group, NAHFS Committee or similar body, will be encouraged to
take advocacy roles with their national ministers and other contacts at the national level.
Available sources of information will be provided including the strategy document, information
briefs, policy papers, and a workshop would be held to discuss specific actions in the Greater
Caribbean Basin Plan of Action. It is expected that the CISWG and Implementation Groups will
meet a least once per year to plan operations.
In addition to the endorsement by the governments, support will be sought for the
implementation of the CRISIS by all institutions operating in the Greater Caribbean Basin.
Strategic partners will be developed with financial institutions and others where funding may be
sourced.
2.2.2.2. Regional Projects and Actions. A set of projects and actions (Annex I) which addresses
key issues within the strategy will de undertaken. The following section describes the projects,
the prioritization of the projects, the process of submitting the projects for funding and a work
plan for the projects with assigned responsibilities. With regard to the actions, some activity has
been initiated by CIRAD and will be reported on separately.
2.2.2.2.1. Selected Projects. Attached to the strategy document is a document Proposed Invasive
Species Projects for the Caribbean consisting of the list of projects identified during the 2003
Caribbean Food Crops Society Meeting in Grenada. Projects: a) Timely internet based tracking
of invasive pest introductions and interceptions and b) Development of a Caribbean pest and
disease diagnostic system based on distance digital imaging and internet based communications
have been combined into the Caribbean Alien Invasive Species Information System (CAISIS).
CABI has developed a proposal Mitigating the threat of Invasive Alien Species in the Insular
Caribbean for funding. The remaining projects if selected will be elaborated and funding will be
sought together with any new projects identified.
2.2.2.2.2. Prioritizing the Project. The projects have been prioritized as follows:
1. Project: Caribbean Invasive Alien Species Information System (CIASIS). There is a need for
a capability to diagnose and identify IAS. Information needs to be collected, evaluated,
synthesized and communicated to the countries. There is need for supportive research and the
development of a database.
1a. Project: Development of a Caribbean pest and disease diagnostic system based on distance
digital imaging and internet based communications. There is need for an assessment of the
diagnostic capabilities in the countries and develop a network of laboratories and specialists
based on the findings. Seek funding to facilitate purchase of equipment, travel of specialists to
provide training and to seek solutions to constraints. There is need to determine the pest status in
the countries and provide outreach training and educational programmes.
1b. Project: Timely Internet-based tracking of invasive pest interceptions/introductions. There is
a need to determine resource status (personnel, equipment) devoted to invasive species. Develop

48

the capability to record and keep track of invasive pests. Maintain and update listing of key
invasive species threatening the region and generate and post pest alerts.
2. Facilitation and Coordination of the Florida/Caribbean Basin Inter-institutional
Invasive
Species Initiative. The overall objective is to improve the effectiveness of safeguarding against
alien invasive species in the Greater Caribbean Basin that pose major threats to Florida. A long
term goal is the establishment of a regional safeguarding mechanism in which the USA would
play an important role, and which would give maximum protection to Florida.
3. Project: Mitigating the Threat of Invasive Alien Species in the Insular Caribbean. To establish
a consultative process for the development, proofing and implementation of natural, sub-regional
and regional policies, strategies and technologies for the prevention and management of IAS.
4. Project: Assure Region-Wide Adoption of the Emergency Preparedness Plan and Develop
Specific Emergency Actions Plans for Key Pests. An Emergency Preparedness Plan is available
for the Caribbean. Countries will be encouraged to adopt this general plan. In addition, as part of
their National Plan of Action (NPA), countries will identify organisms which are invasive
species threats and develop specific emergency plans for each pest.
5. Project: Arouse Public Awareness of the Invasive Species Crisis. There is a need to develop
public interventions tailored to specific interests and to establish an annual Caribbean wide
Invasive Species Awareness Week. Develop news releases, posters, catchy slogans etc., or to
use on radio, televisions, posting at ports of entry.
6. Project: Take advantage of opportunities to obtain funding of critical invasive species research
and development needs from USDA-APHIS and USDA-ARS. Submit short project proposals to
USDA-APHIS and USDA-ARS to support extra mural research to fill critically needed
information and/or technology gaps in the systems for combating specific invasive species.
7. Project: Engage non-USA scientists in the Caribbean in T-STAR funded research on Invasive
species. T-STAR Administrators should encourage their faculty to involve scientists in various
Caribbean countries in developing and submitting joint proposals to the T-STAR Programme.
8. Project: Early Detection of Carambola Fruitfly. Design and submit a Carambola Fruitfly early
detection programme in the island with Trinidad in the south through St. Martin in the north.
9. Project: Restoration of National areas Infested with Non-Native Invasive Plants. There is need
for training/workshop with key personnel of the countries to provide hands on experience at
removal of species and restoration of national area(s).
10. Project: Appoint a Caribbean Region Standing Committee to serve as watchdog on the
arrival of new invasive species, or on alarming developments in the spread with footholds in the
region. The Watchdog Committee would discuss developments and determine whether formation
of regional coalitions of public and private sector interests should be recommended to mount
appropriate and effective counter measures.
2.2.2.2.3. Submitting the Projects for Funding. The projects will be submitted for funding
through the process (outlined in Table I). Project proposals may be submitted directly if the
funding source is known and committed.
Table 1: Process for Submitting Projects for Funding
Steps
1
2
3
4
5
6

Activity
Terms of Reference for project proposal developed
Concept note development and nomination of CISWG coordinators
Comments obtained on concept note by members of the CISWG
Funders approached and proposal prepared in required format
Proposal submitted through the leader of the CISWG
Project funded and started
49

The current status of the projects is summarized in Table 2. Actions are being addressed through
the French Caribbean Invasive Species Safeguarding Programme.
2.2.2.2.4. Work Plan for Projects. Next step and responsibilities for projects are to be discussed
2.2.2.3. National Level Activities. This is divided into National Level Awareness Raising and
Implementing Mechanisms for National Plan of Action.
2.2.2.3.1. National Level Awareness Raising. Support will be given to the NAHFS Committee in
its public awareness activities on invasive species and the strategy designed to address the issue.
These activities can be through face-to-face meetings with Ministers, relevant authorities and
stakeholders using available materials (CRISIS document, information briefs, or policy papers).
Within each community, a local group of persons will be identified to undertake public
awareness activities. One week of each year will be designated as Invasive Species Awareness
Week during which awareness activities on invasive species will be intensified using amongst
others communications materials (videos, posters, leaflets).
2.2.2.3.2. Implementing National Plans of Action. Each country will be encouraged to develop a
National Plan of Action (NPA) to implement national elements of the Strategy. The NAHFS
Committee will be responsible for coordinating activities since the process requires working in
partnership with other Ministries, private sector, non-governmental organizations and
community based organizations. The process of development of the NPA requires extensive
consultation, therefore meetings will be held with stakeholders to receive their input. The tool
kit of best prevention and management practices for invasive alien species prepared by the
Secretariat of GISP will be available. The tool kit provides a step-by-step approach for
developing, implementing, monitoring and evaluating NPA for invasive species. It is anticipated
that an important component will be the strengthening of technical capacity for effective
prevention and management of IAS. A task force comprising CABI, FAO and IICA supported by
CARDI will determine what information is available on the state of preparedness of the countries
with regards to invasive species.
Some countries (Bahamas, Jamaica and Dominican Republic) have prepared a specific list
of and prioritization of IAS.
2.2.2.4. Monitoring and Evaluation. Countries will assist in evaluating the success or failure of
the efforts by completing questionnaires and monitoring forms distributed at various stages of
implementation. Countries will also evaluate progress of their efforts based on chosen criteria.
2.2.3. Cooperation at International Community Level. Countries cannot be complacent, hence
they must be cognizant of emerging threats and act to address these threats. The major trade
routes to the region and between countries will be analyzed in order to identify and prioritize
possible pathways for the introduction of invasive species. The cooperation of the international
community will be solicited in an effort to manage the risk associated with these pathways. It is
expected that all countries both regional and international, will cooperate to achieve this.
Standards developed by the international committee will be adapted. The CISWG will establish
relationship with other international organisations working in that area.
The support of various US Government agencies and departments will be solicited. The
European Union, Canada, China and Japan may also be willing to provide funding.
3.0. CONCLUSION
The success of this Plan of Action requires acceptance by all countries, citizens and
institutions operating in the Greater Caribbean Basin. The Plan has individual components that
demand close cooperation amongst Government agencies, and stakeholders at the national and
regional levels. It targets local (in-country), national and regional boundaries.
50

4.0. REFERENCES
Anon, (2003). Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy. Proceedings of the
Caribbean Food Crops Society, 39 (1): 131-141
CABI (2005) Mitigating the Threat of Invasive Alien Species in the Insular Caribbean (draft
project document).
Klassen, W. and others (2003). Proposed Invasive Species Projects for the Caribbean.
Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society, 39 (1): 119-127
Klassen, W. (2005). Draft Caribbean Invasive Alien Species Information System (CIASIS): An
Invasive Alien Species Diagnostic/Identification and Tracking System and Database to
Facilitate Safeguarding the Region. Caribbean IAS Diagnostic Identification Network:
Regional Laboratories and Internet-based Regional Network of Specialists with Distance
Digital Diagnostic Capabilities
UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/6/INF/10: Toolkit of Best Prevention and Management Practices for
Invasive Alien Species GISP, 215 pp.

51

Table 2: Status of Projects

PROJECTS

1a. Timely internet-based tracking of

invasive pest introduction
1b. Caribbean pest and disease
diagnostic system
2. Facilitation and Coordination of
the Florida/Caribbean Basin Interinstitutional Invasive Species Initiative
3. Mitigating threat of IAS in the
Insular Caribbean
4. Adoption of general invasive species
emergency plan
5. Arouse public awareness

Strategy
No.

CISWG
Coordinators

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5

Step 6

Terms
of
Reference

Concept
Note
Developed

Reviewed
by
CISWG

Proposal
Developed

Proposal
submitted

Funded
and
started

University
of Florida

4
-

University
of Florida
CABI

CISIS

DDIS

5
1

6. Take advantage of opportunities for

funding from USDA
7. Engage non-USA scientists in the
Caribbean in T-STAR research
8. Early detection of Carambola fruit fly
9. Restoration of natural areas
10. Appoint a Caribbean Region
Standing Committee as watchdog

3
6
7a
8
7b

CISWG is the Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group; 2CISIS is the proposed Caribbean Invasive Species Information System;
3DDIS is the Distance Diagnostic and Identification System.
1

52

ANNEX 1
Projects and Actions Identified
a. Project Title

Early Detection of Carambola Fruit fly

Restoration of natural areas infested with non-native invasive plants
Timely internet based tracking of invasive pest introductions and interceptions
Develop a Caribbean pest and disease diagnostic system based on distance digital
imaging and internet based communications
Arouse public awareness of the invasive species crisis
Engage non-USA scientists in the Caribbean in T-STAR funded research on invasive
species
Assure region wide adoption of the General Invasive Species Emergency Plan and
develop Specific Emergency Action Plans for key threats
Appoint a Caribbean Region Standing Committee to serve as a watchdog on the arrival
of new invasive species, or on alarming developments in the spread of invasive species
with footholds in the region
Take advantage of opportunities to obtain funding of critical invasive species Research
and Development needs from USDA-APHIS and USDA-ARS

b. Actions

Impact of the introduction of new hybrid varieties of bananas and plantains on the
dynamic balance of the populations of some pathogenic agents and pests: nematodes,
fungus and virus.
Support of a sugar and rum sustainable production and preservation of the agricultural
landscape in the Caribbean by optimizing the processes of variety selection.
Promotion of a sustainable citrus fruit cultivation and plant health observatory.
Improvement of the market gardening productions: creation of diseases and pest
resistant tomato and peppers adapted to the Caribbean environment.
Towards a global research programme on integrated control of the coconut lethal
yellowing disease in the Caribbean.

53

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):54-57. 2005

SESSION II: TECHNICAL ISSUES
A SYNOPSIS OF THE USDA APHIS CARIBBEAN INVASIVE SPECIES STRATEGIC
PLAN
Trang T. Vo1, Carolyn T. Cohen2, and C. Ed Miller3. 1Policy and Program Development, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, 4700 River Road, Unit
20, Riverdale, Maryland, 20737-1238. Phone: 301-734-8390; Fax: 301-734-6357.
TRANG.T.VO@USDA.GOV . 2 Caribbean Area Director, USDA-APHIS, International Services,
Central America & Caribbean Region, American Embassy, Santo Domingo, Dominican
Republic Unit 5527, APO AA 34041; Carolyn.t.cohen@aphis.usda.gov . 3 Pest Risk Mitigation
Specialist, 7939 Devilbiss Bridge Rd., Frederick MD, USA 21701 Phone: 1-301-898-3123;
charles.e.miller@adelphia.net .
ABSTRACT: Since exclusion at the port of entry is no longer adequate to protect U.S.A. plant
resources, increased emphasis is being given to mitigating pest risk at the point of origin of items
imported into the U.S.A., i.e. off-shore. In each of recent years the Caribbean Area Office has
received an allocation US$ 100,000 from the appropriation to APHIS for pest detection. These
funds will be used to support seven priority thrusts: (1) cooperative tracking in the Caribbean
Region of pests of quarantine significance using the Off-shore Pest Information System (OPIS),
(2) surveillance and biological control of exotic tropical fruit flies, (3) cooperative surveys for
the giant African snail, TTAchatina fulica TTBowdich and other dangerous mollusks in the
Region, (4) Scirtothrips dorsalis surveillance and mitigation, (5) biological control against the
pigeon pea pod fly, Melanagromyza obtusa (Malloch), passionvine mealybug, Planococcus
minor (Maskell), and the coffee mealybug, Planococcus lilacinus (Cockerell), (6) provide
technical expertise to investigate potential emergent pest problems and provide digital imaging
equipment to Caribbean quarantine authorities, and (7) assist in the training of plant protection
officers in plant quarantine, in the development of manuals for port of entry inspectors, and
updating plant health legislation.
KEY WORDS: off-shore, point of origin, Offshore Pest Information System, OPIS, Anastrepha
fruit flies, giant African snail, Scirtothrips dorsalis, biological control, emerging pests,
infrastructure building
INTRODUCTION
The Greater Caribbean Basin9 is of great importance to the United States both in terms of
trade and tourism. Globalization of trade and international movement of people within the
region have increased the risk of spread of invasive pest species into the United States. APHIS
has traditionally relied on inspection of arriving cargo and passengers at the port of entry as a
primary means of excluding exotic pests. In light of the large volume of arriving cargo and
people from the region each year, exclusion at the port of entry is no longer adequate to protect
U.S. plant resources. This shift in strategy, as recommended in APHIS Plant Health
Safeguarding Review, calls for increased focus on managing pest risk at the point of origin, i.e.,
TP

The Greater Caribbean Basin is composed of the Caribbean Islands, Central America, Panama, Colombia,
Venezuela, Guyana, and Suriname.
PT

54

off-shore. This paper identifies on-going and planned pest management efforts by APHIS/IS in
the Caribbean to reduce the risk of exotic pest introductions in the United States.
A major initiative to address emerging off-shore pest issues is the placement of additional
Foreign Service specialists overseas with the primary task of gathering international pest
information. These safeguarding officers, called Animal and Plant Health Specialists, will work
collaboratively with local scientists to develop appropriate methods for surveying targeted pests.
The information collected will be submitted to a central data base maintained by PPQ as part of
the process to collect, synthesize and analyze, and utilize offshore pest information known as the
Offshore Pest Information System (OPIS).
APHIS invasive species activities in the Caribbean have centered on surveillance,
control, and technical assistance. For the past two years, the IS Caribbean Area office operated
on a budget of approximately $100,000 per year from the Pest Detection line item. Seven
priority action areas have been identified for the Caribbean region. A number of the activities
are pending supplemental funding, and are noted with an asterisk{*}.
1. OPIS Pests for the Caribbean. One of the priorities of the Caribbean Area Office is the
monitoring of the pests identified by OPIS for the region. The Area Office will work with the
Caribbean nations and territories to track pest occurrence, population levels and distribution on
each island.
2. Caribbean Area Exotic Fruit Fly Project. The OPIS targeted pest list for the Caribbean region
includes five species of Anastrepha fruit flies (A. fraterculus, A. obliqua, A. serpentina, A. striata
and A. suspensa) plus the Medfly. A. suspensa is found in the Greater Antilles10, A. obliqua is
widely distributed throughout the Caribbean, and the other species have limited distribution in
the Greater Caribbean. In addition to the OPIS-identified pests, Bactrocera carambolae which
occurs in northern South America poses a long-term threat to the Caribbean and the United
States.
For species that are not widely distributed, enhanced exclusion efforts are needed to
reduce the likelihood of infestation from neighboring islands. To decrease the threat of an
introduction in the United States, a concerted effort is needed to control A. obliqua on an areawide basis. The following actions are needed to meet these objectives.
- Continue providing traps and lure for all islands participating in fruit fly surveys. *This will
include the introduction of new multilure traps which have been found to be more effective than
McPhail traps in catching a wide number of different Anastrepha species.
- Implement a classical biocontrol program for A. obliqua on *3 to 4 islands in the Lesser
Antilles10. This will be a cooperative program where APHIS would supply the parasites and
technical expertise. The program has a high probability of reducing the pest population by 40 to
80% which will decrease the risk to the United States from these islands by about 50%11. *If
successful, the program could be implemented on other infested islands.
3. Giant African Snail Project. The Giant African Snail (GAS) has been introduced into five
Caribbean islands. Recent APHIS surveys have detected the presence of other serious mollusk
10

The Lesser Antilles include the British Virgin Islands, U.S. Virgin Islands, and Trinidad and Tobago.
Vo, T., W. Enkerlin, C.E. Miller, G. Ortiz, and J. Perez Economic Analysis of the Suppression/Eradication
of the Mediterranean Fruit fly and Other Fruit Flies in Central America and Panama. Policy and Program
Development, APHIS, USDA, Riverdale, MD, May 2003.
TP

PT

TP

11
PT

55

pests as well. There is an immediate need for further molluscan surveys in the Caribbean Basin
as many of the islands where surveys have yet to be conducted engage in regular commerce or
share tourist traffic with GAS and other mollusk pest-infested islands.
Conduct surveys in additional islands and countries.
Distribute the PPQ mollusk identification manual to each countrys primary identifier/office.
*Coordinate with the governments of France, the Netherlands, and Britain for future surveys in
their respective territories (French islands of St. Barts, St. Martin; Dutch islands of Aruba,
Bonaire, Curacao, Saba, St. Eustatius, Sint Maarten; British islands of Anguilla, British Virgin
Islands, and Montserrat).
4. Scirtothrips dorsalis Project The proximity of the newly S. dorsalis-infested islands to the
United States and the recent interception in Florida of the pest on cargo from infested islands
necessitates that certain actions be mobilized immediately.
- Support the development of inspection, detection, and control procedures and methodology
for the Caribbean islands and U.S. ports of entry.
- *Identify natural enemies currently available and work with ARS to initiate a foreign
exploration program to identify potential natural enemies.
- Assist infested Caribbean islands with eradication/control activities including *technical
visits to determine potential for insectaries.
5. Biological Control Project. The success of the biological control technique against mealybugs
is ample justification for its continuing support and fostering the development of the technology
for other pests. In addition to maintaining support for the control of Pink Hibiscus and Papaya
mealybugs, other pests that have been identified as serious threats to the United States and
warrant attention are listed below.
- Support additional host studies for the Pigeon Pea Pod fly. *If parasite tests are successful,
implement a biological control program on infested islands.
- *Develop biological control programs for two mealybugs that occur in the Caribbean,
Planococcus minor and P. lilacinus. These exotic species have been identified by ARS as
serious threats to the United States and are likely to become established if introduced. Field
studies for parasites are needed.
6. Emerging Pests. The Caribbean Area Office will continue work to identify early detections of
new pests to this region that may pose a threat to U.S. agriculture. This will allow APHIS to
quickly respond to introductions while populations are low enough for eradication to be
considered.
- *Provide Digital Imaging System equipment to Caribbean quarantine authorities. In several
countries, resources are inadequate to screen for and identify intercepted pests. With the aid of
this equipment, APHIS specialists will be able to engage in the identification of pests by longdistance while helping to develop local expertise.
56

Provide funding as needed to support visits by technical experts to evaluate emerging

pest situations and advise APHIS and Caribbean countries on appropriate actions.
7. Infrastructure Building - Agricultural Quarantine. APHIS visits to Caribbean ports of entry,
and collateral interviews with host government personnel have highlighted weaknesses in their
quarantine protocols. Lack of training critically impairs the island nations' ability to adequately
address pest issues.
- Encourage regional coordination in exclusion activities by supporting attendance of APHIS at
the new Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agency (CAHFSA) meetings.
-*Work with the CAHFSA or another organization to develop a grant proposal from WTO for
the development and delivery of three workshops (one each in English, Spanish, and French) for
training plant protection officers and supervisors in plant quarantine activities
- Work with Caribbean countries to update their plant health legislation and prepare manuals
for use by port of entry (POE) inspectors. *Support visits by APHIS experts to evaluate current
procedures and manuals.
REFERENCES
National Plant Board. 1999. Safeguarding American plant resources. A stakeholder review of the
APHIS-PPQ Safeguarding System. APHIS, USDA, Wash. D.C. 133 pp., plus appendices.
Vo, T. T., C. T. Cohen, and C. E. Miller. 2004. Caribbean Invasive Species Strategic Plan.
USDA, APHIS, Riverdale, MD, USA. 19 p.

57

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):58-63. 2005

THE T-STAR SUPPORTED CARIBBEAN BASIN/FLORIDA INVASIVE SPECIES
COORDINATING AND FACILITATING INITIATIVE
Carlton G. Davis1 and Waldemar Klassen2. 1Food and Resource Economics Department,
University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, G091 McCarty Hal, PO Box
110240, Gainesville, FL 32611-0240, USA; Phone: 352-392-1881 X 313. FAX: 352-392-9898;
email: CGDavis@ifas.ufl.edu; 2Tropical Research and Education Center, UF/IFAS, 18905 SW
280 Street, Homestead, FL 33031-3314, USA, Phone: 305-246-7001 ext. 257; FAX: 305-2467003; Email: Klassen@ifas.ufl.edu
ABSTRACT: Alien invasive species (AIS), highly damaging in agriculture, urban areas, and
natural terrestrial and marine ecosystems, are establishing at a rate greater than one per month in
Florida, as well as elsewhere in the Greater Caribbean Region. These exotics strongly impede
trade and development. The overarching purpose of the project is to greatly improve the
effectiveness of safeguarding against AIS in the Greater Caribbean Basin that pose major threats
to Florida. A long-term goal in the establishment of a regional safeguarding mechanism in
which the U.S., together with other countries, would play an important role and which would
give maximum protection to Florida. Specific objectives are to enable us (C. G. Davis, Project
Director and W. Klassen, Co-Project Director) to:
1.) Assume a formal leadership role in coordinating Florida Agricultural Experiment Station
wider Caribbean Basin alien invasive species initiatives.
2.) Work proactively to arrive at consensus or near-consensus on priority alien invasive
species research and outreach activities by networking with U.S. and wider Caribbean
Basin institutions and agencies. This will require organization of collaborative
Workshops, Seminars, and consultations, among other things.
3.) Provide leadership in efforts to leverage T-STAR funded alien invasive species projects
to garner additional resources in support of these efforts.
4.) Monitor, evaluate, and report on progress and accomplishments with respect to Florida
Agricultural Experiment Station wider Caribbean Basin alien invasive species
activities, and on progress towards the formation of a regional safeguarding mechanism.
A Caribbean Basin/Florida alien invasive species Advisory Committee will be formed to assist in
organizing workshops and symposia needed to further develop and implement a regional
safeguarding strategy. Funds for these events will be leveraged from various sources.
KEY WORDS: T-STAR, regional safeguarding strategy, alien invasive species, facilitation,
funding support leveraging.
RSUM: Les Espces Exotiques Envahissantes (EEE), extrmement nuisibles dans
l'agriculture, les rgions urbaines, et les cosystmes terrestres et marins naturels, tablissent
avec un taux suprieur un par mois dans la Floride, aussi bien que dans le Grand Bassin de la
Caraibe. Ces espces exotiques entravent fortement le commerce et le dveloppement. Le
principal objectif du projet est damliorer davantage l'efficacit de protger contre (EEE) dans
le Grand Bassin de la Caraibe; ceci apporte des menaces importantes pour la Floride. Un but
long terme dans l'tablissement d'un mcanisme de sauvergarde rgional dans lequel les EtatsUnis, ensemble avec d'autres pays, joueraient un rle important dans la protection maximum de
58

la Floride. Des objectifs spcifiques vont nous permettre (C. G. Davis, Directeur du Project and
W. Klassen, Directeur Adjoint du Project) de:
1.)
2.)

3.)
4.)

Supposer un rle directive dans la coordination de la Station Agricole Exprimentale de

Floride et le Grand Bassin de la Caraibe sur les initiatives d'espces envahissantes.
Travailler proactively pour arriver un consensus ou un presque consensus de priorit sur
les espces exotiques envahissantes et explore des activits par networking avec les EtatsUnis et les plus larges institutions et agences du Grand Bassin de La Caraibe. Cela exigera
l'organisation de collaboration d'Ateliers, de Sminaires et de Consultations, entre autres.
Fournir des directives dans les efforts de recherche de financement base sur les efforts de la
T-STAR (Tropical/Subtropical Agriculture Research) sur les projets d'espces trangers
envahissants afin de recueillir des ressources supplmentaires dans le soutien de ces efforts.
Surveiller, valuer et prsenter des rapports sur le progrs et les accomplissements
concernant la Station d'Exprience Agricole de Floride Le Grand Bassin de la Caraibe sur
les activits d'espces envahissantes et la formation d'un mcanisme de sauvergarde
rgional.

Un Comit form de Conseillers du Grand Basin de la Caraibe et de Floride sera form en vue
dorganiser des ateliers et des symposiums ncessaires pour dvelopper et excuter une stratgie
de protection locale. Les fonds pour ces vnements proviendront de sources diverses.
INTRODUCTION
Our purpose is to acquaint you with the T-STAR Supported Caribbean Basin- Florida InterInstitutional Invasive Species Coordinating and Facilitating Initiative which we will implement
beginning in October 2005. We hope you will support this initiative for the following reasons:
1. There is an urgent need to develop a regional safeguarding mechanism to throttle the flow of
invasive species into the wider Caribbean Basin, which include the southern USA (Ambrose
2004; Evans et al. 2003; Klassen and Davis, 2004; Klassen et al. 2002; Bellotti and Schoonhoven
1999; Shannon 1999, 2003; Singh 2004; Vuillaume, et al. 2004);
2. The various research projects on invasive species, including those funded by the TSTAR
Program, by themselves, cannot stem invasions. (Nevertheless research needs to be intensified,
since it provides the knowledge and technology needed to cope with invasive species threats by
eliminating them, preventing their spread or mitigating the damage they cause.)
3. As you know alien invasive species, highly damaging in agriculture, urban areas, and in
natural terrestrial & marine ecosystems, are establishing at a rate greater than one per month in
Florida, as well as elsewhere in the Greater Caribbean Region (Klassen et al. 2002; Frank and
McCoy 1992, 1995; Thomas 2000).
4. These exotics strongly impede trade and undermine overall economic profitability and
development (Evans, 2004; Griffin 2000; Roberts and DeRemer 1997).
The primary emphasis in this initiative will be alien invasive species affecting agriculture and
related areas, since our effort will be funded by a U.S. Department of Agriculture T-STAR grant.
We share with many of you the overarching desire to improve the effectiveness of
safeguarding against invasive species within the Greater Caribbean Basin. Indeed many of us
have worked together for many years in addressing this issue. We are deeply appreciative of the
excellent professional collaborative interactions and the warm personal relationships that
developed over the years. Also we take great pride in the fact that UF/IFAS through our
representation was invited by COTED to join the Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group,
which is chaired by CARDI. Since no country or territory within the Greater Caribbean Region
59

can adequately prevent invasive species from penetrating its quarantines and becoming
established, many of us have concluded that our long-term goal must be the establishment of a
regional safeguarding mechanism.
We feel that in such a regional program the U.S. should play an important role in cooperation
with all other countries and territories in the Region. We are confident that this would give much
better protection to the entire Region including Florida.
Our initiative has four objectives:

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

T-STAR-C
Invasive Species
Research
Projects

20
04

19
96
19
98
20
00
20
02

Number Initiated

Objective 1. We plan to assume a formal leadership role on behalf of the Florida Agricultural
Experiment Station to coordinate UF/IFAS efforts on alien invasive species with related
initiatives of our colleagues and institutions in the wider Caribbean Region. This is in keeping
with significant increases in T-STAR funding during the past decade allocated to research on
invasive species. During the past decade T-STAR has allocated about $6 million or an average
of about $600,000 per year to invasive species issues.

Figure 1. Number of research projects on invasive species funded by the T-STAR Program each
year from 1996 2005. A total of sixty one 3-year projects on various aspects of the invasive
species issue were funded.
We seek to encourage the allocation of scarce research funds to support regional safeguarding.
Perhaps we can persuade T-STAR management to focus more research funds in support of the
Caribbean Regional Invasive Species Intervention Strategy (CRISIS) discussed earlier by
Everton Ambrose. This would have the effect of providing additional research support to the
application of science-based information and regulatory measures implemented to mitigate
invasive species in the wider Caribbean Region.
Objective 2. We will work proactively to develop consensus with respect to priority research and
outreach initiatives on alien invasive species issues. This will entail: (a) networking with wider
Caribbean Basin and extra-regional support institutions and agencies; and (b) organization of
collaborative workshops, symposia, seminars, consultations, etc., and utilization of the outcomes
in the planning and formulation of policies and strategies. In order to plan programs, it would be
useful to identify (1) the highest priority invasive species already in the Region, and (2) those

60

external to the Region. Prioritized lists of invasive species are needed to focus research,
educational, regulatory and control programs. Some illustrative examples are as follows:
Some Threats Internal to Caribbean Region

Some Threats External to Caribbean Region

Chilli thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis

Avian influenza H5N1 virus

Tropical soda apple, Solanum viarum

Sudden oak death, Phytophthora ramorum

Classical swine fever virus

Brown tree snake, Boiga irregularis

What constitutes the dirty dozen in each class of pests and diseases, i.e., animal diseases,
insects, mites and ticks, plant pathogens, weeds, etc.?
Objective 3. We wish to facilitate efforts to leverage TSTAR-funded projects on invasive species
to garner additional resources in support of these efforts. This will require that we gain a good
understanding not only of TSTAR-funded projects, but also of those funded/conducted by others
such as NARS, CARDI, UWI, CIRAD, INRA, industry, FAO, European Union, CTA, CIDA,
CGIAR institutions, USAID (e.g. IPM CRSP), USDA (APHIS & ARS), Smithsonian, CDB,
IDB, World Bank, etc.
Additional funding for Project activities is vital since our T-STAR funds are very limited.
Initial funding for our project is for 2 years (October 1, 2005 to September 30, 2007) with
the possibility of extension for a 3rd year.
Our small grant can fund only essential travel and meeting costs.
The need for additional funding support for invasive species can be illustrated by the recent
directive from the CARICOM Council on Trade and Economic Development (COTED) to the
Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group - of which we are members - that the following two
proposals, which emerged from a T-STAR supported Symposium in Grenada (2003) and a
Workshop in Trinidad (2004), be fully developed:
a. Timely internet-based tracking of invasive pest introductions and interceptions.
b. Development of a Caribbean pest and disease diagnostic system based on distance
digital imaging and internet-based communications.
The Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group combined these proposals into one proposal:
Caribbean Invasive Species Information System (CISIS). We hope the Caribbean Invasive
Species Information System (CISIS) can be initiated in a step-wise manner with support from
various funding sources. Functions of the proposed Caribbean Invasive Species Information
System (CISIS) are as follows:
1. CISIS should provide timely information on pests, pathogens and noxious plants
affecting crops, livestock, fisheries, stored products, structures, parks, natural ecosystems
and food safety.
2. CISIS would also be an internet-linked network of diagnostic laboratories and specialists,
and use distance digital diagnostic technology to expedite rapid identification, decisionmaking, communication and implementation of emergency measures.
As an approach to developing CISIS we, as part of the Caribbean Invasive Species Working
Group, are exploring the possibility of basing it on the Offshore Pest Information System (OPIS)
software and including several databases already in OPIS, such as the Global Pest & Disease
Database, a list of pathways of pest introduction, etc. Also we wish to utilize software from the
National Plant Disease Network for distance diagnostic activities.
61

We recognize that there are sensitive issues pertaining to security of data, and data
sharing between the various countries. Therefore we will need guidance from a Regional
Steering Committee, which should include high level officials from regional organizations and
from several affected countries. Of course all of this will be idle unless CAISIS as a whole or in
parts is funded.
Objective 4. We wish to monitor, evaluate and report on (i) progress and accomplishments of the
Florida Caribbean Basin activities on invasive species, and (ii) on progress towards the
formation of a regional safeguarding mechanism. We hope to assemble a Caribbean RegionFlorida Alien Invasive Species Advisory Committee for this Project, which will complement the
work of the Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group, but which can function beyond the
scope of CARICOM.
The Advisory Committee is needed to provide expert advice and guidance, and assistance in
organizing workshops and symposia needed to further develop and advance a regional
safeguarding strategy. We hope that we can hold the inaugural meeting of the Advisory
Committee shortly after the funds become available on October 1, 2005; and shortly thereafter
conduct a mini-workshop with strategic stakeholders.
The counsel of the Caribbean Invasive Species Working Group, the T-STAR Project Advisory
Committee, the strategic stakeholders, and of many of you will be critically important in charting
the way forward. In closing we are looking to all of you for support, and we are very receptive to
your suggestions.
REFERENCES
Ambrose, E. 2004. Overview of the proposed Caribbean regional invasive species intervention
strategy (CRISIS). Proceedings of the Workshop, Facilitating Safer US-Caribbean
Trade: Invasive Species Issues, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies, 2-4
June 2004. Pp. 63-67.
Bellotti, A. C. and A. van Schoonhoven. 1999. The role of CIAT in meeting the challenge of
new invasive species in the Caribbean Region. p. 159-171. In W. Klassen (chair).
Mitigating the effects of exotic pests on trade and agriculture, Part A. The Caribbean.
Proceedings of T-STAR Workshop-X, Homestead, Florida, June 16-18, 1999, sponsored
by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, USDA. 292 pp.
Evans, E. A. 2004. Invasive species: trade and socio-economic perspective. Proceedings of the
Workshop: Facilitating Safer US-Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species Issues, Port of
Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies. 2-4 June 2004. Pp. 19-28.
Evans, E. A., E. Ambrose, B. Blake, W. F. Brown, A. Chesney, C. G. Davis, M. T. K. Kairo, W.
Klassen, B. Lauckner, F. Leimbacher and C. Vuillaume. 2003. Invasive species policy
recommendations. Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 39: 128-130.
Frank, J. H. and E. D. McCoy. 1992. The immigration of insects to Florida, with a tabulation of
records published since 1970. Fla. Entomol. 75(1): 1-28.
Frank, J. H. and E. D. McCoy. 1995. Invasive inventive insects and other organisms in Florida.
Fla. Entomol. 78(1): 1-15.
Griffin, R.L. 2000. Trade Issues and Area-wide Pest Management. pp. 49-53. In Teng-Hong Tan
(editor) Joint Proc. FAO/IAEA International. Conference on Area-Wide Control of Insect
Pests, May 28-June 2, 1998 & the Fifth International Symposium on Fruit Flies of Economic
Importance, June 1-5, 1998. 8 I.A.E.A., Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau, Pinang.
782 pp.

62

Klassen, W. 2004. The Florida and the Third Border perspective. Proceedings of the Workshop,
Facilitating Safer US-Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species Issues, Port of Spain, Trinidad
and Tobago, West Indies, 2-4 June 2004. Pp. 48-60.
Klassen, W. and C. G. Davis. 2004. Report on Workshop Facilitating Safer US-Caribbean
Trade: Invasive Species Issues. In: Strengthening Partnerships for Sustaining Caribbean
Agriculture. Proceedings of the 40th Annual Caribbean Food Crops Society Meeting,
Vol. 40: 184-197
Klassen, W., C. F. Brodel and D. A. Fieselmann. 2002. Exotic Pests of Plants: Current and
Future Threats to Horticultural Production and Trade in Florida and the Caribbean Basin.
Micronesica, Suppl. 6; Invasive Species and Their Management. pp. 5-27.
Roberts, D. and K. DeRemer. 1997. Overview of Foreign Technical Barriers to U.S. Agricultural
Exports. Economic Research Service, USDA. Technical Bulletin No. 9705.
Shannon, M. 1999. Challenges in safeguarding Florida and the U.S. against invasive pests. p. 1113. In W. Klassen (chair). Mitigating the effects of exotic pests on trade and agriculture,
Part A. The Caribbean. Proceedings of T-STAR Workshop-X, Homestead, Florida, June
16-18, 1999, sponsored by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension
Service, USDA. 292 pp.
Shannon, M. 2003. Challenges in safeguarding the Greater Caribbean Basin against invasive
pests, diseases, weeds and other agents: A Florida Perspective. Proceedings of the
Caribbean Food Crops Society. 39: 1-5.
Singh, R. H. 2004. The economic case for regional safeguarding of agriculture and the
environment: The Experience of the Pink Hibiscus Mealy Bug Control Programme in
Trinidad and Tobago. Proceedings of the Workshop, Facilitating Safer US-Caribbean
Trade: Invasive Species Issues, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies, 2-4
June 2004. Pp. 77-85.
Thomas, M. C. 2000. The exotic invasion of Florida: a report on arthropod immigration into the
Sunshine State. http://doacs.state.fl.us/~pi/enpp/ento/exoticsinflorida.htm.
Vuillaume, C., P. Bertrand , P. Rouet, P. Tormin, A. Chidiac, K. Lombion, V. Beauquis, X.
Mourichon, G. Theissen, P. Ehret, C. Amar, P. Yves Techeney, C. Pavis, J. H. Daugrois,
M. Dollet, T. Goguey D. Martinez, T. Lefranois, N. Vachiery, S. Molia and M.
Petitclerc. 2004. The French Caribbean invasive species safeguarding program.
Proceedings of the Workshop, Facilitating Safer US-Caribbean Trade: Invasive Species
Issues, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies, 2-4 June 2004. Pp. 107-113.

63

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):64-80. 2005

THE T-STAR SUPPORTED TRADE AND INVASIVE SPECIES INITIATIVE
John Vansickle1, Edward Evans2 and Ram Ranjan3. 1 International Agricultural Trade and
Policy Center, Food and Resource Economics Department, University of Florida, 1197 McCarty
Hall, PO Box 110240, Gainesville, FL 32611-0240, Phone: 352-392-1881 X 221; Email:
JJVansickle@ifas.udl.edu . 2 Tropical Research and Education Center, 18905-SW-280 Street,
Homestead, Florida, USA 33031-3314. Phone 305-246-7001 X 272; EAEvans@ifas.ufl.edu
ABSTRACT: This project addresses the problem of the absence of a comprehensive pest risk
management system that combines economic and scientific analyses into a single decisionmaking framework As such the main objective of this project is to develop a comprehensive
framework and modeling system, integrating the biological profile of a pest species with
economic information, to evaluate potential damages from pest invasion and the impact of
alternative management decisions. A key output of the project is the development of userfriendly pest risk software that will integrate the information required of pest risk assessment into
a standardized tool that can be used by policy makers/operational managers. Among other things,
the software offers guidance over choice of key management options, especially those that
require significant private participation.
KEY WORDS: pest risk software, risk management, decision-making framework
INTRODUCTION
This TSTAR project is a cross-regional collaborative endeavor between the University of
Hawaii and the Universities of Guam, Florida, and Puerto Rico. UF Researchers include John
VanSickle; Edward Gilly Evans; Ram Ranjan; Tom Spreen; Donna Lee; and Janaki
Alavalapati. Non-UF Researchers include Carol Ferguson (University of Hawaii); Ross Miller
(University of Guam); Carmen Alamo Gonzalez (University of Puerto Rico), and Hugh Bigsby
(Lincoln University, NZ). These institutions represent the Pacific Basin and Caribbean Basin
regions of T-STAR (Tropical/Subtropical Agriculture Research), a special grant program
administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
This project addresses the problem of the absence of a comprehensive pest risk
management system that combines economic and scientific analyses into a single decisionmaking framework As such the main objective of this project is to develop a comprehensive
framework and modeling system, integrating the biological profile of a pest species with
economic information, to evaluate potential damages from pest invasion and the impact of
alternative management decisions. Based upon the significance of invasive species to the
specific regions, several case studies are considered for theoretical modeling as well as empirical
and simulation analysis. The case studies for the University of Florida include aquatic weeds,
upland invasive plants, cogongrass, the Pink Hibiscus Mealybug and the Papaya Mealybug, the
Mediterranean fruit fly (med fly) and soybean rust. The case studies for University of Puerto
Rico include the coffee berry borer, the mango seed weevil and plantain black Sigatoka. The
case studies for the Universities of Guam and Hawaii include strawberry guava, the brown tree
snake, miconia F-2 (Miconia calvescens), the apple snail and the white spot syndrome virus.
A key output of the project is the development of user-friendly pest risk software that will
integrate the information required of pest risk assessment into a standardized tool that can be
used by policy makers/operational managers. Among other things, the software offers guidance
64

over choice of key management options, especially those that require significant private
participation. Issues such as the optimal combination of public incentives, the extent of
compensation provided to private agents for disease eradication, and the scope for perverse
incentives that might arise from public policies would be a special feature of the software.
Implementation of the Project began in October 2003 and is scheduled for completion
September 2006. The main purpose of this paper is to give a brief overview of the project and to
report on progress-to-date. Challenges related to data needs and modeling efforts are also
discussed.
PROGRESS REPORT
Two main objectives were identified under this project. One, develop a comprehensive
invasive species risk management system that incorporates the science with probabilities and
economic impacts of invasive species into a single decision-making framework. Two, develop a
collaborative interdisciplinary network of institutions and persons involved with invasive species
management. Seven activities were identified under the first objective and two under the second.
A brief description of the progress made on each of the activities is provided below:
Activity 1: Prepare background paper and begin development of conceptual framework
Result: The background document is available at
http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/publication/index.php3?request=working#WPTC0305
Before beginning the development of the conceptual framework, it was considered
important to get abreast of the current methodologies and software being used to tackle the
invasive species problem worldwide. In order to achieve this objective, John Vansickle, Edward
Evans and Ram Ranjan (all with the University of Florida) conducted a trip to New Zealand and
Australia during the weeks spanning May 3rd to 16th, 2004. The primary purpose of this trip was
to gather information related to the invasive species and farm management issues in that part of
the world and to apprise the state of the art in management techniques used by both the policy
makers and the grass root level managers. The secondary objective of the trip was to avail of the
existing techniques used in these countries to meet such challenges and derive lessons from their
experience.
In order to meet these objectives various meetings at the university, ministry, corporate
and farm levels were organized. In particular, the trip to New Zealand involved travel to
Lincoln University in Canterbury, farms and corporate sectors in the surrounding areas, trip to
Timaru to meet the makers of Zespri (a Kiwi fruit), meetings with several members of the
ministry of agriculture and forestry (MAF) and seminar participation and presentations at MAF,
Wellington. The trip to Australia involved seminar presentation at Australian Bureau of
Agriculture and Resource Economics in Canberra and meetings with several policy makers
involved with developing practicable tools towards invasive species management.
The visitors benefited immensely from the open-minded approach of the participants,
which led to the acquisition of large amounts of documents, software, and other primary
information. Further, the participants expressed high interest in the work presented by the
visitors and expressed their willingness to participate in any network created by the University of
Florida to help in exchange of information.

65

Activity 2: Identify regional and cooperative case studies

Result: A workshop was organized in February of 2004 to bring together participants from
Universities of Florida, Hawaii, Guam and Puerto Rico in order to select case studies that would
be of high importance to the regions concerned. The presentations focused on the economic
relevance of the invasive species under consideration, the methodology planned to approach the
case studies and the expected outcomes from the case studies. Participants were also asked to
identify case studies of common interest to each other so that opportunities could be created to
bring closer participating institutions in terms of sharing ideas, skills and professionals and help
them benefit from each other.
Based upon the significance of invasive species to the specific regions, several case studies
were selected for theoretical modeling as well as empirical and simulation analysis. The case
studies for the University of Florida are identified below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Aquatic Weeds -- Donna Lee and Damian Adams

Upland Invasive Plants-- Donna Lee
Cogongrass-- Janaki Alavalapati and Shibu Jose
Pink Hibiscus and Papaya Mealy bug-- Edward Evans and Ram Ranjan
Medfly-- Tom Spreen, John VanSickle and Raphael Pierre
Soybean Rust -- Edward Evans and Ram Ranjan

The case studies for University of Puerto Rico are identified below:
1. Coffee Berry Borer--- Carmen I. Alamo and Jamille Palacios
2. Mango Seed Weevil--- Carmen I. Alamo and Jamille Palacios
3. Plantain Black Sigatoka--- Carmen I. Alamo and Jamille Palacios
The case studies for the Universities of Guam and Hawaii were identified as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Strawberry Guava-- Julie Denslow, John Yanagida, M. Tracy Johnson

Brown Tree Snake-- Stephanie Shwiff, Earl Campbell, Michael Ehlert, Carol Ferguson
Miconia F-2-- Teya Penniman, Anne Marie LaRosa, Catherine Chan-Halbrendt
Apple Snail-- Robert Cowie, Penny Levin, Carol Ferguson
White Spot Syndrome Virus-- John Brown and Carol Ferguson

Venues for collaboration and exchange of information amongst the participating institutions
were identified for each of theses case studies and are illustrated in Appendix I.

Activity 3: Develop case studies

The case studies identified by the University of Florida are presently under various stages of
development. Here, some of the information related to their proposed methodology and progress
is identified. More information related to the case studies could be found at the IATPC-TSTAR
web page at: http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/fre/tstar/case .

66

University of Florida Case Studies

Case #1: Pink Hibiscus (PHM) and Papaya Mealy bug -- Edward Evans and Ram Ranjan
Situation: The PHM has already arrived in the southern region of Florida (and some other
territories of the US), but has been kept under control due to an early and efficient use of
biological control agents. However, it has not been eliminated and will continue to be
considered a secondary pest under biological control.
Objectives:
1. To evaluate the economic damages from Pink Hibiscus Mealybug (PHM) to the
economics of Florida and the United States
2. To evaluate and compare the cost-effectiveness of policy options such as quarantines and
biological control agents
3. To predict the long run impact of PHM infestation by using scientific predictions (based
on CLIMEX model) over its spatial distribution in the US
Progress: This case study estimates the direct and indirect impacts of the Pink Hibiscus
Mealybug infestation on the economies of Florida and the rest of the United States. The
approach involves a Markov chain analysis wherein both short run and long run expected
damages from infestation are calculated. Use is made of the CLIMEX model that predicts the
potential pest-establishment regions in the US. While predictions based upon the CLIMEX
model extend the scope of damages beyond Florida, the damages are dependent upon the rate of
arrival and detection of species in those regions. Damages are significantly higher when a longer
time horizon is considered. When nursery owners bear the full cost of quarantines in the form of
loss of sales and treatment costs of infected plants, the cost-effectiveness of quarantines as a
regulatory tool is diminished.
Preliminary report can be found at: http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/archive/WPTC_04-08.pdf .
Case #2: Aquatic Weeds (Hydrilla, Water Hyacinth, and Water Lettuce) -- Donna Lee and
Damian Adams
Situation: Hydrilla is post-entry in New Mexico. It is established in the Southern States, the New
England States (except New York), California and Washington.
Water Hyacinth is post-entry in Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, Kentucky, Tennessee,
Missouri, and Arkansas. It is established in the Gulf Coast States, Georgia, the Carolinas,
California and Hawaii.
Water Lettuce is post-entry in California, Illinois, the Carolinas, Virginia, Ohio, New York, and
Delaware. It is established in the Gulf Cost States and Hawaii.
Objectives: The invasive aquatic plants Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata), Water Hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes), and Water Lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) have the potential to negatively
impact recreational use of Florida lakes if consistent, adequate control expenditures are not
maintained. A lapse in invasive aquatic plant control expenditures by the State of Florida in the
mid-1990s resulted in invasive aquatic plant growth that choked off access to several lakes. The
lapse in control funding was costly to the State in both a budgetary and lost recreational welfare
sense. In subsequent years, control expenditures had to be drastically increased to regain
recreational use of these lakes. Using aquatic plant coverage data, angler effort data and data on
other variables likely to affect angler effort, like lake size and trophic state, and lake access, we
model the relationship between these aquatic plants and angler effort. Regression coefficients,
67

along with estimated control costs and average angler expenditures per fishing hour are used to
simulate the net costs and benefits of three control policy alternatives from assumed initial
conditions. Consistent maintenance of these invasive plants at low levels of coverage is shown to
be more economically efficient than maintenance at high levels of coverage or sporadic control
efforts, both in terms of angler expenditures and state control costs.
Progress: conceptual model development and regression analysis
Case #3: Upland Invasive Plants-- Donna Lee
Situation: Exotic plants have invaded over one million acres, nearly 12% of public conservation
land, in Florida. Approximately 43,000 acres are under maintenance control at a cost of $6
million per year. Other affected regions are Hawaii, Puerto Rico and Caribbean Islands.
Objectives: A stylized dynamic model of upland invasive plant management with n invasive
species, m management regions, q activities, and r controls will be developed. Model equations
will be parameterized with existing data and then solved to show the potential gains and
expected trade-offs under alternate management regimes. Research results will highlight the
efficiencies gained from a coordinated management plan that includes multiple species and
multiple regions.
Progress Report:
Related applications of this study: Public land use; Ecosystem management; Wildlife
habitat; Wildlife recreation; Endangered species; Bio-economic model; Invasive plant
;management; containing Vs reducing infested acreage
Current situation:
Public conservation land: 10 million acres
Invasive species coverage: 1.5 million acres
Management goal: reduce IS coverage 25% by year 2010
Management budget: $6 million/year
Management accomplishments: 110,000 IS acres controlled in 2003
Ten most unwanted upland invasive plants (of 92 total):
Melaleuca, Brazilian Pepper, Lygodium spp., Chinese Tallow, Australian Pine, Cogon
Grass,
Ardesia spp., Chinaberry, Air potato and Ligustrum
Model:
Objective: Minimize present value of total control costs (TCPV); TCPV = TCt (1+r)-t
Where: Total annual cost (TCt) is a function of acreage controlled (Xt); TCt = f(Xt), f
>0, f >0;
and: IS acreage (St) is a function of last years acreage (St-1) and acreage controlled (Xt);
St = GSt-1 + Xt; G (2x2), St (2x1), (2x2) and Xt (2x1);
G is the matrix of growth and transition probabilities for invasive plants;
is the matrix that measures the effectiveness of the control measures

68

Results:
The current management budget of $6 million provides funding to control 42,000 acres of
invasive plants per year. Without the program, invasive plants would cover 1.7 million acres by
year 2010. With the program, invasive plants are contained at 1.4 to 1.5 million acres based on a
plant spread rate of 2.8% per year.
Other simulations
Sensitivity tests: Plant growth (spread) rates per year: 0%, 4.62%, 7.32%, 9.24%
Annual cost required to meet acreage target (over $40 million per year, current funding is $6
million per year)
Market value of land management program (about $13 million per year)
Non market value of land management program (future work)
Case #4: Cogongrass-- Janaki Alavalapati and Shibu Jose
Situation: It is currently established in approximately 250,000 acres of productive lands in
Alabama, Florida, and Mississippi.
Objectives:
1. Estimate the ecological economic impact of Cogongrass on forest productivity and
ecosystem services.
2. Develop cost parameters for the optimal management of Cogongrass
Progress:
Conceptual model development.
http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/fre/tstar/case

Preliminary analysis can be found at:

Case #5: Med Fly-- Tom Spreen, John VanSickle and Raphael Pierre
The research evaluates the potential impact of a Mediterranean fruit fly infestation in
Florida. We developed a Bayesian decision framework to analyze the costs of the Florida Medfly
prevention, detection and eradication program under early versus late detection scenarios. Early
detection is associated with high cost of trapping survey, low eradication cost, and low
probability of Medfly establishment, while late detection accounts for a reversed situation. The
results suggest the existence of an optimal trapping density per location and per season. This
trapping strategy is one that ensures a minimum eradication cost. Partial equilibrium models are
also used to investigate welfare changes for the major fruit and vegetable crops under scenarios
of a three-month, six-month, and one-year quarantine period.
Case #6: Soybean Rust -- Edward Evans and Ram Ranjan
Situation: There is very limited scope for preventive efforts in this case as the pest has the ability
to transport itself through wind over vast measures of space. The question in this case was over
the timing of the pests arrival rather than whether or not it would arrive. In fact, soybean rust
has already arrived in the US. In November of 2004, the first case of soybean rust in the United
States was reported in Louisiana. Later on, it was also detected in Florida and Mississippi.
This case is of invasive species management when there are limited management options
that may be both costly and uncertain. It also involves significant private participation as hosts

69

are agricultural plants of high economic value. However, challenges to private participation
include providing right incentives, high differences between private and social benefits of pest
eradication, unobservability of private actions and trade related barriers.
Objectives: The broad objectives of this project are to:
1. Evaluate the expected damages from pest introduction in the US using a stochastic
ecological-economic model that incorporates private decision making based on federal
incentives. The role of its secondary host plant, Kudzu, in spreading rust to the soybean
growing regions of the US would be investigated and optimal control of Kudzu would be
derived.
2. Design optimal management strategies for soybean rust based on scientific information
related to its long term survival and spread.
3. Evaluate the implications of trade related polices on soybean rust control and of soybean
rust spread on trade.
Progress: Conceptual model developed. The data related to the probabilities of soybean rust
transmission to soybean growing States is being generated by APHIS using on-field simulations.
Due to the very recent arrival of the pest in the US (2004), not much empirical observation is
available as of now.
University of Puerto Rico Case Studies
Project: Economics of Managing Invasive Species in Tropical and Subtropical Areas in the
United States of America
University of Puerto Rico Case Studies Progress Report
Carmen I... Alamo-Gonzlez-UPR, Mayaguez Campus, AES carmen_alamo@cca.uprm.edu ,
cialamo@hotmail.com
Summary:
The Puerto Rico interdisciplinary regional group identified three relevant invasive species
for the agricultural crops sector. The three invasive species selected for the case studies are:
coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei), black Sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis) and the
mango seed weevil (Sternochetus mangier).
In February 2004, the three invasive species selected for the case studies were at a preentry level. On May 2004 an economic impact analysis on the plantain commodity in Puerto
Rico due to a possible introduction of black Sigatoka was done. Considering the spread of the
disease in the Caribbean and its proximity to the island, the economic imp act of a possible
introduction was preliminarily estimated. Partial Budget analysis was used to estimate the
economic impact at farm level. The land chemical control cost was estimated based on a total
cost increase of 15% due to black Sigatoka. For the analysis, three levels of yield losses were
established (20%, 60% and 80%) and evaluated using three price scenarios ($0.050/Kg.,
$0.100/Kg., and $0.125/Kg.). The preliminary economic analysis for a possible introduction
reports a chemical control cost of $1,020/ha/year ($408/acre/year). Benefit-cost ratios equal or
greater than one were reported in the $0.100/Kg. price scenario with yield losses equal or less
than 20%, and for the $0.125/Kg. price scenario with yield losses equal or less than 60%.
However, in August 2004 black Sigatoka was identified in Puerto Rico. The black
Sigatoka introduction requires a new approach to determine the economic impact. A survey was
conducted on the plantain and banana farms certified infested in December 2004. The survey
70

gathered data related to production, grading, prices, and control costs. Phytosanitary practices at
the farm level were identified to estimate the path of infestation. The geographic location and
weather information for each farm was collected. Both factors are significant variables in the
disease spread, thus affecting control cost and product losses.
A survey is being conducted on commercial mango farms. The survey will gather
information to evaluate economic impact at farm and market levels in a mango seed weevil
introduction scenario.
The coffee berry borer interdisciplinary group identified three control scenarios to
determine possible economic impact at the farm level. The availability of labor and weather
conditions are identified as significant variables in the control cost and spread of the invasive.
Cases Studies Update:
Black Sigatoka
A survey was conducted in collaboration with the Agricultural Extension Service of the
UPR to determine the economic impact of black Sigatoka at the farm level. All certified infected
farms were surveyed. The Phytosanitary Clinic of the Agricultural Extension Service of the
University of Puerto Rico provided the list of infested farms. The Extension Agents of the
municipalities with black Sigatoka administered the survey to farmers.
The survey gathered information related to:
a. Farm location and characteristics (location is associated with probabilities of
introduction and spread because the mountain area has more humidity and rain): Both factors
are favorable for the disease introduction and spread.
b. Marketing activities, transportation and seed source: The origin of the seed planted
and product transportation practices are factors that could introduce and spread the disease.
Farms could plant seeds from contaminated farms; while some farmers use the plantain and
banana leaves to protect the fruit during transportation to the market place.
c. Production, grades and prices before and after black Sigatoka was detected.
d. Control methods used for the disease and the costs associated with them (labor
intensive, mechanical intensive)
Modeling Approach for Black Sigatoka
a. Estimate spread rate: Determine the spread rate before and after tropical storm Jeanne.
The disease was identified in August 2004. The tropical storm came to the island in September
2004. The disease spread vectors are:
1. Winds: Tropical storm
2. Plantain seed source (buying or selling from an infested areas)
3. Marketing:
-Fruits and vegetative material transportation to market places
-Selling from the farm to middlemen (intermediaries) which buy banana and plantain
through production areas
4. Data related to border inspections and detections from the local and federal protection
agencies
b. No control/ Control Scenario:
-Determine total area at risk and estimate how many years it will take for total spread.
71

c. Partial Budget Analysis: To determine economic impact at the farm level

d. Estimate government investment in inspection, programs, paying farmers for infected
plantation eradication, and control practice incentives.
Modeling Approach for Mango Seed Weevil:
A survey of commercial mango farms is being conducted. The introduction scenario collects
information related to:
a. Control methods and their estimated costs
b. Production characterization and data
c. Market economic impact
-Trade: export market (quarantine will be imposed)
-Local: the introduction of the export mango in the local market will lower prices,
making operation unprofitable.
Due to the spread of the mango seed weevil in the east Caribbean area and its proximity
to the island of Vieques and Culebra a survey of passengers of both islands is planned. There is
no regular inspection program in the intra island public ferry transportation ports (Fajardo,
Vieques, and Culebra). The relation between the population of Vieques and the near island of
Saint Croix is strong. In Saint Croix, mango seed weevil has already been identified. The survey
will gather information related to the introduction of mango, plantain, banana, coffee and other
agricultural products by passengers.
Modeling Approach for Mango Seed Weevil:
a. Estimate spread rate:
Inter island spread rate: Determine the spread rate through East Caribbean Islands
(most of the islands already have mango seed weevil). Variables to consider:
- Trade and traffic volume between islands (airplanes, ferries, boats)
- Inspection level in the islands
Intra-island spread rate: Determine the probabilities of introduction and spread
due to Puerto Ricos intra island traffic.
-Determine the traffic volume amongst the east ports of Fajardo, Vieques and
Culebra Islands.
-Survey of ferry passengers (currently no regular inspection program exists
in the intra island public ferry)
-Estimate the number of mangos trees growing in backyards (household +
collection of wild mango)
-Survey house-holders across the island
-Data related to border inspections and detections realized by the local and
federal protection agencies
b. Partial Budget Analysis:
To determine economic impact at farm level
Market level Impact Analysis
-Local market
-Export Market

72

Coffee Berry Borer:

The interdisciplinary group looking at coffee berry borer identified three possible control
methods or practices that could be evaluated in Puerto Rico (chemical, chemical + biological,
and biological). There are two management practices recommended to be implemented along
with the three methods of control practices: a. surveillance and monitory practices (borer traps)
and b.-eradication of coffee berry residuals in the plantation after the harvest season ends (Pela y
Repela). The group identified three significant variables to evaluate for the control scenarios:
a. Labor cost and availability
b. Weather data (precipitation and temperatures)
c. Farm locality (altitude)
The weather and location variables probably will affect the effectiveness of the biological
control and the berry borer spread. A partial budget analysis will be used to estimate the
economic impact at the farm level. Control methods, scenario, and levels of infestation
associated with production losses will be considered in the analysis.
Modeling Approach for Coffee Berry Borer:
a. Estimate spread rate:
Country to Country-Determine spread rate through the infested countries in South and Central
America, and Western Caribbean Islands. Variables to consider:
-Trade and traffic volume between countries (land, airplanes, ferries, boats)
-Inspection level in the countries
-Green coffee, machinery, farm tools, coffee bags (illegal visitors from DR)
Within Country-Estimate the introduction and spread rate using data from in a similar tropical coffee
production region where pest has infected.
b. Estimate possible changes to actual production losses and control costs considering:
No control scenario
Three control scenarios
c. Partial Budget Analysis: to determine economic impact at farm level
Determine the labor force needed to implement the control and monitoring
activities, assuming labor is available
Role of Regulatory Agencies:
Information was required from local and federal regulatory agencies to determine the cost of
surveillance, inspection and quarantine programs. Information was also required from the
Department of Agriculture of Puerto Rico and APHIS of the United States Department of
Agriculture. To estimate probabilities of introduction of the invasive species the following
information has been requested from APHIS and DAPR.
-Total inspections (time series available data)
-Number of inspections of coffee, mango, plantain and banana fruits and vegetative
material

73

- Number of inspections with positive results in coffee, mango and plantain.

University of Guam and Hawaii Case Studies (No progress report is available on these studies
yet)
Case #1: An Economic Evaluation of Alternative Control Strategies:
Strawberry Guava

The Case of

Situation: Psidium cattleianum Sabine or strawberry guava (hence Psidium), a small tree
introduced to Hawaii in 1825, is considered one of the states most disruptive alien weeds. On
all the major islands, nearly monotypic stands of this species infest thousands of hectares of
mesic and wet forest. It is considered a serious threat to native forest ecosystems due to its
ability to invade even relatively undisturbed wet forests and form thickets up to 10 m high with
dense mats of feeder roots.
Objective: This case study will estimate the expected costs and benefits of Psidium control for
conservation and biodiversity, fruit and vegetable production, and koa siliviculture. Four control
options will be considered: (a) apply chemical/mechanical control; (b) apply biological control;
c) apply a combination of (a) and (b) controls; and (d) apply no control. A model of Psidium
spatial distribution and rate of spread will be parameterized based on published information
supplemented by interviews with scientists and local land managers. GIS-referenced data will be
used to develop statewide estimates of control costs and benefits. Expected economic impacts
will be measured over 20 years to account for lag effects of population build up in biological
control agents, spreading Psidium populations, and cultural-herbicide management cycles.
Partial budgets will be used to value different types of economic impacts. Direct market impacts
include control costs in managed forests and conservation areas, and increased koa generation in
logged forests. Indirect market effects at commercial fruit farms are lower costs of fruit fly
control, higher yields, and/or reduced post-harvest treatment costs with increased access to
export markets. Non-market effects from Psidium control are (direct) lower costs of biodiversity
restoration in conservation areas and (indirect) reduction in feral pig populations. These impacts
will be estimated from known costs of restoration projects to conserve native species in similar
environmental conditions.
Case #2: Impact of Apple Snails on Taro Culture in Hawaii
Situation: This case study addresses the rapid invasion of apple snails (Pomacea and Pila sp.)
into fresh water streams and taro growing areas of Hawaii and the economic impacts to taro
farmers. Taro (Colocasia esculenta) or kalo in Hawaiian, is a sacred food and staple of the
Hawaiian diet. Its importance in Hawaii crosses all boundaries including indigenous culture,
subsistence food crop, diet and education. Apple snails, also known as golden snails, were
introduced to Hawaii as an alternative economic crop about 1989. They have rapidly invaded
lo`i kalo (wetland taro) systems and streams throughout the state, primarily by human
introduction/transport and water-borne dispersal.
Objective: Research objectives for this case study include: a) provide an updated assessment of
apple snail distribution in the main Hawaiian islands; b) identify the impacts of apple snails to
taro culture and the natural environment; c) quantify the direct and indirect costs to farm families
and communities; and d) investigate the costs and effectiveness of alternative control measures
with a simulation model. Field and questionnaire surveys plus interviews will be conducted with
74

taro farmers and others (potentially) affected by the apple snails on five Hawaiian islands. Pest
occurrence will be measured by presence/absence of snails, farmer reports on the first time snails
were observed in their area and current level of field infestation. A model of snail invasion,
farmer control responses, yield loss, monetary and other costs will be estimated from the survey
data. The model will be simulated over a 20-year time horizon to investigate different
management options. Management alternatives will consider programmatic interventions such
as research into snail control methods, communal efforts like inspection of planting materials
from another watershed, farmer education and technical support, controls on snail transport and
markets, and greater resources for control programs.
Case #3:
Hawaii

An Economic Assessment of Island Management Strategies for Miconia in

Situation: Miconia calvescens is an extremely aggressive, ecosystem-modifying invasive tree

found on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Oahu and Kauai. Miconia was imported into Hawaii as an
ornamental. Its first known occurrence was in 1961 at a botanical garden on Oahu. The plant
escaped into the wild and began spreading around the islands. Today, the stage of miconia
invasion differs by island and includes relatively recent discovery of isolated plants, established
but not currently spreading populations, and extensively naturalized and spreading populations.
Objective: This case study will investigate long-term strategic management of Miconia in
Hawaii. Specific objectives include: document the management activities, strategies, and costs
incurred by the invasive species committees (ISCs) on different Hawaiian islands; estimate
models of Miconia spread and damages for important resource uses; simulate the Miconia
invasion in the East Maui watershed; evaluate ISC management using cost-benefit analysis and
cost-effectiveness of management alternatives.
Pooled time-space data on the Miconia invasion and control expenditures will be compiled
from ISC records and interviews. Other GIS-referenced data on site attributes will be collected
from secondary sources. An empirical model of Miconia spread and management will be
estimated including the probability of infestation, plant densities, control cost functions or partial
budgets. Analysis of the economic impacts for East Maui will focus on prospective damages to
biodiversity, recreation, and watershed protection. Different valuation techniques will be used.
A dynamic simulation of the Miconia invasion over a 50-year time horizon will track expected
infestations, costs and damages under alternative management regimes. The latter will consider
differences in the timing of intervention, resource levels, and specific control practices.
Case #4: Economic Impact of the Introduction of the Brown Tree Snake
(joint study with University of Guam)
Situation: Translocation of the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) from New Guinea to Guam
is believed to have occurred after World War II. The introduction and subsequent establishment
of the brown tree snake (BTS) on the island of Guam is considered one of the greatest ecological
catastrophes caused by a single introduced vertebrate species in an oceanic insular area
worldwide during the latter part of the twentieth century. The impacts from BTS experienced on
Guam include: losses related to frequent power outages including infrastructure damage and
decline in economic output; human health and safety costs due to snakebite; catastrophic loss of
native avifauna and subsequent cascading ecological effects; increased transportation costs to
prevent BTS incursions; potential decline in tourism due to travel inconveniences, fear of snakes
and/or negative public image from snake introduction.
75

Objective: This case study will estimate historical and current BTS damages on Guam, and
extrapolate the costs to Hawaii. Secondary and primary data will be collected from various
sources including surveys and/or interviews with private businesses, medical providers, electric
power authorities, transportation companies and quarantine agencies, tourism officials. An
empirical approach will be adopted to compare key factors in island populations, economies and
infrastructure across different regions of Guam and between Guam and Hawaii. An analysis of
the variations in Guam damages, plus theoretical models from the literature, will be used to
project economic impacts from Guam to Hawaii.
Case #5: Economic Analysis of White Spot Syndrome Virus Eradication in Guam and
Hawaii
Situation: White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) is a major production problem for the cultured
shrimp industry. WSSV can be transported with the shipment of broodstock or post-larvae
seedstock. It is found in commodity shrimp and can be transferred with bait used by recreational
fisherman or in wastes from processing imported shrimp. WSSV produces slower growth rates
and high mortalities for shrimp populations. The latter can reach 100% loss within 3-10 days
from the onset of symptoms. Together with yellow-head disease (YHD), WSSV losses have
averaged about $1 billion per year in major shrimp-growing countries of Asia. WSSV has been
detected in Guam, and Hawaii experienced an outbreak at a Kauai shrimp farm in spring 2004.
Objective: This case study was initiated by the University of Guam. The overall objective is to
estimate the expected costs of farm sterilizations versus other WSSV control methods for Guam
and Hawaii. Secondary data will be collected and key informants interviewed to: characterize
shrimp production and trade in Guam and Hawaii; estimate representative shrimp farm budgets
for hatchery and grower operations; develop and parameterize a risk management model of
WSSV introduction and spread; estimate the costs of various control methods. Control options
include farm sterilizations, quarantine barriers, and specific pathogen-free (SPF) certification for
live animal transfers. A cost-benefit analysis of the expected returns from virus eradication will
be conducted from public and private viewpoints.
Activity 4: Continue development of conceptual framework
Result: A lot of progress has been made towards the development of the conceptual framework.
In order to build the conceptual framework for software development, care is being taken to
make the framework as generic as possible in terms of its application to a wide range of
problems related to invasive species management. The objective is to develop software that
would provide end-users several options in terms of how to:
1. capture the direct and indirect economic impacts of invasive species
2. to incorporate the risk and uncertainty aspect of invasive species management
3. to allow for alternative objective functions, keeping in mind that the end users could
range from grass root level managers to centralized policy makers
4. to integrate the biological information related to the invasive species and their hosts in the
main economic framework of the model
5. to allow for state-of-art modeling linkages and associations between different modules of
framework through the use a unified modeling language (UML)

76

There are several ways to model uncertain events. For instance, a discrete time Markov
chain (DTMC) approach assumes that the probabilities that define system behavior are time
homogenous and state independent. Biological parameters such as the arrival and death rate of
species per period would, in such a case, be fixed over time. Another way to model biological
parameters is through a continuous time Markov chains (CTMC) approach, where the time of
occurrence of an event itself is random. The general framework, however, would allow for
several other modeling approaches in order to incorporate the needs of specific case studies.
The approach followed in the development of the conceptual framework uses different
modules to separate different classes of objects so that an abstraction could be achieved at the
generic level without compromising on the details within the individual classes. For instance,
biological class would contain information related to the pest and its various hosts. Economic
class would contain information related to the economic value of the hosts, cost and
effectiveness of policy measures, etc. Association and linkages between classes would determine
how specific scenarios within one class translate information from one class to another. While
optimization is one of the favored options for policy makers, most cases of invasion demand
overwhelming information before a meaningful optimization exercise could be performed.
Further, policy options are often constrained by limited variability in management tools,
especially in case of new invasions. Under such a scenario, the best analysis is often the
prediction of long run spatial distribution of pests when optimization is not feasible. The
framework would allow for such simulation analyses.
Activity 5: Construct quantitative model
Result: Quantititative models vary with the case studies. However, some quantitative models
have already been developed and applied to a few case studies. These are listed below and are
available at the IATPC-TSTAR website:
1. Cox, L. A., Jr., John J. VanSickle, D. A. Popken, & R. Sahu, Tracking and Testing of
US and Canadian Herds for BSE: A Risk Management Dilemma, Choices, 4th Quarter,
2004. http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/archive/JRTC_05-01.pdf
2. Lee, D.J., and C.S. Kim, Managing Upland Invasive Plants on Florida Public
Conservation Land, Manuscript.
3. Ranjan, R. and P. Papajorgji (2005): Using UML to Model the Economic Impact of
Invasive Species: A Case Study of Pink Hibiscus Mealybug. Selected Paper Presented
(by co-author) at the 3PPrdPP World Congress on Computers in Agriculture and Natural
Resources, Portugal, July 25-28, 2005.
http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/archive/wccaFinalpaper.pdf
4. Ranjan, R. and R. Lubowski (2005): How do the Risks of Invasive Pests Affect Land
Use? The Case of Florida Cropland. Selected Paper to be presented at the Southern
AERE Sessions in November 2005, Washington DC.
5. Ranjan, R. (2005): Environmental Restoration of Invaded Ecosystems: How Much
Versus How Often? Selected Paper presented at the AAEA Sessions in RI, July 2005.
http://agecon.lib.umn.edu/cgi-bin/pdf_view.pl?paperid=16118&ftype=.pdf
6. Ranjan, R. and R. Lubowski (2005): A Model of Producer Incentives for Livestock
Disease Management, Online First, Journal of Stochastic Environmental Research and
Risk Assessment. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00477-005-0237-5
7. Ranjan, R. "Invasive Species Management through Tariffs: Are Prevention and
Protection Synonymous?" Selected paper Presented at the AERE Sessions of the AAEA

77

Meetings,
RI,
2005.
http://agecon.lib.umn.edu/cgibin/pdf_view.pl?paperid=16119&ftype=.pdf .
8. Ranjan, R. Economic Impacts of Pink Hibiscus Mealybug in Florida and the United
States. Selected paper Presented at the AAEA Meetings, RI, 2005 (Also Presented at the
Annual International Agricultural Trade and Policy Center Conference, December 7-8,
2004). http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/archive/WPTC_04-08.pdf .
9. Ranjan, R. & Edward Evans "Private Responses to Public Incentives for Invasive
Species Management" (Presented at the 25th West Indies Agricultural Economics
Conference, Aug 20, 2004 in Paramaribo, Suriname). IATPC/WPTC 04-09. Dec. 2004 .
SOFTWARE PROGRESS REPORT
Activity 6: Develop pest risk software
Result: One of the central objectives of the TSTAR collaborative project is to develop a decision
support tool for invasive species management. The IATPC at the University of Florida has been
collaborating with IFAS information technology department for developing the software using a
state of art modeling language, the unified modeling language (UML). The IFAS technology
department has proven expertise in developing user-friendly tools for agricultural sciences and
Petraq Papajorgji at the IFAS technology is an active participant on this project. While the
objective is to develop a generic software, it was decided at the San Juan meeting that the
decision support tool would replicate at least one case study been undertaken by each of the
collaborating institutions. The cases selected for University of Florida are Pink Hibiscus
Mealybug, Upland invasive species, and cogon grass. Black Sigatoka on plantains would be
used as a case study from Puerto Rico and Brown tree Snake and Strawberry Guava would be
used as case studies from Hawaii and Guam for the purpose of software development. It was
also agreed upon to incorporate several state of art methodologies in the software in order for it
to be able to handle a diverse range of management needs that are faced by policy making bodies
such as the USDA.
Collaboration amongst the Caribbean and the pacific basins on the TSTAR invasive
species project provides a great opportunity to model the unique features of the island economies
of Puerto Rico, Hawaii and Guam that distinguish themselves from the mainland United States.
Most of these island economies are the first ones to be infested by invasive species from other
regions of the world and therefore present a first line of defense against such pests. However,
the heavy dependence of such island economies on commodity based trade poses a key challenge
for preventing pest infestation as the likelihood of pest entry increases with level of trade. One
of the objectives of this project is to incorporate such features of these island economies into the
decision-aiding software.
The software in its current state of development will soon be capable of handling case
studies that require evaluation of long term consequences of pest infestation, when the regulatory
agency undertakes optimal control measures for its management. More details on this approach
can be found in Ranjan (2005) and Ranjan and Papajorgji (2005) and on the following website:
http://invasive.ifas.ufl.edu Appendix III shows some more details on the software.
Activity 7: Testing and validation of model/software
Result: Not yet done.

78

Objective 2: Develop a collaborative interdisciplinary network of institutions and persons

involved with invasive species management.
Activities:
1. Develop network for information exchange through web page, listserv, etc.
In order to create a network for information exchange a web page has been created at the IATPC
website that shares information related to the current progress of the project. This web page can
be accessed at
http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/fre/tstar/main
A listserv has also been created to bring together people working on similar issues from all over
the
world.
This
listserv
can
be
accessed
at:
http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/iatpc/fre/tstar/main#listserv
2. Conduct annual year-end workshops to present interim result from project
Result: Several meetings are planned for 2005 in order to achieve this objective
1. An annual meeting was held in Puerto Rico on June 21-23 of 2005 that brought together
participants from Universities of Florida, University of Guam and Hawaii, University of
Puerto Rico and Lincoln University, New Zealand. This meeting included presentations
over the progress of case studies, field trips to get a feel of the invasive species problem
in Puerto Rico, and a modeling workshop that allowed participants to focus on specific
problems related with modeling and empirical analysis.
2. In addition, some of the participants also had an opportunity to participate in a software
development meeting organized at the University of Florida, immediately after the Puerto
Rico meetings. The meetings in Puerto Rico helped inform the software development
process by analyzing specific case studies.
3. A modeling workshop was held at the University of Hawaii in April of 2005, which
allowed participants from University of Florida, Puerto Rico and Guam to discuss cases
of concern in Hawaii and present their own results so far from the case studies in their
regions.
Conclusion
The project has been successful in achieving its broad goals so far. Case studies have benefited
from collaboration not only amongst the participating universities but also from governmental
agencies such as USDA-ERS and APHIS. Further, state agencies such as Florida Department of
Agricultural and Consumer services and APHIS sub-divisions have provided valuable inputs on
respective cases studies from time to time. Participants were also encouraged to take up new
challenging case studies apart from the initially assigned ones (e.g. bse, etc.). The work on
software development has befitted from inputs from collaborating researchers and it is planned to
incorporate some of the ongoing case studies into the software which would be available in it s
library.

79

APPENDIX I:

FIGURE 1. TSTAR CASE STUDIES PROPOSED

REGIONAL COLLABORATION
(Compiled by Donna J. Lee, University of Florida)
Hawaii

3
Guam

4
Florida

1
2
5
11

13

10
7
12 8

Puerto Rico
Hawaii 1
2
3
4
Guam 5
Puerto 6
Rico
7
8

Strawberry guava
Brown tree snake
Miconia F-2
Apple snail
WSSU
Coffee berry borer
Mango seed weevil
Black Sigatoka

Florida 9
10
11
12
13
14

Aquatic weeds
Upland plants
Medfly
Pink hibiscus , papaya Mealybug
Soybean rust
Cogon grass

80

14

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):81-86. 2005

UPDATE ON FRENCH CARIBBEAN SAFEGUARDING INVASIVE SPECIES CIRADINRA INITIATIVES
Claude Vuillaume1, Pierre-Yves Teycheney2, Michel Dollet3, Jean Heinrich Daugrois4, Claudie
Pavis5, Alain Palloix6, Cica Urbino7, Christian Lavigne8, and Thierry Goguey8, Dominique
Martinez9, Thierry Lefranois9 et Sophie Molia9.
1

CIRAD Direction Rgionale Guadeloupe, Station Neufchteau Sainte Marie 97130 Capesterre
B-E., Phone: 33 (0) 590-86-17-73; FAX: 33(0) 590-86-80-77, claude.vuillaume@cirad.fr ; 2
CIRAD FLHOR Guadeloupe, UPR Multiplication vegetative, Station de Neufchteau , SainteMarie, 97130 Capesterre-Belle-Eau Guadeloupe; Phone: +687 43 74 25; FAX: +687 43 74 26,
pierre-yves.teycheney@cirad.fr ; 3 CIRAD CP Montpellier, 4 CIRAD CA Guadeloupe, 5 INRA
Guadeloupe, 6 INRA Avignon, 7 CIRAD FLHOR Guadeloupe, 8 PRAM Martinique, 9 CIRAD
EMVT Guadeloupe.
ABSTRACT. Currently five collaborative research networks are proposed, and each is to be
built as a network around topics on the security, health and emerging diseases of crops in the
Caribbean region. The five proposed networks are as follows: (i) begomoviruses on tomato, (ii)
coconut lethal yellowing, (iii) emerging and invasive citrus diseases (tristeza, citrus canker, CVC
and greening), (iv) established and emerging diseases and pests of sugarcane and (v)
cercosporiosis diseases and BSV in bananas and plantains. The first contact missions to finalize
the drafts of the networks projects with the various partners began in May 2005 within the
framework of a global project financed by the French Government and Guadeloupe Regional
Council. Phytosanitary Risk Analyses were made in 2003 and 2004 by CIRAD with the Cooperation Mission of the French Ministry of Agriculture Plant Health Board.
A sixth network, CaribVET, has been functioning since 1999. CaribVET is an inspection
network recognized at the Caribbean regional level. It includes the veterinary services,
laboratories of diagnosis, universities, and national and international partners engaged in
monitoring animal health. Within the framework of the activities of this network, missions of
technical support and diagnosis in the member states of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean
States (OECS) began in 2004 and will continue in 2005 mainly with funding support of the
French Embassy and the Ministre des Affaires Etrangres.
KEY WORDS: collaborative research networks, begomoviruses, tomato, coconut lethal
yellowing, citrus diseases, sugarcane, cercosporiosis, banana streak virus, BSV, banana, plantain
RSUM: Etat d'avancement des projets Cirad-Inra pour la protection contre les espces
envahissantes dans les dpartements franais de la Carabe et dans la Carabe insulaire.
Cinq rseaux de recherche font actuellement l'objet de projets de constitution d'un rseau
associatif de chercheurs caribens dans le domaine de la scurit sanitaire et des maladies
mergentes et en progression dans la carabe : la maladie bgomovirus de la tomate, le
jaunissement mortel du cocotier, les maladies des agrumes (tristeza, chancre citrique, CVC et
greening), les maladies de la canne sucre et les cercosporioses et le BSV du bananier. Les
premires missions de prises de contact et de finalisation de rdaction des projets de rseaux des
partenaires dbuteront en mai 2005 dans le cadre d'un projet global financ par l'Etat franais et
le Conseil Rgional de Guadeloupe. Des analyses de risques phytosanitaires ont t ralises en
81

2003 et 2004 par le Cirad en relation avec la Mission de Coopration Phytosanitaire du Ministre
de l'Agriculture, de l'Alimentation de la Pche et de la Ruralit.
Un sixime rseau fonctionne depuis 1999, il sagit de Caribvet, cest un rseau de
surveillance des carabes reconnu rgionalement, il inclut les services vtrinaires, les
laboratoires de diagnostic, les universits, les partenaires nationaux et internationaux de la
surveillance de la sant animale. Dans le cadre des activits de ce rseau, des missions dappui
technique et de diagnostic auprs des Etats de lOECS ont dbut en 2004 et se poursuivront en
2005 principalement sur financement Ambassade de France.
INTRODUCTION
Five collaborative research networks were proposed by CIRAD and INRA in 2003 during
the 39th annual CFCS meeting in Grenada CFCS 2003. These networks are being built around
topics on security, health and emerging diseases of crops in the Caribbean region, as follows: (i)
begomoviruses on tomato, (ii) coconut lethal yellowing, (iii) emerging and invasive citrus
diseases (tristeza, citrus canker, CVC and greening), (iv) established and emerging diseases and
pests of sugarcane and (v) cercosporiosis diseases and BSV in bananas and plantains.
The first contact missions to finalize the drafts of the network-projects with the
Caribbean partners began in May 2005 within the framework of a global project financed by the
French Government and the Guadeloupe Regional Council. Phytosanitary Risk Analyses were
conducted in 2003 and 2004 by CIRAD with the Co-operation Mission of the French Ministry of
Agriculture Plant Health Board.
A sixth network, CaribVET, has functioned since 1999. CaribVET is an inspection
network recognized at the Caribbean regional level. It includes the veterinary services,
laboratories of diagnosis, universities, and national and international partners engaged in
monitoring animal health. Within the framework of the activities of this network, missions of
technical support and diagnosis in the member states of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean
States (OECS) began in 2004 and will continue in 2005 mainly with funding support of the
French Embassy and the Ministre des Affaires Etrangres.
CIRAD-1 Traditional Crops - Banana and Plantains.
Title project: " Impact of the introduction of new hybrid varieties of bananas and plantains on the
dynamic balance of the populations of some pathogenic agents and pests: nematodes, fungi and
viruses ".
Countries: Cuba, Hati, Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Windward Islands,
Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador.
Problems: 1. Increasing spread of Black Sigatoka disease in the Caribbean area,
2. Introduction into this area of new banana hybrids containing banana streak virus (BSV)
genomic sequences in their genomes.
Objective of the study and proposed solutions: This project aims to evaluate (i) the durability of
resistances to the cercosporioses - black and yellow (Mycosphaerella fijiensis and M. musae) obtained in interspecific banana hybrids, (ii) the impact of the diffusion on a large scale of these
hybrids on the populations of nematodes affecting the banana production, and (iii) potential risks
of diffusion of BSV resulting from the activation of BSV sequences integrated into the genome
of these hybrids. By the establishing or strengthening scientific exchanges and transfer of
methodologies, this project will lead to improved management of the resistance obtained in
hybrid varieties, and of the risk of spreading BSV through the diffusion of these hybrids,

82

Current status: Studies on the molecular diversity of BSV populations have started in South
America (Mexico, Colombia). The collaborative network should be extended to nearby countries
(such as Ecuador) and the Caribbean (Cuba).
Contacts: Dr. Pierre Yves Teycheney, Virologist, and Mr. Claude Vuillaume, CIRAD (Centre de
recherche agronomique pour le dveloppment) Station, Neufchteau, Sainte Marie 97130
Capesterre B-E. Phone: 33 (0) 590-86-17-73; Fax: 33(0) 590-86-80-77
CIRAD-2 Traditional Crops - Sugarcane.
Title: "Support of sustainable sugar and rum production, and preservation of the agricultural
landscape in the Caribbean by optimizing the processes of variety selection".
Countries: Blize, Cuba, Hati, Dominican Republic, Trinidad, Guadeloupe and Barbados.
Problems: New or undetected diseases can have a negative impact on Caribbean sugarcane
production.
Objective of the study and proposal solutions:
The studies to be integrated in the project would be:
1. Characterization of the genetic resources, study of their diversity (microsatellite, and
other tools), identification of new quantitative trait loci (QTL);
2. Impact study of the emergent diseases and the major diseases on production and selection
(SCYLV phytoplasmas, RSD, etc.);
3. Impact study of the variability of pathogenicity on the durability of varietal resistance
(leaf scald);
4. Database on genetic improvement.
Sugarcane, along with banana, is one of the main crops in Guadeloupe. Around 46% of
cultivated area is planted with sugarcane. Because sugarcane is important for Guadeloupe, the
sugarcane crop needs to be protected from invasive species present in Guadeloupe since long
ago, or from those recently introduced. The major damaging pathogens and pests are Ustilago
scitaminea (c.a. of smut on sugarcane), Leifsonia xyli subsp. xyli (c.a. of ratoon stunting disease),
Xanthomonas albilineans (c.a. of leaf scald) and Sugar Cane Yellow Leaf Virus (c.a. of the
yellow leaf disease), the West Indies sugarcane fly, Saccharosydne saccharivora and the
sugarcane borer Diatraea spp. The sugarcane crop also needs to be protected from any disease
or pest that may be introduced in Guadeloupe.
Basic knowledge of sugarcane diseases and pests - including disease dispersion, pathogen
variability and condition of epidemics - is important for establishing plant protection plans. To
protect sugarcane crops from local invasive species CIRAD has developed local screening
procedures to select sugarcane for resistance to major diseases. In addition a seed nursery
scheme was established in Guadeloupe using disease free in vitro cultivated plants as the primary
source of seed plants. Plants will then be multiplied for 3 years by farmers.
Introduction of invasive species through germplasm movement is limited by a 2 years
quarantine process at CIRAD - Montpellier. The quarantine process is validated by the plant
protection services of French government.
Sharing knowledge on sugarcane diseases, diagnostic tools and varietal status among
Caribbean countries will be helpful to protect sugarcane crops form diseases and pests.
Current status: Contacts have been established with the main Caribbean partners to develop a
data base on genetic improvement and for diagnosis training for the major emergent diseases in
the countries and in CIRAD CA Guadeloupe
Contacts:
Mr Jean Heinrich Daugrois, Sugarcane Pathologist; jean-heinrich.daugrois@cirad.fr

83

Mr. Claude Vuillaume, CIRAD (Centre de recherche agronomique pour le dveloppement)

Station Neufchteau Sainte Marie 97130 Capesterre B-E., Phone: 33 (0) 590-86-17-73; Fax:
33(0) 590-86-80-77; claude.vuillaume@cirad.fr .
CIRAD-3 Diversification Crops Citrus.
Title: "Promotion of a sustainable citrus fruit cultivation and plant health observatory".
Countries: Cuba, Dominica, Hati, Jamaica, Dominican Republic, Trinidad and Tobago, and
Guadeloupe.
Problems: Progressive spread of the tristeza virus in the Caribbean area. Risk of additional
invasive pests (citrus variegated chlorosis (CVC), bacterial canker and citrus greening disease).
Objective of the study and proposal solutions:
Assist citrus growers in a project of rehabilitation, which would consist of establishing durable
citrus fruit cultivation within an integrated fruit-bearing and production system. This regional
project will be based on research projects developed in the field on varietal development and
plant protection (plant health observation), involving integrated pest management and agronomic
programs, training and technology transfer, and socioeconomic studies.
Current status: Two surveys have been made in 2004 by Cica Urbino, CIRAD FLHOR virologist
on the spread of tristeza in Saint Lucia and Dominica. In Saint Lucia the survey completed the
diagnosis for CTV. It showed that CTV has spread in the main citrus production areas of Saint
Lucia and the recommendation of changing the rootstock is still a topical question.
In Dominica CTV was not detected along the western coast, nor in the north and north
western sectors of the island. However, CTV was detected in the samples collected in the central
and southern areas of Dominica where it been detected previously (10 positives out of 18
samples collected at Layou, Soufriere, Laudat, Grandbay). All the varieties were affected,
especially limes. Young plants were found positive at Grand Bay. This reveals the activity of
the vector for the transmission of the virus. Lime plants grafted on swingle were found positive
at Botanic Gardens Nursery.
A proposal for the development of certified citrus plant propagation has been made.
Contacts:
Mrs. Cica Urbino, virologist Cirad Flhor Guadeloupe; cica.urbino@cirad.fr ,
Mr. Christian Lavigne, agronomist PRAM Martinique, christian.lavigne@cirad.fr ,
Mr. Claude Vuillaume CIRAD (Centre de recherche agronomique pour le dveloppement),
Station Neufchteau Sainte Marie 97130 Capesterre B-E, Phone: 33 (0) 590-86-17-73; Fax:
33(0) 590-86-80-77, claude.vuillaume@cirad.fr .
CIRAD-4 Tomato.
Title: "Incidence and epidemiology of tomato begomovirus diseases in different countries of the
Caribbean ".
Countries: Cuba, Dominican Republic, Trinidad, Guadeloupe and Martinique.
Problems: The introduction of the B biotype of Bemisia tabaci was concomitant with the
appearance and spread of different begomovirus diseases on tomato in the Caribbean. These
diseases have caused severe yield losses, and sometimes, preventing profitable cultivation in the
countries of the Caribbean.
Objectives of the studies and proposed solutions:
To determine the respective incidences of different begomoviruses species on tomato (mainly
TYLCV and PYMV).
To determine the key factors in the development of epidemics with respect to the production area
scale, and to the plot scale.

84

To model progress of the disease in the plots, in relation with environmental factors; in order to
create and evaluate IPM practices, adapted to the different agronomic and socio-economic
contexts.
Contacts:
Dr Claudie Pavis, INRA Duclos Petit Bourg Guadeloupe; pavis@inra.fr
Mrs Cica Urbino, Virologist Cirad Flhor Guadeloupe; cica.urbino@cirad.fr ,
Mr. Claude Vuillaume, CIRAD (Centre de recherch agronomique pour le dveloppement)
Station Neufchteau Sainte Marie 97130 Capesterre B-E.
Phone: 33 (0) 590-86-17-73; Fax: 33(0) 590-86-80-77, claude.vuillaume@cirad.fr .
CIRAD-5 Diversification Crops Coconut
Title: Towards a global research program on integrated control of the coconut lethal yellowing
disease in the Caribbean.
Countries: Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica and Guadeloupe.
Problems: Lethal yellowing of coconut is one of the most devastating coconut diseases. To date
the French West Indies and lower Caribbean have not been touched by this dreaded scourge. As
for the coconut production areas of Cuba, Haiti and Jamaica, they are now partially devastated,
and the disease in progressing relentlessly in the Caribbean. Its repercussions are particularly
serious in the area with respect to employment in rural areas, conservation of biodiversity,
impact on ecosystems, degradation of landscapes, and reduction in visits of tourists to typical
Caribbean landscapes and beaches.
Objectives of the study and proposed solutions:
The project will aim at characterizing the diversity and the variability of the phytoplasmas
associated with this disease, identifying its vectors, defining their etiologic role and identifying
resistances in the host plants. Acquired knowledge will make it possible to establish
recommendations for varietal selection and methods of a rational struggle for the control of the
disease, and for halting its diffusion in the Caribbean.
Current status:
For 3 years CIRAD CP has given fresh impulse to research on lethal yellowing of coconut (JMC
- YLC). In Africa this thrust resulted in the creation of a PCR-based diagnostic laboratory in
Ghana and a triangular collaboration Ghana-Mozambique-Cirad Montpellier. In the Caribbean,
several researchers of CIRAD CP carried out missions of expertise on the JMC since 2000, in
Honduras, in Haiti, in Cuba and Jamaica. Various types of collaborations are set up gradually
including (i) reception in Montpellier of Ph.D. students from Jamaica (from the Coconut Industry
Board (CIB)) and from Cuba (from the IIFT), (ii) participation in the Ph.D. examining board in
Jamaica, (iii) follow-up of a student in Honduras by electronic mail, and (iv) scientific missions
of supports in entomology, phytopathology. A. Slackness joined CIRAD and an agreement has
been signed with the Coconut Industry Board of Jamaica (CIB). The implication of CIRAD in
this area also results in the membership of the person in charge for the UPR Jaunissement
mortel du cocotier to Caribbean division of American Phytopathological Society and its
participation in several of its meetings, and by the nearest assignment of one of its research
entomologists in Mexico in September 2005.
Contacts:
Dr. Michel Dollet, Pathologist, CIRAD, Montpellier, michel.dollet@cirad.fr ,
Mr. Claude Vuillaume, CIRAD (Centre de recherche agronomique pour le dveloppement)
Station Neufchteau Sainte Marie 97130 Capesterre B-E., Phone: 33 (0) 590-86-17-73; Fax: 33
(0) 590-86-80-77, claude.vuillaume@cirad.fr .

85

CIRAD-6 The Caribvet network and OECS countries

Title: The Caribbean Animal Health Network (CaribVET), a collaboration network between
institutions and people to improve animal health and the quality and safety of animal products
with emphasis on the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS).
Countries : Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and Grenadines, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Antigua and
Dominica
Objectives of the study and proposed solutions:
The 2004 and 2005 CIRAD missions in the countries of the OECS in relation with the
agriculture ministries mainly consisted in identifying the assets and the needs for the veterinary
services in terms of diagnosis of the animal diseases, formation, and technology transfer; and the
need to actively integrate the veterinary services of the countries of the OECS into regional
dynamics. These missions are thus integrated perfectly in the development of the Caribbean
network of animal health in complement of the FCR sets of themes, FSP pidmiosurveillance,
and of the development of the Caribvet.net Web site. They contribute thus to the success of these
improvements of regional collaboration in animal health. http://www.caribvet.net .
Contacts:
Dr. Thierry Lefrancois
Domaine de Duclos, 97170 Petit BourgGuadeloupe, FWI; thierry.lefrancois@cirad.fr .
Dr. Sophie Molia
Domaine de Duclos, 97170 Petit Bourg Guadeloupe, FWI; sophie.molia@cirad.fr .

86

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):87-88. 2005

TOWARDS A BETTER CONTROL OF THE VIRAL CONSTRAINTS HAMPERING
THE MULTIPLICATION AND EXCHANGE OF MUSA GERMPLASM
Pierre-Yves Teycheney1, M. Folliot2, S. Galzi 3, N. Laboureau2, 3, M.-L Caruana3, P. Piffanelli4,
J.C. Noa Carazzana4, 5, Armelle Marais6, Laurence Svanella-Dumas6, Thierry Candresse6 and
F.-X. Cte . 1 CIRAD-FLHOR, Station de Neufchteau, Sainte- Marie, F-97130 Capesterre Belle
Eau, Guadeloupe; Email: teycheney@cirad.fr . 2 CIRAD-FLHOR, TA50/PS4, Boulevard de la
Lironde, F-34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France; 3 CIRAD-AMIS/UMR BGPI, TA 41/K, Campus
International de Baillarguet, F-34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France; 4 CIRAD-AMIS UMR PIA,
Avenue Agropolis, F-34398 Montpellier cedex, France; 5 Cinvestav-IPN, Irapuato, Mexico; 6
UMR GD2P, IBVM - INRA - BP 81 33883 Villenave d Ornon cedex - France .
ABSTRACT: Viruses are currently the major constraints for the multiplication and diffusion of
safe Musa germplasm worldwide. A multi-disciplinary research program was developed in order
to tackle the problems caused by Banana Streak Virus (BSV) and Banana Mild Mosaic Virus
(BanMMV), which are two of the main virological constraints, and implement a comprehensive
technical itinerary for the production of virus-free germplasm.
Immuno-molecular diagnosis tools were developed for the sensitive detection of BSV and
BanMMV. Together with existing tools for the detection of other viruses infecting Musa spp,
they now allow the selection of parental clones that can be used for the mass production of
certified virus-free vitro plants. These tools made it possible to carry on epidemiological studies
on BanMMV and to provide evidence for the potential spread of BanMMV isolates either as a
consequence of cultural practices or as the result of a yet not described vector-borne transmission
mechanism. They also allowed the identification and characterization of a new virus infecting
Musa spp, Banana Virus X (BVX), which causes no visible symptoms and shares several
features with BanMMV.
In vitro multiplication is often reported as the main cause for triggering the production of
episomal infectious BSV particles in banana hybrid species harbouring some or all of the B
(Musa balbisiana) genome, through the activation of BSV endogenous pararetrovirus (EPRV)
sequences integrated into the B genome. Nevertheless, mass production of vitro plantlets remains
the most widely used method for the diffusion of either Musa germplasm or new improved
hybrid species. A better understanding of the effects of in vitro culture on BSV EPRV activation
is thus necessary in order to evaluate the risks of spreading BSV through the wide diffusion of
banana plantlets. Therefore, natural triploid plantain cultivars (AAB) and interspecific tetraploid
hybrids (AAAB) were assayed for their activation patterns through in vitro culture. Results
confirmed that in vitro culture activates BSV integrated sequences but also showed that, for the
cultivars and hybrids studied, the percentage of BSV-infected plantlets reached a maximum of 10
to 20 % then decreased when increasing the number of subcultures. Ongoing research aims at
characterizing the virological status of BSV-free plantlets after their transfer to the field, in order
to explore the possibility of identifying banana germplasm with B genome that could be
multiplied and distributed safely with regards to BSV.
Furthermore, the resources of Musa genomics and immuno-cytology were successfully
combined in order to get insights into the organization of BSV integrated sequences, paving the
way for the characterization of mechanisms leading to the activation of BSV EPRV sequences in
Musa and the implementation of novel strategies to counteract this phenomenon.

87

KEY WORDS: Banana Streak Virus (BSV), Banana Mild Mosaic Virus (BanMMV), Banana
Virus X (BVX), endogenous pararetrovirus (EPRV), immuno-cytology, genomics

88

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):89-95. 2005

STRATEGIES ET METHODES INNOVANTES DEVELOPPEES PAR LA
RECHERCHE DANS LES TERRITOIRES FRANAIS DU PACIFIQUE ET DE
LOCEAN INDIEN OCCIDENTAL POUR LIMITER LIMPACT DES ESPECES
ENVAHISSANTES
Nicolas Barr1, Thomas Le Bourgeois2, Michel de Garine-Wichatitsky1*, Jacques Tassin1,
Vincent Blanfort1 et Dominique Strasberg3. 1 IAC-CIRAD BP 73, Pata, Nouvelle-Caldonie, 2
UMR C53 PVBMT CIRAD, 3 UMR C53 PVBMT Universit de la Runion.
RSUM: La Nouvelle-Caldonie et la Runion, collectivits franaises du Pacifique et de
l'ocan Indien, recouvrent des hauts lieux de la biodiversit jouxtant des zones d'activit agricole,
pastorale et forestire. Afin de se prserver des impacts des invasions biologiques relevant
dorganismes trs divers (vertbrs, insectes, plantes, pathognes), ces deux collectivits d'outremer doivent laborer et mettre en place des procdures appropries (contrle des introductions,
dtection et radication prcoce, contrle ou radication des populations tablies). Par leurs
actions de recherche, le CIRAD, lUniversit de la Runion et lIAC interviennent en appui ces
processus de dcision, en aidant la hirarchisation des espces et des impacts, la
comprhension des processus cologiques et en proposant des mthodes d'intervention et de
gestion innovantes. Ces approches, dveloppes en milieux insulaires tropicaux paraissent
applicables l'environnement cariben.
MOTS ESSENTIEL: Stratgie Nationale pour la Biodiversit, lAnalyse de Risque
dInvasion,
ABSTRACT: New Caledonia and Reunion Island are French overseas territories, respectively
situated in the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean. They both are biodiversity hot spots, but are
also agricultural, pastoral and forestry areas. To preserve their environments against the impacts
of biological invasions resulting from very diverse taxa (vertebrates, insects, plants, pathogens),
these two overseas territories must develop and promote appropriate methods (prevention of new
introductions, early detection and eradication, and control or eradication of established species).
The research activities of CIRAD, University of la Reunion and IAC contribute to these decision
processes, by improving the hierarchical classification of invasive species according to their
impacts, by improving the understanding of underlying ecological processes, and by proposing
innovative intervention and management methods. This approach for invasive species control in
tropical insular areas could also be appropriate in the Caribbean environment.
INTRODUCTION
La Reunion et la Nouvelle Caledonie sont des iles franaises tropicales situees respectivement
dans locean Indien et dans locean Pacifique. La premiere, proche de Maurice, est a 800 km a
lest de Madagascar; la seconde est un archipel situe a 1500 km a lest de lAustralie.
Il est maintenant bien connu que les iles, dont la faune et la flore ont evolue dans un relatif
isolement depuis des millenaires, sont particulierement sensibles a limpact des especes
introduites. La runion et la Nouvelle-Caldonie sont remarquables de ce point de vue. Iles
oceaniques tres isolees, leurs ecosystemes et leur biodiversite sont particulierement riches et
originaux, avec un taux dendemisme eleve. Mais elles sont aussi fragiles et menacees, la
menace venant principalement des especes introduites. Celles-ci sont responsables de
89

nombreuses extinctions de par le monde, en particulier dans des milieux ayant evolue en
situation disolement biogeographique, mal prepares a resister a des especes dorigine
continentale qui ont developpe des adaptations et des strategies efficaces pour conquerir des
espaces et des niches nouvelles.
Les milieux naturels et la biodiversit ne sont pas les seuls souffrir des ces espces
trangres. Elles font aussi subir un prjudice considrable aux activits humaines, en particulier
agricoles et pastorales.
En consquence, et comme propos par Tassin et al., (2005) et Blanfort et Orapa (
paratre), la recherche doit produire des outils pour aider rduire limpact cologique et
conomique de ces espces, a) par la conduite dinventaires sur les diffrents taxons pour
mesurer la biodiversit existante et son volution, b) par la mise au point denqutes, de suivis et
dexprimentations pour quantifier limpact des espces introduites sur cette biodiversit, c) par
la fourniture dinformations sur les risques gnrs par des introductions despces allochtones et
les moyens dviter leur entre sur le territoire, d) par la mise au point doutils et de mthodes
pour permettre une dtection prcoce des introductions et leur radication rapide, e) par la mise
au point de mthode de gestion des milieux visant la prvention des invasions et le contrle des
processus denvahissement. Enfin, f) la recherche doit mettre au point ou valider des procds
pour lradication, quand cela est possible, ou le contrle de ces espces, et tester des mthodes
permettant le suivi et lvaluation de leur efficacit.
Premire tape: la recherche doit fournir des informations sur ltat de la biodiversit
existante, sur la prsence despces invasives et sur leurs impacts potentiels. Quelques exemples
sont prsents pour les plantes et les vertbrs (Tableau 1). Ils montrent une exceptionnelle
biodiversit en Nouvelle-Caldonie (3 fois plus de plantes natives qu la Runion) et une
vulnrabilit particulire de la Runion o le nombre de taxons introduits atteint (dans le cas des
plantes et oiseaux) ou dpasse nettement (dans le cas des mammifres) celui des taxons
autochtones, avec une proportion importante de pestes majeures. La Runion est en effet soumise
aux effets dvastateurs de la vigne maronne Rubus alceifolius, du trone, Ligustrum robustum,
du Merle des Moluques Acridotheres tristis, du Bulbul orphe Pycnonotus jocosus, des rats, du
chat et du Cerf rusa Cervus timorensis, ce dernier restant encore localis. Les zones pastorales
des Hauts sont exposes aux invasions par Acacia mearnsii et Ulex europaeus. Les zones sches
de Nouvelle-Caldonie subissent les effets de la Passiflore Passiflora suberosa, du Jatropha
gossypiifolia, du faux mimosa Leucaena leucocephala. La fort humide est menace par
Miconia calvescens, une peste majeure en Polynsie et Hawa, dont la prsence a t
rcemment confirme sur plus de 100 ha dans le sud de Nouma. Parmi les oiseaux, labondance
du Merle des Moluques et la propagation du Bulbul cafre Pycnonotus cafer sont aussi
proccupantes, et pour les mammifres, celles des rats, du chat et du chien, du cochon sauvage et
du Cerf rusa.
Les effets des pestes sont divers, mais pas toujours totalement apprhends. La recherche
tente dobjectiver limportance de limpact de ces espces introduites, en particulier cerf rusa,
cochon et plantes des pturages en Nouvelle-Caldonie, vigne maronne, trone et Acacia
mearnsii la Runion. Les espces envahissantes ont tendance pntrer les formations
naturelles, contrarier la rgnration des espces locales et sy substituer (passiflore, vigne
maronne, faux mimosa, trone), coloniser les espaces pastoraux (Jatropha gossypiifolia,
faux basilic (Ocimum gratissimum), Acacia mearnsii, ajonc dEurope (Ulex europeus),
modifier les milieux et altrer leur restauration (plantes, cerfs), entrer en comptition (oiseaux)
ou se comporter en prdateur (oiseaux, rats, chat, chien, cochon) des espces locales. La
rarfaction ou la disparition de certaines espces doiseaux endmiques comme le tuit tuit
Coracina newtoni (class EN par lUICN) la Runion, lEgothle Aegotheles savesi (CR), le
Rle de Lafresnaye Gallirallus lafresnayanus (CR), le Mliphage toulou Gymnomyza aubryana
90

(EN), la Cagou Rynochetos jubatus (EN) en Nouvelle-Caldonie ne peuvent sexpliquer que par
laction des espces introduites, avant tout celle des mammifres prdateurs.
Tableau 1: Plantes, oiseaux et mammifres natifs et introduits la Runion et en NouvelleCaldonie (en partie daprs Gargominy, 2003).

PLANTES
Runion
Nouvelle Caldonie
OISEAUX
Runion
Nouvelle Caldonie
MAMMIFERES
Runion
Nouvelle Caldonie

Espces natives

Espces introduites Pestes majeures

et (pourcentage)

915
3261

1014 (52 %)
772 (19 %)

100
50

24
112

20 (45 %)
13 (10 %)

3
3

2
9

7 (78 %)
12 (57 %)

5
6

En second lieu, la recherche doit pouvoir fournir des informations pour viter de
nouvelles introductions. Cela est possible par lapplication de protocoles pour lanalyse de
risques, la surveillance aux frontires, la mise en place dune rglementation approprie et la
constitution de listes despces autorises ou interdites.
Dans le Pacifique, les espces invasives prsentes et potentielles sont connues et ont fait
lobjet dinventaires exhaustifs et de recommandations par le SPREP (South Pacific Regional
Environmental Programme) (Sherley 2000). Pour autant quelles soient correctement renseignes
et actualises, ces listes rgionales permettent dapprcier les risques de voisinage , si la
distribution des espces menaantes est assortie de donnes quantifies sur limportance relative
des flux entre les les (transport maritime et arien, vents dominants, trajets doiseaux migrateurs
etc.). Des recommandations spcifiques ont t formules, que la recherche valide et auxquelles
elle apporte des adaptations :
-

Le protocole sur lAnalyse de Risque dInvasion (Invasion Risk Analysis protocole) est
en cours dapprobation par lOrganisation Europenne de Protection des Plantes
(European Plant Protection Organisation). Ce protocole fait suite au protocole dAnalyse
de Risque Phytosanitaire de lEPPO et a t adapt du Programme Australien
destimation des risques lis aux mauvaises herbes (Australian Weed Risk Assessment
Programme). Le protocole dAnalyse de Risque dInvasion prend en compte la biologie
et lcologie de lespce candidate, sa rpartition, son potentiel invasif ailleurs dans le
monde. Il permet de statuer sur la menace dune espce sur une rgion donne et de
dcider objectivement de lacceptation ou non de son introduction. Ce test mis en uvre
la Runion sur lherbe du Laos Chromolaena odorata a montr le potentiel trs
envahissant de cette plante justifiant que son introduction soit interdite et quelle fasse
mme lobjet dune surveillance particulire compte tenu de sa prsence Maurice
Les Directives pour la Prvention des Pertes de Biodiversit dues aux Espces
envahissantes (Guidelines for the Prevention of Biodiversity loss caused by Alien
Species) rdiges par lUICN.
Citons galement cette initiative rcente de lUICN France qui va tablir un rseau inter
DOM/TOM pour faire le bilan sur la situation concernant les espces envahissantes dans

91

les les franaises, formuler des conseils et coordonner des actions partir dun bureau
qui sera tabli la Runion.
Outre une rglementation stricte aux frontires, il existe la Runion et en NouvelleCaldonie un rseau dense de partenaires administratifs, scientifiques et institutionnels ainsi que
des relations nationales et internationales suivies avec des spcialistes du monde entier qui
permettent tout moment de sinformer sur la meilleure conduite tenir et dintervenir avec le
maximum defficacit.
A la Runion les acteurs interviennent comme suit.
- La rglementation et le contrle aux frontires sont assurs par le Service de la Protection
des Vgtaux (SPV) dpendant de la Direction de lAgriculture et de la Fort (DAF) ; la
rglementation sur la protection des espces et des milieux est du ressort de la Direction
de lEnvironnement (DIREN). Les Conseils Rgional et Gnral interviennent galement
au niveau dcisionnel et politique.
- La gestion de lenvironnement et des espces envahissantes est assure par ces mmes
administrations ainsi que par lOffice National des Forts (ONF), le Conservatoire
Botanique National de Mascarin (CBNM). Les ONG formulent quant elles des avis et
recommandations.
- Les actions de conseil, dexpertise et de recherche sont assures par le CIRAD,
lUniversit de la Runion et le CBNM. Ils conduisent pour le compte des institutions
locales ou en partenariat avec elles des actions de recherche-dveloppement sur la
connaissance et la mise en place doutils de gestion des espces envahissantes. Ces
organismes tablissent galement des collaborations dans le cadre de projets communs et
bnficient dappuis de lAfrique du Sud : Center of Excellence for Invasions Biology
(CIB), South African National Botanical Institute (SANBI), de lIndonsie : Indonesian
Oil Palm Research Institute (IOPRI), de la Thalande : National Biological Research
Center (NBCRC), de lAustralie : Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation (CSIRO), de lEurope : Centre International pour lAgriculture et les
Sciences Biologiques (CABI-Bioscience), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
(CNRS)
En Nouvelle-Caldonie
- la rglementation et le contrle aux frontires sont de la comptence du Service
dInspection Vtrinaire, Alimentaire et Phytosanitaire (SIVAP) dpendant de la
Direction des Affaires Vtrinaires, Alimentaires et Rurales (DAVAR).
- Certains volets de la rglementation (espces protges, espces nuisibles, chasse) et la
mise en uvre de la gestion de lenvironnement, des ressources naturelles et des espces
envahissantes sont du ressort des Directions concernes de chacune des trois Provinces.
- Les actions de recherche en accompagnement de la gestion des espces envahissantes
sont conduites par lInstitut de Recherche pour le Dveloppement, IRD (insectes) et
lIAC (plantes envahissantes, ravageurs des cultures, oiseaux, onguls). Un groupe de
travail interinstitutionnel sur les espces envahissantes a t cr en 2004 qui a
commandit lIRD une expertise collgiale sur les espces envahissantes afin dvaluer
la menace et de mettre en place une stratgie de protection et dintervention spcifique.
La recherche a galement nou des collaborations avec des institutions de recherche et
des administrations nationales et internationales de la rgion comme le CSIRO en
Australie, le Department of Conservation et lUniversit dAuckland en NouvelleZlande, le Plant Protection Service, la Land Resources Division du SPC (Secretariat of
the Pacific Community), le SPREP. Des bases de donnes peuvent tre consultes comme
le Global Invasive Species Database, dvelopp par le Groupe Spcialis sur les Espces
92

Invasives de Nouvelle Zlande (Invasive Species Specialist Group ISSG) qui a produit
par ailleurs le fascicule sur les 100 World Worst Invasive Species. Plus
spcifiquement, le Centre de Recherche sur les Ecosystmes Insulaires du Pacifique bas
Hawa (Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center) propose un prototype daide la
dcision pour valuer le risque potentiel gnr par les introductions doiseaux. Enfin, un
nouveau rseau, le Pacific Invasives Learning network a vu rcemment le jour.
Lensemble de ces dispositifs constitue un outil prcieux pour mieux apprcier les
menaces gnres par les espces envahissantes, mieux les prvenir et les contrler.
En troisime lieu, la recherche doit aussi fournir des mthodes et outils pour dtecter les
espces qui auraient chapp au contrle et les radiquer rapidement. Cela implique notamment
des capacits identifier les espces nouvelles. La recherche doit tre en mesure de fournir cette
expertise. Les rseaux de comptence lists ci-dessous tant au niveau local quinternational, les
bases de donnes et les systmes de reconnaissance disponibles permettent de hirarchiser les
menaces et de dcider du bien fond dune intervention et de la stratgie mettre en uvre
(spatialisation et dynamique de lespce, mode de propagation, type de lutte, dure, moyens).
Le dernier volet concerne lradication ou le contrle des espces tablies dont il est
avr quelles altrent ou menacent la biodiversit locale et les activits agricoles. La recherche
fournit des donnes sur les traits de vie de ces espces et sur leur impact, permettant de juger de
la ncessit, de la possibilit et des chances de succs dun programme de lutte. Les bases de
lorganisation de la lutte peuvent aussi tre proposes, sachant quil est toujours plus coteux,
compliqu et alatoire de lutter contre une espce tablie et largement rpandue que contre une
espce encore confine, en cours dinstallation.
Les invasions biologiques tant le rsultat de la combinaison de caractres propres
lespce, mais aussi de ltat de lcosystme et de lampleur de sa transformation par les
activits humaines actuelles et passes, leur gestion requiert des connaissances sur la
structuration gntique, lcologie et la biologie de lespce en question, sur son mode de
reproduction et propagation et ses ennemis naturels. La gestion doit aussi se fonder sur la
connaissance dventuelles interactions avec tout ou partie des composantes du milieu agissant
de faon positive ou ngative sur la dynamique de lespce. Dans les milieux anthropiss, la
prise en compte des pratiques est capitale pour la mise au point doutils de gestion. En NouvelleCaldonie, des outils daide la dcision informatiss visent fournir des diagnostics des
pturages pour amliorer leur gestion ce qui reste le meilleur moyen de prvention vis--vis des
plantes envahissantes.
Certains outils comme les cartes de distributions actuelles ou potentielles et les SIG sont
prcieux pour comprendre la rpartition et la propagation des espces : la Vigne maronne est
particulirement prsente dans le nord et lest de la Runion et lobservation de sa distribution
actuelle permet dtablir des corrlations avec laltitude, le climat, les types dhabitats les plus
vulnrables et de prdire la zone potentielle dinstallation de lespce. En Nouvelle-Caldonie,
Jatropha gossypiifolia tabli au nord, est en expansion dans le sud le long de la route principale,
ce qui permet de formuler des hypothses sur les processus de propagation et de proposer des
moyens pour les prvenir. Les plantes envahissantes des forts sches, lun des milieux les plus
menacs de Nouvelle-Caldonie, viennent des pturages voisins, touffent la vgtation native et
empchent sa rgnration. Passiflora suberosa est prcisment cartographi dans certains lots
de fort sche prioritaires en intgrant les pturages environnants, afin de comprendre les
conditions spatio-temporelles de son dveloppement (lisire, ouvertures, effet des herbivores,
mise en dfens), et dvaluer le succs des mesures de contrle entreprises.
En rsum, la gestion intgre des plantes invasives dont la finalit est daboutir une
restauration de lhabitat aussi proche que possible de son tat initial (dont la caractrisation est
93

en soi un sujet de recherche!) repose sur la gestion cologique, le contrle mcanique ou

chimique (choix du produit et du mode dapplication, priode, stade physiologique) et le
contrle biologique si on peut disposer de la preuve que ce dernier est efficace et sr. A la
Runion par exemple, la lutte biologique est en cours de mise au point contre la Vigne maronne.
Un hymnoptre tenthrde Cibdela janthina a t slectionn et tudi par le CIRAD (biologie,
cologie, spcificit) et les rsultats ont t prsents un comit de pilotage qui va dcider ou
non de le lcher en milieu naturel semi confin (cages de moustiquaire) pour acclimatation et
mise en place des populations avant une production de masse et un lcher complet. Les exemples
passs derreurs de manipulations en lutte biologique incitent en effet au respect de protocoles
stricts, et une dcision argumente, valide et collective pour le recours cette stratgie. Cette
gestion intgre doit aussi tre englobante car l'imbrication des milieux agricoles et pastoraux
avec les milieux naturels favorise les risques d'invasion de ces derniers. Lvaluation des
interactions entre ces milieux menacs est un lment indispensable pour apprcier les conditions
de coexistence entre des activits agricoles et la prservation de milieux naturels qui permettront
la mise en place de modes de gestion durables et viables.
Pour les onguls qui font lobjet de recherches en Nouvelle-Caldonie, et en prenant
lexemple du cerf rusa, gibier apprci dont la chasse et la capture sont les seuls moyens de
contrle, la gestion des populations est source de conflits dintrt et requiert une approche
pluridisciplinaire, concerte et prudente. Cela implique notamment de connatre limportance
culturelle, nutritionnelle et conomique de ce gibier pour les communauts locales permettant de
dcider de plans de chasse et de gestion et de leur suivi. La recherche a par ailleurs pour mission
dexplorer les conditions dans lesquelles leffectif des populations est compatible avec la
prservation des cosystmes. Mais dans un milieu dont la vgtation a volu en labsence
dherbivores, les mcanismes de dfense nexistent pas. Il ny a pas deffet de seuil, et mme
trs faible densit, les cerfs peuvent avoir un effet dterminant sur des espces vgtales
localises ou faible effectif, mais trs apptes.
Pour des habitats de petite surface abritant des espces rares, comme le sont les forts
sches, lexclos peut tre une solution, condition que les plantes envahissantes pralablement
rgules par les cerfs puissent tre contrles. Enfin, dans des situations particulires, par
exemple sur des lots, lradication peut tre une solution raliste et efficace.
CONCLUSION
En conclusion et en nous appuyant sur les recommandations formules dans la Stratgie
Nationale pour la Biodiversit, la recherche apporte ses connaissance, dveloppe des outils et
participe la construction dun plan intgr de gestion des espces envahissantes la Runion et
en Nouvelle Caldonie comportant:
- la prvention des introductions par le recours aux protocoles danalyse des risques dinvasion;
- la mise en place dune rglementation et de dispositifs de surveillance adapts,
- ltablissement dobservatoires et de campagnes de sensibilisation du public permettant la
dtection rapide despces introduites;
- leradication precoce de celles-ci par les moyens disponibles et, si cet objectif nest pas atteint,
par le developpement de programmes de recherche et dintervention pour leur controle,
debouchant enfin sur des programmes de restauration des milieux sappuyant sur des campagnes
de formation et de sensibilisation du public.

94

RFRENCES BIBLIOGRAPHIQUES
Invasive Species Specialist Group www.issg.org
Global Invasive species database www.issg.org/database
IUCN Union mondiale pour la Nature www.iucn.org
The Global Invasive Species programme http://jasper.Stanford.EDU/GISP/
Blanfort, V., Orapa,W ( paratre). Editeur scientifique, Actes de l'atelier de travail rgional sur
les plantes envahissantes des espaces pastoraux. IAC/MAE, Ambassade de France en
Australie. 24-28 novembre 2003, Kon, Nouvelle Caldonie, SPC, IAC, Suva, 130p.
Gargominy, O., ed. (2003) Biodiversit et conservation dans les collectivits franaises d'outremer, pp x et 246. Comit Franais pour l'UICN, Paris, France.
Sherley, G., ed. (2000) Invasive species in the Pacifi : a technical review and draft regional
strategy, pp 190, Apia, Samoa.
Tassin J., Blanfort V., Triolo J., Lavergne J., Le Bourgeois T., Strasberg D., Meyer J-Y, 2005.
Le rle des collectifs dans la lutte contre les plantes exotiques envahissantes dans loutremer franais. Confrence internationale, Biodiversit, Science et gouvernance, Paris 2428 Janvier 2005.

95

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):96-109. 2005

A PEER REVIEWED PAPER
CaribVET, A TOOL TO FACILITATE CONTROL OF EMERGING AND EXOTIC
ANIMAL DISEASE THREATS
S. Molia1, T. Lefrancois1, N. Vachiery1, and D. Martinez1. 1CIRAD, EMVT Dpartement,
Domaine de Duclos, Prise deau 97170 Petit Bourg, Guadeloupe ; sophie.molia@cirad.fr
ABSTRACT. The Caribbean Animal Health Network (CaribVET) is a collaboration among
institutions (veterinary services, research or diagnostic laboratories, international organizations)
and individuals to improve animal health and the safety of animal products throughout the
Caribbean. It aims at promoting collaborations and a regional approach for animal diseases
control and emergency preparedness, strengthening national epidemiosurveillance networks,
developing and harmonizing regional veterinary diagnostic capacities, and fostering
communication and exchange of information among individuals involved in animal production
and health in the Caribbean. Control of re-emerging and exotic animal disease threats has been at
the forefront of CaribVET activities. The network was initiated in 1995 with the Caribbean
Amblyomma Programme, an eradication program for Amblyomma variegatum, a tick imported
from Africa and associated with severe diseases of ruminants (heartwater and dermatophilosis),
whose spread to the Lesser Antilles threatened the rest of the Caribbean and the American
mainland. Projects were set up to help control classical swine fever, an OIE listed disease
reintroduced into Hispaniola in 1996, and to improve surveillance in disease-free neighboring
islands. CaribVET also contributed to establishing collaborations for surveillance and diagnosis
of West Nile virus, an arthropod-borne virus first detected in the Caribbean in 2001 and affecting
humans, horses and birds. Other CaribVET activities include training, organization of regional
meetings and dissemination of information through the CaribVET website www.caribvet.net.
KEY WORDS: Network, animal health, Caribbean, epidemiology, emerging disease, exotic
disease, regional approach
CARIBVET, UN OUTIL POUR FACILITER LE CONTROLE DES MALADIES
EMERGENTES ET EXOTIQUES
RSUM: Le Rseau Cariben de Sant Animale (CaribVET) est un rseau de collaboration
entre divers organismes (services vtrinaires, laboratoires de recherche et de diagnostic,
organisations internationales) pour amliorer la sant animale et la scurit des produits dorigine
animale dans la Carabe. Il travaille promouvoir les approches rgionales en matire de
contrle et de prvention des maladies animales, renforcer les rseaux nationaux
dpidmiosurveillance, dvelopper les capacits rgionales de diagnostic vtrinaire, et
faciliter la communication et lchange dinformations entre acteurs de la sant animale dans la
Carabe. Le contrle des maladies mergentes et exotiques est une activit importante de
CaribVET. Le rseau a dmarr en 1995 avec le Caribbean Amblyomma Programme, un
programme dradication dAmblyomma variegatum, une tique importe dAfrique, associe de
graves maladies des ruminants (cowdriose et dermatophilose), et dont lexpansion dans les
Petites Antilles menaait le continent amricain. Un projet rgional a t mis en place pour
contrler la peste porcine classique, une maladie de la liste A rintroduite Hispaniola en 1996,
et pour prvenir la contamination des les voisines. CaribVET a aussi permis dtablir une
96

collaboration pour la surveillance et le diagnostic du virus West Nile, un arbovirus introduit dans
le Carabe en 2002 et qui affecte les chevaux, les oiseaux et les humains. Les autres activits de
CaribVET incluent la formation, lorganisation de runions rgionales et la diffusion
dinformations sur le site web CaribVET.
INTRODUCTION
The general sanitary situation of animal production in the Caribbean is considered favorable
as compared to other tropical areas plagued by major infectious diseases such as foot and mouth
disease, avian influenza, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, or peste des petits ruminants.
Nevertheless, pathogenic agents of economic importance are present in the Caribbean and have
justified the creation of a regional animal health network. The adoption of a regional approach
for transboundary diseases control was first implemented in 1995 with the Caribbean
Amblyomma Programme (CAP), aimed at eradicating the tropical bont tick Amblyomma
variegatum from infested islands of the English-speaking Lesser Antilles. The need for
veterinary diagnostics in terms of both routine and emergency analysis in the region was
unfortunately demonstrated in 1996 with the introduction into Haiti of classical swine fever, a
major swine disease listed by the OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health), which later
spread to the adjacent Dominican Republic. The same year, a study on animal health in the
Caribbean conducted by the Director of the OIE gave two main recommendations: the creation
of a regional laboratory network for animal disease surveillance and the strengthening of animal
health programs. This was followed in 1997 by two seminars: an FAO (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations) seminar in Haiti on the control of classical swine fever and
emergency strategies in the Caribbean, and an OIE-IICA (Inter-American Institute for
Cooperation on Agriculture)-WTO (World Trade Organisation) seminar in Trinidad on
safeguarding animal health in trade in the Caribbean.
As a follow-up to these consultancies, a project entitled Building an Inter-Caribbean
Epidemiological Network was implemented with funding from the French Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, in collaboration with IICA, OIE and the Ministries of Agriculture of the Caribbean
countries. The first phase of this project consisted of establishing an inventory of the veterinary
diagnostic capacities in the Caribbean, through questionnaires and evaluation visits to the
different laboratories. A database directory of laboratories and the first version of a website were
developed and the results were presented at a seminar held on May 27th-28th 1999 in Santo
Domingo, Dominican Republic (Klotz and Martinez 1999). The second phase of the project
consisted of finalizing the epidemiological surveillance network organization, defining
epidemiological surveillance activities for the diseases considered to be of major importance,
developing the website, making recommendations for quality assurance systems and providing
training for personnel in the laboratories. Results of these activities were discussed during a
seminar held on November 27th-28th, 1999 in Gosier, Guadeloupe, and the Caribbean Network of
Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratories and Epidemiology, later known as Caribbean Animal Health
Network (CaribVET), was officially created (Quirin et al. 2000).
CaribVET works as a collaborative network among institutions and individuals to improve
animal health and the quality and safety of animal products throughout the Caribbean. Its
members include veterinary services, veterinary diagnostic laboratories, government agencies,
research institutes, representatives of the private livestock sector and universities from mainly
Caribbean but also North, Central or South American countries (Table 1). It also works in
collaboration with regional and international organizations such as CARICOM (Caribbean
Community and Common Market), OIRSA (Organismo Internacional Regional de Sanidad
Agropecuaria), IICA, FAO, OIE, as well as the EU (European Union) and the USDA (United
97

States Department of Agriculture). The specific objectives of CaribVET are to: 1) foster
communication and exchange of information between people involved in animal production and
health in the Caribbean; 2) promote collaboration and a regional approach for disease control and
emergency preparedness; 3) develop and harmonize regional veterinary diagnostic capacities;
and 4) strengthen national epidemiosurveillance networks through training and skills building (in
fields such as epidemiology, risk analysis, or geographic information systems).
Activities developed within CaribVET include animal health projects aimed at controlling
specific animal diseases present in the Caribbean and considered to be of major importance:
classical swine fever, salmonellosis, Amblyomma variegatum and tick-borne diseases.
Collaborations can be set up to survey the introduction of emerging pathogens, as was the case
for West Nile virus. CaribVET also works to develop cross-cutting activities such as training,
strengthening of surveillance systems, and capacity building of veterinary services.
Communication and exchange of information are fundamental within CaribVET and are
achieved through regional meetings and updating of the CaribVET website www.caribvet.net.
CONTROL OF MAJOR DISEASES
1. Tick Management Activities within CaribVET. The tropical bont tick Amblyomma
variegatum and its associated diseases heartwater and dermatophilosis constitute a major
problem for livestock production in the Caribbean (Pegram et al. 1998) and clearly demonstrate
the economic strain that can be caused by introduced pathogens. Amblyomma variegatum is
thought to have first been introduced in the Caribbean with the importation of cattle from
Senegal to Guadeloupe around 1828 (Barr et al. 1995). The tick was thereafter reported on
Marie Galante around 1835 and on Antigua around 1895. For more than fifty years, the tropical
bont tick remained restricted to these three islands, but Martinique was infested in 1948 with the
introduction of cattle from Guadeloupe. The range of the ticks distribution increased greatly
between 1967 and 1995, with 14 new islands becoming infested. This spread is thought to be
associated with the expansion of another species first introduced in the Caribbean in 1933: the
cattle egret Bubulcus ibis (Corn et al. 1993).
The presence of Amblyomma variegatum on most of the islands of the Lesser Antilles and
the occurrence of heartwater on three of them represents a threat to the rest of the Caribbean and
the American mainland. Environmental conditions of the tropical and subtropical American
continent are favorable for the establishment of A. variegatum, and two indigenous Amblyomma
tick species, A. maculatum and to a lesser degree A. cajennense, both of which have been shown
to be vectors of Ehrlichia ruminantium under experimental conditions (Barr et al. 1987).
Potential losses due to the establishment of A. variegatum and its associated diseases in the
mainland countries have been estimated at US$ 762 million per year (Pegram et al. 1998),
justifying the implementation of tick control campaigns on infested islands of the Caribbean.
The Caribbean Amblyomma Programme (CAP) was set up in 1995 to eradicate A.
variegatum from the infested islands of the English-speaking Lesser Antilles. It is a regional
program that has been supported by CARICOM, FAO, IICA, the EU and the USDA. Its policy
guidance is provided by the Amblyomma Programme Council whose members are
representatives of governments, funding agencies, and research institutes (Table2). At the same
time, a tick and tick-borne diseases control campaign has been implemented on the infested
islands of the French Antilles: Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, Dsirade, St Martin, and Martinique,
with funding from the EU and the French government (Barr et al. 1996). The steering
committee for the latter program is composed of representatives of the veterinary services,
research institutes and sanitary defense organizations (Groupements de Dfense Sanitaire or
GDS, see Table 1). Technical and scientific coordination as well as mutual assistance and
98

reciprocity between these two eradication programs have been developed through CaribVET for
increased efficiency. Surveillance and treatment protocols and policy guidelines are reviewed
regularly during meetings where experiences are shared. Training is provided to veterinary
services of all participating countries on subjects including participatory epidemiology, database
use, and geographic information systems. A user-friendly database application specifically
conceived for managing tick surveillance data has been developed with a view to standardize
information storage and treatment among all islands implementing tick control campaigns. This
database, developed under Access and named TickINFO, has been extensively enhanced
thanks to the feedback of agents working in the field. The latest version, TickINFO4+GIS,
includes a variety of automated tools to produce summary surveillance reports and graphs, and
source files for geographic information systems. Surveillance reports and maps produced by
TickINFO can easily be uploaded on the CaribVET website through passwords specific to each
country. This collaboration also encompasses other essential aspects of tick control campaigns
such as production of public awareness supports and dissemination of information through the
CaribVET website.
CAP efforts in the last ten years have enabled six previously infested islands to be declared
provisionally free of Amblyomma (Fig.1.). Islands with larger cattle populations, however, such
as Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, Martinique and Antigua still remain heavily infested. Additional
funding and increased collaboration must be secured to control the prevalence of A. variegatum
on infested islands and to prevent the reinfestation of provisionally-free islands.
2. CSF Activities within CaribVET
Classical swine fever (CSF) is a major swine disease, listed by the OIE, and is present in
various countries of South and Central America as well as in three countries of the Caribbean:
Cuba, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (Paton and Greiser-Wilke 2003, Vargas Teran et al.
2004). CSF has been endemic in Cuba since the 1930s with severe outbreaks during 1993-1997
(Frias-Lepoureau 1997). CSF had been endemic in Hispaniola since the 1920s but the
introduction of African swine fever in 1979 led to the systematic slaughter of the swine
population on the island in 1984. This also eliminated other swine diseases, such as CSF.
Hispaniola remained free of CSF for 12 years until the disease was reintroduced into Haiti in
August 1996 (Jeannot 1997). A failure to rapidly detect its entry led to its spread throughout the
country and to the death of 80% of the swine population. In spite of reinforced surveillance at the
Haitian-Dominican border, CSF spread to the Dominican Republic in March 1997 and caused
major economic losses (Frias Sosa 1997).
Control programs based on vaccination of the swine population were implemented by the
Ministries of Agriculture of the infected countries. A meeting was held in Jamaica in October
1999 during which representatives of the EU and the CARIFORUM countries (forum of the
Caribbean ACP States) decided to set up a project for the control of CSF in Haiti and the
Dominican Republic, and for surveillance on Jamaica, the Bahamas and Belize. Although Cuba
was not formally a partner of the project, coordination was maintained with this country for
potential future regional eradication of CSF. The two-million euro project for the Control of
Classical Swine Fever in Hispaniola and Surveillance in The Bahamas, Belize and Jamaica (EU
Project N 7.ACP.RPR.385) was thus initiated in 2001 and placed for three years under the
CAFP (Caribbean Agriculture and Fisheries Programme) with the technical assistance of CIRAD
(French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development) of Guadeloupe. The
CAFP-CSF project aimed at supporting and developing national CSF control activities in
infested countries and reinforcing surveillance in neighbouring non-infested countries. It made
full use of the collaborations and networks already existing through CaribVET. The specific
objectives of the project included the education and training of all the participants in CSF
99

surveillance, including farmers, local leaders, non-governmental organisations, veterinary agents,

and epidemiologists. The national surveillance systems were restructured to cover as much of the
territory as possible, to provide a better flow of information, and to rely on improved CSF
laboratory diagnostics. Massive vaccination campaigns were implemented following the advice
of FAO experts who showed that the vaccine strategy had a very favourable cost-benefit ratio
(Otte 1997). All activities and responsibilities were fully described in specific written procedures
for each activity field (vaccination, information, surveillance, and diagnostics). Communication
supports including DVDs, multimedia CDs, manuals, leaflets and posters were made readily
available to all participants, translated and distributed in participating countries. Finally,
collaboration and coordination mechanisms were set up to integrate the national veterinary
services into a regional system of CSF surveillance and alert.
Another CSF-related CaribVET project was set up in 2003 to implement an inter-laboratory
comparison test for CSF diagnosis. Efficient diagnosis is at the cornerstone of any surveillance
and control programme and the objectives of this project were to: 1) verify the quality of CSF
diagnosis in the laboratories of the three infected Caribbean islands, 2) increase communication
among the laboratories, and 3) pave the way for a routine quality assurance procedure and the
eventual creation of a CSF reference laboratory for the Caribbean. This project was funded by
the Fonds de Coopration Rgionale of Guadeloupe and was implemented in collaboration with
the Institute of Virology, Veterinary School of Hanover, which is the EU reference laboratory for
CSF.
CONTROL OF EMERGING DISEASES
CaribVET has been instrumental in reacting to the introduction of new pathogens such as West
Nile virus. West Nile virus was first introduced into the North American continent in 1999
causing an outbreak of human encephalitis and the death of wild birds, both free-living and in a
zoological park in the northeastern United States (Lanciotti et al. 1999). The virus subsequently
spread throughout the North American continent (Gould and Fikrig 2004), and it was
hypothesized that it would reach the Neotropics through bird migrations (Rappole et al. 2000).
The first report of the presence of West Nile virus in the Caribbean concerned a man of the
Cayman Islands (CDC 2002). Surveys undertaken in 2002 led to the detection of neutralizing
antibodies in birds and horses in Mexico (Blitvitch et al. 2003, Fernandez-Salas et al. 2003) and
Guadeloupe (Quirin et al. 2004), and in birds in the Dominican Republic (Komar et al. 2003),
Jamaica and Puerto Rico (Dupuis et al. 2003). Antibodies against West Nile virus were
subsequently detected in El Salvador (Cruz et al. 2005), Cuba (Kouri and Guzman 2005), and
Trinidad (Douglas 2005).
Following the detection of West Nile virus antibodies in Guadeloupe, a surveillance
system was created on the island involving the veterinary services, direction of social and
sanitary affairs, the hospital and CIRAD. Serologic and molecular diagnostic techniques were
imported with the collaboration of the Colorado State University and surveillance was set up in
humans, birds, horses and mosquitoes (Lefranois et al. 2005). Based on the Guadeloupe
experience, a West Nile virus collaboration network was created through CaribVET to
implement surveillance, samples analysis, and diagnostic transfer with other Caribbean countries
interested in West Nile fever. This project was funded by the Fonds de Coopration Rgionale of
Guadeloupe and involved Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica,
St Lucia, and Trinidad (Table 3). Descriptive epidemiological data gathered in the different
countries are expected to be used for risk analysis and modeling of West Nile virus circulation in
the Neotropics.

100

CROSS-CUTTING ACTIVITIES AND COMMUNICATION

Independently of projects concerning specific animal diseases, CaribVET also develops

cross-cutting activities including training and exchange of advice and expertise. A variety of
training courses and workshops on different subjects have been organized in the last five years,
with funding from various sources (Fonds Inter-Ministriel de Coopration, French Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, EU-CAFP, FAO, USDA), to build up veterinary services capacities in the
region:
ELISA serologic diagnosis for Cowdria, Babesia and Anaplasma (Trinidad, June 2000)
Salmonella diagnostic techniques (Trinidad, September 2000)
Epidemiosurveillance and product quality (Guadeloupe, December 2001)
Methodology in animal health surveillance (Dominican Republic, July 2002)
Application of GIS in animal health studies (Dominican Republic, July 2003)
Increasing the sustainability of surveillance mechanisms (Antigua, October 2003)
Private sector involvement in animal health surveillance systems (Barbados, March 2004)
GIS and use of Arcview (Antigua, November 2004)
Quality assurance in CSF diagnostics (Cuba, May 2005) ([CaribVET], 2005)
CaribVET members also share their expertise with colleagues in terms of specific diseases,
epidemiology, organization of surveillance systems, protocols for diagnosis, etc, so that the
number of skills and skilled personnel available for all in the region are enlarged.
Communication and information dissemination constitute the core activities of CaribVET. A
proper regional surveillance system can only work on a regular, trusted and transparent exchange
of sanitary information. To realize these ideals CaribVET, with the help of funding agencies such
as USDA, EU, and FAO, contributes to the organization of regional meetings where
veterinarians and other stakeholders of animal health can present what is being done in their
respective countries and can reinforce collaboration for increased efficiency of animal disease
control programs. Recently organized meetings include the annual CAP meetings held in a
different program member country every year, CSF control coordination meetings held in
Antigua in October 2003 and in the Dominican Republic in March 2004, and the meeting of the
Continental Plan for CSF Eradication in Cuba in May 2005.
The main information tool of the network is the CaribVET website www.caribvet.net. This
website was originally developed to host online databases of the veterinary diagnostic
laboratories and animal health surveillance systems in the Caribbean. More information was
subsequently added including CAPWEB, information on and generated by the CAP, and
proceedings of the main conferences and meetings held in the region. In 2004 at the concluding
meeting of the CAFP, the CaribVET website was recognized as useful by the CARICOM
Ministries of Agriculture, and by international organizations, and it was suggested to develop it
further. A new version is currently being developed to improve the user-friendliness and
aesthetics and to include more information on animal health projects, surveillance protocols and
diseases, training available, livestock statistics, etc.
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
In a context of global trade and increased international travel, the risk of transferring diseases
through animals and animal products is high. Veterinary services also have to provide reliable,
accurate and transparent data for import/export decision-making in compliance with the Sanitary
and Phytosanitary regulations of the WTO. This is a special challenge for Caribbean countries,
101

where resources available for agriculture development are quite limited, and this is why a
regional animal health network is essential: it builds up national veterinary capacities and
mutualizes efforts to control animal health. Since its creation in 1999, CaribVET has facilitated
the development of control programs of major animal diseases such as classical swine fever and
tick-borne diseases, and has provided resources for assistance and expertise in case of
introduction of new pathogens such as West Nile virus. CaribVET brings together animal health
stakeholders of the whole region and its website TTwww.caribvet.netTT is regarded as a useful
tool to disseminate regional sanitary and scientific information. The main strengths of CaribVET
are that it is based on a mutual willingness to collaborate, does not rely on special funding to
meet infrastructure expenses, and that its regional dimension ensures an optimized use of the
limited resources available. Its main weakness is that it functions with funding from various
sources, mostly linked to specific animal diseases projects, and therefore lacks a constant
operating budget.
Sustainable financial support is crucial for an efficient animal health network. Funding
for CaribVET has been secured for at least a year and potentially three years through the FSP
(Fonds de Solidarit Prioritaire) of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, but additional funding
is needed urgently to maintain the Caribbean Amblyomma Program. Discontinuation of
Amblyomma control activities would potentially lead to the reinfestation of provisionally free
islands and ruin the last ten years of efforts. Participation in CaribVET has to be promoted to
widen the scope of animal health activities through new or reinforced collaborations. The needs
of CaribVET members in terms of training, equipment and infrastructure, organization, etc, must
be clearly identified so that projects can be built at a regional scale, which will optimize
available resources and facilitate fundraising. Perspectives identified so far include strengthening
veterinary services through training, developing diagnostic capacities and quality assurance, and
building emergency preparedness plans for infectious diseases that could potentially be
introduced in the Caribbean, such as foot and mouth disease or highly pathogenic avian
influenza. The CaribVET website also needs to be further developed to include more
information. A new version of www.caribvet.net is currently in progress and it is hoped that the
improved user-friendliness, with databases that can be filled with online forms, will contribute to
the enrichment of content and the timeliness of its information.
REFERENCES CITED
Barre, N., E. Camus, J. Fifi, P. Fourgeaud, G. Numa, F. Rose-Rosette, and H. Borel. 1996.
Tropical bont tick eradication campaign in the French Antilles. Current status. Ann N Y
Acad Sci 791: 64-76.
Barre, N., G. Garris, and E. Camus. 1995. Propagation of the tick Amblyomma variegatum in the
Caribbean. Rev Sci Tech 14: 841-55.
Barre, N., G. Uilenberg, P. C. Morel, and E. Camus. 1987. Danger of introducing heartwater
onto the American mainland: potential role of indigenous and exotic Amblyomma ticks.
Onderstepoort J Vet Res 54: 405-17.
Blitvich, B. J., I. Fernandez-Salas, J. F. Contreras-Cordero, N. L. Marlenee, J. I. Gonzalez-Rojas,
N. Komar, D. J. Gubler, C. H. Calisher, and B. J. Beaty. 2003. Serologic evidence of
West Nile virus infection in horses, Coahuila State, Mexico. Emerg Infect Dis 9: 853-6.
[CaribVET]
Website
of
the
Caribbean
Animal
Health
Network.
2005.
http://www.caribvet.net/Informations/Documents/FirstCaribeanInterLabo30052005.php
[CDC] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2002. West Nile Virus activity United
States, 2001. MMWR. 51(23):497501.
102

Corn, J. L., N. Barre, B. Thiebot, T. E. Creekmore, G. I. Garris, and V. F. Nettles. 1993.

Potential role of cattle egrets, Bubulcus ibis (Ciconiformes: Ardeidae), in the
dissemination of Amblyomma variegatum (Acari: Ixodidae) in the eastern Caribbean. J
Med Entomol 30: 1029-37.
Cruz, L., V. M. Cardenas, M. Abarca, T. Rodriguez, R. F. Reyna, M. V. Serpas, R. E. Fontaine,
D. W. Beasley, A. P. Da Rosa, S. C. Weaver, R. B. Tesh, A. M. Powers, and G. SuarezRangel. 2005. Short report: serological evidence of West Nile virus activity in El
Salvador. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72: 612-5.
Douglas, K. 2005. West Nile virus update 2005 Western hemisphere (01). ProMed mail
archive no. 20050106.0033. Available from: URL: http://www.promedmail.org
Dupuis, A. P., 2nd, P. P. Marra, and L. D. Kramer. 2003. Serologic evidence of West Nile virus
transmission, Jamaica, West Indies. Emerg Infect Dis 9: 860-3.
Fernandez-Salas, I., J. F. Contreras-Cordero, B. J. Blitvich, J. I. Gonzalez-Rojas, A. CavazosAlvarez, N. L. Marlenee, A. Elizondo-Quiroga, M. A. Lorono-Pino, D. J. Gubler, B. C.
Cropp, C. H. Calisher, and B. J. Beaty. 2003. Serologic evidence of West Nile Virus
infection in birds, Tamaulipas State, Mexico. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 3: 209-13.
Frias-Lepoureau, M.T., 1997. Reemergence of classical swine fever in Cuba. In: Morilla, A.,
Hernandez, P., Yoon, J.K., Zimmerman, J. (Eds.), Trends in Emerging Viral Infections of
Swine. Iowa State Press, Ames Iowa, pp. 143147.
Frias Sosa, A. 1997. Control y erradicacin del clera porcino en Republica Dominicana.
Proceedings of a Regional workshop on the Control of classical swine fever and
emergency strategies in the Caribbean. Port-au-Prince, December 2-4, 1997.
Gould, L. H., and E. Fikrig. 2004. West Nile virus: a growing concern? J Clin Invest 113: 11027.
Jeannot, H. 1997. Lpizootie de peste porcine classique en Hati. Proceedings of a Regional
workshop on the Control of classical swine fever and emergency strategies in the
Caribbean. Port-au-Prince, December 2-4, 1997.
Klotz, S., and Martinez, D. 1999. Phase I Progress report. Building a Caribbean epidemiological
surveillance network. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, May 27 and 28, 1999.
Komar, O., M. B. Robbins, K. Klenk, B. J. Blitvich, N. L. Marlenee, K. L. Burkhalter, D. J.
Gubler, G. Gonzalvez, C. J. Pena, A. T. Peterson, and N. Komar. 2003. West Nile virus
transmission in resident birds, Dominican Republic. Emerg Infect Dis 9: 1299-302.
Kouri, G., and M. Guzman. 2005. West Nile virus, humans, equines Cuba. ProMed mail
archive no. 20050202.0355. Available from: URL: http://www.promedmail.org
Lanciotti, R. S., J. T. Roehrig, V. Deubel, J. Smith, M. Parker, K. Steele, B. Crise, K. E. Volpe,
M. B. Crabtree, J. H. Scherret, R. A. Hall, J. S. MacKenzie, C. B. Cropp, B. Panigrahy,
E. Ostlund, B. Schmitt, M. Malkinson, C. Banet, J. Weissman, N. Komar, H. M. Savage,
W. Stone, T. McNamara, and D. J. Gubler. 1999. Origin of the West Nile virus
responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science 286:
2333-7.
Lefranois, T., B. Blitvich, J. Pradel, S. Molia, N. Vachiry, G. Pallavicini, N. Marlenee, S.
Zientara M. Petitclerc, and D. Martinez. 2005. West Nile virus surveillance in
Guadeloupe: circulation level and spatial repartition, 2002 - 2004. Emerg Infect Dis
11:1100-3.
Otte, M.J. 1997. An economic appraisal of national vaccination programmes for the control of
classical swine fever in Haiti. Proceedings of a Regional workshop on the Control of
classical swine fever and emergency strategies in the Caribbean. Port-au-Prince,
December 2nd-4th 1997.

103

Paton, D.J., Greiser-Wilke, I., 2003. Classical swine fever: an update. Res. Vet. Sci. 75, 169
178.
Pegram, R. G., J. J. De Castro, and D. D. Wilson. 1998. The CARICOM/FAO/IICA Caribbean
Amblyomma Program. Ann N Y Acad Sci 849: 343-8.
Quirin, R., Klotz, S., and Martinez, D. (editors) 2000. Proceedings of the final meeting
Implementation of a network of veterinary diagnostic laboratories and animal disease
surveillance, Gosier Guadeloupe, November 27th and 28th 2000.
Quirin, R., M. Salas, S. Zientara, H. Zeller, J. Labie, S. Murri, T. Lefrancois, M. Petitclerc, and
D. Martinez. 2004. West Nile virus, Guadeloupe. Emerg Infect Dis 10: 706-8.
Rappole, J. H., S.R. Derrickson, and Z. Hubalek. 2000. Migratory birds and spread of West Nile
virus in the western hemisphere. Emerg Infect Dis 6: 319-28.
Vargas Teran, M., N. Calcagno Ferrat, and J. Lubroth. 2004. Situation of classical swine fever
and the epidemiologic and ecologic aspects affecting its distribution in the American
continent. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1026: 54-64.

104

Figure 1. Country status for Amblyomma variegatum presence in the Lesser Antilles in 2005

105

Table 1. Non exhaustive list of CaribVET members

Name
Patrick Vanterpool
Helena Jeffery
Rupert Pegram
Kanyuira Gikonyo
Maurice Isaacs
Bryan Sanford
James Paul
Trevor King
David Elcock
Miguel Depaz
Lydia Tablada Romero
Maria Frias Lepoureau
Emerio
Serrano
Ramrez
Reginald Thomas
John McIntyre
Angel Ventura
Jocelyn Quirico
Ramon Marte
Richard Pacer
Pascal Hendrikx
Antoine Maillard
Emmanuel Albina
Dominique Martinez
Arnaud Martrenchar
Irene Greiser-Wilke
Volker Moennig
Bowen Louison
Sophie Molia
Thierry Lefranois
Eric Bajazet
Tony Samuth
Firmin Lodin
Nathalie Vachiry
Martial Petitclerc
Maxine Parris Aaron
Margaret Kalloo
Kenrick Elias
Michel Louis
Simon Phanord
Max Millien
Michel Chancy

Affiliation
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture
Caribbean Amblyomma Programme
Ministry of Agriculture
Department of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture
Caribbean Poultry Association
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture
Belize Agricultural Health Authority
CENSA
CENSA
IMV

Country
Anguilla
Antigua & Barbuda
Antigua & Barbuda
Antigua & Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Barbados
Barbados
Barbados
Belize
Cuba
Cuba
Cuba

Ministry of Agriculture
Dominica
Ministry of Agriculture
Dominica
SEA-DIGEGA
Dominican Republic
LAVECEN
Dominican Republic
PROMESA
Dominican Republic
USDA APHIS
Dominican Republic
SCAC - Ambassade de France
Dominican Republic
MAAPAR DGAl SD SSA
France
CIRAD-EMVT
France
CIRAD-EMVT
France
DDSV Guyane
French Guyana
Institute of Virology
Germany
Institute of Virology
Germany
Ministry of Agriculture
Grenada
CIRAD-EMVT
Guadeloupe
CIRAD-EMVT
Guadeloupe
GDS
Guadeloupe
GDS
Guadeloupe
GDS
Guadeloupe
CIRAD-EMVT
Guadeloupe
DDSV Guadeloupe
Guadeloupe
IICA
Guyana
CARICOM
Guyana
Ministry of Agriculture
Guyana
Laboratoire de diagnostic vtrinaire de Haiti
Tamarinier
MARNDR
Haiti
MARNDR
Haiti
Veterimed
Haiti

106

Osbil Watson
Wintorph Marsden
Nigel Elliott
Benot Bourbon
Loic Gouyet
Jean-Michel Mac
Luis Romero Gonzales
Patricia
BartlettePowell
Henry Lesroy
Tracy Challenger
Eden Compton
Charles Isaac
Peter Gabriel
Kathian
Herbert
Hackshaw
Mervyn Butcher
Jorien Lucas
Benjamin Lieveld
Lisa Indar
David Kangaloo
Joseph Ryan
Angela James
Kenneth Geter
Barry Beaty

Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture
Jamaica Broilers Group
DDSV Martinique
DDSV Martinique
GDSM
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture

Jamaica
Jamaica
Jamaica
Martinique
Martinique
Martinique
Spain
St Kitts & Nevis

Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture

St Kitts & Nevis

St Kitts & Nevis
St Lucia
St Lucia
St Lucia
St Vincent &
Grenadines
St Maarten
St Maarten
Surinam
Trinidad & Tobago
Trinidad & Tobago
Trinidad & Tobago
USA
USA
USA

Sector Health Care Affairs

Sector Health Care Affairs
Ministry of Agriculture
CAREC
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture
USDA APHIS
USDA APHIS
Colorado State University

107

the

Table 2. Members of the Amblyomma Programme Council

Name
Rupert Pegram
Helena Jeffery
Barbara Graham
Rosina Maitland
Bernhard Reufels
Reginald Thomas
Richard Pacer
Angel Cielo
Loison Bowen
Thierry Lefranois
Margaret Kalloo
Carlos Eddi
Rudi Ziesler
Patricia Bartlette-Powell
Lesroy Henry
Eden Compton
Mervyn Butcher
Jorien Lucas

Affiliation
Caribbean Amblyomma Programme
Ministry of Agriculture
FAO
Ministry of Agriculture
FAO
Ministry of Agriculture
USDA APHIS
USDA APHIS
Ministry of Agriculture
CIRAD-EMVT
CARICOM Secretariat
FAO
FAO
Ministry of Agriculture
Department of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture
Sector Health Care Affairs
Sector Health Care Affairs

108

Country
Antigua
Antigua
Barbados
Barbados
Chile
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Dominican Republic
Grenada
Guadeloupe
Guyana
Italy
Italy
Nevis
St Kitts
St Lucia
St Maarten
St Maarten

Table 3: Non exhaustive list of CaribVET members participating to the West Nile virus regional
workshop held in Guadeloupe in October 2005.
Name
David Elcock
Kirk Douglas
Paulino Santos
Maritza Pupo
Reginald Thomas
Elena Angeles
Jocelyn Quirico
Thierry Lefranois
Sophie Molia
Simon Phanord
Gabrielle Lafortune
Wintorph Marsden
Kozo Uda
Dane Coombs
Gabriel Brown

Affiliation
Veterinary Services Laboratory
University of the West Indies
IMV
IPK
Ministry of Agriculture
LAVECEN
LAVECEN
CIRAD-EMVT
CIRAD-EMVT
Direction de Protection Sanitaire
Laboratoire Vtrinaire Central de Tamarinier
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Agriculture
University of the West Indies
University of the West Indies

109

Country
Barbados
Barbados
Cuba
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican republic
Dominican republic
Guadeloupe
Guadeloupe
Haiti
Haiti
Jamaica
St Lucia
Trinidad
Trinidad

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):110-124. 2005

A PEER REVIEWED PAPER
UPDATE ON INVASIVE SPECIES INITIATIVES IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
C. A. Serra. Instituto Dominicano de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales (IDIAF),
Programa Nacional de Proteccin Vegetal, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.
colmar.serra@gmx.net
ABSTRACT: Serra et al. (2003) reviewed the status of invasive species (agricultural pests
including arthropods, plant diseases and plants) introduced into the Dominican Republic (DR) in
recent decades and also listed species with potential to be introduced. Very recent introductions
include the lime swallowtail, Papilio demoleus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae), native to Asia,
which since its detection at the eastern end of Hispaniola has spread over DRs citrus-growing
areas in the eastern and central regions and has reached those in the southwest. Recent invasive
species initiatives by various scientists in the DR include: (1) establishment of the IABIN
database for the DR, (2) convening of the Vth Caribbean Biodiversity Symposium, (3) a program
to detect exotic fruit flies (4) a survey on distribution of reported fruit-fly species and their host
plants, (5) evaluation of attractants and traps for fruit flies, (6) the emergence of parasitoids from
several fruits, especially of mangos and Spondias spp., (7) several research activities on quite
damaging invasive arthropod pest species such as the pigeon-pea pod fly (Melanagromyza
obtusa), including surveys on damage, distribution of the pest and its natural enemies, trapping,
host-plant range, chemical control and varietal responses. Due to the absence of effective
parasitoids in pigeon pea plantings, it is necessary to implement classical biological control.
However, the first introduction of specimens of biocontrol agents from Australia for quarantine
purposes and reproduction failed. The rice spinky mite (Steneotarsonemus spinki), after having
been tolerable for several years, has resumed causing serious damage to rice in association with
fungal diseases. An IPM proposal for rice is being submitted by the IDIAF. The tropical tentweb spider (Cyrtophora citricola), a pest of citrus and other fruit trees, has become widespread
on Hispaniola. The presence of coconut lethal yellowing disease in Hispaniola was reconfirmed
by PCR in 1997. Although Myndus crudus, its known vector, has not been detected, the disease
has slowly moved eastward along the northern coast toward the main coconut production areas.
Some of the most important invasive species threats to the DR and the countries and/or areas in
the region in which they are found are listed. Also summarized are 441 pest interceptions on 24
commodities shipped (Jan., 2003-Oct., 2005) from the DR to U.S. ports of entry (incl. Puerto
Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands), many being host-associated. Also included are insects
detected, probably as hitchhikers on avocado shipments in maritime ports of the U.S.A., and
species of arthropods and plant diseases reported on commodities imported from the DR. A
review of the relative importance of different regions of the Americas as sources of quarantine
pests on various commodities transported by airplanes to the U.S.A. suggests that the probability
per aircraft flight that invasive species will be transported to the USA from the DR and the West
Indies is less than from Central America.
KEY WORDS: lime swallowtail, Papilio demoleus, IABIN data base, tropical fruit flies, pigeon
pea pod fly, Melanagromyza obtusa, rice spinky mite, Steneotarsonemus spinki, coconut lethal
yellowing, area wide mitigation, interception data

110

RESUMEN: Serra et al. (2003) presentaron un recuento sobre especies invasivas que fueron
reportadas como plagas agrcolas (artrpodos, patgenos y plantas) durante las pasadas dcadas
y una lista de especies con potencial a ser introducidos al pas. Como especie de reciente
introduccin, la Cola de golondrina de la Lima, Papilio demoleus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)
de origen asitico fue reportada por Guerrero et al. (2004). Un sondeo demostr que desde su
deteccin cerca de Punta Cana, en el extremo oriental, en un lapso de pocos meses, la especie se
haba desiminado en las zonas citrcolas en la regin Este y Central llegando hasta el Suroeste.
Otras iniciativas recientes sobre especies invasivas en la R.D. fueron: (1) el establecimiento de la
base de datos sobre el pas para la IABIN, (2) la realizacin del V. Simposio del Caribbean sobre
Biodiversidad, (3) un programa para la deteccin de moscas de las frutas exticas, (4) un estudio
sobre la distribucin y plantas hospederas de moscas de las frutas reportadas, as como (5) una
evaluacin de atrayentes y trampas para moscas de las frutas, (6) la emergencia de parasitoides
de diferentes frutas, especialmente de mangos y Spondias spp., y (7) diferentes investigaciones
sobre plagas artrpodas invasivas severas como la mosca asitica del guandul (Melanagromyza
obtusa), incluyendo sondeos sobre daos, distribucin y enemigos naturales, trampeo, plantas
hospederas, control qumico y respuesta varietal. Debido a la ausencia de parasitoides natives
efectivos en guandul, el control biolgico clsico es considerado como necesario. Sin embargo,
la primera introduccin de especmenes desde Australia con propsito de cuarentena y
reproduccin fall. Otra plaga invasiva con impacto econmico es el caro tarsonmido del arroz
(Steneotarsonemus spinki), el cual luego de aos de relative estabilidad en rendimientos,
nuevamente ha causado daos severos en asociacin con enfermedades causadas por hongos.
Una propuesta en MIP para el arroz est siendo sometida por el IDIAF. La araa africana
(Cyrtophora citricola), considerada como plaga de los ctricos y otras frutas, en pocos aos se ha
diseminado en toda la isla de Hispaniola. El amarillamiento letal de los cocoteros fue
reconfirmado por PCR en 1997. A pesar de que su vector Myndus crudus no ha sido detectado, la
enfermedad se ha diseminado lentamente hacia el este en la costa norte, aproximndose a la zona
principal de produccin del coco en el Noreste. Fueron mencionados los mayores riesgos por
especies invasivas (plagas y patgenos) y sus respectivos pases y/o reas de distribucin en la
regin. Tambin se incluy una lista de 441 interceptaciones realizadas sobre 24 productos
comerciales transportados (Enero 2003-Oct. 2005) a puertos de entrada de los E.U.A. (incl.
Puerto Rico e Islas Vrgenes), la cual muestra importantes tipos de plagas asociadas a cada tipo
de producto. Adems se presentan ejemplos de interceptaciones de insectos, posiblemente
pasajeros sobre aguacate en puertos martimos de los E.U.A. y de artrpodos y patgenos
reportados en productos importados hacia la R.D. Una comparacin entre diferentes regiones de
las Amricas como orgenes de plagas exticas transportadas hacia los E.U.A. por aviones,
demuestra la relativamente baja importancia de la Repblica Dominicana y las Indias
Occidentales, comparado con Amrica Central.
INTRODUCTION
Increased international exchange of agricultural goods and travelers has augmented the risk
and the frequency of introduction of exotic plant and pest species throughout the Caribbean
Region. Thus the Dominican Republic (DR), which covers the eastern two thirds of the Island of
Hispaniola, has suffered the introduction of dozens of harmful exotic species, as well. Several of
these species present a high invasive potential and have caused significant economic losses to
affected crops within intensive agro-ecosystems, displacement of native species and/or
interference with the balance of nature in susceptible ecosystems. The main reasons for this trend
have to do with:

111

An insufficiently effective quarantine system, albeit one that is steadily improving,

A 300 km-long western DR-Haiti border, which is porous to the entry of pests, and
the occurrence of tropical storms and hurricanes, which can spread certain pests and plant
pathogens after their introduction into the Caribbean region.
The main implications of the introduction of alien invasive species are as follows:
Many are major pests, which cause direct yield losses to crops, and/or reductions in quality
of harvested products, and increase costs of production. Consequently production of some
affected crops becomes unprofitable and unsustainable with severe socio-economic effects.
Such impacts were suffered during the early 1990s when the Bemisia-Geminivirus complex
destroyed the production of tomatoes and other host crops in the DR.
Loss of export markets: Alien pests often cause restrictions or bans on potentially infested or
infected products intended for export to countries where these pests or plant pathogens have a
quarantine status. This has severe economic implications to the producers, and they risk the
loss of competitiveness.
Losses in biodiversity: In particular, invasive alien plant species tend to displace endemic and
native species from protected natural areas.

A review was given by Serra et al. (2003a) on selected examples concerning their detection,
impact and measures taken to face the problems. In addition to several dozen invasive alien plant
species, the 37 most important exotic pest species reported between 1975 and 2003 in the DR
belong to the taxonomic groupings listed in Table 1.
The number of introduced alien pest species during the last three decades could be
considered even higher, as the taxonomic revision of several species has to be undertaken by a
multidisciplinary team under the guidance of pertinent authorities. In most cases involving
arthropods, the lack of effective indigenous natural enemies has allowed quick dispersal of the
introduced pests. This has occurred with aphids and whiteflies that vector viruses, as well as
mealybugs, thrips, fruit flies, the coffee-berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei Ferr.) and, recently,
with the pigeon pea pod fly (Melanagromyza obtusa [Malloch]).
Experience has shown that many introduced alien species become firmly established and in a
relatively short period, those with strong invasive potential, spread into agrarian or wild
environments (Abud-Antn 1995b; IABIN 2002; Serra et al. 2003a, b; Serra et al. 2004). Reports on
introduced arthropods, plant pathogens and invasive plant species seldom explain why they
arrived, the country of origin, the port of entry, and their distribution. Sometimes such
information may be obtained ex post facto after these species have caused economic damage to
crops or other serious problems. In many cases, the absence of specific antagonists of highly
damaging introduced alien species has permitted them to spread rapidly throughout the country.
To date, no successful eradication of any invasive alien species in the DR has been reported.
However, in some cases, the planned or accidental introductions of exotic antagonists and/or
adaptation of native enemies have resulted in dramatic population suppression of alien species,
often below economic-damage levels, as in the cases of the citrus blackfly (Aleurocanthus
woglumi Ashby), citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton), brown rice bug (Tibraca
limbativentris [Stl.]), coffee-berry borer and the papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus
Williams & Granara de Willink).
In the case of the pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus [Green], the presence of
parasitoid species, especially Gyranosoidea indica Shaffee, Alam & Agarwal (probably
introduced together with the pest), and the predacious mealybug destroyer, Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri Mulsant, established since the 1930s, and the implementation of classical

112

biocontrol by the introduction of G. indica and Anagyrus kamali de Moursi have prevented
damage levels comparable to those suffered in the Lesser Antilles during the last decade (AbudAntn 1992; Meyerdirk & De Chi 2002; Serra 2005; Serra et al. 2004; Taveras 2000).
INVASIVE SPECIES INITIATIVES IN THE DR. (2002-2005)
A. Exchange of information:
Electronic Workshop on Invasive Species Threats in the Caribbean: As part of an initiative of
Nature Conservancy and the CAB International, Caribbean & Latin American Regional Centre,
this electronic workshop was conducted in April 2003 with >250 specialists from different
countries and areas of expertise. The exchange among participants lasted for many additional
month. As a result, the workshop came up with a list of alien species introduced to the Caribbean
including 552 exotic spp., from which 446 species were considered as naturalized and/or
invasive species; among those, 186 and 147 species were listed for the DR., respectively (see
Kairo et al.(2003).
Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network (IABIN 2002): A database on invasive
biological species in the DR has resulted in the participation of 54 experts from different areas of
expertise and 23 national institutions related to the agricultural sector or environmental issues
(11 governmental, 6 NGOs, 4 academic and 2 private). Several goals were attained: (1) the
establishment of a catalog on invasive species, (2) the assembly of a list of national experts and
institutions involved in management of invasive species, and (3) the inclusion of the information
in the IABIN-WEB in 2003. Specifically, a total of 154 invasive species were proposed, and
their taxonomic groupings are listed in Table 2.
Among the 61 proposed invasive plant species, most were introduced as crops,
ornamentals, and/or for reforestation or other purposes. The participating experts identified the
need of inclusion of new invasive plant species and the revision of some established invasive
species to establish the true status and impact the latter on agrarian and wild ecosystems. During
the IVth Caribbean Biodiversity Symposium, held in Santo Domingo in January 2005, a national
workshop to evaluate and confirm the proposed invasive species was suggested.
Among 27 listed insect species, over 50% belong to the orders Homoptera (8 spp.),
Coleoptera (4) and Lepidoptera (3), while the remaining were Diptera (2), Heteroptera (2),
Thysanoptera (2) and Hymenoptera (1). There is also an urgent need to compile a pest list
(arthropods and pathogens), and it should include species listed by Serra et al. (2003) and recent
detections of the Plant Protection Department (DSV) of the Ministry of Agriculture (S.E.A.). The
presence, distribution, host range as well as the actual status of these and other still unreported
pest species must be verified or confirmed by the pertinent national authorities. The need for a
current official pest list is illustrated by the case of the still officially unreported Passionvine or
Pacific mealybug, Planococcus minor (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Pseudococcidae),
a pest that has been intercepted 75 times since 1986 by USDA/APHIS on shipments from the DR
on more than 23 hosts at 7 U.S. ports of entry (USDA/APHIS, unpubl. interception data).
The Plant Protection Department (S.E.A.) has been involved in several activities
concerning invasive species and has received the support of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA/APHIS) for the following programs or activities:
Program for detection and identification of exotic fruit flies;
Participation in a survey on the distribution of the recently introduced lime swallowtail,
Papilio demoleus L. (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) (Guerrero et al. 2004);
Pre-inspection and pre-clearence program;

113

First certified hot-water treatment plant near Moca, Province Espaillat, against larvae of fruit
flies in order to certify mangoes for the export to the U.S.;
Recently initiated biological control program for fruit flies (Anastrepha spp.) with
Dorybracton areolatus (Szpligeti) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in two pilot zones (Hato
Damas, south-central Province of San Cristbal, and Mata Larga, north-eastern Province
Duarte) with the participation of IDIAF and UASD. Preliminary results indicate that
specimens of the introduced species are being recovered from sampled Spondias spp. fruits
(Serra, unpubl.).

B. Research:
A research team of the School of Agronomy of the Universidad Autnoma de Santo
Domingo (UASD) is carrying out a nationwide survey on the distribution and host plants of
Anastrepha fruit flies in the DR. No preliminary data are available, yet.
In collaboration with the University of Guadalajara, Mexico, researchers of UASD and
IDIAF have assisted studies on the host preference, distribution, natural enemies and control
of cactus moth (Cactoblastis cactorum (Bergroth), Lepidoptera: Pyralidae);
The Instituto Dominicano de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales (IDIAF) has carried
out through its National Plant Protection Program (PNPV) the following research projects on
invasive pests or diseases:
1. Pigeon pea pod fly (Melanagromyza obtusa (Malloch), Diptera: Agromyzidae): Surveys
on damage, distribution and natural enemies, chemical control, varietal responses,
trapping, host-plant range (USDA/APHIS) for the pigeon pea pod fly;
2. Fruit fly trapping: Anastrepha spp. (Diptera: Tephritididae): Trapping of fruit flies
Anastrepha spp. with different attractants and traps;
3. Fruit Fly parasitoids. Survey of native parasitoids of fruit flies Anastrepha spp. on
mangoes, guava, hog plums (Spondias mombin and S. purpurea) and other fruits.
Parasitoids, Utetes anastrephae (Viereck) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), were only
recorded on Spondias spp. and a classical biological control project (DSVUSDA/APHIS-IDIAF-UASD) with Dorybracton areolatus (Szpl.) initiated in June
2005.
4. Coconut Lethal Yellowing Disease (CLYD): CLYD was reported in the DR by Walter
Carter in 1962 and later confirmed. In thrusts beginning in 1969, 1995 and 1998 the
authorities (S.E.A.) implemented preventive measures (cutting and burning symptomatic
palms) in order to prevent dissemination of the disease within the areas of production,
even though these measures did not give good results in other countries. Again in 1997,
CLYD was confirmed by PCR by the Mexican Centro de Investigacin Cientfica de
Yucatn (CICY). Surveys (2003-2004) carried out in different localities of the provinces
of Santiago, Puerto Plata (Sosua, Cabarrete and Cofres) and Dajabn, showed a high
CLYD incidence in the latter and in the touristic zone of Cabarrete. In 2004 for the first
time, symptomatic plants were seen in Ro San Juan, which indicates a slow but steady
movement eastwards towards Nagua, edge of the main coconut-producing region of the
DR. Yet, no known vector, e.g., Myndus crudus (van Duzee) (Hemiptera:
Auchenorrhyncha: Cixiidae), has been detected in the DR. In July 2004 during aerial and
terrestrial survey activities in close cooperation with Dr. Carlos Oropeza (CICY),
researchers of IDIAF did not find any infected plants in the South but 30 plants in Puerto
Plata. During the Latin American meeting of REDBIO in 2004, a network on CLYD was
established for Latin America and the Caribbean (REDCAL).

114

5. Spotted and unfilled grains in rice: An IPM proposal for rice has been submitted by the
National Program for Cereals together with the PNPV, both of IDIAF. It includes studies
on the biotic and abiotic factors involved in the symptoms, e.g. on the invasive rice
spinky mite (Steneotarsonemus spinki Smiley), detected in 1998 and probably introduced
from Cuba, one if not the main causal agent of abnormal symptoms in rice, certainly also
associated to fungal diseases like Sarocladium oryzae (Sawada). Research on tolerant
varieties and chemical control has been carried out at IDIAF and private firms. As a
consequence a tolerant variety (Prosequisa-4) was planted in more than 80% of the
wetland-rice areas. New, more tolerant materials are being tested or have been introduced
(IDIAF-1), but still the mite problem persists.
C. Status of some invasive pest species recently reported established in the DR:
Lime, lemon or chequered swallowtail. Papilio demoleus L. (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) was
reported in a students collection (Tilden 1968) in California but its presence there has not
been confirmed. This is the first New World documentation of this Old World citrus pest
(Guerrero et al. 2004). The species was reported as very devastating to young citrus groves
and to be very invasive in Southeast Asia. Since the 1970s, P. demoleus jumped from island
to island in Indonesia and the Philippines and is now widespread in Southern Asia. It is a
major threat to the citrus industries of the wider Caribbean including Florida because of the
Regions favorable climatic conditions (heat and humidity), which allow the pest to complete
up to 6 generations per year, the lack of populationcontrolling natural enemies, a wide host
range among Citrus spp. and the widespread distribution of citrus trees on Hispaniola and in the
Caribbean.
The Old World island system resembles that of the West Indies, where citrus groves have
been established on formerly deforested areas. Damage levels, host range, bio-ecological data
and natural enemies of P. demoleus in Asia have been studied by Guerrero et al. (2004).
Wehling (pers.comm.), found P. demoleus to be more abundant than the native citrus-feeding
Papilio spp., in any site where it had been found by Guerrero et al. (2004). The specimens
collected in the DR resemble populations of P. demoleus malayanus from Southeast Asia. After
the first detection of P. demoleus in March 2003 in Veron, Punta Cana, Province Altagracia,
at the eastern edge of the country, an international team found it in citrus groves of Villa
Altagracia, about 200 km west from the sites where the pest had been found originally: Cotui
(Prov. Snchez Ramrez) and Bayaguana (Prov. Monte Plata), but not in Jarabacoa (Prov. La
Vega) nor Hato Mayor. Since then, P. demoleus has been confirmed in Santo Domingo Norte
(Serra, unpubl.) and in Ban, Azua and Jarabacoa (Virgil, pers. comm.). There is a need to
more accurately determine the distribution and status of this invasive pest in the DR.
Pest species introduced to the DR at unknown dates before 1995, and not been listed in Serra
et al. (2003), are found in Table 3 (Abud-Antn 1995; Schmutterer 1990; Wagner and Colon
2002):
Tropical tent-web spider, Cyrtophora citricola (Forskl) (Aranae: Araneidae), is actually
wide spread in the lowlands of the DR where it is causing some damage, mainly in citrus
orchards;
Passionvine or Pacific mealybug, Planococcus minor (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha:
Pseudococcidae). Between 1986 and 2005, 75 interceptions from the DR were reported at 7
U.S. airports; but no report of the current status of P. minor in the DR available, and its
presence has yet to be confirmed by local authorities;
Oriental cocoa mealybug, Planococcus lilacinus (Cockerell), Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha:
Pseudococcidae, has been reported to be present in the DR (Miller et al. 2001), and has the

115

potential to cause economic losses to cocoa, citrus, guava and mango. Nevertheless, no
reports on damage are available and its presence has yet to be confirmed by local authorities.
D. Major external threats to the DR from exotic invasive arthropod pests and invasive
pathogens.
Arthropod pest species which are major external threats to agriculture in the DR are listed
in Table 4 (Serra et al. 2003). These pests are already well established elsewhere in the
Caribbean region.
Some major plant pathogens that threaten cocoa and citrus production of the DR (reported in
Serra et al. (2003) have continued to spread in the Caribbean and have come closer to the DR.
These include the following:
witches broom (Crinipellis perniciosa [Stahel]) originating from northwestern South
America is present in the Caribbean (Grenada, St. Vincent, Trinidad & Tobago) and has
recently been detected in Chiapas, Mexico;
frosty pod rot (Moniliophthora roreri (Cicero & Parodi), damaging cocoa production
with up to 60% infection in South and Central America. Introduction into the DR of
frosty pod rot would have severe consequences for the production of certified organic
cocoa, in which the DR is the world leader due to the absence of fungicide spraying;
citrus greening, a bacterial disease (Liberobacter asiaticus) transmitted by the Asiatic
citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, is now present in Florida (prob. Asian race)
(Sainz, 2005). The vector is already present in the DR (Serra et al. 2003);
citrus canker (Xanthomonas axonopodis (Hasse) pv citri), present in Brazil and Florida.
The arthropod pest and disease species listed above pose serious challenges to DRs
national surveillance system. In spite of its steady improvement, the entry into the DR of new
exotic invasive species on several occasions has not been avoided. Rejected or treated containers
with imported agricultural commodities containing quarantine pests or diseases have been found
in the DR; and these included Tilletia sp. on rice from the U.S.A., Dacus sp. on a non-specified
fruit from Spain and unidentified beetle species of the families Bostrichidae (grain borers) and
Cerambycidae (longhorn beetles) in packing material from Spain (Bueno, SEA/DSV, personal
communication).
E. The relative importance of the DR as a source of invasive species.
In spite of pre-inspection measures, quarantine pests in commodities exported from the DR
have been detected in foreign ports. An extract of 954 pest interception records in the national
database of APHIS-PPQ pertaining to all Dominican Republic commodities commercially shipped
to U.S. ports of entry from January, 2003 through October, 2005 is summarized in Table 5. The
ports of entry include Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The listed interceptions were
recorded on commodities shipped by airplane, ship or reported from inspection stations which
inspected plant and/or seeds for propagation. For each exported commodity the list presents
significant, host-associated types of pests from the 23 represented crop species or genera. Although
the pest list gives important information on the status of DR commodities entering the U.S.A., some
of the listed species or genera have not been reported by Dominican authorities and their presence in
the DR must be considered to be uncertain until their existence in the country is officially
recognized. Some commodities exported to the USA were not mentioned in Table 5, e.g. avocado,
Persea americana, and some genera of cut flowers, and this suggests that no quarantine pests were
found on them. However recent Miami Maritime Interception Reports (USDA/APHIS, unpubl.),

116

stated that several pests were detected on shipments of fresh avocado fruits originating from the DR
(Table 6). None of these species is considered to be a pest of economic importance for avocado and
could have been intercepted as opportunistic hitchhikers. Nevertheless, the exact pathway of entry
of these pests should be determined.
Information on the relative importance of the DR as a country of origin for infested
commodities transported by airplane in an international and regional context was obtained through a
study by Dobbs & Brodel (2004) conducted between September 1998 and August 1999 (Table 7).
These authors demonstrated the importance of cargo aircraft as a pathway for the entry of nonindigenous insects to the U.S.A. The detected insects belonged to 33 families in 5 orders, but
mostly to the Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, and multiple insect taxa were represented in >40% of
infested airplanes. The results suggested the relative importance of various regions and countries as
potential origins for the introduced pests by this pathway.
However, statisticians consulted considered that while reliable conclusions could be drawn
from such data collected for Central and South America, similar comparisons among countries
within the West Indies were not statistically valid because the number of sampled aircraft for the
region was too small. Nevertheless, these inconclusive data concerning the DR published by Dobbs
and Brodel (2004) - being the only relevant data available are presented in Table 7, since they do
suggest a correlation between the number of introductions of exotic pests with the relative strength
of inspection and quarantine systems.
The approach rate of quarantine pests from the West Indies of 3.3% was slightly lower than
that from South America, but significantly lower than the rate from Central America including
Mexico. It must be pointed out that the authors found marked differences among the countries.
Seasonal factors played a role in the approach rates for Central America (wet 28.9% vs. dry 15.7%).
Approach rates for the West Indies based on very limited data - varied: 0 (12 countries), 2.9%
(DR), 8.3% (Jamaica) and 18.2% (Haiti). Among these, sampled cargo airplanes from the DR
represented 5% of the total number of aircraft inspected from all origins. The single infested
airplane from the DR represented 25% of the total infested airplanes from the West Indies region.
Relatively weak institutions with respect to quarantine and plant health inspections and/or unstable
political conditions may have influenced the results pertaining to countries with relatively high
approach rates.
CONCLUSIONS
International trade agreements require effective mechanisms to prevent the export or
entrance of invasive alien species, their quick localization and isolation and in some cases their
eradication or management in order to avoid penalties and loss of markets because exportable
agricultural goods do not meet the phytosanitary requirements of the importing country. During
recent years, establishment of invasive alien species in the Dominican Republic has been
reported with increased frequency, especially arthropods and plant pathogens. The introduction
of many species certainly occurred long before their populations reached outbreak levels. Several
dangerous exotic invasive pests, diseases and plants already present elsewhere in the Caribbean
seriously threaten the economy of the Dominican Republic. Severe economic consequences
would attend the establishment of such species, e.g. the mangoseed weevil could lead to serious
restrictions for export of mangos to the U.S.A. and torpedo efforts of the national mango sector
to increase its participation on the world market.
Numerous suggestions for area-wide pest management programs as phytosanitary
measures have been made during the present and former symposia on invasive species. An
improved forecast system for the Caribbean through capacity building to assure the quick
detection and surveillance of recently introduced exotic species in the Caribbean region and a broad
117

international and inter-institutional network for data exchange are part of the determined goals. The
respect of the confidentiality of the information until the national authorities (Plant Protection
Departments, Ministries, etc.) report the existence of a pest is a concern, not only in the DR, due to
the threat of economic implications as a consequence of a ban or restriction on the exportation of an
affected commodity. The support of biological control programs in the region and foreign
exploration of natural enemies of potential pests to come before the latter have entered has to play a
special role in the mitigation of the impacts of invasive species throughout the region. The lack of
resources both for research and the conduct of management programs for invasive pest species in
some countries of the region make necessary the inclusion of national structures of those countries
into a participative international network. Nevertheless, it is necessary to revise existing protocols
for strengthening possibly deficient aspects of the in-country safeguarding strategy (e.g. the
quarantine system), and to find ways to support regional efforts. These and other more specific
topics should be debated on a national level in the Dominican Republic by competent authorities,
and by affected sectors of the society in order to develop a national agenda, which should include
the following topics (Serra et al. 2003):
Characterization of the threats and impacts of invasive species.
Prioritization of invasive species on a national and regional level concerning food
production, biodiversity, tourism and marine health.
Examination and assessment of existing legislation on the management of invasive species,
identification of gaps and opportunities for improvement.
Development of recommendations for improvements and opportunities for partnerships to
reduce the threat of invasive species, especially those with multiple-site impact.
Determination of gaps and opportunities concerning the phytosanitary deficiencies on the
level of the shared island of Hispaniola (Haiti and DR).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank the organizers of the T-STAR Symposium and the CFCS 2005 Annual Meeting in
Guadeloupe and IDIAF/CEDAF for making possible my participation. Also I am deeply grateful to
an anonymous reviewer for many significant suggestions and for providing the data in Table 5. My
collaborators, Ing. Abrahm Abud-Antn, Ing. Reina Teresa Martnez, M.Sc., Dr. Pedro Jorge,
Kelvin A. Guerrero, M.Sc., and Dr. Carolyn T. Cohen, Caribbean Area Director, USDA/APHIS,
Santo Domingo, DR, provided important information and their generous cooperation is
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Abud-Antn, A. J. 1992. La mosca prieta, Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby (Homoptera:
Aleyrodidae), una nueva plaga en los ctricos de la Repblica Dominicana. Reporte. Junta
Agroempresarial Dominicana, Santo Domingo, Rep. Dominicana. Unpublished report.
Abud A., A. J. 1995a. La broca del caf en la Repblica Dominicana. Agroempresa (Dominican Republic)
8(4):38-40.

118

Abud-Antn, A. J. 1995b. Plagas introducidas a la Repblica Dominicana. Naturalista Postal No.

7/95.
Abud-Antn, A. J. 2001. Presencia de Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Homoptera: Psyllidae) en la
Republica Dominicana. Junta Agroempresarial Dominicana, Santo Domingo, Republica
Dominicana. Unpublished report.
Alayn Garca, Giraldo, L. F. De Armas & A. J. Abud-Antn. 2001. Presencia de Cyrtophora
citricola (Forskl, 1775) (Araneae: Araneidae) en las Antillas. Rev. Ibrica de
Aracnologa Vol. 4: 9-10.
Dobbs, T. T. & C. F. Brodel. 2004. Cargo Aircraft as a pathway for the entry of nonindigenous
pests into South Florida. Florida Entomologist 87(1):65-78.
Guerrero, K. A., D. Veloz, S. L. Boyce & B. Farrell. 2004. First New World Documentation of an
Old World Citrus Pest, the Lime Swallowtail Papilio demoleus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae),
in the Dominican Republic (Hispaniola). American Entomologist 50(4): 224-226.
IABIN (The U.S. Node of the Interamerican Biodiversity Information Network). 2002. Species
and projects associated to Species. Annex 5 (different authors). www.iabinus.org/projects/i3n_documents/final reports/final_dominican rep_list of species.doc
Kairo, M., B. Ali, O. Cheesman, K. Haysom and S. Murphy 2003. Invasive Species Threats in
the Caribbean. A Report to the Nature Conservancy, CAB International.
Meyerdirk, D. E. & L.W. De Chi. 2003. Models for minimizing risks of dangerous pests: the
pink hibiscus mealybug and papaya mealybug. Abstract. USDA, T-STAR sponsored
Symposium: Challenges and Opportunities in Protecting the Caribbean, Latin America,
and the United States from Invasive Species. 39th Annual Meeting 2003, Grenada,
Caribbean Food Crops Society, Vol. 39: 11.
Miller, D. R., G. L. Miller & G. W. Watson. 2001. Invasive Species of mealybugs (Hemiptera:
Pseudococcidae) and their threat to U.S. Agriculture. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 104:
825-836.
Sainz, A. 2005. U.S. confirms Citrus Greening in Florida. Associated Press, Sep 2, 2005.
Schmutterer, H. (1990): Crop pests in the Caribbean - Plagas de las plantas cultivadas en el
Caribe. Deutsche Gesellschaft f. Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) (eds.), Eschborn,
Germany, pp. 640.
Segura, Y., C. Serra & J. Arias. 2003. El efecto de Melanagromyza obtusa (Malloch) (Diptera:
Agromyzidae) en la produccin y calidad del grano de guandul y el manejo con
insecticidas convencionales y selectivos. Resmenes Coloquio de Proteccin Vegetal,
Programa Nacional de Proteccin Vegetal, Centro de Biotecnologa y Biodiversidad
(CIBIO), Inst. Dominicano de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales (IDIAF), 2627/11/02, Sto. Domingo, Rep. Dominicana, p. 6 (in press).
Serra, C.A. 2005. Manejo Integrado de Plagas de Cultivos - Estado Actual y Perspectivas para la
Repblica Dominicana. Proyecto Entendimiento Consensual sobre Sostenibilidad y
Pobreza Rural, Fundacion Kellogg/Centro de Desarrollo Agropecuario y Forestal
(CEDAF), Sto. Domingo, Rep. Dominicana, pp. 130 (in press).
Serra, C. A., P. E. Jorge, A. J. Abud-Antn, P. Alvarez & B. Peguero. 2003a. Invasive Alien
Species in the Dominican Republic: Their impacts, and strategies to manage introduced
pests. T-STAR sponsored Symposium: Challenges and Opportunities in Protecting the
Caribbean, Latin America, and the United States from Invasive Species, 39th Annual
Meeting 2003, Grenada, Proc. Caribbean Food Crops Society (CFCS), Vol. 39(1): 102118.
Serra, C.A., S. Garca, Y. Segura & J. Arias. 2003b. Dramatic impact of the recently introduced
Asian pigeon pea pod fly, Melanagromyza obtusa (Malloch) (Diptera: Agromyzidae), in

119

the Dominican Republic. Poster abstract. 39th Annual Meeting 2003, Grenada, Proc.
Caribbean Food Crops Society (CFCS), Vol. 39(1): 40.
Serra, C. A., C. A. Nuez & S. Garca. 2004. El Control Natural y Biolgico Clsico de una
Plaga Invasiva en la Repblica Dominicana: la Cochinilla Rosada de los Hibiscus,
Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Pseudococcidae). Proc.
REDBIO 2004, V Encuentro Latinoamericano y del Caribe sobre Biotecnologa Agrcola,
21-25/6/04, Boca Chica, Dominican Republic (see: http//:www.redbio.org)
Serra, C. A., S. Garca & M. Ferreira. 2005. Evaluacin de Mangifera indica, Spondias spp.
(Anacardiaceae) y Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae), hospederos de Moscas de las frutas,
Anastrepha spp. (Diptera: Tephritidae), en cuanto a la presencia de parasitoides en
diferentes zonas de la Repblica Dominicana. 51st Annual Meeting, Inter-American
Society for Tropical Horticulture (ISTH), Sto. Domingo, Dominican Republic (in press).
Taveras M., R. 2000. Fluctuacin del minador de la oja de los ctricos (Phyllocnistis citrella
Stainton) y la identificacin de sus parasitoides. 36th Annual Meeting 2000, Sto.
Domingo, Dominican Republic. Abstract Proc. Caribbean Food Crops Society (CFCS),
Vol. 36: 111.
Tilden, J.W. 1968. Records of 2 species of exotic Lepidoptera captured in California. J.
Lepidopt. Soc. 22: 187.
Ventura T., L, H. Mercedes Rivas & T. Rojas. 1990. La mosca de las frutas del gnero
Anastrepha (Diptera: Tephritiidae) en la Repblica Dominicana. Tesis de Ingeniera
Agronmica, Universidad Autnoma de Santo Domingo (UASD), Santo Domingo,
Repblica Dominicana, pp.53.

120

Table 1. Taxonomic groupings of invasive alien species in the Dominican Republic (Serra
et al. 2003).
Arthropods: 23
- 16 Insect species:
Hemiptera: 7 Sternorrhyncha, 1 Auchenorrhyncha;
2 Heteroptera; 2 Thysanoptera,
2 Diptera, 1 Coleoptera, 1 Lepidoptera sp.
- 7 Arachnid Species: 6 Mites & 1 Spider

Table 2.

Molluscs:

Plant pathogens:
- 5 fungi,
- 2 bacteria,
- 1 phytoplasma,
- 5 viruses

13

Classification of 154 invasive species proposed for the Dominican Republic

(IABIN database).

Plants:
- Graminae
- Asteraceae
- Ornamentals
- Forestry species
- Fruit species

61
13
8
10
12
3

Fungal pathogens:
Invertebrates:
- Molluscs
- Crustaceae
- Acari
- Insects

3
38
5
1
5
27

Vertebrates:
- Fishes
- Amphibians
- Reptiles
- Birds
- Mammals

52
16
5
3
15
13

Table 3. Pests introduced to the Dominican Republic in addition to those listed by Serra et
al. 2003a.
Latin Name
Aceria tulipae (Keifer)
Aulacaspis tubercularis Newst.
Orthezia praelonga Dougl.
Araecerus fasciculatus de Geer
Conotrachelus sapotae Barber
Cactoblastis cactorum (Bergroth)
Lehmannia valentiana (Fer.)

Common Name
Tulip bulb mite
White mango scale
Citrus coccid
Coffee bean weevil
Sapotilla weevil
Cactus moth
Spanish slug

121

Order: Family
Acari: Eriophyidae
Hemiptera: Diaspididae
Hemiptera: Ortheziidae
Coleoptera: Anthribidae
Coleoptera: Curculionidae
Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Stylommatophora: Limacidae

Table 4. Invasive species in the wider Caribbean region that immediately threaten the DR.
Exotic Species:
Exotic fruit flies:
Anastrepha ludens (Loew), Anastrepha spp., Bactrocera
carambolae Drew & Hancock, Ceratitis capitata
(Wied.)
Mango seed weevil, Sternochetus mangiferae (F.)
South American palm weevil, Rhynchophorus
palmarum (L.)
Sweet Potato Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Genn.)
Q biotype
Cycad scale, Aulacaspis yatsumatsui Takagi

Presence in the Region:

Northern South America and/or
Central America
Lesser Antilles, Cuba
Northern South America

Europe, Southwestern U.S.A,

Florida
Puerto
Rico,
Florida,
Guadeloupe
Lobate lac scale, Paratachardina lobata lobata Florida, The Bahamas
(Chamb.)
Pepper weevil, Anthonomus eugenii Cano
Florida, Mexico
Avocado seed moth, Stenoma catenifer Walsh.
Mexico,
Panama,
South
America
Chili thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood
Barbados, Florida, St. Lucia, St.
Vincent
&
Grenadines,
Suriname, Trinidad & Tobago
Red fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren
Puerto Rico, Florida, Brazil
Tropical bont tick, Amblyomma variegatum (Fabr.)
Lesser Antilles
African giant snail, Achatina fulica (Bowd.)
Lesser Antilles
Tropical soda apple, Solanum viarum Dunal
Puerto Rico, Florida, South
America

122

Table 5. Pest interceptions on commodities commercially shipped from the Dominican

Republic to U.S. ports of entry (incl. Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands)
(APHIS-PPQ, unpubl. data)
Host

Air

Sea

I/S*

Pest Species

Freqquency

Adenium sp.
Ananas comosus
Artocarpus altilis

A. heterophyllus
Cajanus cajan
Capsicum sp.

X
X
X

X
X

Calcisuccinea dominicensis
Veronicellidae sp.
Dysmicoccus neobrevipes
Dysmicoccus sp.
Planococcus minor
Pseudococcidae (immatures)
Thrips palmi
Melanagromyza sp.
Cecidomyiidae sp.
Noctuidae sp.
Pentatomidae (immatures)
Thrips palmi
Veronicellidae sp.
Dysmicoccus sp.
Pseudococcidae (immatures)
Diaphania sp. indica complex
Thrips palmi
Pterophoridae sp.
Cercospora sp.
Veronicella sp.
Calcisuccinea dominicensis
Tetranychidae sp. (eggs)
Pterophoridae sp.
Aleyrodidae sp.
Diaphania sp. indica complex
Pterophoridae sp.
Thrips palmi
Veronicella sp.
Anastrepha sp.
Chaetanaphothrips leeuweni
Margarodidae sp.
Pseudococcidae (immatures)
Diaphania sp. indica complex
Metamasius hemipterus
Thrips palmi
Veronicella sp.

Citrus sp.

Cucumis sativus

Cucurbita sp. (incl. C. X

pepo)
X
Eryngium foetidum

X
X

Evolvulus sp.
X
Lagenaria siceraria
Lantana sp.
Luffa sp.

X
X

X
Mangifera indica
Melicoccus bijugatus

X
X

Momordica sp. (incl. M.

balsamina & M.
charantia)

123

1
3
2
3
3
8
1
12
2
13
11
5
1
3
8
2
1
33
11
1
1
8
9
5
22
2
10
1
1
2
2
8
43
1
107
1

Table 5 continued.
Host

Air

Sea

I/S*

Pest

Freqquency

Musa sp.

4
Dysmicoccus neobrevipes
2
Planococcus minor
1
Pseudococcus elisae
1
Metamasius hemipterus
Phaseolus sp.
X
4
Maruca vitrata
X
1
Solanum melongena
Planococcus minor
Pseudococcidae (immatures)
7
24
Thrips palmi
Solidago sp.
X
Miridae (immatures)
23
Nysius sp.
2
Vigna sp.
X
Chalcodermus sp.
2
15
Maruca vitrata
5
Thrips palmi
Wood
X
2
Nasutitermes costalis
I/S = Inspection Station; designates that plants and/or seeds for propagation are being shipped.
Table 6. Some recent U.S. interceptions of quarantine pests on avocado, Persea americana,
originating in the DR (USDA/APHIS, unpubl. data).
December 2004:
Eulepidotis juncida (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae),
Scudderia sp. (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae)

January 2005:
Aeolus sp. (Coleoptera: Elateridae),
Utetheisa sp. (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae),
Gryllidae sp. (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)

Table 7. Importance of different regions and the DR as origins of pests transported in cargo
aircraft to the U.S.A. (modified from Dobbs & Brodel 2004).
Origin:

Airplanes sampled

Airplanes
Approach rate (%)*
infested
Overall:
703 (100%)
73
10.4 (0 50)
- Central America:
207 (29.4%)
48
23.2 (12.1 50)
- South America:
346 (49.2%)
20
5.8 (0 15.9)
- West Indies:
122 (17.3%)
4
3.3 (0 18.2)
- Haiti
11(1.6%)
2
18.2
- DR
35 (5%)
1
2.9
* Mean per region; range in brackets being the lowest and highest values among the countries.
Differences between the means for Haiti and the DR are not significant statistically.

124

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):125-134. 2005

RESEARCH EFFORTS TO DEAL WITH INVASIVE SPECIES IN THE CARICOM
REGION
Dionne O Clarke-Harris1 and F. Bruce Lauckner2. 1 Caribbean Agricultural Research and
Development Institute PO Box 113, University P.O. Mona Kingston7 Jamaica W. I., 2
Headquarters, Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, University of the
West Indies, St Augustine Campus, Trinidad and Tobago W. I.
ABSTRACT: The issue of invasive species has long been a challenge to the Caribbean but has
been amplified in recent times as the movement of goods and people increases. These species
have threatened the region, with potentially devastating effects on agriculture and other
economic activities and also biodiversity. The strategy to meet this challenge must be
multifaceted, as the issue is complex, involving not only completely differing species/taxonomic
groups but also different ecosystems and locations which are influenced by varying human
actions. In a report prepared by CAB International, a total of 552 exotic and 446 naturalised
and/or native species belonging to 24 groupings (trees and insects, 399 and 135 species
respectively, being the largest groups) have been reported in the region. A shortlist of 23 major
invasive species threats was presented as those occurring in five or more (up to 16 countries for
some species) Caribbean countries. Research is a pivotal component of any developed strategy to
tackle any type of invasive. Although the majority of reported invasive species in the region are
not agricultural pests, for the purposes of this paper, only species relevant to agriculture were
considered. The two case studies selected; Hibiscus mealybug, a notable success story, and
whitefly and whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses, an ongoing challenge, highlight the role, value
and limitations of agricultural research interventions in the Caribbean context.
Key Words: exotic species, Bemisia tabaci, whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses, Hibiscus
mealybug, mongoose
RESUME: Le problme d'espce invasive a longtemps a t un dfi aux Antilles mais a t
amplifi dans les temps rcents comme le mouvement d'augmentations d'articles et gens. Ces
espce a menac la rgion, avec dvastant potentiellement des effets sur l'agriculture et les autres
activits conomiques et aussi la diversit biologique. La stratgie pour rencontrer ce dfi doit
tre multiples facettes, comme le problme est complexe, impliquant non seulement diffrant
compltement des groupes espce/taxinomiques mais des cosystmes et les emplacements aussi
diffrents qui sont influencs en variant des actions humaines. Dans un rapport prpar par le
CAB International, un total de 552 exotique et 446 et/ou naturalis appartenir d'espce natal 24
groupements (les arbres et les insectes, 399 et 135 espce respectivement, tre les plus grands
groupes) a t rapport dans la rgion. Une liste des candidats de 23 menaces d'espce invasives
majeures a t prsente comme ces arriver dans cinq ou plus (augmente 16 pays pour quelque
espce) les pays des antilles. La recherche est un composant crucial de stratgie dveloppe pour
empoigner n'importe quel type d'invasif. Bien que la majorit d'espce invasive rapporte dans la
rgion est pestes pas d'agricoles, dans le but de ce papier, cette seulement espce pertinente
l'agriculture a t considre. Les deux tudes de cas ont choisi; mealybug d'Hibiscus, une
russite notables et whitefly et whitefly-transmis geminiviruses, un dfi continu, soulignent le
rle, la valeur et les limitations d'interventions de recherche agricoles dans le contexte des
antilles.

125

INTRODUCTION
Invasive species are those whose establishment and spread pose a threat to their
ecosystems habitat or other species. These species may be alien or indigenous and invasiveness
is usually influenced by environmental differences/changes.
Invasions by non native species of varying taxonomic groups are potential threats to the
natural ecosystems and biodiversity of the invaded territory. The adverse effects may range from
mild to severe while some non native species may be very beneficial. The routes of entry and
spread of non natives are also wide ranging being either deliberate e.g. the well known case of
the introduction of the small Indian mongoose, Herpestes auropunctatus, first in Jamaica in 1872
for the control of rats in sugarcane fields (Cock 1985) or unintentional (the numerous examples
of exotic pests entering on imports). This spectrum of possibilities, in tandem with increasing
levels of regional and international trade and travel, is the basis of the tremendous challenge
posed by the problem of invasive species (Wittenberg and Cock [eds.] 2001, Kairo et al 2003a).
As a first step, each species has to be assessed to determine not only the potential risk to a
given ecosystem but consequent economic impacts/costs in order to decide on the type of action
warranted i.e. prevention, eradication or management. A proactive approach which effectively
minimizes the entry of alien species or allows for early detection of new entrants before
successful establishment and spread will considerably minimize the overall cost of elimination or
management. This approach must ideally involve cooperation among different sectors as well as
collaboration among countries which are major trading partners and/or inter travel destinations.
THE ROLE OF RESEARCH
At every stage of the overall strategy to address invasive species, is a need for research.
Baseline information gathering is probably among the most important research components in
dealing with invasives. An inventory of native species is the basis for determining species
already present and potential threats. Within each country this activity has to be an ongoing
process.
Within the Caribbean in recent years, a number of invasive species have threatened the
region, with potentially devastating effects on agriculture and other economic activities and also
biodiversity. In a project report to the Nature Conservancy, which was prepared by CAB
International (Kairo et al 2003a), a total of 552 exotic and 446 naturalised and/or native species
belonging to 24 groupings (trees and insects, 399 and 135 species respectively, being the largest
groups) have been reported in the region. A shortlist of 23 major invasive species threats was
presented as those occurring in five or more (up to 16 countries for some species) Caribbean
countries. This list comprised vertebrates (mammals)-10 species, vertebrates (birds)-2,
vertebrates (amphibians), trees- 5, aquatic- 1 and insects- 4. The project reported on was a first
attempt at collating and synthesizing information on threats posed by invasive species in the
insular Caribbean (Kairo et al 2003b).
Research is also critical to the development of appropriate management strategies to deal
with identified threats. The five main strategies for dealing with important invasive species are
prevention, eradication, containment, control and mitigation and there are basic guidelines for
deciding which of these approaches to pursue. Prevention is the most desirable (Wittenberg and
Cock [eds.] 2001, Kairo et al 2003 a and b). In the event that prevention measures fail,
eradication is the next step if considered feasible. Containment seeks to confine an organism to a
designated geographical area and its introduction to other areas is prevented by managing the
borders of the designated area. The very familiar option of management can be very costly but is
126

undertaken if the alien species has become established and has gained ground. Available
technology is evaluated and suitable options selected to reduce the density and abundance of the
pest population below an economic threshold. To determine the success of any programme it is
necessary to constantly monitor the system to assess whether targets are met or to detect any
unforeseen adverse effects and implement measures to correct for these.
In the Caribbean, there are many examples where the various approaches described above
have been used to varying levels of success against invasive species. Although Kairo 2003b
expounded that the problem of invasive alien species is broader than the obvious examples and
issues associated with species with adverse effects on agriculture and the authors remain mindful
of the other insidious examples which exist and must be addressed, for the purpose of this paper,
case studies have been selected to highlight the role played by research in two scenarios which
have affected/continue to affect the agricultural sector in the CARICOM region. These examples
depict the capabilities and limitations within the region for dealing with challenges posed by
invasive species and the need for gap analyses and increased regional cooperation to share costs
associated with tackling common problems and threats.
Some examples of invasive species that have entered/reemerged and become an
established menace to the regions agriculture include the Hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus
hirsutus (Green); Thrips palmi Karny; Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (B biotype); Citrus leafminer,
Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton; Citrus blackfly, Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby; imported red fire
ant Solenopsis invicta Buren; Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink, coconut
whitefly, Aleurodicus pulvinatus, and the tropical bont tick, Amblyomma variegatum (Kairo et al
2003a).
The Hibiscus Mealybug. The Hibiscus (Pink) mealybug (HMB), M hirsutus, which originated
in Asia was found in Grenada in 1994. The pest was later reported in Trinidad, St Kitts and St
Lucia (Parasram 1996). Kairo et al 2003b presented a list of 12 CARICOM territories (a total of
28 Caribbean territories) reportedly having the pest, as at 2003.
The consequent damage caused by the invasion of this pest was unprecedented, and its
wide host range virtually made it a threat to the entire agricultural industry of affected countries.
The hosts included ornamentals (hibiscus being primary), agricultural crops (e.g. cacao, okra,
mango, plums, sorrel, soursop, Annona muricata), trees such as samaan, teak and blue mahoe.
Gautam et al (2000) reported that crop losses in Grenada ranged from US$1.77 millionUS$ 1.83 million per annum between 1995and 1997. In Trinidad, which was affected later
(August 1995) potential losses estimated by the Planning Division of the Ministry of Agriculture
were US $125 million with over 200 plant species affected (Parasram 1996 and Gautam et al
2000). The initial approach to combating Hibiscus mealybug consisted of control (chemical and
cultural), containment and public awareness campaigns. The countries in the Caribbean which
were not yet affected heightened quarantine measures and developed emergency action plans in
the event that this pest gained entry. However despite efforts at prevention the pest continued to
spread.
The control measures initially recommended, failed to provide long-term results (Gautam
1996 and McComie 1996) therefore, in 1995 the Regional Action Programme was developed
which had a biologically-based management focus (Parasram 1996 and Gautam, 1996). Other
components were chemical control measures in infested areas and development of information
products for public awareness. The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute
(CARDI) identified an expert from the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi,
India (Gautam 1996 and Blades in Guatam et al 2000). In India and Egypt, Hibiscus mealybug
had been controlled using biological control agents, namely, ladybird beetles, Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri Mulsant, Scymnus coccivora Aiyar and parasitic wasps Anagyrus kamali Moursi.
127

and A. dactylopi (How.) and some 40 parasitoids and predators including another ladybird,
Nephus regularis were known to reduce Hibiscus mealybug numbers in the field.
A programme was developed for the introduction, multiplication and release of three lady
bird beetles, C. montrouzieri , S. coccivora and N. regularis. These ladybirds were imported into
the region in 1996. Supporting research components included study of local natural enemies,
monitoring for establishment and subsequent impact on the pest, development of rearing
protocols and determination of costs of production (Gautam 1996, Gautam et al 1996a and
1996b).
The parasitoid A kamali was also imported into Trinidad, first arriving in February 1996.
Studies on this biological control agent and mass rearing were conducted by the International
Institute of Biological Control- Caribbean and Latin American Station (IIBC-CLAS) named
CAB International (CABI) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources Division
(MALMR). The studies included evaluation of host plants for laboratory rearing Hibiscus
mealybug, field releases and monitoring and evaluation of efficacy (Lopez 1996, Morias 1996,
Peterkin et al 1996 and Ram et al 1996). Under a Memorandum of Understanding signed by
CARDI and CABI, these parasitoids were reared by CABI and CARDI implemented field
activities using these agents in CARDI member countries (Parasram 1996). Although the use of
biological control has been a success in all countries in which it has been used against the
Hibiscus mealybug, research is still required to ensure that the biologically-based management
system can be integrated into all situations especially where other major pests have to be
managed concurrently (Kairo 1996).
Despite the resounding success of the biological control initiative in managing the
population of Hibiscus mealybug in affected countries, intra regional trade remained constrained
as unaffected countries fearful of the entry of the pest on produce and even countries which
already had the pest, restricted entry of produce from affected countries in an effort to
prevent/contain the problem. CARDI was again mandated to provide the leadership to address
this problem. Through adaptive research activities on various post harvest technologies (hot
water treatment, fumigation with methyl bromide/magnesium phosphide), post harvest treatment
protocols were developed for flowers, fruit and vegetables, the main commodities in intra
regional trade (Gautam et al 2000).
Whitefly and Whitefly-transmitted Geminiviruses. There are more than 1200 species of
whitefly identified and although feeding damage caused by the insects can be significant it is the
ability of some species to vector economically important plant viruses that has resulted in the
notoriety of this group of insects. Only three vector species, namely, Trialeurodes abutilonea
(Haldeman), T. vaporariorum (Westwood) and Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) are known to occur
in the Caribbean and Central America. Some of the associated diseases recorded in the
Caribbean basin include Abutilo mosaic, bean golden mosaic, Euphorbia mosaic, Jacquimontia
mosaic, Macroptilium mosaic, Rhyncosia yellow mosaic, Sida mosaic, tobacco leaf curl, tomato
yellow mosaic (Brown and Bird 1992) tomato yellow leaf curl, tomato dwarf leaf curl and potato
yellow mosaic (CARDI 2003).
B. tabaci is probably the most challenging and has invaded territories throughout the
Americas and the Caribbean. In addition to its wide distribution it can colonise a wide range of
hosts which compounds the challenge to effectively manage it. B. tabaci can colonise as many as
500 species of plants. In Latin America and the Caribbean, B. tabaci is a pest of at least 17 crops
both as a vector of geminiviruses and/or as a direct pest (Brown 1992). In a priority setting
exercise, whitefly and whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses was identified as a priority, common
to 13 of 16 member countries of PROCICARIBE Caribbean Integrated Pest Management
Network (CIPMNET).
128

Various aspects of this pest complex and its management have been actively researched
by countries throughout the region. In 2002, CARDI was contracted under the EUCARIFORUM Integrated Pest Management Project to conduct an information gathering exercise
which would compile the pockets of information on past and current research activities within
the region on whitefly and whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses. This was in response to the
identification that information sharing amongst researchers within the region was a shortcoming
which forfeits the benefits of collaborative research on common issues. An analysis of the
inventory of activities also facilitated gap analysis which could guide the planning of future
research to address existing needs.
The areas in which research efforts have been most sustained throughout the region are
vector/virus characterization and distribution, inventory of host range, screening for host plant
resistance and biological control. In Jamaica there has been some work done on transgenics
(tomato). The use of molecular biological techniques to keep abreast of the very dynamic and
complex vector/virus relationship has probably been the area where the most significant strides
have been made. However, the inventory indicated that much of the required component research
has at least been initiated by some country in the Caribbean. The matrix in Appendix 1 indicates
the research areas undertaken in 19 (CARICOM countries and other selected countries) in the
Caribbean (CARDI 2003).
LIMITATIONS IN THE STRATEGY FOR INVASIVE SPECIES IN THE CARIBBEAN
Kairo et al (2003 b) evaluated the infrastructure used in invasive species management in the
Caribbean and listed deficiencies in the following as key limitations
o Early detection systems
o Control and management to coordinate the ongoing efforts with local, regional and
international authorities to minimize the adverse effects of existing invasives and restrict
their spread.
o Research and monitoring which require investment in the development of effective and
environmentally sound control technologies, human resources (biologists) and other tools
needed to ensure long-term success
As demonstrated in the foregoing case studies, there are programmes that contain varying
combinations of the above elements however there are gaps which reduce their potential impact.
The model used for addressing the emergent Hibiscus Mealybug, demonstrated the
benefits of multi-agency involvement and regional coordination. The regional coordinating
mechanism facilitated the implementation of the regional programme while providing support to
national efforts in technical and financial areas. The threat to newly invaded countries declined
drastically as the region now had a readily available technology and an efficient emergency
response mechanism. This regional system has in turn been beneficial to the US Virgin Islands,
Puerto Rico, Bahamas, California, Florida, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (Meyerdirk and De
Chi 2003).
The scattered pieces of work conducted on whitefly and whitefly-transmitted
geminiviruses in the region (CARIFORUM countries) is comprised of much of the required
component research. Identified gaps include: the need to evaluate an integrated approach to
management of whiteflies and whitefly-transmitted viruses; the continuation of investigations in
specialized areas of research for virus and vector characterization and diversity given the
dynamic nature of the complex; further evaluation of the potential of biological control agents;
and development of protocols for the correct use of suitable selective chemicals which are
compatible with biological control agents within an IPM system (CARDI 2003).
129

In addition, there is a need for the goals and objectives of the various national/regional
initiatives to be rationalized to form a fully coordinated Regional Whitefly and Whiteflytransmitted Geminiviruses Management Programme with established centres of excellence, this
regional approach has been initiated by the countries of Latin America in a plan of action for
effecting a strategy for the management of whitefly and whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses.
Collaboration on whitefly diagnosis and information flow through information products and an
annual regional workshop were also main areas of focus in the Latin American initiative
(CARDI 2003).
Adopting a model of strong regional collaboration in the English-speaking Caribbean and
where possible forging links with other initiatives in the Caribbean Basin (and internationally)
would help optimize the benefits from the limited human and financial resources available to the
region.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the TSTAR program for the invitation and funding to participate
in this very worthwhile forum.
REFERENCES
Brown J. K. 1992. A Critical Assessment of Biotypes of the sweet potato whitefly in the
Americas and adjacent locales: from 1989-1992. In Taller Centroamericano y del Caribe
sobre Moscas Blancas, Turrialba, Costa Rica.
Bird, J. and Brown, J. K. 1992. Whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses and Associated Disorders in
the Americas and the Caribbean Basin. The American Phytopathological Society Plant
Diseases. p 220-225.
CARDI, 2003. Final Project Report. Whitefly and Whitefly-transmitted GeminivirusesIntervention in Selected CARIFORUM Countries. Caribbean Agriculture and Fisheries
Programme CAFP funded by the European Union (EU).
Cock, M. J. W. 1985. A Review of Biological Control of Pests in the Commonwealth Caribbean
and Bermuda up to 1982. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, Slough.
Gautam, R. D. 1996. The use of Coccinellids for the management of Hibiscus Mealybug
Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) in the Caribbean. In Management Strategies for the
Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the First Seminar on the Hibiscus
Mealybug, April 12, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad
and Tobago. P. 1-11.
Gautam R. D., De Chi, W., Lessey, M., Ali, R. and Phago, P. 1996a. A Note on the Economics
of Chemical Control Versus Biological Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug,
Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) In Management Strategies for the Control of the
Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the Second Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug,
November 14, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and
Tobago. p 37-43.
Gautam, R. D., De Chi, W. and Maraj, C. 1996 b. Impact of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
Mulsant and Scymnus coccivora Aiyar in controlling the Hibiscus Mealybug
Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) in Trinidad In Management Strategies for the Control
of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the Second Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug
November 14, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and
Tobago p 70-82.

130

Gautam, R. D, Pilgrim, R. N. and Stewart, V. E. 2000. The Pink Mealybug Protocols for the
Protection of Agricultural Production and Trade. The Systems Approach (SA). The
Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute.
Kairo, M. T. K. 1996. Management of the Hibiscus Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green)
(Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in Trinidad and Tobago: Future Research. In Management
Strategies for the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the Second Seminar
on the Hibiscus Mealybug November 14, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine
Resources, Trinidad and Tobago, p. 84-91.
Kairo, M. T. K., Cheeseman, O. D., Ali, B. S., Haysom, K., and Murphy, S. T. 2003a.
Dangerous Invasive Species Threatening or with a Foothold in the Caribbean In
Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 39 (I): 12-22.
Kairo, M. T.K., B.S. Ali, O. Cheesman, K. Haysom, and S.T. Murphy. 2003b. Invasive species
threats in the Caribbean Region. CAB International.
Kairo, M. T. K., Morais, M. and Cooper, B. 1996. Field Release and Establishment of Anagyrus
kamali (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), a Parasitoid of the Hibiscus Mealybug
Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in Trinidad In
Management Strategies for the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the
Second Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug November 14, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture,
Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago, p. 44-53.
Lopez, V. F. 1996. Laboratory rearing and mass production of Hibiscus Mealybug
Maconellicoccus hirsutus and the parasitic wasp Anagyrus kamali at the Caribbean and
Latin American Station of IIBC in Trinidad. In Management Strategies for the Control of
the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the First Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug,
April 12, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago. p
30-43.
Marais, M. 1996. Releases of the parasitic wasp Anagyrus kamali (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in
the field to control the Pink Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Hemiptera:
Pseudococcidae) and preliminary results on efficacy. In Management Strategies for the
Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the First Seminar on the Hibiscus
Mealybug, April 12, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad
and Tobago. P. 44-49.
McComie, L. D. 2003. Status of the Hibiscus (Pink) Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus
(Green) Programme in Trinidad. In Management Strategies for the Control of the
Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the Second Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug
November 14, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and
Tobago p 12-18.
Meyerdirk, D. E. and De Chi, L. W. 2003. Models for minimizing risks of dangerous pests: The
pink Hibiscus Mealybug and Papaya Mealybug. In Proceedings of the Caribbean Food
Crops Society p 47-55.
Parasram, S. 1996. The Hibiscus Mealybug in the Caribbean A Regional Update In
Management Strategies for the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the
Second Seminar on the Hibiscus Mealybug November 14, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture,
Land Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago p 1-11.
Peterkin, D., Lopez, V. F. and Kairo, M. 1996. Laboratory Production of Anagyrus kamali
(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) for Biological Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug,
Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) In Management Strategies for
the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the Second Seminar on the
Hibiscus Mealybug November 14, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine
Resources, Trinidad and Tobago p 24-36.
131

Ram, P., Cooper, B., Lopez, V. F., Morais, M. and Peterkin, D. 1996. A perspective on the
release of Anagyrus kamali (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) for the biological control of the
Hibiscus of Pink Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) by
the Ministry of Agriculture Land and Marine Resources. In Management Strategies for
the Control of the Hibiscus Mealybug Proceedings of the First Seminar on the Hibiscus
Mealybug, April 12, 1996, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Marine Resources, Trinidad
and Tobago. p 50-55.
Wittenberg, R. and Cock, M. W. [eds.]. 2001. Invasive Alien Species: A Toolkit of Best
Prevention and Management Practices. CABI Publishing, Wallingford (on behalf of
Global Invasive Species Programme -GISP). pp 228.

132

Appendix 1. Analysis of research needs regarding whitefly and whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses in the Caribbean
Area of research
Country

Characterisation Characterisation Host range Host

Host plant Cultural
/distribution of /distribution of of whitefly range of resistance
practices
whitefly
geminiviruses
viruses

Antigua and
Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Cuba
Dominican
Republic
Grenada
Guadeloupe
Guyana
Haiti
Jamaica

Biological
control

Chemical
control

++

++

++

+++

+++

+++

+++

++

+++

++

++

++

+++

+++

+++

+++

+++

KEY
No indication that any work was done in this area
+
Minimal level of work done in research area

++
+++

Significant level of work done in research area

High level of work done in research area

133

Matrix 1 (Continued). Analysis of research needs regarding whitefly and whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses in the Caribbean
Area of research
Country

Characterisation
/distribution
of whitefly

Characterisation Host range Host

Host plant Cultural
/distribution of of whitefly range of resistance
practices
geminiviruses
viruses

Biological
control

Chemical
control

++

++

++

++

++

++

++

++

St Kitts and
Nevis
St Lucia
Martinique
Puerto Rico

St Vincent
and
the Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad
and Tobago

++

KEY
No indication that any work was done in this area
+
Minimal level of work done in research area

++
+++

Significant level of work done in research area

High level of work done in research area

134

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):135. 2005

A DEMONSTRATION OF THE DDIS (DISTANCE DIAGNOSTICS AND
IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM) IN PUERTO RICO.
Consuelo Estevez de Jensen1, Ruben Quinonez1 and Timur M. Momol2. lUniversity of
Puerto Rico, Agricultural Experiment Station. Crop Protection, HC- 04, Box 7115
Juana Diaz, PR. 00795-9998; Phone 787-837-3905. cestevez@uprm.edu , 2University of
Florida. Plant Pathology Department, Momol@ifas.ufl.edu .
ABSTRACT: In Puerto Rico the DDIS (Distance Diagnostic and Identification System) was
implemented in 2005. DDIS in Puerto Rico increased the diagnostic capabilities for plant
diseases and developed links with growers, and private agricultural companies, and opened
opportunities for inter-institutional collaboration. The process of DDIS in Puerto Rico links the
grower, researcher and extension educators. The Disease Clinic at Juana Diaz Experiment
Station is serving the growers in the southwest area of Puerto Rico. A total of 56 diseased
samples were processed at the Clinic in three months consisting of vegetables (36%),
ornamentals (24%), fruits (22%), grains (9%), banana (5%) and tubers (4%). Samples were
selected to go through the DDIS based on either their economic importance or the possibility of a
new disease. The symptoms of the diseased samples were described and the information and
images were forwarded through the DDIS. Suspected pathogen(s) were confirmed by DDIS
specialists. Then, extension educators in Puerto Rico provided disease management
recommendations. Growers then can address specific control measures based on accurate and
fast diagnosis. DDIS is preventing crop losses and use of unnecessary pesticides in Puerto Rico.

135

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):136-137. 2005

REFLECTIONS ON THE SYMPOSIUM
H. Arlington D. Chesney, Director, Caribbean Regional Office, IICA, IICA Headquarters, 600
m. noreste del Cruce Ips-Coronado, San Isidro de Coronado, Apartado 6742-1000, San Jose,
Costa Rica. Phone: (506) 2160222; FAX: (506) 2160258; Arlington.Chesney@iica.int
Mr. Chairman, we have had a very educational and informative three sessions, starting
with the Opening Ceremony, followed by a Session on Institutional Issues and finally, one on
Technical Issues. At this stage, we certainly do know more of Invasive Species in the wider
Caribbean. Also, we do have a sense of a deep commitment by all to work together to
effectively address this matter in a manner that will facilitate trade, especially intra Caribbean
trade whilst at the same time protecting the rich biodiversity and natural resources of the subregion. I would like to say something on the geographic scope of the Caribbean based on
participation at a symposium. It primarily encompasses the Caribbean islands, Guyana,
Suriname and Southern United States. Perhaps, in the context of the political initiatives to forge
greater South-South linkages, it could be appropriate for us to increase our geographic coverage
of this Initiative to include all of the countries washed by the Caribbean Sea. The interpretation
infrastructure that is always provided by the CFCS would address any language barriers.
Returning to the programme, the Session on Institutional Issues placed the Invasive
Species Strategy (ISS) within the Context of the CARICOM Single Market and the Economy
and the Jagdeo Initiative which is the mechanism being used by CARICOM (with technical
involvement of the Dominican Republic) to catalyse the repositioning and invigoration of a new
and holistic agriculture. The potential (albeit limited) of the University of the West Indies (UWI)
to support the ISS was also identified. It is significant that these presentations addressed the
CARIFORUM countries. However, it must be recognised that, in this grouping, UWI is only
one of at least 13 Universities that could assist in the academic support to the development and
implementation of the ISS. A larger and more representative sample of these institutions must be
included in the future.
Of particular importance in a wider geographic scope is the institutional link to
Metropolitan France and the impact of the guidelines, standards, etc. being pursued there on the
rest of the Caribbean. This could play itself out most specifically in the Trade Arena.
The need to give the potential impact of Invasive Species on the environment and
biodiversity as much importance as that on trade and the economy was also highlighted. Finally,
the progress and some issues relative to the Operationalisation of the Caribbean Regional
Invasive Species Intervention Strategy (CRISIS) were highlighted. I would return to this aspect
of operationalisation.
The Session on Technical Issues highlighted programmes and work being done in
Florida, Dominican Republic and by French Institutions in the Caribbean and the Pacific Oceans.
It also detailed efforts to initiate work in the English speaking Caribbean. Information Systems
and data bases that have been designed for monitoring Invasive Species and facilitating their
identification were also presented. I am relatively short on detail for the Session on Technical
Issues. This is due primarily to time constraint and my own bias. With respect to the later, I
wish to make it clear, especially since I spent the first 15 years of my career either doing or
136

directing research activities, that I recognise and appreciate the importance of technical issues.
However, I am also very certain that technical issues can only bear appropriate fruit if it is done
with a specific goal foremost in mind. In the case of the Invasive Species Strategy (ISS), this
goal must be to enhance trade and protect the natural resources and thus contribute to sustainable
national development. To achieve this goal, there must be an all embracing and responsive
enabling environment in the entire Caribbean that will facilitate and nurture the conduct of the
required technical actions.
It is within the above context, I revert to the question of the operationalisation of CRISIS.
The successful operationalisation of CRISIS depends on involvement of all countries within the
Region. I note an inequity between the sub-regions to effectively contribute to this
operationalisation. Based on the presentations, it will appear that the scope and capacity of the
enabling environment and thus the institutional capacity varies. The CARICOM countries and,
to a lesser extent, the Dominican Republic, are now at the stage of putting in place the enabling
environment to allow work to begin on the technical issues. They are all in the planning stage.
Whereas the French Countries and Southern United States are already in the doing stage and
have the institutional capacity to accelerate this work in keeping with the operationalisation plan
for CRISIS that was presented.
Accordingly, for the Invasive Species Strategy (ISS) to be successful and for all countries
to be confident with respect to the presentation and/or management of Invasive Species, there
would be need for differential/preferential treatment provided to the CARIFORUM (CARICOM
plus Dominican Republic) countries. I am positive that the details of such a programme could be
developed by the experts.
Finally, Mr. Chairman, this Invasive Species Initiative has continued its progress during
this Workshop. However, there is still much work to be done so that the finishing line could
be reached in the shortest possible time. I am confident that the Working Group would ensure
that this progress is not only maintained but exceeded.

137

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):138-148. 2005

SESSION III: TECHNICAL REPORTS
STEPS TOWARD MANAGING THE EXOTIC ARMORED SCALE ANDASPIS
PUNICAE IN LITCHI IN FLORIDA AND PUERTO RICO
Jorge E. Pea1, R. Goenaga2 , J. Castillo1 , G. Hodges3 and G. Evans4
1
University of Florida, Tropical REC, Homestead, FL, Phone 305-246-7001; FAX: 305-2467003, email: jepe@ifas.ufl.edu; 2 USDA, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, Phone: 787 831-3435; email:
mayrg@ars-grin.gov; 3 FDACS, Gainesville, FL and 4USDA, Beltsville, MD, USA.
ABSTRACT: The exotic scale, Andaspis punicae (Homoptera: Diaspididae), was detected in
1993 in Florida invading litchi groves. It caused dieback of branches, reduced tree vigor and
eventually killed the trees. During 2004 this scale was detected in Puerto Rico affecting litchis.
The scale has also been associated with symptoms known as corky bark in Florida. Here we
present preliminary results of studies on scale biology, chemical control, efforts toward
biological control with parasitoids and preliminary results of the possible association between the
scale and the causal agent of corky bark. On-going studies on scale biology demonstrated that
the life cycle of the scales is longer than 40 days. Surveys in Florida and Guam showed that the
scale was found in Litchi chinensis, Euphoria longan, Mangifera indica, Annona cherimola x A.
squamosa and Rambutan, Nephelium lappaceum. In Florida, levels of parasitism by the native
parasitoid Encarsia lounsburyi (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) ranged between 2.9 and 26.1
percent. E. lounsburyi was also found parasitizing the scale species in Puerto Rico. Parasitism in
Guam was caused by Encarsia inquirenda. The chemicals, KnackR (Pyriproxyfen), ApplaudR
(buprofezin), imidacloprid and NovaluronR (benzoylurea) provided significant scale control 50
days after their application, but their use is restricted by application costs. Effect of a fungicide
and an insecticide on scale development and symptoms of corky bark were studied during 2004.
KEY WORDS: Litchi, Diaspididae, corky bark, Encarsia, Andaspis
RESUMEN: La escama extica Andaspis punicae (Homoptera: Diaspididae) fu encontrada en
1993 en Florida invadiendo huertos de litchi y causando muerte de las ramas, dismimuyendo el
vigor de los rboles y causando la muerte de rboles. La escama ha sido asociada con sntomas
de la corteza del corcho en Florida. En este artculo presentamos los resultados preliminares de
la biologa de la escama, control qumico y esfuerzos para encontrar agentes de control
biolgico. Estos estudios han demostrado hasta el presente que el ciclo de vida de la escama
sobrepasa los 40 das. La escama se encontr en litchi, mango, longan, atemoya y rambutan en
muestreos realizados en Florida y Guam. En Florida los niveles de parasitismo producidos por el
parasitoide nativo Encarsia lounsburyi (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) fluctuaron de 2.9 a 26.1 %
de escamas parasitadas mientras que en Puerto Rico los niveles de parasitismo fueron alrededor
del 40%. En Guam la escama es parasitada por Encarsia inquirenda. Los insecticidas,
pyriproxyfen, buprofezin, imidacloprid y benzoylurea fueron eficaces 50 dias despues de su
aplicacin, pero su uso esta restringido dado su alto costo. El efecto de un fungicida y un
insecticida en el desarrollo de la escama y los sntomas de la corteza del corcho fueron
estudiados en el 2004.

138

INTRODUCTION
After the devastating effects of hurricane Andrew in 1992, NAFTA and citrus canker,
south Florida tropical fruit production, especially mango and lime, was virtually reduced to a
minimum. Among the remaining fruit crops that survived these events, litchi, Litchi chinensis
Sonn. (Sapindaceae), referred to as lychee, leechee, or litchi, gained popularity resulting in a
litchi production currently valued at US $3.07 million. Florida litchi growers maintained this
crop insecticide-free until the arrival of 2 exotic invasive pests: the litchi moth, Crocidosema
litchivora Baixeras n. sp. and the scale Andaspis punicae (Laing). Litchi is grown in Puerto Rico
on a minor scale, mostly for experimental research. The scale Andaspis punicae (Homoptera:
Diaspididae) was detected in 1993 in Miami-Dade County invading litchi groves. The scale
caused dieback of branches, reduced tree vigor and eventually killed the trees. The presence of
the scale in Puerto Rico was verified after a survey conducted in October 2004.
There are many unresolved questions regarding this scale. For instance, it is believed that
the scale is injecting a toxin into the tree. Thus through scale feeding a swelling appears on the
bark and an opportunistic fungus might establish at these weakened areas and corky bark
symptoms.
The objectives of the present study were to: 1) Provide preliminary results of studies of
the life cycle of Andaspis punicae, 2) Determine host plants and parasitoid species affecting
parasitism levels in Florida, Puerto Rico and Guam, 3) Determine effectiveness of pesticides on
Andaspis punicae and 4) Conduct preliminary tests to establish a relationship between Andaspis
punicae and corky bark symptoms.
Background on Andaspis punicae. The Andaspis genus belongs in the Lepidosaphidine section,
which conforms with the tribe Lepidosaphidini sensu Borchsenius (1966) and sensu Takagi
(1969). Andapis have the male and the female coverings being of similar texture. The body shape
is generally narrow, gradually attenuated at its anterior part (Ben Dov, 1990b). Andaspis
punicae was originally described from specimens collected in Tanzania, East Africa attacking
pomegranate, but it is suspected that its origins are in the South Pacific or South East Asia (Rao
and Ferris, 1952). It has been cited from breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis, eggplant, Solanum
melongena in the Mariana Islands (i.e., Guam) (Nafus and Schreiner, 1999). It has been also
collected from rose and litchi in Honduras, from Spondias and citrus in the Dominican Republic,
from Lansium and Erythrina in Thailand, from vanilla and eggplant in Guam, from plumeria in
the Philippines, from Mammea americana in Barbados and from litchi and ficus in Hawaii and
Florida (D. Miller, Pers. Comm). A. punicae has been intercepted several times in ports of entry
of the continental USA (Rose, 1990) and because of infestation with this scale; litchi plants
produced in Florida have been destroyed in Texas and California with the consequential losses to
producers.
Andaspis punicae belongs to a group of armored scales which prefer to feed on bark of
branches and the main trunk, and are considered the most damaging because they cause dieback
of twig terminals and sometimes the eventual death of the host and consequential yield
reduction. A. punicae settles on branches and buds, feeding mostly close to lenticels, interrupting
nutrient transport, opening avenues for fungal infections and weakening the plant (J. E. Pea,
unpubl. obs.). The fungi, Phomopsis and Leptosphaeria, have been isolated from litchi bark
infested with A. punicae (A. J. Palmateer, pers. comm.). However, the destructive effect
produced by the litchi scale in woody tissue has not been investigated thoroughly. Tissue in areas
affected by the scale hypertrophies, the bark often cracks and finally a gradual desiccation of the
cortical tissue follows (J. E. Pea, pers. observ.). Dark cork type structures appear on the bark.
Growers refer to these symptoms as corky bark.

139

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Life Cycle and Development of A. punicae. Litchi, cv. Brewster trees planted in 2 gallon pots
were kept in a non-air conditioned greenhouse. Eight to 10 cm portions of the apical parts of
each tree (n = 12) were placed in 10-ml glass tubes with water and sealed on the top with
parafilm. Twenty to 30 crawlers captured under the armor of the female parent, were placed on
each ex-plant and placed in an incubator at 25C; L:D 10:14, R.H., 80 5 %. Each day
subsamples of 8-10 individuals of each stage were removed from the litchi plants and placed in
10 ml of alcohol (95%) and kept there for 24 hours. After this, they were transferred from the
alcohol to 6 ml of a solution of Essig (McKenzie 1967) and then heated to 140 F for 40 min.
on a hot plate. Next, 1 drop of acid fuchsin was added and heated for 20 min. The insects were
transferred one-by-one with a dissection needle to 10 ml of alcohol (70%). Finally, 1 or 2
individuals per slide were mounted completely extended in a drop of PVA (Polyvinyl alcoholsemitemporal mounting medium) on microscope slides under a cover slip. Length and width of
specimens were recorded daily for approximately 50 days until male emergence.
Surveys in Florida, Guam and Puerto Rico. Several plant species are listed in the literature as
hosts of A. punicae. We evaluated the role of these plant species as hosts by collecting branches
from trees located at the Tropical Research and Education Center in Homestead, Florida during
June, 2005 and trees located in the localities of Dededo and Talofofo in Guam during March
2005. We divided the branches into 10-cm segments, selected 10 of these and determined the
presence or absence of A. punicae on the potential host. A survey of litchi trees was conducted
on September 28, 2004 in the locations of Isabela and Adjuntas, Puerto Rico. Branches were
collected from different cultivars and transferred to the USDA laboratory at Mayaguez where
scale density was determined. Vouchers of scales were placed in alcohol and sent to be identified
by G. Hodges, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS), Gainesville,
FL.
Evaluation of Field Parasitism of Andaspis punicae.
Florida. The on going study was conducted from February, 2005 through June, 2005 in 3 litchi
groves located in Homestead, Florida. Three to five trees from each site were sampled at 2-3 m
above ground. Two branches each were removed from the canopy. The number of Andaspis
punicae occurring in ten 15- cm branch segments was determined using a binocular microscope
in the laboratory. Firstly, parasitism in the sample was initially determined by observing any exit
holes on the scale covering, which would be indicative of parasite emergence. Secondly, branch
segments were placed into individual test tubes (12 x 75 mm) and sealed with Kimwipes tissue
covering one end. These were held for 2 weeks at 22C and 75% RH and 12:12 L:D. Emerged
parasitoids were collected and identified.
Puerto Rico and Guam. A procedure similar to that used in Florida was employed both in Puerto
Rico and Guam during the respective surveys conducted in 2004 and 2005. Emerged parasitoids
were placed in 75% OH and identified by G. Evans, ARS, USDA, Beltsville, MD.
Chemical Control . A 10 year-old litchi Brewster grove located at the University of Florida,
Tropical Research Center, Homestead grove was used for this study. Plots consisted of a four
groups of 6 trees, with 3 plants serving as sample trees. All trees were moderately infested with
the litchi scale Andaspis punicae. Treatments consisted of one application of Knack
(pyriproxyfen) plus Petroleum oil 95%, FC 435-66 (5 oz + 1 gallon/100 gallons water),
Applaud (buprofezin) plus petroleum oil 95%, FC 435-66 (1.12 oz + 1 gallon/100 gallons
water), Applaud plus petroleum oil 95%, FC 435-66 (2.28 oz + 1 gallon/100 gallons water)and,
Novaluron 0.83 EC (14 oz/100 gallons) and Admire (imidacloprid) at 16oz/acre, and a nonsprayed control. All applications of the test materials with the exception of Admire were made
with a hand-gun sprayer. Admire was applied as a drench to the soil in a circular fashion around
140

the canopy drip line. The sprayer was calibrated to deliver 100 gpa at 2.2 mph. Because of the
clustering of A. punicae populations, both adults and crawlers were monitored 1 day before the
treatment and 30, 50 and 80 days after treatment by collecting 2 branches per tree. Each branch
was subdivided into 5 cm segments and the number of live scales, and crawlers within the
segment was counted under a microscope by lifting the armor of each scale (A. punicae ). All
data were subjected to two-way ANOVA and the means were separated by LSD (P =0.05).
Effect of a fungicide and an insecticide on scale development and symptoms of corky bark. A
preliminary experiment was initiated to determine if the insecticide imidacloprid and the
fungicide, Folicur, would reduce symptoms of corky bark. Thirty trees, cv. Brewster, were
planted in 1 gallon pots and placed inside a greenhouse during September, 2003. Each plant was
infested with 15-20 crawlers or immature scales per plant. A set of 10 plants was left untreated,
10 plants were treated with the insecticide imidacloprid, applied monthly as a drench at a rate of
10 oz/100 gallons. The fungicide, Folicur, was also applied monthly to the last set of plants as
a spray to leaves and stem at a rate of 40.5 oz/100 gallons of water. Twice a month, a 2 inch
section of a twig was inspected with the aid of a hand lens and the number of scales and scale
immatures (crawlers) were recorded. One year and a half after the experiment was initiated we
evaluated scale infestation, plant growth and symptoms associated with corky bark.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Preliminary Results Life Cycle and Development of A. punicae. The crawlers remain inside of
the female cover for a few hours and then crawl under the body of the female parent and become
settled within a few hours to 1 day. First intar males and females required 12.04 d to reach the
next stage. The width of the first instars was 0.2-0.24 mm and their body length was 0.32 to 0.52
mm. Second instar females required 20.8 d and males required 21.56 d to reach the next stage
(Table 1). The width of the second instar males was 0.24-0.32 mm and their body length 0.480.80 mm. The width of second instar females ranged from 0.24-0.44 mm and their body length
from 0.48-0.84 mm. The width of adult females was approx. 0.4-0.44 mm and their length
ranged from 0.76 to 1.28 mm. Male pre-pupal width was 0.32 mm and their body length was
0.76 mm. The total development for male from crawler to adult required 46.16 d. Further work
is needed to determine the number of days for females to develop from crawler to adult, as well
as their total life span.
Host Plants in Florida and Guam. Besides litchi, A. punicae was collected in Florida from
longan, Euphoria longan, mango, Mangifera indica, and atemoya, Annona squamosa x A.
cherimola (Table 2). Andaspis hawaiiensis was found on Spondias spp. In Guam, A. punicae was
only found on litchi and rambutan (Table 3). In Puerto Rico, our survey showed that A. punicae
was found in litchi, cvs., Brewster, Mauritius, B3, Kariman, Sacathia and Nanriig.
Evaluation of Field Parasitism of Andaspis punicae. In Florida and Puerto Rico, the only
parasitoid collected from A. punicae is Encarsia lounsburyi (Berlese & Paoli), (Hymenoptera:
Aphelinidae). In Florida, the levels of parasitism fluctuated between a minimum of 6.98 to a
maximum of 11.43 percent of scales parasitized (Figure 1). The parasitoid, Encarsia inquirenda
(Silvestri) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) was collected as a parasitoid of A. punicae in Guam
(Table 3). In Guam, the percent of scales with signs of parasitism or predation, possibly by
unidentified stigmaeid mites, ranged from 16 to 52% (Table 3). E. inquirenda has been collected
from armored scales in China, Algeria, Italy. This is the first report of E. inquirenda for Guam
(G. Evans, pers. comm.).
Chemical Control. Clusters of Andaspis punicae were removed from each 5 cm segment of the
collected branches. Only live scales were counted. No significant differences were observed
between treatments and the unsprayed control 30 days after treatment. However, 50 days after
141

treatment, Knack, Applaud, imidacloprid and Novaluron had significantly fewer live
scales/ 5 cm than the untreated control. Eighty days after treatment, scale densities were lower on
those branches treated with the insecticides than on the untreated control (Tables 4 and 5).
Effect of a fungicide and an insecticide on scale development and symptoms of corky bark. One
month after the initial infestation, an average of 12.86 0.93 and 12.53 1.20 A. punicae/10 cm
branch-segment was detected in the untreated plants and fungicide treated plants, respectively.
A lower infestation (0.39 0.08 A. punicae/10 cm branch-segment) was observed in the
insecticide treatment plants (Fig 2). Four months after the initial scale infestation , symptoms of
cracks on the stem cortex were observed followed by the formation of a 4-5 mm dark cork-like
tissue. One year and a half after treatment, a significant higher number of leaves per plant was
observed on plants treated with imidacloprid (Table 6). There were no differences in plant height
between treated and untreated plants. Both the untreated control and the fungicide treated plants
had 300 to 400 times higher A. punicae density compared to the plants treated with imidacloprid.
Die-back was observed mostly in those plants with heavy scale densities (Table 6). Both the
untreated control and the fungicide treated plants had higher number of cracks/10 cm of branchsegment and a higher percent of branches with corky bark symptoms than the insecticide treated
plants. Further research is needed to clarify the relationship between corky bark and the presence
of A. punicae. However, these preliminary results appear to indicate that the scale might play a
role in the development of corky bark symptoms.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank D. Long for his help. This research was partially supported by grants from T-STAR
and South Florida Tropical Fruit Growers to J. E. Pea. Florida Agricultural Experiment Station
Journal Series N-______________
REFERENCES
Borchsenius, N. S. 1966. A catalog of the armored scale insects (Diaspidoidea) of the
the world. [In Russian]. Akademia Nauk SSR Zoologucheskii Institut, Moscow
Leningrad, 449 pp.
McKenzie, H. L. 1967. Mealybugs of California. University of California Press, 32-35.
Nafus, D., and Screiner, I. 1999. Insect Pests of Micronesia.
http://www.crees.org/plantprotection/AubWeb/bugweb/bugroot.htm .
Rao, P. V., and Ferris, G. F. 1952. The genus Andaspis MacGillivrax (Insecta:
Homoptera: Coccoidea). Microentomology 17: 17-32.
Rose, M. 1990. Diaspidid pest problems and control in crops. In: Armored scale insects,
their biology, natural enemies and control. Vol. 4B, ed. D. Rosen, Elsevier, NY, pp 535541.
Tagaki, S. 1969. Diaspididae of Taiwan based on material collected in connection with
The Japan-US cooperative science program, 1965. Insecta Matsumurana, 32 (part
1):1-10.

142

Table 1. Developmental time (days) of A. punicae to adult at 25 C; L10:D14 and 80% 10 RH.
STAGE

FEMALE

std. err.

MALE std. err.

1 Inst.

45

12.04

(0.29)

45

12.04

(0.29)

2 Inst.

25

20.8

(0.51)

25

21.56

(0.42)

Pre-pupa

17

3.64

(0.52)

Pupa

14

3.9

(0.82)

*Adult

30

5.16

(0.54)

143

Table 2. Survey for host plants of A. punicae in Florida, June 2005

Host Plant

Mean A. punicae/10 Mean

cm stem SE

with

A.

punicae

emergence natural control

holes and/or signs of

predation SE***
Litchi 1

85.30 8.06

5.96 0.51

6.98

Longan

68.00 15.68

0.800.35

1.17

Spondias

*84.7212.56

0.720.27

Eugenia sp.

0.000.00

0.000.00

Plumeria

0.000.00

0.000.00

Satin Leaf

0.000.00

0.000.00

Wampi

0.000.00

0.000.00

Spanish lime

0.000.00

0.000.00

Citrus**

0.000.00

0.000.00

Tamarind

0.000.00

0.000.00

Jackfruit

0.000.00

0.000.00

Annona squamosa

11.91.58

0.350.10

Mamey Zapote

0.000.00

0.000.00

Satin Leaf

0.000.00

0.000.00

Mango

56.227.94

0.800.21

Carambola

0.000.00

0.000.00

2.91

X A. cherimola

144

Scales

1.53

with

Table 3. Survey for host plants of A. punicae in Guam, May, 2005.

Host Plant

Mean A. punicae/10 Mean

cm stem SE

A.

with

punicae

emergence natural control

holes and/or signs of

predation SE
Litchi 1

5.61.60

2.10.84

43

3.621.26

1.850.81

52

Rambutan 1

4.641.30

0.760.37

16.45

0.000.00

0.000.00

Eugenia sp.

0.000.00

0.000.00

Plumeria

0.000.00

0.000.00

Hibiscus sp*

0.000.00

0.000.00

Neem

0.000.00

0.000.00

Eggplant

0.000.00

0.000.00

Citrus**

0.000.00

0.000.00

Tamarind

0.000.00

0.000.00

Breadfruit

0.000.00

0.000.00

Soursop 1

0.000.00

0.000.00

0.000.00

0.000.00

White Zapote

0.000.00

0.000.00

Satin Leaf

0.000.00

0.000.00

145

Scales

with

Table 4. Number of Andaspis punicae live scales per 5 cm of branch before and after treatment
with insecticides.
Treatment

1DBS

30DAS 50DAS 80DAS

1. Untreated

8.10a

1.90a

5.80a

10.80a

2. Knack+Citrus oil

4.60bc 2.50a

2.70b

2.11b

3. Applaud 1x +Citrus oil 4.00bc 2.80a

3.75ab

1.40b

4. Applaud 2x + citrus oil 2.40c

2.70a

0.90b

1.50b

5. Admire

3.90bc 2.21a

2.60b

2.80b

6. Novaluron

8.80a

0.40b

0.30b

2.40a

DBS = Days before spray

DAS = Days after spray
Numbers within a column followed by the same letter were not statistically different (LSD =
0.05).
1 DBS = June 2, 2003
Date when spray was done: June 3, 2003
30 DAS = July 12
50 DAS = July 22
80 DAS = August 22
Table 5. Number of Andaspis punicae crawlers per 5 cm of branch before and after treatment
with insecticides.
Treatment

1DBS 30DAS 50DAS 80DAS

1. Untreated

0.70a

0.20b

0.00b

0.20a

2. Knack+Citrus oil

1.00a

0.50a

0.00b

0.00b

3. Applaud +Citrus oil

1.00a

0.00b

0.00b

0.10a

4. Applaud 2x + citrus oil 0.20a

0.10b

0.00b

0.00a

5. Admire

0.40a

0.00b

0.30a

0.00a

6. Novaluron

0.40a

0.00b

0.00b

0.00a

DBS = Days before spray

DAS = Days after spray
Numbers within a column followed by the same letter were not statistically different (LSD =
0.05).

146

Table 6. Results of 1 year-infestation of A. punicae and symptoms of corky bark on litchi

plants treated with an insecticide, a fungicide or left untreated.
Treatment

Leaves/plant Plant
height
(cm)

Percent
No. Scales/
Branches
Lensfield
with dieback

Untreated

23.12.67a

93.32.78a 8.54.09b

No. Bark Percent

Cracks/10 Branches
cm Branch With
Corky
Bark
47.514.36a 235.38a
144.98a

8.31.94b

83.24.56a 43.512.1a

39.011.39a 25.55.98a 13.05.73a

97.56.27a 1.01.0c

0.10.1b

Control
Folicur

Imidacloprid 23.42.33a

1.00.67b

1.00.67b

Numbers within a column followed by the same letter were not statistically different (LSD =
0.05).

180

30
Number of Scales
Percent Parasitism

25

140
120

20

100
15
80
60

10

40
5
20
0

February

March

April

Sampling Dates

Figure 1. The time-course of parasitism of A. punicae in Florida

147

May

Percent Parasitism

No. of Scales/ 10 cm Branch

160

Mean A. punicae/10 cm Branch

35
Untreated
Fungicide
Insecticide

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2

12

16

20

24

28

32 36

40

44

48

52

56

60

Weeks After Treatment

Figure 2. The effect of fungicide and insecticide treatments on the A. punicae population growth
on litchi. Scale populations increased on litchi plants with and without insecticidal and
fungicide treatment.

148

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):149-150. 2005

BIODIVERSIT TROPICALE ET SUBTROPICALE DANS LES ESPACES
INSULAIRES : POUR UNE GESTION DURABLE DE LA BIODIVERSIT DANS
L'OUTRE-MER EUROPEN.
Philippe Feldmann1, and N. Barr2, 1CIRAD, Dlgu aux ressources biologiques, Direction
Scientifique TA 179/04 34398 Montpellier Cedex; 2 Institut Agronomique noCaldonien/CIRAD, BP 73, 98890 Pata
RSUM: Les les tropicales sont des milieux hbergeant une forte biodiversit, mais qui sont
particulirement fragiles. Latelier consacr ces milieux lors de la Confrence de Paris a
rappel ces constats et mis laccent sur la ncessit dun dveloppement durable, associant les
populations locales. Une meilleure comprhension des interrelations entre fonctionnement des
cosystmes et activits humaines et le dveloppement de rseaux de collaborations diffrentes
chelles entre des les confrontes des enjeux quivalents permettraient de rorienter un
dveloppement compatible avec la prservation de la riche biodiversit insulaire.
MOTS ESSENTIEL: collaborative inter-island networks, skills of local communities
ABSTRACT: Tropical islands are characterized by an abundant but fragile biodiversity. It is
considered that sustainable development on tropical islands including the preservation of
biodiversity can be accomplished only taking advantage of the skills of local communities. A
better knowledge of interactions between ecosystems dynamics and human activities, as well as
the establishment of collaborative inter-island networks at different geographic, institutional and
thematic scales is essential to generate development, which concomitantly preserves the rich
insular biodiversity.
INTRODUCTION
Lors de la Confrence Biodiversit, Science et Gouvernance qui sest tenue lUnesco
Paris du 24 au 28 janvier 2005, un atelier tait consacr la gestion durable de la biodiversit
dans les les tropicales et subtropicales, dont nous prsentons ici les principales conclusions et
recommandations.
Au niveau mondial, ces entits reprsentent 100 000 les et 500 millions habitants. Sur les
34 points chauds de la biodiversit de la plante, 10 dentre eux sont des les. Cette biodiversit
est particulirement vulnrable puisque la moiti des espces considres comme menaces par
lUICN se trouvent dans les les. De plus, la moiti de la biodiversit marine tropicale se trouve
proximit dles ayant une forte proportion de rcifs coralliens et de mangroves.
Les rgions insulaires tropicales et subtropicales subissent de fortes pressions lies
essentiellement aux activits humaines. Elles se caractrisent en effet par:

des taux levs de croissance dmographique et de migration humaine

des contraintes importantes imposes par le tourisme
une urbanisation croissante et une emprise mal contrle sur les terres agricoles et les
formations naturelles
des mutations dans l'utilisation des terres

149

une gestion inadapte ou dficiente des produits phytosanitaires et des dchets et

effluents,
gnrateurs de pollutions durables et de problmatiques spcifiques de sant
une surexploitation des ressources marines et terrestres : eau, sol, faune, flore
des perturbations svres des cosystmes et des espces natives par les espces animales
et vgtales introduites
Enfin, ces les sont concernes en priorit par les changements climatiques auxquels la plante
est confronte.
La remise en ltat des habitats, des ressources et des espces, une fois leur dgradation
amorce est -quand elle est possible- dun cot considrable. Lanticipation et la prvention des
dgts par le respect des protocoles internationaux, une exploitation rationnelle des ressources et
le contrle strict des espces exotiques sont conomiquement et cologiquement bien
prfrables.
CONCLUSION
Face ces dfis, la prservation de la biodiversit conjointement la satisfaction des
besoins vitaux et lgitimes des populations impose la mise en oeuvre dune politique de
dveloppement durable. Celle-ci requiert la comprhension des interactions entre le
fonctionnement des cosystmes insulaires et les activits humaines et peut sappuyer sur la
diversit des situations biogographiques et sociologiques rencontres dans ces les. Ainsi la
recherche est amene apporter des rponses pour :

valuer et anticiper les consquences de changements plantaires majeurs lis lactivit

humaine sur la biodiversit insulaire,
dvelopper des mthodes et des outils afin de grer durablement la biodiversit en
relation troite avec les socits locales et dans le respect de leurs traditions et de leurs
savoirs ,
agir collectivement en dveloppant des rseaux inter-les diffrentes chelles (Carabe,
ocans Indien et Pacifique, insulaire europen, recherche/dveloppement/outils de
sensibilisation),
afin de rpondre de la manire la plus efficace aux besoins multiples de connaissance et
de gouvernance.

150

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):151-155. 2005

DEVELOPMENT OF THRIPS TRAPS FOR FRANKLINIELLA OCCIDENTALIS AND
SCIRTOTHRIPS DORSALIS
C.C. Chu1, M.A. Ciomperlik2, Niann-Tai Chang3, Marcus Richards4, Tian-Ye Chen1, Glenn
Fitzgerald5, Barbara Hefne 1, P. A. Alexander1, and T. J. Henneberry1. 1USDA ARS WCRL and
WCL5, 4135 E. Broadway Road, Phoenix, AZ 85040-8803; USDA APHIS PPQ CPHST2, Moore
Air Base, Bldg. S-6414, Route 3 Box 1014, Edinburg, TX 78541-9398; 3 NPTUST, Neipu,
Pingtung, Taiwan; and 4 Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Richmond Hill,
Kingstown, St. Vincent and The Grenadines4.
ABSTRACT: Studies were conducted to develop thrips traps for detecting and identifying
Scirtothrips dorsalis (Hood). Traps were developed in Arizona where Frankliniella occidentalis
(Pergande) are established in the field, and they were tested in southern Taiwan where S. dorsalis
thrips are found. Addition of a one square centimeter of dichlorvos (Vapona) pest strip as a
killing agent in CC traps increased the catches of western flower thrips 5-fold as compared to
standard CC traps. The increased thrips catches are attributed to increased mortality and
retention of thrips that entered the traps as opposed to increased attractiveness of the trap.
Average CC trap catches in Taiwan were 0.07 S. dorsalis per CC trap per week.
KEY WORDS: chilli thrips, western flower thrips, CC trap sticky traps, dichlorvos.
RSUM: Des tudes furent conduites afin de dvelopper un pige qui permet de dtecter et
didentifier le thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis (Hood). Le pige fut dvelopp en Arizona o le thrips
Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) est tabli et test dans le sud de Taiwan o S. dorsalis se
trouve. Lajout dun centimtre carr de lagent insecticide dichlorvos (Vapona) au pige CC a
permis dattraper un plus grand nombre de thrips 5X compar au pige standard. Cette
augmentation est attribue un plus haut taux de mortalit et rtention des individus qui entrent
dans le pige plutt qu une attirance accrue. Le nombre hebdomadaire moyen de S. dorsalis
attrapp par le pige CC Taiwan tait de 0.07.
INTRODUCTION
The objective of the study was to develop thrips traps that would be utilized by USDAAPHIS and Ministries of Agriculture in the Caribbean for detection and monitoring efforts for
Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). S. dorsalis is a new invasive thrips
species to the Western Hemisphere, recently detected in the Caribbean region (Skarlinsky 2003,
Ciomperlik and Seal 2004). During the course of developing whitefly traps in 1996-97 we found
that the trap, named the CC trap, also caught S. dorsalis when the trap base color was white,
yellow or green (Chu et al. 2000). We report here six of 14 experiments in which we tested the
efficacy of traps in Arizona where Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) thrips were established
in the field and tests in southern Taiwan where S. dorsalis thrips were found.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiments were conducted using a randomized complete block design with 4-10
replicates in F. occidentalis infested field crops in Arizona in 2004. The experiments were: 1)
blue and yellow sticky card traps in broccoli, 2) blue sticky card traps in cotton, 3) three different
151

trap base colors of CC trap in alfalfa, 4) thrips capture sites on individual CC trap parts using a
blue trap base (Figure 1), 5) CC traps with dichlorvos (Vapona) modification in alfalfa, and 6)
Vapona dispensers with a blue stripe modification in alfalfa. Subsequently the developed
traps were tested in a factorial randomized complete block experiment with 15 replicates for their
trapping efficacy for S. dorsalis in a lemon grove in Taiwan in 2004-05 (Figure 2).
Data were analyzed by season by ANOVA (Anonymous 1989) using Tukeys HSD for
mean separations for the comparison of three trap base color CC traps and orthogonal
comparison for the Blue-D vs. CC traps comparison.

1
2
3
4
5

External
Entrance
Internal
Plate
Cup inside

Fig. 1. CC trap with blue trap base. Numbers indicate different trap base surfaces.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Blue sticky card traps caught more F. occidentalis as compared to yellow (Table 1).
More F. occidentalis were caught on the 458 nm blue color cards than the 444 nm and 446 nm
blue colors (Table 2). White and blue trap base CC traps caught more F. occidentalis than the
yellow (Table 3). Over 80% of the F. occidentalis attracted by the blue colored CC trap base
stayed on the external base surface (Table 4). Inclusion of the one square centimeter Vapona
strip in the CC traps increased the catches of F. occidentalis by 5 fold (Table 5). The Vapona
dispenser modified with blue stripes caught more F. occidentalis than CC traps with the
Vapona cube and the non-modified Vapona disperser (Table 6).

152

Fig. 2. Vapona dispenser modification with blue stripe and sample collecting bag placed in the
upper canopy of a lemon tree in Neipu, Pingtung County, Taiwan.
Table 1. Seasonal mean numbers of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergrande) caught on blue and
yellow sticky card traps in a broccoli field, Maricopa, AZ 2004.

Sticky trap color

Spectrum reflectance
No. of thrips/193 cm2/wk
Blue 458 nm
167.5 a
Yellow
560 nm
69.0 b
a
Means not followed by the same letter are significantly different by t test, P = 0.05.
Table 2. Mean numbers of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergrande) caught on blue sticky card
traps with different peak wavelengths in a cotton field, Maricopa, AZ 2004.
Peak
No. thrips/200 cm2 blue sticky card trap/wk
st
wavelength
1
2nd
3rd
4th
Mean
a
63 b
31 c
15 b
40 c
444 nm
53 b
446 nm
616 a
190 b
157 b
126 b
272 b
458 nm
369 b
499 a
286 a
533 a
422 a
a
Means not followed by the same letter are significantly different by Tukeys HSD, P = 0.05.

Table 3. Mean numbers of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergrande) caught in white, blue and
yellow trap base CC traps in an alfalfa field, Maricopa, AZ, 2004.

153

No./CC trap/3-day
Trap base color Peak wavelength
8/9
8/12
8/15
a
White 430-700 nm154 a
108ab
209 a
Blue 448 nm 129 a
157 a
170 b
Yellow 610 700 nm16 b
31 b
59 c
a
Means in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different by Tukeys HSD,
P = 0.05.
Table 4. Mean numbers of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergrande) caught in an alfalfa field on
CC traps coated with Tanglefoot on different trap parts, Maricopa, AZ, 2004.
Tanglefoot
coating at
None 1.5 ba
External base
Entrance of base
Internal base
Deflector plate
Cup inside

1 day
0.5b
14.4 a
1.3 b
1.5 b
2.8 b
0.5 b

Cumulative no. /trap

4 days
6 days
0.8 b
0.5 b
85.8 a
97.3 a
1.3 b
6.5 b
0.3 b
1.0 b
4.0 b
2.5 b
1.0 b
4.8 b

8 days
113.8 a
11.3 b
3.0 b
2.0 b
8.5 b

Total 22.0
92.9
112.9
139.1
% for external base
65.5
92.4
86.2
81.8
a
Means in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different by Tukeys HSD,
P = 0.05.
Table 5. Mean numbers of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergrande) caught in CC traps contained
one cm2 Vapona cube in an alfalfa field, Maricopa, AZ, 2004.
No./CC trap/3-day
Vapona
7/15
7/16
7/19
7/20
7/21
Mean
No
2.1 b
1.2 b
15.8 b
9.4 b
16.2 b
8.9 b
Yes 15.8 a
19.6 a
70.1 a
46.1 a
56.2 a
41.6 a
a
Means in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different by Tukeys HSD,
P = 0.05.
Studies in Taiwan confirmed the efficacy of the Vapona dispenser modified with blue stripes in
catching S. dorsalis. The average CC trap catches was 0.07 S. dorsalis per trap per week,
which was nearly 20% of the average catches using the modified Vapona dispenser.
Both the white and yellow base color CC traps caught more S. dorsalis than the blue, but
the differences are not statistically significant. Both type of traps caught more
Frankliniella intonsa, Thrips hawaiiensis, and Megalurothrips usitatus than the catches
of S. dorsalis.
Table 6. Mean numbers of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergrande) caught in three different trap
types in an alfalfa field, Maricopa, AZ, 2004.

154

No./trap/day
8/26
41.8 b

Trap type
8/24
8/25
8/27
Mean
2PP
b
CC trap + one cmPP
11.2 a
53.4 b
23.9 a
32.6 b
Vapona strip
Vapona dispenser
6.0 b
60.3 b
75.2 a
8.4 a
37.5 b
Vapona dispenser
7.5 ab
113.5 a
80.6 a
12.0 a
53.4 a
+ blue strips
a
Means in column not followed by the same letter are significantly Tukeys HDS, Df = 2, 18, P =
0.05.
USDA, APHIS guidelines suggested survey in one square mile areas with 2,280 CC traps when
one or more adults were found at original infestation sites at the first delimiting survey
(USDA 2004). Thus, a total of 160 S. dorsalis would be caught in CC trap per week in
the area under conditions similar to those in southern Taiwan.
It appears that the CC trap can be used for detection, but not for monitoring S. dorsalis. Future
research for detecting and monitoring S. dorsalis should consider investigating alternative
traps, improvement of CC traps, S. dorsalis behavior, female sex pheromones and other
attractants.
REFERENCES CITED
Anonymous. 1989. MSTATC. A microcomputer program for the design, management, and
analysis of agronomic research experiments. Michigan State University.
Chu, C. C., P. J. Pinter, Jr., T. J. Henneberry, K. Umeda, and E. T. Natwick. Y.-A. Wei, V. R.
Reddy, and M. Shrepatis. 2000. Use of CC traps with different trap base colors for
silverleaf whiteflies (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae), thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), and
Leafhoppers (Homoptera: Cicadellidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 93:1329-1337.
Ciomperlik, M. A., and D. Seal. 2004. Surveys of St. Lucia and St. Vincent for Scirtothrips
dorsalis (Hood), Jan. 14-23, 2004. USDA APHIS PPQ, Technical Report. 19 pp.
Skarlinsky, T. L. 2003. Survey of St. Vincent pepper fields for Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood.
USDA, APHIS, PPQ. 5 pp.
USDA. 2004. New Pest Response Guidelines. Chilli Thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis. June 15, 2004.

155

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):156-160. 2005

FIELD TRIALS TESTING THE EFFICACY OF CC TRAPS FOR DETECTING AND
MONITORING SCIRTOTHRIPS DORSALIS (HOOD) IN HOT PEPPERS IN ST.
VINCENT.
M.A. Ciomperlik1 , M. Richards2, C.C. Chu3, and C. Cohen4. 1 USDA APHIS PPQ CPHST,
Moore Air Base, Bldg. S-6414, Route 3 Box 1014, Edinburg, TX
78541-9398,
2
Matt.A.Ciomperlik@aphis.usda.gov ; Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries,- St. Vincent and
the Grenadines, 3 USDA ARS WCRL, 4135 E. Broadway Road, Phoenix, AZ 85040-8803; and
4
Caribbean Area Director, USDA-APHIS, International Services, Central America & Caribbean
Region, American Embassy, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic Unit 5527, APO AA 34041.
ABSTRACT. Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) is a newly identified
invasive pest in the Caribbean, and poses a significant threat to agriculture and trade in the
region. Methods are needed to detect the presence and to monitor populations of this pest so that
they can be effectively managed. Studies were initiated during the wet season in 2004 and
continued in the dry season of 2005 to test CC traps designed for detecting and monitoring the
pest in hot peppers (Capsicum chinensis L.) under field conditions in St. Vincent. The
experiments test three different base color traps (blue, yellow and white), the addition of
dichlorvos (Vapona) as a killing agent, and the addition of ethylene glycol as an insect
preservative. Average weekly catches were low at 0.01 to 0.18 S. dorsalis per CC trap per week.
A sticky card trap (blue, yellow and white) experiment was also conducted in the dry season.
Average weekly catches on the yellow sticky card traps were 19.8 S. dorsalis per card per week.
The potential benefits and shortcomings of using either or both of these detection methods are
discussed.
KEY WORDS: Scirtothrips dorsalis, CC trap, sticky traps, thrips, trade, invasive species
RSUM. Le thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) est un ravageur qui a
rcemment envahi les Carabes et pose une menace importante sur lagriculture et le commerce
de la rgion. Des mthodes doivent tre dveloppes afin de dtecter sa prsence et suivre sa
population de prs pour ensuite le contrler efficacement. Une tude fut initie St-Vincent
pour tester le pige CC dans la culture de poivron fort (Capsicum chinensis L.). Cette tude
a dbut durant la saison humide de 2004 et sest poursuivie jusqu la saison sche de 2005.
Lexprience incluait des piges de trois couleurs diffrentes (bleu, jaune et blanc), lajout de
dicholovos (Vapona) comme agent insecticide, et lajout de propylne glycol pour prserver les
insectes. Le nombre moyen de S. dorsalis attrapp par semaine tait relativement bas, soit 0.01
0.18 individu par pige CC . Une autre exprience fut aussi ralise en saison sche pour
tester des cartes collantes de diffrentes couleurs (bleu, jaune et blanc). Le nombre moyen de
thrips retrouvs sur les cartes collantes jaunes tait de 19.8 individus/carte/semaine. Les
avantages et inconvnients dutilisation des deux mthodes de dtection sont discuts.
_____________________________

156

INTRODUCTION
Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) is a newly identified invasive pest
to the Caribbean (Skarlinsky 2003, Ciomperlik, M. A. and D. Seal 2004). It poses a significant
threat to agriculture and trade in the region (FNGA 2003). S. dorsalis is an economically
important pest of chili peppers and other crops, causing physical damage that can range from leaf
distortion, stunting and wilting of young leaves and shoots to total defoliation, with potentially
heavy crop loss (Ananthakrishnan 1993, CABI/EPPO 1997). The impacts of S. dorsalis vary
widely from season to season depending on weather factors, hosts, and population density
(Ananthakrishnan 1984).
Plant damage symptoms are not readily detectable when pest population densities are
low. Therefore, methods are needed to detect the presence and to monitor populations of the pest
so that they can be effectively managed. Objectives were to test the efficacy of traps developed
by Chu et al. (2005) for detecting and monitoring the pest thrips in commercial hot peppers
under field conditions, during both the wet and dry seasons in St. Vincent.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted in four commercial hot pepper fields that were infested
with S. dorsalis as well as Thrips palmi (Karny), Aeolothrips spp., and Phlaeothrip spp. The
experimental design was a randomized complete block design with five replicates. Treatments
were a complete randomization of CC trap base color (white, blue and yellow), with or without a
dichlorvos (Vapona) cube, and with or without ethylene glycol (12 treatments). A blue stripe
modified Vapona dispenser (B-Vapona) was the 13th treatment. Traps were hung approximately
22 cm below the plant terminals. Tests were conducted for six weeks during the wet season from
October to November in 2004 and four weeks during the dry season from March to April in
2005. CC traps were collected and replaced weekly during the experimental periods.
Sticky traps (yellow, white, and blue) were tested in the same two field locations as CC
traps during the dry season in 2005. Sticky traps were placed within the plant row at a height of
0.5 m, approximately 22 cm with the trap bottom below the plant terminals. The experimental
design was a randomized complete block design with 10 replicates. Sticky traps were collected
and replaced during the four week experimental period. Sticky traps were wrapped in clear
cellophane wrap, labeled, and returned to the laboratory for counting.
All data was analyzed by season by ANOVA (Anonymous 1989) using Tukeys HSD for
mean separations for the comparison of three trap base color CC traps and orthogonal
comparison for the Blue-D vs. CC traps comparison.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The numbers of S. dorsalis adults caught in CC traps were low, averaged 0.01 - 0.04 and
0.15 0.18/trap/wk for both the wet and dry seasons, respectively (Tables 1 and 2). Efficacy of
Vapona dispensers and Vapona cubes in catching S. dorsalis and other thrips species were
similar to results found in Taiwan (Chu et al. 2005). The addition of ethylene glycol to the CC
traps did help by preserving the catches, making identifications of the adult thrips much easier.
The CC traps are effective at detecting S. dorsalis and other thrips species.
The yellow sticky card traps caught an average of 19.80 S. dorsalis/trap/wk as compared
to 5.45 and 2.16 S. dorsalis/trap/wk for blue and white sticky card traps, respectively (Table 3).
Both the sticky card traps and the CC traps effectively captured S. dorsalis on pepper plants.
However, each type of trap has benefits that may require its use over the other trap type.
157

The CC trap readily captures adults that are well preserved and easily removed and stored
in ethanol for later taxonomic and genetic analysis. The sticky trap can capture more adult thrips
than the CC trap; however, they can also capture a large number of unwanted insects. In
addition, thrips that are captured on the sticky trap are not easily removed and stored for later
analyses. Sticky traps seem to be less labor intensive, require less component assembly and
therefore less expertise in trap placement than the CC traps.
Surveys to detect the presence of S. dorsalis may need to incorporate both trap types. A
scenario that uses sticky traps first to detect the pest, followed by the use of the appropriate
colored CC trap or direct plant sampling, would ultimately yield specimens that could be
submitted to taxonomic specialists for species verification.
REFERENCES CITED
Ananthakrishnan, T. N. 1993. Bionomics of thrips. Annual Review of Entomology 38: 71-92.
Anonymous. 1989. MSTATC. A microcomputer program for the design, management, and
analysis of agronomic research experiments. Michigan State Univ.
CABI/EPPO. 1997. Quarantine Pests for Europe, 2nd Ed. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Chu, C. C., M. A. Ciomperlik, N. T. Chang, M. Richards, T.-Y. Chen, G. Fitzgerald, B. Hefner,
P. A. Alexander, and T. J. Henneberry. 2005. Developing thrips traps for detecting
Scirtothrips dorsalis (Hood). Proc. 41st Annual Meeting of the Caribbean Food Crops
Society, Gosier, Guadeloupe (French West Indies), July 10 16, 2005, pp. .
Ciomperlik, M. A., and D. Seal. 2004. Surveys of St. Lucia and St. Vincent for Scirtothrips
dorsalis (Hood), Jan. 14-23, 2004. USDA APHIS PPQ, Technical Report. 19 pp.
FNGA. (Florida Nurserymen & Growers Association) 2003. Report of the Florida Nurserymen
& Growers Association Pest and Disease Task Force. May 15, 2003. 4 pp.
Skarlinsky, T. L. 2003. Survey of St. Vincent pepper fields for Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood.
USDA, APHIS, PPQ. 5 pp.

158

Table 1. Seasonal mean numbers of thrips caught in various candidate thrips traps in two
commercial chili pepper fields, Georgetown, St. Vincent wet season from 14 October to
29 November 2004.

Variable
Dichlorvos
Blue-D vs. CC traps
B-Vaponaa
CC traps
CC trapsb
White
Blue
Yellow
Yes
No

No./trap/wk
T. palmi
Aeolothrips

S. dorsalis

Phaleothrips

0.00 ac
0.02 a

0.47 a
0.08 b

0.71 a
0.11 b

0.82 a
0.15 b

0.02 a
0.03 a
0.02 a

0.09 ab
0.10 a
0.03 b

0.10 ab
0.20 a
0.03 b

0.11 b
0.24 a
0.09 b

0.02 a
0.03 a

0.12 a
0.03 b

0.17 a
0.06 b

0.22 a
0.07 b

White
Yes
0.02 a
0.17 a
0.13 a
0.15 a
White
No
0.02 a
0.02 b
0.08 a
0.07 a
Blue
Yes
0.02 a
0.18 a
0.32 a
0.36 a
Blue
No
0.03 a
0.03 b
0.09 a
0.11 a
Yellow
Yes
0.02 a
0.02 b
0.06 a
0.16 a
Yellow
No
0.03 a
0.04 a
0.00 a
0.03 a
a
Dichlorvos dispenser + blue stripes.
b
CC-trap base color.
c
Means not followed by the same letter are significantly different by orthogonal comparison for
B-Vapona vs. CC traps and by Tukeys HSD for CC trap treatment, P = 0.05. Means of ethylene
glycol treatment was higher than control sometimes. Means of three way interactions were not
significantly different.

159

Table 2. Seasonal mean numbers of thrips caught in various candidate thrips traps in two
commercial chili pepper fields, Georgetown, St. Vincent dry season from 23 March to
13 April 2005.

Variable
Dichlorvos
Blue-D vs. CC traps
B-Vaponab
CC traps
CC traps
White
Blue
Yellow
Yes
No

No./trap/wk
T. palmi
Aeolothrips

S. dorsalis

Phaleothrips

0.08 ac
0.11 a

1.44 a
0.44 b

0.25 a
0.10 a

0.40 a
0.13 b

0.07 a
0.16 a
0.11 a

0.59 a
0.56 a
0.16 b

0.09 ab
0.18 a
0.03 b

0.13 ab
0.20 a
0.05 b

0.16 a
0.07 b

0.70 a
0.18 b

0.18 a
0.02 b

0.23 a
0.03 b

White
Yes
0.09 b
0.98 a
0.16 b
0.24 ab
White
No
0.05 b
0.21 b
0.03 b
0.03 c
Blue
Yes
0.28 a
0.94 a
0.34 a
0.38 a
Blue
No
0.04 b
0.18 b
0.03 b
0.03 c
Yellow
Yes
0.12 ab
0.18 b
0.05 b
0.00 c
Yellow
No
0.11 ab
0.00 b
0.00 b
0.00 b
a
Dichlorvos dispenser + blue stripes.
b
CC-trap base color.
c
Means not followed by the same letter are significantly different by orthogonal comparison for
B-Vapona vs. CC traps and by Tukeys HSD for CC trap treatment, P = 0.05. Means of ethylene
glycol treatment was higher than control sometimes. Means of three way interactions were not
significantly different.
Table 3. Seasonal mean numbers of thrips caught in white, blue, and yellow sticky card traps in
two commercial chili pepper fields, Georgetown, St. Vincent dry season from 23 March
to 13 April 2005.
Sticky trap
No./trap/wk
color
S. dorsalis
T. palmi
Aeolothrips
Phaleothrips
a
10.84 b
1.87 b
1.80 b
White
2.16 c
Blue
5.45 b
34.85 a
11.18 a
18.97 a
Yellow
19.80 a
9.54 b
2.03 b
3.29 b
a
Means not followed by the same letter are significantly different by Tukeys HSD, P = 0.05 and
df = 2 or 182, 44. Means of three way interactions were not significantly different.

160

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):161-169. 2005

EVALUATION OF VARIOUS INSECTICIDES IN CONTROLLING CHILLI THRIPS,
Scirtothrips dorsalis HOOD (THYSANOPTERA: THRIPIDAE), ON PEPPER
D. R. Seal1, M. Ciomperlik2, M. L. Richards3, and W. Klassen1. 1University of Florida-IFAS,
Tropical Research and Education Center, Homestead, FL 33033 USA, DRSeal@ifas.ufl.edu ;
2
USDA APHIS PPQ CPHST, Pest Detection Diagnostics and Management Laboratory, 22675 N.
Moorefield Rd., Bldg. 6414, Edinburg, TX 78541-9398; Matt.A.Ciomperlik@aphis.usda.gov , 3
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, St. Vincent, Richmond Hill, Kingstown, St. Vincent and
the Grenadines.
ABSTRACT: The chilli thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, reproduces on 112 taxa of plants and
is an important pest of various vegetable tropical fruit and ornamental crops. It originated in
Asia, and in recent years has become widely distributed in tropical, subtropical and temperate
areas in Eastern Hemisphere. In 2003 S. dorsalis for the first time was found in the Western
Hemisphere established on St. Lucia and St. Vincent in the insular Caribbean. Since there is a
paucity of information on the effectiveness of modern insecticides in managing S. dorsalis
populations, we evaluated the efficacy of the following materials applied to Scotch Bonnet
pepper on St. Vincent: spinosad, imidacloprid, chlorfenapyr, novaluron, abamectin,
spiromesifen, cyfluthrin, methiocarb, and azadirachtin. Chlorfenapyr provided significant
reduction of S. dorsalis adults and larvae with or without addition of a surfactant. Spinosad and
imidacloprid also reduced S. dorsalis populations, but not as effectively as chlorofenapyr. Other
insecticides applied just once for the control of S. dorsalis populations performed inconsistently;
but these materials may be effective when applied multiple times.
KEYWORDS. Scirtothrips dorsalis, pepper, insecticides, chlorfenapyr, spinosad,
RSUM:Les thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, est un parasite important de 112 taxa des
usines comportant du divers fruit tropical vgtal et des rcoltes ornementales. Il a provenu de
l'Asie, et de devenir plus tard largement distribu dans des secteurs tropicaux, subtropicaux et
temprs dans l'hmisphre oriental. En 2003 le S. dorsalis ont t trouvs pour la premire fois
dans l'hmisphre occidental tabli sur la St. Lucia et la St. Vincent dans les Carabes insulaires.
Puisqu'il y a un manque d'information sur l'efficacit des insecticides modernes en contrlant des
populations de S. dorsalis, nous avons valu l'efficacit des insecticides suivants pour leur
commande de ce parasite poivre sur de ` capot cossais 'sur la St. Vincent : le spinosad,
imidacloprid, chlorfenapyr, novaluron, abamectin, spiromesifen, cyfluthrin, methiocarb, et
azadirachtin. Rduction significative fournie par chlorfenapyr d'adultes et de larves de S. dorsalis
avec ou sans toute addition de surfactantan. Spinosad et imidacloprid ont galement rduit la
population de S. dorsalis, mais pas aussi efficace que le chlorofenapyr. L'excution d'autres
insecticides en commandant des populations de S. dorsalis tait contradictoire; mais peut tre
efficace en commandant des S. dorsalis aprs application multiple.
INTRODUCTION
Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood is a pest of various vegetable, ornamental and fruit crops in
southern and eastern Asia, Africa, and Oceania (Ananthakrishnan 1993, CABI/EPPO 1997, CAB
2003). Plants in 112 taxa are reported to be the hosts of S. dorsalis. It is a major pest of chillies
(Ramakrishna Ayyar 1932; Ramakrishna Ayyar and Subbiah 1935) and Arachis (Amin 1979,
161

1980) in India, and of sacred lotus in Thailand (Mound and Palmer 1981). In Japan S. dorsalis is
a pest of tea and citrus (Kodomari 1978). Among the economically important hosts of this pest
listed by Venette and Davis (2004) are banana, bean, cashew, castor, corn, citrus, cotton, cocoa,
cotton, eggplant, grapes, kiwi, litchi, longan, mango, melon, onion, passion fruit, peach, peanut,
pepper, poplar, rose, sacara, soybean, strawberry, sweet potato, tea, tobacco, tomato, and wild
yams (Dioscorea spp.). One or more S. dorsalis life stages occurs on all above-the-ground plant
parts of its hosts, and causes scarring damage due to its feeding (Chang et al. 1995).
The Florida Nurserymen and Growers Association considers S. dorsalis as one of the
thirteen most dangerous exotic pest threats to the industry (FNGA 2003). Venette and Davis
(2004) projected the potential geographic distribution of S. dorsalis in North America to extend
from southern Florida to north of the Canadian boundary, as well as to Puerto Rico and the entire
Caribbean region. This suggests that this pest could also become widely established in South
America and Central America. S. dorsalis is a vector of various viral and bacterial diseases. It
transmits bud necrosis disease and chlorotic fan spot virus of peanuts, and is a weak vector of
tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) (Amin et al. 1981; Mound and Palmer 1981; Ananthakrishnan
1993).
An efficient detection method would be an important tool in developing successful
management practices of S. dorsalis. Various methods have been employed by entomologists to
determine the presence of S. dorsalis (Bagle 1993, Gowda et al.1979, Suwanbutr et al. 1992,
Takagi 1978, Okada and Kudo 1982a, Saxena et al. 1996, and Tsuchiya et al. 1995). Recently,
Chu et al. (2005) evaluated the effectiveness of a non-sticky trap illuminated with a lightemitting diode in capturing S. dorsalis and other thrips. The current study is as an aspect of a
cooperative program with the ultimate goal of developing an effective management program
against S. dorsalis. Specifically we studied effectiveness of various insecticides against S.
dorsalis and their effects on a predator of this pest.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Four studies were conducted to determine effectiveness of various insecticides in
controlling S. dorsalis on `Scotch Bonnet pepper on St. Vincent. Two studies (Studies 1 & 2)
were conducted on Williams Farms, Georgetown, St. Vincent in October, 2004 (rainy season).
Subsequently in March 2005 Study 3 was conducted on Williams Farms and Study 4 on Baptiste
Farms. To conduct these studies, `Scotch Bonnet pepper was planted using standard cultural
practices recommended for Saint Vincent.
In Studies 1 & 2, insecticides were applied singly. In each study treatment plots
consisted of a segment of a pepper row 456 cm long and 122 cm wide. Treatments in these
studies were: 1) spinosad (511 ml ha-1; Spintor 2 SC, Dow AgroSciences, Indianapolis, IN
46268-1054; 2) imidacloprid (274 ml ha-1; Provado 1.6F; Bayer CropScience, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27709); 3) chlorfenapyr (731 ml ha-1; Alert 2F, BASF Corporation, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27709); 4) novaluron (731 ml ha-1; Diamond 0.83 SC; Crompton Crop
Protection, Middlebury, CT 06749); 5) abamectin (731 ml ha-1; Agrimek 0.15EC; Syngenta
Crop Production, Inc., Greensboro, NC 27419); 6) azadirachtin (511 ml ha-1; Neemix 4.5,
Certis USA LLC, Columbia, MD 21046-1952); and 7) a nontreated control. In each study,
treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications.
Treatments were applied using a backpack sprayer delivering 935 l ha-1 at 206.8 kPa.
Treatments were evaluated 24 h after each application by collecting at random 5 growing tips per
plot, one tip per plant, each consisting of three young leaves. The samples were placed
individually in a ziplock bag and taken to the laboratory for further study. Leaves were washed
with 70% ethanol to separate thrips from leaves. Identifications of adult and larval thrips were
162

based on the morphology of adult and larval forms and their identities were confirmed with
recent taxonomic keys (Mound and Kibby 1998).
In 2005 on both farms pepper plants were grown in soil covered with plastic mulch and
irrigated using drip tubes on as needed basis. All other cultural practices were as in previous
studies. Treatments evaluated on Williams Farms were: 1) three rates of chlorfenapyr (438, 585,
731 ml ha-1, Pylon 2F; BASF Corporation, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709); 2) spinosad
(511 ml ha-1; SpintorTM 2SC); 3) imidacloprid (274 ml ha-1; Provado 1.6F); 4) abamectin (731
ml ha-1; Agrimek 0.15EC); 5) spiromesifen (621 ml ha-1; Oberon 2 SC; Bayer CropScience,
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709); 6) cyfluthrin (274 ml ha-1; Baythroid 2, Bayer
CropScience, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709); 8) methiocarb (1169 ml ha-1; Mesurol 75-W;
Gowan Company, Yuma, AZ 85366) and 9) a nontreated check. All other materials and
procedures were as in the 2004 studies. In Baptiste Farms, in addition to all treatments used in
Williams Farms, chlorfenapyr (731 ml ha-1; Alert); and methiocarb (1169 ml ha-1; Mesurol75W; Gowan Company) were evaluated.
Statistical Analysis. Data on the effectiveness of various insecticides were analyzed using
software provided by Statistical Analysis System (release 6.03, SAS Institute Inc. Cary, NC;
SAS Institute, 1988).General linear model procedures were used to perform the analysis of
variance. Means were separated with Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the first study in 2004 all insecticides significantly reduced S. dorsalis adults (P >
0.05) 24 h after the first application when compared with the nontreated control (Table 1). First
and second instar larvae were also significantly reduced by the various insecticide treatments (P
< 0.05)). At 96 h after the first application, the mean numbers of adults were lower on
chlorfenapyr (Alert) and imidacloprid (Provado) treated plants than on nontreated plants (P <
0.05) (Table 2). However the level of suppression by chlorfenapyr and imidacloprid did not
differ significantly from that of novaluron and of abamectin. Chlorfenapyr significantly reduced
first and second instars when compared with the nontreated control (P < 0.05). Mean numbers of
second instar in other treatments were significantly fewer than in the nontreated control.
Azadirachtin did not reduce S. dorsalis population in this study.
In the second study in 2004 (Field 2), chlorofenapyr significantly reduced all
development stages of S. dorsalis when compared with the nontreated control (Table 3).
Significant fewer numbers of S. dorsalis development stages were recorded on plants treated
with imidacloprid , spinosad and abamectin than on the nontreated control plants. The
performance of novaluron and azadirachtin in controlling various development stages of S.
dorsalis did not differ from nontreated control.
In the third study conducted in March 2005 (rainy season), imidacloprid consistently
reduced S. dorsalis adults and larvae when compared with the nontreated control (Table 4).
Although inconsistent, chlorfenapyr (585 and 731 ml ha-1), spinosad, and abamectin reduced S.
dorsalis population after the second application. Spiromesifen and azadirachtin did not reduce S.
dorsalis populations.
In the fourth study (Table 5) conducted in March 2005 (rainy season), all formulations
and rates of chlorofenapyr, spinosad and abamectin significantly reduced S. dorsalis adults and
larvae in the two sampling dates (March 26 and 30). However spiromesifen, cyfluthrin and
methiocarb did not reduce S. dorsalis adults and larvae.
In conclusion chlorfenapyr was the most effective in reducing the densities of S. dorsalis
adults and larvae followed by spinosad and imidacloprid. The performance of other insecticides

163

in controlling S. dorsalis populations was somewhat inconsistent. Nevertheless all of the above
insecticides when applied repeatedly were effective in suppressing of S. dorsalis populations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are very grateful to the Plant Quarantine Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and
Labour, Kingstown, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines for the use of laboratory facilities, local
transportation and arrangements with growers. This study could not have been accomplished
without the facilitation and encouragement of Mr. Philmore Isaacs, Chief Agricultural Officer.
Also we are grateful to Mr. Emil Williams and Mr. Lauron Baptiste for allowing us to conduct
the studies on their farms. Financial resources and guidance were provided by the Animal and
Plant Health Inspection Service, USDA through the leadership of Dr. Daniel A. Fieselmann,
National Science Program Leader and Ms. Carolyn T Cohen, Caribbean Area Director. In
addition financial support was provided by the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station and the
University of Floridas Center for Tropical Agriculture.
REFERENCES
Amin, B. W. 1979. Leaf fall disease of chilly and pepper in Maharashtra, India. Pans, 25: 131134.
Amin, B. W. 1980. Techniques for handling thrips as vectors of Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus and
Yellow Spot Virus of groundnut, Arachis hypogea L. Occasional Paper. Groundnut
Entomology ICRISAT, 80(2): 1-20.
Amin, P. W., Reddy, D. V. R., Ghanekar, A. M. 1981. Transmission of tomato spotted wilt virus,
the causal agent of bud necrosis of peanut, by Scirtothrips dorsalis and Frankliniella
schultzei. Plant Disease 65: 663-665.
Ananthakrishnan, T. N. 1993. Bionomics of thrips. Annual Review of Entomology 38: 71-92.
Bagle, B. G. 1993. Seasonal incidence and control of Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood in pomegranate.
Indian Journal of Entomology 55: 148-153.
CAB. 2003. Crop protection compendium: global module. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.
CABI/EPPO. 1997. Quarantine Pests for Europe, 2nd Ed. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.
Chang, N. T., Parkeker, B. L., Skinner, M., Lewis, T. 1995. Major pest thrips in Taiwan, pp.
105 108, Thrips biology and management: Proceedings of the 1993 International
Conference on Thysanoptera. Plenum Press, New York.
Chu, C.C., M. A. Ciomperlik, N.N Chang, M. Richards, and T. J. Henneberry. 2005.
Developing and evaluating traps for monitoring Scirtothrips dorsalis (Hood). Florida
Entomologist. (Submitted.)
FNGA. (Florida Nurserymen &Growers Association). 2003. The unlucky 13. Report of the
Major Nursery Pest & Disease Identification Task Force. Florida Nursery Growers, and
Landscape Association, Orlando, Florida, USA. 1 p.
Gowda, G., Ramada, E., Reddy, C. V. K. 1979. Scirtothrips dorsalis (Hood) (Thysanoptera;
Terebrantia: Thripidae) a new pest on cashew (Anacardium occidentale L). Current
Research 8: 116-117.
Kodomari, S. 1978. Control of yellow tea thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, in tea field at east
region in Shizuoka Prefecture. Tea Research Journal, No. 48: 46-51.
Mound, L. A., Palmer, J. M. 1981. Identification, distribution and host plants of the pest species
of Scirtothrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Bulletin of Entomological Research 71: 467479.

164

Okada, T., and I. Kudo. 1982a. Relative abundance and phenology of Thysanoptera in a tea field.
Japanese Journal of Applied Entomology and Zoology 26: 96Ramakrishna Ayyar, TV. 1932. Bionomics of some thrips injurious to cultivated plants in South
India, Agriculture and Livestock, India, Delhi, 391-403.
Ramakrishna Ayyar, TV and Subbiah, MS. 1935. The leaf curl disease of chillies caused by
thrips in the Guntur and Madura tracks. The Madras Agricultural Journal, 23: 403-410.
Saxena, P., Vijayaraghavan, M. R., Sarbhoy, R. K., Raizada, U. 1996. Pollination and gene flow
in chillies with Scirtothrips dorsalis as pollen vectors. Phytomorphology 46: 317-327.
Seal, D. R. 2001. Seasonal abundance and distribution of Thrips palmi Karny (Thysanoptera:
Thripidae) in southern Florida. Proc. Fla. Hort. Soc. 114: 337-342.
Seal, D. R., Stansly, P. A. 2000. Seasonal abundance and within plant distribution of melon
thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on beans in southern Florida. Proc. Fla. Hort. Soc. 113:
201-205.
Seal, D. R., M. Ciomperlik, M. L. Richards and W. Klassen. 2005. Distribution of the Chilli
thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), within pepper plants and
within pepper fields on St. Vincent. Florida Entomologist (submitted).
Suwanbutr, S., Tongklad, C., Uhnchit, W., Thayamanon, P., Witthayarug, W. Khewpoompung,
P. 1992. A field trial on the efficacy of some insecticides for controlling thrips attacking
pummelo. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Fruit: Frontier in
Tropical Fruit Research. Pattaya City, Thailand, 20-24 May 1991. Acta Horticulturae
321: 876-881.
Takagi, K. 1978. Trap for monitoring adult parasites of the tea pest. Japanese Agricultural
Research Quarterly 12: 99-103.
Tsuchiya, M., Masui, S. Kuboyama, N. 1995. Color attraction of yellow tea thrips (Scirtothrips
dorsalis Hood). Japanese Journal of Applied Entomology and Zoology 39: 299-303.
Venette, R.C., Davis, E. E.2004. Chilli thrips/yellow thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood
(Thysanoptera: Thripidae) Mini Pest Risk Assessment. Univ. of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN,
USA. 31 pp.

165

Table 1. Mean numbers of S. dorsalis on pepper treated once with various insecticides in Field 1
of Williams Farms at 24 h after application in October, 2004.
Mean numbers of S. dorsalis
Treatments

Rate ml ha-1 Adults 1st Instar 2nd Instar

Spinosad

511

0.50bc 0.00b

0.50b

Imidacloprid

274

1.50bc 0.25b

0.25b

Chlorfenapyr (Alert) 731

0.00c

0.25b

0.50b

Novaluron

731

2.50b

0.00b

1.00b

Abamectin

731

1.50bc 0.00b

0.25b

Azadirachtin

511

2.50b

0.50b

1.75b

6.25a

3.75a

6.00a

Control

Means within a column followed by the same letter do not differ significantly (P > 0.05;
DMRT).
Table 2. Mean numbers of S. dorsalis on pepper treated once with various insecticides in Field 1
of Williams Farms at 96 h after application in October, 2004.
Mean numbers of S. dorsalis
Treatments

Rate ml ha-1 Adults

1st Instar 2nd Instar

Spinosad

511

3.75ab

8.50b

2.00b

Imidacloprid

274

0.50c

16.00ab

1.50b

Chlorfenapyr (Alert) 731

0.25c

0.00c

0.00b

Novaluron

731

1.50a-c 27.50ab

3.75b

Abamectin

731

1.25bc

25.50ab

2.25b

Azadirachtin

511

5.25a

43.75a

10.75b

4.50a

22.75ab

21.00a

Control

Means within a column followed by the same letter do not differ significantly (P > 0.05;
DMRT).

166

Table 3. Mean numbers of S. dorsalis on pepper treated with various insecticides in Field 2 of
Williams Farms at 24 h after the 1st application in October, 2004.
Mean numbers of S. dorsalis larvae
Treatments

Rate ml ha-1 Adults Small larvae Large larvae Total larvae

Spinosad

511

2.00ab 5.00c-e

0.50bc

5.50bc

Imidacloprid

274

4.50a

0.50de

2.50bc

3.00bc

Chlorfenapyr (Alert) 731

0.25b

0.00e

0.00c

0.00c

Novaluron

731

1.50ab 27.50ab

3.75a-c

31.25a-c

Abamectin

731

1.25b

25.50a-c

2.25bc

27.75bc

Azadirachtin

511

5.25a

43.75a

10.75a

54.50a

4.50a

7.75b-d

5.00ab

12.75ab

Control

Means within a column followed by the same letter do not differ significantly (P > 0.05;
DMRT).
Table 4. Mean numbers of S. dorsalis adults and larvae on pepper treated with various
insecticides on Williams Farms in March 2005 at 24 h after each of two applications
separated by 4 days.
Mean numbers of S. dorsalis
Adults
Treatments

Larvae

Rate ml ha-1 March 24 March 29 March 24 March 29

Chlorfenapyr (Pylon 2F) 731

1.00bc

1.33b

4.33a

0.00b

Chlorfenapyr (Pylon 2F) 585

0.67bc

4.33ab

1.67ab

6.00ab

Chlorfenapyr (Pylon 2F) 438

1.67ab

2.00ab

2.00ab

0.00b

Spinosad

511

0.00c

0.33b

0.67ab

0.33b

Imidacloprid

274

0.00c

1.33b

0.00b

0.00b

Abamectin

731

0.67bc

2.00ab

0.67ab

0.67b

Spiromesifen

621

1.67ab

8.33a

3.00ab

10.33a

Cyfluthrin

205

1.67ab

7.33a

1.67ab

6.00ab

3.00a

7.67a

3.33ab

6.00ab

Control

Means within a column followed by the same letter do not differ significantly (P > 0.05;
DMRT).

167

Table 5. Mean numbers of S. dorsalis on pepper treated with various insecticides on Baptiste
Farms in March 2005at 24 h after each of two applications separated by 4 days.
Mean numbers of S. dorsalis
Adults

Larvae

Rate ml ha-1 March 26 March 30 March 26 March 30

Treatments

Chlorfenapyr (Pylon 2F) 731

2.00bc

0.25bc

1.00e

0.50d

Chlorfenapyr (Pylon 2F) 585

2.75bc

0.25bc

11.25b-d

4.50cd

Chlorfenapyr (Pylon 2F) 438

3.75b

0.75bc

7.00d

10.00bc

Chlorfenapyr (Alert)

731

0.00d

0.00c

0.00e

0.50d

Spinosad

511

0.75cd

0.75bc

1.00e

0.50d

Imidacloprid

274

0.50cd

0.50bc

0.25e

0.75d

Abamectin

731

2.25bc

2.00b

8.00cd

0.75d

Spiromesifen

621

10.00a

10.75a

30.50a

17.25ab

Cyfluthrin

205

11.75a

11.75a

19.00b

20.00a

Methiocarb

1169

12.00a

8.75a

11.25bc

14.25ab

10.50a

8.50a

17.75b

13.00ab

Control

Means within a column followed by the same letter do not differ significantly (P > 0.05;
DMRT).

168

Table 6. Mean numbers of Cryptolaimus sp. on pepper before and after treatment with various
insecticides on Williams Farms in March 2005.
Mean numbers of Cryptolaimus sp.
Before spraying
Treatments

Rate ml ha-1 Live

After spraying
Live

Dead

Chlorfenapyr (Pylon 2F) 731

0.87

0.37 c-e

0.10c

Chlorfenapyr (Pylon 2F) 585

0.77

0.50b-d

0.03c

Chlorfenapyr (Pylon 2F) 438

0.57

0.67a-c

0.07c

Spinosad

511

0.63

0.77ab

0.07c

Imidacloprid

274

0.90

0.03e

4.73a

Abamectin

731

0.57

0.57a-c

0.20c

Spiromesifen

621

0.83

0.13de

0.33c

Cyfluthrin

205

0.73

0.10e

0.90b

1.00

1.00a

0.03c

Control

Means within a column followed by the same letter do not differ significantly (P > 0.05;
DMRT).

169

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):170. 2005

REPORT ON THE CURRENT STATUS OF INTRODUCED SPECIES OF
ACHATINIDAE AND OTHER ECONOMICALLY SNAIL AND SLUG PESTS IN THE
EASTERN CARIBBEAN.
David G. Robinson1 & H. Angela Fields2. 1 USDA APHIS PPQ / Academy of Natural Sciences,
Philadelphia, PA 19103, USA, robinson@ansp.org; 2 Department of Biological & Chemical
Sciences, University of the West Indies, Cave Hill, Barbados;
ABSTRACT: The introduction of three species of the Achatinidae, Achatina fulica Bowdich
1822, Archachatina marginata (Swainson 1821) and Limicolaria aurora (Jay 1839) into the
Eastern Caribbean is documented. The giant African snail, Achatina fulica, was deliberately
introduced to Guadeloupe circa 1984. From Guadeloupe the snail was spread to Martinique by
1988 and to Saint Martin and Marie-Galante in 1995. Populations in both Guadeloupe and
Martinique peaked in the 1990s and subsequently have fallen to relatively stable levels. Prior to
2000, A. fulica was introduced into Saint Lucia and from there to Barbados in early 2000. On
both these islands, populations of the species are increasing exponentially and spreading across
the islands, despite the efforts of the local ministries of agriculture. Archachatina marginata was
introduced from Benin to the Saint Joseph area in Martinique in 1987, but the species has not
been found since; surveys in early 2005 did not detect its presence. Limicolaria aurora was
introduced into Martinique in 1988, and is slowly extending its distribution through central
Martinique, in some areas replacing populations of A. fulica. The current status and distribution
of three pest veronicellid slugs, Veronicella sloanei (Cuvier 1817), Veronicella cubensis (Pfeiffer
1840) and Sarasinula plebeia (Fischer 1868) is also documented, together with that of three
other pest snails, Zachrysia provisoria (Pfeiffer 1858), Bradybaena similaris (Rang 1831) and
Amphibulima patula dominicensis Pilsbry 1899. Their potential impact on agriculture and the
environment in the Eastern Caribbean is discussed.
KEY WORDS: Giant African snail, veronicellid slugs, impact on agriculture

170

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):171-180. 2005

A PEER REVIEWED PAPER
MITIGATING THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS AND THREATS OF THE CACTUS
MOTH, CACTOBLASTIS CACTORUM (LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE), TO NATIVE
AND CULTIVATED CACTUS IN THE CARIBBEAN AND MEXICO
Mayra Perez Sandi1 Cuen and Helmuth2 G. Zimmermann. 1 20 de Agosto 53/15 San Diego
Churubusco, Coyoacan 04120 Mexico D.F., rayma@mx.inter.net and 2 Helmuth Zimmermann
and Associates. Pretoria South Africa, helmuthzim@netactive.co.za .
ABSTRACT: The cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum has become the textbook example of
successful biological weed control of invasive Opuntia species in many countries, including
some Caribbean islands. However it has now turned, and is now threatening not only the
lucrative cactus pear industry in Mexico, but also the rich diversity of all Opuntia species in most
of the North America mainland. The moth is now present on most Caribbean islands as a
consequence of either deliberate or accidental introductions by man or by means of natural
spread. Although there is convincing evidence that Cactoblastis reached Florida through the
nursery trade, there also exists the possibility of natural spread by means of cyclonic weather
patterns. The different pathways that could result in the arrival of the moth in Mexico are
analyzed. With few exceptions, little is known of the impacts of the cactus moth on the native
Opuntia species in the Caribbean. The main target species, namely Opuntia triacantha and O.
dillenii have become very scarce and may now need protection status. The long-term impact on
non-target species is unknown but some species may have been drastically affected. Recently
regional and international efforts have been launched to prevent the further spread of
Cactoblastis to the species rich native Opuntiae flora of the southern United States and of
Mexico. These include an intensive monitoring program of resident populations at the leading
edge near the Florida/Alabama borders and monitoring of large cultivated plantations in Mexico,
which are focal points for possible early invasions. An awareness campaign that sensitizes
farmers and government officials to the insect and its damage is aimed at interception and early
detection to allow eradication in the event of establishment in Mexico. Research also is
underway in Florida to develop an SIT (Sterile Insect Technique) program to halt the westward
spread of the moth and to create a biological barrier. The involvement and co-operation of plant
health and quarantine personnel in these Caribbean islands has become crucial in the campaign
to keep Cactoblastis out of Mexico.
KEY WORDS: endangered species, awareness campaign, early detection, quarantine,
eradication, trade, cyclonic weather patterns, pathways of invasion
RSUM. Le papillon de nuit du cactus, Cactoblastis cactorum qui est devenu l'exemple du
manuel scolaire de contrle de la mauvaise herbe biologique d'espce prospre Opuntia
envahissante dans plusieurs pays, y compris dans quelques les antillaises, a maintenant apparu,
et nest maintenant pas seulement une menace l'industrie de la poire du cactus lucrative au
Mexique, mais aussi la diversit riche de toute l'espce Opuntia dans la plupart des terres
d'Amrique du nord. Le papillon de nuit est maintenant prsent sur la plupart des les antillaises
par suite d'introductions soit dlibres soit accidentelles par homme ou par les moyens de
distribution naturelle. Bien qu'il y ait l'vidence persuasive que Cactoblastis a atteint la Floride

171

travers le commerce de la crche, l aussi existe la possibilit d'tendue naturelle au moyen de

modles du temps cycloniques. Avec peu d'exceptions, on connat trs peu sur des impacts du
papillon de nuit du cactus sur l'espce Opuntia autochtone et cultiv dans les Carabes. Les
efforts rgionaux et internationaux ont t lancs rcemment pour prvenir l'tendue
supplmentaire de Cactoblastis aux diversits riches d'Opuntiae autochtones du Mexique et de
tous les tats du sud des tats-Unis. Ceux-ci incluent un programme d'coute intensif de
populations rsidantes la pointe prs du Florida/Alabama encadre et diriger de grandes
plantations cultives au Mexique qui est des points focaux pour les premires invasions
possibles. Une campagne de la conscience qui sensibilise des fermiers et des fonctionnaires du
gouvernement sur l'insecte et ses dgts est vise sur linterception et la dcouverte temps pour
autoriser l'radication dans l'vnement d'tablissement au Mexique. La recherche va bientt tre
en chemin en Floride pour dvelopper un TIS (Technique dInsecte Strile) pour faite arrter
l'tendue vers l'ouest, et avec optimisme, pour la pointe l'est et pour limiter des populations
dans la pninsule de la Floride. Cette tendue vers dvaluer les risques et tudier les voies
d'invasion de certaines les antillaises vers les terres mexicaines. La participation et coopration
du personnel phytosanitaire dans ces les antillaises sont devenues cruciales dans la campagne
pour laisser Cactoblastis hors du Mexique.
RESUMEN. La palomilla del nopal, Cactoblastis cactorum, que en cierto momento en los libros
de texto se convirti en el exitoso ejemplo de control biolgico de maleza para combatir las
especies de Opuntia invasoras en muchos pases, incluyendo algunas islas del Caribe, en la
actualidad se ha convertido en una amenaza no slo para la lucrativa industria del nopal de
Mxico, sino tambin para la rica diversidad de especies de Opuntia en la mayor parte de Norte
Amrica. Actualmente, la palomilla est presente en la mayora de las islas caribeas como
consecuencia tanto de la introduccin accidental o deliberada por parte del hombre como por
medios de propagacin naturales. A pesar de que existe evidencia convincente de que el
Cactoblastis lleg a la Florida como consecuencia del comercio de plantas de vivero, tambin
existe la posibilidad de la propagacin natural inducida por los eventos meteorolgicos como los
ciclones. Salvo algunas excepciones, se desconoce el dao que la palomilla del nopal causa en
las especies de Opuntia nativas y cultivadas en el Caribe. Recientemente, se han iniciado
acciones regionales e internacionales para prevenir la propagacin del Cactoblastis hacia la rica
diversidad de las Opuntia nativas de Mxico y de los estados del sur de Estados Unidos. Estas
acciones incluyen un programa de vigilancia intensiva y permanente de las poblaciones de
Opuntia cercanas al lmite que separa a los estados de Florida y Alabama donde se encuentra el
Cactoblastis, as como la vigilancia de enormes plantaciones en Mxico que son los puntos
focalizados de una posible invasin. Una campaa para que los productores y las autoridades
gubernamentales tomen conciencia de la gravedad del problema y sus consecuencias negativas
con el objeto de interceptar y detectar tempranamente esta plaga de manera que sea posible su
erradicacin en caso de que llegue a Mxico. En la Florida est en marcha una investigacin para
el desarrollo de la TIE (Tcnica del Insecto Estril) para detener la propagacin del insecto hacia
el oeste y, contenerla en la pennsula de la Florida. Es igualmente importante evaluar los riesgos
y estudiar las vas de invasin desde algunas islas caribeas hacia el territorio mexicano. La
participacin y cooperacin del personal fitosanitario de estas islas del Caribe han sido cruciales
en la campaa para mantener al Cactoblastis fuera de Mxico.

172

INTRODUCTION
The cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) (Pyralidae) was effectively used as a
biological control agent of invasive Opuntiae species in Australia, South Africa and other
countries worldwide (Moran and Zimmermann 1984). These successes were the main reasons
that lead to subsequent introductions of the cactus moth to the Caribbean in 1957 for the
biological control of native invasive Opuntia species in Nevis, Antigua, Montserrat and the
Cayman Islands (Simmonds and Bennett 1966). These projects were highly successful and
heavily invaded areas were converted to productive pastures.
Subsequently the cactus moth also was introduced to other islands, or it has spread
naturally on its own (Zimmermann et al. 1999; Zimmermann et al. 2001). It is now widespread
in the Caribbean and occurs also in Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Jamaica,
Guadeloupe, Virgin Islands, Granada, Dominica and St. Kitts. The cactus moth is still present on
all these islands that were originally targeted for biological control despite the fact that the target
host weeds, Opuntia dillenii Haw and O. triacantha (Willdenow), have become scarce. C.
cactorum also feeds on other non-target Opuntia species and on some related Consolea species
and some of these are severely affected by the insect, e.g. Consolea (Opuntia) rubescens Lem.,
C. (Opuntia) spinosissima (Mill.) Lemaire, O. taylori Britton & Rose, O. tuna (Linnaeus) P.
Miller, O. jamaicensis Britton and O. sanguinea Proctor. The cactus moth was first detected in
Florida in 1989 (Habeck and Bennett 1990) and has since spread northward and north-westward,
crossing the border to Alabama in 2005 (Bloem et al. 2005 (in press); Hight et al. 2002). All six
native Opuntia spp. in Florida are attacked and the existence of at least one species has been
compromised by the insect (Stiling 2002). The drastic impact of the insect on invasive and noninvasive Opuntia spp. is an indication of what can be expected should the insect reach Mexico.
This is an account of the impact of C. cactorum on the Opuntia spp. in the Caribbean, its threat
to Mexico and possible action needed to prevent its further spread.
The taxonomy of the genus Opuntia in the Caribbean is problematic. In this account the
dominant species in the Caribbean, namely, O. dillenii is recognized as an independent species
following the descriptions by Anderson (2001), Howard and Touw (1982) and Hunt (1999), and
supported by own observations. Also, the genera Consolea and Nopalea are recognized. The
former are a unique group of tree-like opuntiae endemic to mainly the Caribbean and Florida.
THE EFFECT OF CACTOBLASTIS CACTORUM ON OPUNTIAE IN THE CARIBBEAN
Cactus pear is not commercially cultivated in the Caribbean. The only species that is
utilized to some extent is Nopalea (Opuntia) cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck which is an exotic
species of Central American origin. This species is widely grown as an ornamental in gardens
throughout the Caribbean. Young leaf pads of this species also are used in various dishes in some
islands e.g. Antigua. At least two Opuntia species have become problematic as invaders in many
islands, namely O. triacantha and O. dillenii. Their sudden increase could be attributed to their
wide use as live fences and for the protection of fortresses during early colonial times. This went
on for many years and the rapid spread was compounded further by large scale deforestation and
overgrazing (Howard and Touw 1982). Simmonds and Bennett (1966) described large scale
invasions by these two species, impeding access and utilization of the land for grazing. The
spines, which become embedded in the flesh causing festering, caused serious injuries to
livestock. Also Bennett and Habeck (1995) mention serious invasions on St. Kitts, Nevis,
Antigua and Montserrat. Blanco and Vazquez (2001) mention that in Santiago de Cuba and
Guantanamo 31,240 ha were invaded of which 23,060 ha had a cover of 25% and 534 ha were
fully covered by O. dillenii. The remaining species (less than 30) are less common or scarce, and
173

some are even endangered. The genera, Consolea and Nopalea, previously classified in the genus
Opuntia, are unique to the Caribbean and each deserves a special status.
The impact of the cactus moth after 30 to 40 years in the Caribbean has never been
determined. Only the initial result after its release on invasive Opuntia spp. was recorded as
highly effective (Simmonds and Bennett 1966; Julien and Griffiths 1999), i.e., to the extent that
the target species became scarce. This was confirmed during a survey by the authors in 2005.
The outcome of the biological program on the islands targeted for control is still highly praised
by all farmers and agricultural officers interviewed during this recent survey. Very few plants of
the once abundant O. triacantha and O. dillenii remain on Grand Cayman, Montserrat, St. Kitts
and Antigua, and despite these low numbers the cactus moth is still present. One reason is that it
is able to develop on alternative as well as on less suitable hosts which include N. cochenillifera,
Consolea rubescens, C. spinosissima O. tuna, O. jamaicensis, O. taylori and Cylindropuntia
caribaea and probably others. The large and leathery cladodes of C. rubescens and C.
spinosissima are unsuitable for the development of young neonate larva but the small seedlings
and young regrowth underneath the large trees are highly susceptible to larval attack. The
recruitment of C. rubescens and C. spinosissima is thus drastically curtailed which must have
severe implications for the long-term survival of these species. It is not known what the impact
of the cactus moth is on the other tree-like species in the rare genus Consolea.
The long-term impact of C. cactorum on O. stricta (a closely related and similar species
to O. dillenii) has been well documented in the Kruger National Park in South Africa (Hoffmann
et al 1998). Large mature flowering and fruiting plants usually collapse and the scattered isolated
cladodes root and form many small plants that need up to three or more years to flower. The
cactus moth by continuous attacks usually prevents these plants from reaching the flowering
stage. The same was observed in Florida and is probably also true for the Caribbean. This could
have severe consequences for the long-term survival of O. dillenii and O. triacantha in the
Caribbean.
Observations on the impact of the cactus moth in the Caribbean also indicate clear host
preferences within the genera Opuntia and Consolea species and that not all species are suitable
hosts. Infected cladodes of N. cochenillifera are common and approximately 20% of the plants
examined in more than 17 islands were infested. This has little impact on the mature plants as it
quickly outgrows the damage caused by the feeding larvae. C. cactorum is unable to feed on the
woody stems and the damage remains confined to the succulent terminal cladodes. Indeed most
people are unaware of the damage caused by C. cactorum on their garden plants.
The smaller Opuntia species are most severely affected, and these include O. triacantha,
O. repens and O. taylori and possibly others. Further studies are needed to evaluate the risk of
the cactus moth to the long-term survival of these species.
Some rare species are particularly threatened by C. cactorum. Anecdotal evidence
describes the drastic decline of the rare O. sanguinea in Jamaica which was caused by the heavy
feeding of an unknown insect, presumably C. cactorum (Oberli, pers. com.). Some species
mentioned in the cactus literature have not recently been found and the cause of this could be
either linked to Cactoblastis damage, by habitat destruction or to the taxonomic confusion within
the Opuntia species complex in the Caribbean countries.
Much can be learned from the host-preferences and the impact of this insect on the native
opuntiae in the Caribbean and this information can be extrapolated to give some idea on what to
expect should it invade Mexico and the southern USA.

174

THE IMPORTANCE OF CACTUS PEAR TO MEXICO

The first awareness campaign informing the public on the risk of C. cactorum reaching
Mexico was one of the subjects of a presentation A New Insect Pest on Opuntiae Lying in Wait
for Mexico presented during the VIII National Congress and the VI International on knowledge
and exploitation of prickly pear by the authors in September, 1999.
The highest diversity of species in the genus Opuntia is found in Mexico. In total 55 of
the 83 Opuntia species recorded for Mexico, or 66%, are endemic. Many of these species are
widely utilized by rural people and prickly pear cactus is deeply entrenched in the culture of the
Mexican nation. Its national emblem, the flag, depicts an eagle perching on a cactus pear with a
snake in its beak, based on a legend dating from the time when the ancient city of Tenochtitlan,
now Mexico City, was founded. The site of the capital city's founding, which equates to the
foundation of Mexican society, was marked by the first human sacrifice performed in the Valley
of Mexico. The emblematic nopal germinated from the first heart torn from an enemy's breast,
not that of an outsider, but Huitzilopochtli's own nephew. The divine sacrifice was sublimated in
the form of this plant. In a carving of the Teocalli de la Guerra Sagrada, the monument
commemorating the founding of Tenochtitlan, the nopal is seen sprouting from Cpil's heart
turned to stone, which rises out of the lake. In its claw the eagle is clutching neither snake nor
bird, but nochtli (tuna), and flowing from its beak atl tlachinolli (burnt water) -the name for war
in its sacrificial dimension. The emblematic prickly-pear tree bore firm red fruits which were the
hearts of the sacrificed victims. Fray Diego Duran called it the "tree of human hearts" (Duftel
2002).
Cactus pear is widely used as a source for fodder, fruit, green vegetable and many
byproducts are made from this valuable resource including shampoos, soaps, lotions, preserves
and medicines. There are more than 20,500 growers that cultivate cactus pear in Mexico. Areas
under cultivation include more than 150,000 ha for the exclusive use of cactus pear as fodder,
60,000 ha are cultivated for fruit production and about 10,500 ha are under intensive cultivation
for the production of young leaf pads (nopalitos) for human consumption as a green vegetable.
The wild growing prickly pears cover more than 3,000,000 ha and these are used mainly by the
indigenous people in various ways. The spineless cactus pear, O. ficus-indica (L.) Miller, is the
most common species cultivated in Mexico and this species has many cultivars, each one with
unique characteristics. Prickly pear and its many products is very much part of the everyday diet
of the Mexican people.
Of equal importance are the many native wild growing species that are crucial in
maintaining ecological function in the various cactus-rich biomes of Mexico. There is no other
country where cactus pear plays such an important role in the economy and in the culture of a
nation. If the impact of the cactus moth on invading Opuntia species in other countries is a
reliable indicator, then the effect in Mexico could be disastrous. Studies on climatic matching
have indicated that C. cactorum is very likely to establish successfully in all cultivated and wild
Opuntia populations in Mexico (Soberon et al. 2001).
POSSIBLE PATHWAYS OF INTRODUCTION OF CACTOBLASTIS CACTORUM INTO
MEXICO
The possible pathways of invasion of C. cactorum from the Caribbean to Mexico could be the
following:
Natural dispersal and climatic events including tropical storms, trade winds and
hurricanes.
Trade and commerce.
175

 Tourism.
Research.
Natural Dispersal. It has been suggested that climatic events and hurricanes could have played a
role in the long-distance dispersal of the cactus moth to Florida and along the Florida coast
(Johnson and Stiling 1998). Zimmermann et al. 2001 are of the opinion that the behaviour of the
adult moth does not support such a theory and they placed more emphasis on long-term dispersal
through human activities and interventions. C. cactorum has not been able to disperse naturally
to some off-shore islands in the Caribbean, e.g. to Cayman Brac from Grand Cayman, which is
part of the Cayman group of islands. The closest point from the Caribbean to Yucatan in Mexico
is the Pinar del Rio region in Cuba. Fortunately C. cactorum is still absent from this region
(Blanco et al 2004), and the likelihood of natural dispersal over the Yucatan channel remains, for
the time being, small. A detailed study of the dispersal of the cactus moth throughout the
Caribbean could reveal important information on the most likely pathway for introduction to
Mexico.
Trade and Commerce as a Pathway. Pemberton (1995) provides evidence of 17
interceptions based on samples of cactus nursery plants infested with Cactoblastis to Miami that
have originated from a nursery in the Dominican Republic between 1981 and 1993.
Consignments destined for the United States for 1986 alone amounted to more than 350 000
plant specimens in 108 shipments. The chances for the moth to have reached Miami undetected
during this period must have been high. A recent visit to this nursery in the Dominican Republic
revealed three Opuntia species that are cultivated there for export, namely, Opuntia pilifera
F.A.C.Weber, O. leucotricha DC and N. cochenillifera. O. pilifera plants were heavily infested
with Cactoblastis larvae while the other two species were less affected. This nursery also
exports cactus ornamentals to Europe. Specimens of O. pilifera were found in a nursery in Grand
Cayman which originated from the nursery in the Dominican Republic via a wholesaler in
Miami. Both the management of the nursery as well as the plant health inspectors in the
Dominican Republic are now imposing strict screening procedures to prevent any further
exportation of contaminated plants from this source.
Except for the above case, very few or no cactus nursery plants or plant products are
exported from the Caribbean to the USA or Europe, and even less so to Mexico. The chances are
very small that larvae or pupae of C. cactorum could reach Cactoblastis-free countries in
containers or package material unless the containers have been in the close proximity of infested
cactus plants. The almost total lack of trade with Mexico minimized the risk of introduction by
means of this pathway.
Tourism as a Pathway. Nopalea cochenillifera is a popular garden plant with several uses
and it is feasible that friends, family members and tourists could transport cladodes between
countries. This is the likely pathway which contributed to the very wide distribution of this alien
species in the Caribbean. There is, however, very limited tourism between Mexico and the
Caribbean and the only direct flights between the Caribbean and Mexico are via Cuba. Effective
inspection procedures in Cuba and in Mexico could reduce the risk of introduction of infested
cladodes via this pathway to almost zero.
Research as a pathway. Research on the Cactaceae of Central America and the Caribbean
will necessitate the exchange of plant material between counties. Botanical gardens usually have
exchange programs in place and authorities issuing permits often rely on the scientific integrity
of the researchers involved to prevent the introduction of unwanted plants, plant products or
contaminants. Strict control by well trained plant health officers is nevertheless required to
prevent any such unwanted introductions through the exchange of botanical specimens

176

earmarked for research because even scientists might be unaware of infested material and the
threat of Cactoblastis.
The Cactoblastis populations in the Caribbean are considerably smaller compared to
thirty years ago because of drastically diminishing host plants. This reduces the overall chances
for dispersal by any means.
CONTROL METHODS
Several methods are being considered for the control of C. cactorum in Florida or in the
event of its naturalization in Mexico. Considerable effort is focused on developing the Insect
Sterile Technique (SIT) for the control or eradication of Cactoblastis (Carpenter et al. 2001). All
requirements for the implementation of the SIT have been met and the testing of the synthetic
pheromone is in its final stages (Bloem et al. 2003). An attempt will be made to establish an
insect-free barrier along the leading edge of invasion at the border between Florida and Alabama.
A memorandum of understanding between Mexico and the USA has been signed that would
provide joint funding of over US $1million for a broader bi-national implementation program to
stop the spread of the insect in the USA.
Testing of new generation insecticides for the chemical control of the cactus moth also is
in progress as a rapid response approach in the case of its detection in Mexico or elsewhere
(Bloem et al. 2005 (in press)). Other control methods for the cactus moth in commercial cactus
pear plantations in South Africa include orchard sanitation, as well as chemical and mechanical
controls (Zimmermann et al 2004).
PREVENTION
Considerable funds have been allocated for a campaign to prevent the introduction of C.
cactorum into Mexico. Emphasis is being placed on permanent monitoring and sampling
procedures in cultivations that are most likely to receive the cactus moth in Mexico. More than
7,500 sample points have been monitored in Mexico covering more that 18,000 ha. Early
detection is of crucial importance in preventing establishment of the moth beyond the point
where eradication is possible. Effective sampling of Cactoblastis populations in Florida keeps
track of the westward and northward spread of the insect. New legislation and regulations in
Mexico and the USA have been promulgated that prohibit certain activities, e.g. the import or
movement of cactus plant material from countries or states with Cactoblastis to yet unaffected
areas.
AWARENESS AND TRAINING
Several workshops and meetings have been held to discuss strategies, research,
prevention and control programs (Mahr et al. 2001). Special training programs are in place to
educate plant health, quarantine and custom officials to identify Cactoblastis damage and to
learn more about its biology. Mexican officials were trained in Florida and in South Africa on all
aspects pertaining to the biology, identification and control of the insect.
Many pamphlets, brochures, posters, and books have been published and many radio
interviews and programs on the subject have been broadcast as part of the general awareness
campaign, mainly in Mexico. A comprehensive review on C. cactorum was recently published
by the IAEA and FAO (Zimmermann et al. 2004). Awareness programs aimed at children have
been introduced at school level and more than 20 newspaper articles on the threat of Cactoblastis
to Mexico have been published in local newspapers since 2003. There are several websites where
177

up-to-date information on the latest developments regarding the spread of Cactoblastis and
research
progress
can
be
found,
e.g.
in
www.cactoblastis.org
and
www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/ep/emerging_pests/cactoblastis/whitepaper.pdf
RESEARCH
Building on an ongoing USDA program on SIT for lepidopterans and specifically on a
SIT project on Cactoblastis initiated in 2000 by Carpenter et al. (2001), the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA) instituted a research program on Cactoblastis in 2002 which involved
the first studies on evaluating the SIT as a possible control method against this species, and
which included mass-rearing methods, radiation levels and trapping methods (Bloem et al 2005;
Bloem et al 2003; Carpenter et al 2001; Hight et al 2005).
Further funding was directed at identifying new insecticides for control and research on
Cactoblastis in its natural habitat in Argentina. Considerable funds have recently been released
for a joint Mexico/USA initiative aimed primarily in perfecting the SIT control method.
The Caribbean countries can provide valuable information on long-term impact studies of
Cactoblastis on Opuntia populations, on observations regarding the dispersal of the insect, and
host preferences within the more than 30 Opuntia spp. native to this region. Research on the
biology and host-preferences of key natural enemies in Argentina also is underway.
Several Caribbean countries with a rich and endangered Opuntia flora may wish to
control C. cactorum to reduce the threat to rare and endangered species. In this context Jamaica
and Puerto Rico may qualify for control programs against Cactoblastis which may include
biological control. Although this option is not favored for use in the USA because of possible
non-target effects of introduced parasitoids, this may not apply to Caribbean islands which have
a depauperate cactophagous Lepidopteran fauna, and any potential non-target effects are unlikely
to have any effect on the environment. There are promising and relatively host-specific
parasitoids available from Argentina (Pemberton and Cordo 2001). Research in biological
control in the Caribbean may provide important information on the feasibility of using this
method on the American mainland. The risk of possible non-target effects must be weighed
against the risk of Cactoblastis damage.
CONCLUSIONS
Preventing the introduction or further spread of the cactus moth, C. cactorum, into
Mexico and the USA is a joint effort of all the countries affected or threatened by the insect.
Caribbean countries can provide much needed information that could assist Mexico in its efforts
to prevent the introduction of C. cactorum. For example, the SIT can be best evaluated in small
islands with a known Cactoblastis population. Information on the dispersal within the Caribbean
and host-preferences of the cactus moth may indicate the chances of natural vs. deliberate
introductions and on the expected impact on the native Opuntia populations in Mexico and the
USA. Also, the potential of classical biological control of Cactoblastis can best be tested on
some Caribbean islands whose governments desire to have their Cactoblastis populations
controlled or even eradicated. Any quantitative data on the abundance of existing natural
populations of Cactoblastis near Pina del Rio in Cuba can be used to calculate the risks of
natural dispersal to the Yucatan region. Information on Cactoblastis impacts obtained elsewhere
can also be used to predict the survival of some Opuntia spp. in the Caribbean that are most
affected by the moth. The status of these scarce and threatened species also need to be evaluated
as it may even become necessary to introduce special efforts to prevent the extinction of some of
these species. Recent observations from the Caribbean indicate that the impact of the cactus
178

moth on cultivated and native Opuntia spp. in Mexico, and on the cactus-rich biomes of the
southern USA could be severe.
REFERENCES
Anderson, E.F. 2001. The Cactus Family. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Bennett, F.D. and D.H. Habeck. 1995. Cactoblastis cactorum: A successful weed control agent
in the Caribbean, now a pest in Florida? Proceedings of the VIIIth International
Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, Canterbury, New Zealand, 21-26.
Blanco, E. and L. L. Vazquez, 2001. Analisis de los riesgos fitosanitarios asociados al uso de
cactoblastis cactorum (Berg.) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae: Phycitinae) como agente de
control biologico de Opuntia dillenii (Cactaceae) en Cuba. Fotosanidad 5 (1):63-73.
Blanco, E., L. L. Vazquez and E. Perez. 2004. Presencia de Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) y
riesgos para la flora de cactaceas en Cuba. VIII Congreso Internacional sobre
Conocimiento y Aprovechamiento de Nopal y otras Cactaceas de Valor Economico.
Universidad Autonoma de Chapingo. Mexico. 2-7 Agosto 2004.
Bloem, S, R. F. Mizell, K.A. Bloem, S. D. Height and J. E. Carpenter. 2005. New insecticides
for control of the invasive cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
in Florida. Florida Entomologist (In Press).
Bloem, S., J. E. Carpenter and K. A. Bloem. 2003. Performance of sterile Cactoblastis cactorum
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) females in luring males to traps. Florida Entomologist 86: 395399.
Carpenter, J.E., K.A. Bloem and S. Bloem. 2001. Application of F1 sterility for research and
management of Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Florida Entomologist
84: 531-536.
Duftel, D.2002. Mstica de tunas antiguas. El Nopal. Artes de Mxico, No. 59: 52-57.
Habeck, D.H. and F.D. Bennett. 1990. Cactoblastis cactorum Berg (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) a
phycitine new to Florida. Entomology Circular 333, 4pp.
Hoffmann, J. H., V. C. Moran and D. A. Zeller. 1998. Evaluation of Cactoblastis cactorum
(Lepidoptera: Phycitidae) as a biological control agent of Opuntia stricta (Cactaceae) in
the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Biological Control 12:20-24.
Howard, R. A. and M. Touw. 1982. Opuntia species in the Lesser Antilles. Cactus & Succulent
Journal (U.S.) 54:170-179.
Hight, S. D., J. E. Carpenter. S. Bloem and K. A. Bloem. 2005. Developing a sterile insect
release program for Cactoblastis cactorum Berg (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): effective
overflooding ratios and release-recapture field studies. Environmental Entomology (In
Press).
Hight, S. D., J. E. Carpenter, K. A. Bloem, S. Bloem, R. W. Pemberton and P. Stiling, 2002.
Expanding geographical range of Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in
North America. Florida Entomologist 85:527-529.
Hunt, D.R. 1999. (compiler) Cactaceae Checklist. Second Edition. Kew Royal Botanical
Gardens.
Johnson, D.M. and P. D. Stiling. 1998. Distribution and dispersal of Cactoblastis cactorum
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), an exotic Opuntia- feeding moth, in Florida. Florida
Entomologist 81: 12-22
Julien, M. H. and M. W. Griffiths (eds.). 1998. Biological control of weeds. A world catalogue
of agents and their target weeds. 4th Edition. CABI Publishing. Wallingford. 1-233.

179

Mahr, D., K. A. Bloem, J. Cuda and P. Stiling (eds.). 2001. Cactoblastis cactorum in North
America. Proceedings of a workshop for assessment and planning. September 20-21.
200, Tampa, Florida.
Moran, V.C. and H.G. Zimmermann. 1984. The biological control of cactus weeds:
achievements and prospects. Biocontrol News and Information 5 (4): 297-320.
Pemberton, R.W. 1995. Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in the United States: An
immigrant biological control agent or an introduction of the nursery industry. American
Entomologist. Winter: 230-232.
Pemberton, R.W. and H. Cordo. 2001. Potential and risk of biological control of Cactoblastis
cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in North America. Florida Entomologist 84(4): 513526.
Simmonds, F. J. and F. D. Bennett. 1966. Biological control of Opuntia spp. by Cactoblastis
cactorum in the Leeward Islands (Wets Indies). Entomophaga 11:183-189
Soberon, J., J. Golubov and J. Sarukhan. 2001. The importance of Opuntia in Mexico and routes
of invasion and impact of Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Florida
Entomologist 84 (4): 486-492.
Stiling, P. 2002. Potential non-target effects of a biological control agent, prickly pear moth,
Cactoblastis cactorum Berg (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), in North America, and possible
management actions. Biological Invasions 4: 273-281.
Zimmermann, H.G., V. C. Moran and J. H. Hoffmann. 2001. The renowned cactus moth,
Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): its natural history and threat to native
Opuntia floras in Mexico and the United States of America. Florida Entomologist 84 (4):
543-551.
Zimmermann, H.G., H. Klein and S. Bloem. 2004. The biology, history, threats, surveillance and
control of the cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum. Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear
Techniques in Food and Agriculture. IAEA, Vienna, Austria. 40 pp.
Zimmermann G. Helmuth and Prez Sandi Cuen Mayra. 1999. La palomilla Cactoblastis
cactorum representa un peligro para nuestros nopales. Universitarios Potosinos. rgano
informativo de la Universidad Autnoma de San Luis Potos. Volmen VII, Septiembre-Octubre
1999,
nmero
cuatro.

180

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):181. 2005

POSTER SESSION
DON'T LET CACTO BLAST US! : A COOPERATIVE EFFORT TO DETECT AND
TEST CONTAINMENT OF THE CACTUS MOTH, CACTOBLASTIS CACTORUM
(BERG) ON THE US GULF COAST
1
2
3
4
5
Joel Floyd , Kenneth A. Bloem , Stephanie Bloem , James E. Carpenter , and Stephen Hight .
1
USDA, APHIS, PPQ, Pest Detection and Management Programs, 4700 River Rd., Unit 137,
Riverdale, MD 20737. Joel.P.Floyd@aphis.usda.gov . 2 USDA, APHIS, PPQ, CPHST, Florida
A&M University, Tallahassee, FL 32307, 3 Center for Biological Control, Florida A&M
University 6383 Mahan Dr., Tallahassee, FL 32317, 4 USDA, ARS, Crop Protection &
Management Research Unit, 2747 Davis Road, Tifton, GA 31794, 5 USDA-ARS, Center for
Medical, Agricultural, & Veterinary Entomology, 6383 Mahan Road, Tallahassee, FL 32317

The Cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg), showed its success in 1920s Australia as a
biological control agent introduced to control invasive exotic prickly pear cacti, Opuntia spp.
Subsequent introductions to other areas led to the Caribbean in the 1950s and a detection in the
Florida Keys in 1989. The potential impacts of its US spread includes affects on grazing, nursery
and landscape industries and significant negative ecological impacts on hosts in deserts of the
Southwestern US. Potential impacts in Mexico in addition to ecological include agricultural
affects because of the importance of the fruit and cladodes for human consumption and forage.
The cactus moth spread along both Florida coasts in the 1990s and by 2004 on to Bull Island,
South Carolina on the Atlantic Coast and Dauphin Island, Alabama on the Gulf Coast. The
cactus moth appears to be favoring barrier islands on the Gulf Coast and is currently not moving
inland in the panhandle area of Florida. Dispersal rates along the coasts are approximately 160
kilometers/year, with an estimated arrival in Texas in the year 2004 barring artificial spread.
In cooperation with Mississippi State Universitys Georesources Institute, funded by the US
Geological Survey, a national detection network is being assembled to gather monitoring
information from managed lands complementing state Cooperative Agriculture Pest Surveys.
ARS and APHIS have been cooperating since 2000 on developing techniques for detection using
an attractant, trap testing, mating studies, mass rearing on an artificial diet, and irradiated moth
studies for application of the sterile insect technique (SIT). In the spring of 2005, they will begin
a large-scale SIT validation study on barrier islands in Florida and Alabama to ascertain whether
a barrier can be established there to prevent the cactus moths further westward movement.

181

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 41(1):182-188. 2005

POSTER
DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHILLI THRIPS, SCIRTOTHRIPS DORSALIS HOOD
(THYSANOPTERA: THRIPIDAE), IN PEPPER FIELDS ON ST. VINCENT.
D. R. Seal1, M. Ciomperlik2, M. L. Richards3 and W. Klassen1
1

University of Florida-IFAS, Tropical Research and Education Center, Homestead, FL 33033;

Phone: 305-246-7001 Ext. 260; E-mail: dseal@ifas.ufl.edu . 2USDA APHIS PPQ CPHST, Pest
Detection Diagnostics and Management Laboratory, 22675 N. Moorefield Rd., Bldg. 6414,
Edinburg, TX 78541-9398; 3Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, St. Vincent, Richmond Hill,
Kingstown, St. Vincent and the Grenadines.
ABSTRACT: Chili thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, is a newly introduced pest in the western
hemisphere. It has the potential to cause significant damage to various vegetable, ornamental and
fruit crops. Baseline information about its biology and management is very insufficient. Due to
the paucity of knowledge about this pest we initiated a study on its biology and management.
We conducted several studies to understand distribution pattern of S. dorsalis within the plant
and within fields of `Scotch Bonnet pepper in St. Vincent in 2004 and 2005. S. dorsalis adults
and larvae were most abundant on terminal leaves of a `Scotch Bonnet pepper plant followed by
middle leaves, lower leaves, and reproductive parts. The distribution of both adults and larvae of
S. dorsalis on the terminal leaves was aggregated irrespective of plot size (6, 12, 24 and 48 m2).
Detailed information on distribution has been reported in a manuscript submitted to Florida
Entomologist.
KEYWORDS: spatial distribution, within plant distribution, pepper, alien invasive species,
Caribbean
RSUM: Les thrips de piment, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, est un parasite nouvellement
prsent dans l'hmisphre occidental. Il a la potentialit pour endommager significatif de
diverses rcoltes de lgume, ornementales et de fruit. Les informations de ligne de base sur sa
biologie et gestion sont trs insuffisantes. En raison du manque de la connaissance approprie
que nous avons essay d'tudier sa biologie et gestion. Dans la prsente tude, nous avons
entrepris plusieurs tudes pour comprendre le modle de distribution des dorsalis dans-usine et
dans-champ de S. poivre de ` de capot cossais 'dans la rue Vincent en 2004 et 2005. Les adultes
et les larves de dorsalis de S. taient abondants sur les feuilles terminales usine de poivre de ` de
capot cossais 'suivie des feuilles moyennes, des feuilles infrieures, et des pices reproductrices.
Les distributions des adultes et des larves de dorsalis de S. sur les feuilles terminales ont t
agrges indpendamment de la taille de parcelle de terrain (6, 12, 24 et 48 m2). L'information
dtaille sur la distribution a t rapporte dans un manuscrit soumis au journal Florida
Entomologist.
MOTS-CLS: istribution spatiale, dans la distribution d'usine, poivre, espce invahissante
trangre, des Carabes

182

INTRODUCTION.
The chili thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, is considered as a pest of various vegetable
crops, cotton, citrus and other fruit and ornamental crops in eastern Asia, Africa, and Oceania
(Ananthakrishnan 1993, CABI/EPPO 1997, CAB 2003). In India, S. dorsalis is a severe pest of
chilli pepper and hence it is known as the chilli thrips (Thirumurthi et al. 1972). In Japan, S.
dorsalis is known as the yellow tea thrips (Toda and Komazaki 2002). The Florida Nurserymen
and Growers Association consider S. dorsalis as one of the thirteen most dangerous exotic pest
threats to the industry (FNGA 2003). Venette and Davis (2004) indicate that the potential
geographic distribution of S. dorsalis in North America would extend from southern Florida to
north of the Canadian boundary, as well as to Puerto Rico and the entire Caribbean region. S.
dorsalis is a key vector of tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV). It causes bud necrosis disease
(BND), an important disease of peanut in India (Amin et al. 1981, Mound and Palmer 1981,
Ananthadrishnan 1993).
Since 1984, USDA-APHIS inspectors at various U.S. ports-of-entry have reported S.
dorsalis 89 times on imported plant materials belonging to 48 taxa (USDA 2003). Most
commonly the pest was associated with cut flowers, fruits and vegetables. On July 16, 2003, T.
L. Skarlinsky, a Plant Protection and Quarantine officer intercepted S. dorsalis at Miami, Florida
on Capsicum spp. from St Vincent and the Grenadines, West Indies. This was the first
interception at a U.S. port of this thrips on a shipment from a port of origin in the Western
Hemisphere. Skarlinsky (2003 made a preliminary assessment of the distribution and abundance
of the S. dorsalis population on St. Vincent the island, and he found S. dorsalis on pepper several
sites in St. Vincent.
St.Vincent is a volcanic island located at latitude 130 15 N and longitude 610 12 W
within the Windward Islands chain in the eastern Caribbean. Temperatures fluctuate between 18
and 32C, the dry season extends from December through June, and the rainy season from July
through November. The islands average annual rainfall ranges from about 1,500 mm on the
southeast coast to about 3,800 mm in the interior mountains. Vegetable and fruit crops are
produced year round for domestic consumption and export.
There are no published reports on within-plant and spatial distribution patterns of S.
dorsalis. Such information is essential in the development of tactics and strategies for managing
this pest.
Beginning in October 2004 we undertook studies on the spatial distribution patterns of S.
dorsalis adults and larvae on St. Vincent, as part of a larger effort on the pests host diversity,
geographical distribution, natural enemies and methods of detection, monitoring and control.
Here we report on the thrips within plant distribution on pepper and on its spatial distribution
within pepper fields.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Within plant and within field distribution of S. dorsalis was conducted in `Scotch Bonnet pepper
fields in Williams Farms in October, 2004; and in March, 2005. All fields were located in
George Town, St. Vincent, and were about 3,035 m2 each. Each field was planted to `Scotch
Bonnet pepper into a deep soil. The plants were spaced 90 cm within a row and 1.2 m between
rows. Plants were maintained by using standard cultural practices recommended for St. Vincent.
The pepper plants were not treated with any insecticides, but they received the recommended
fungicide and fertilizer applications. Plants were treated with Manzate and Bravo at 7-10 d
intervals. Plants were drip-irrigated weekly. In both years, the studies were initiated 2 - 3 mo
after planting the crop.

183

For the purpose of studying distribution patterns of S. dorsalis, each field was divided into 60
equal plots, each 4.6 m long and 1.2 m wide and contained 5 plants.
Within plant distribution. Five plants were randomly selected from each of five plots
from different locations of each field. From each plant, a set of 3 - 4 leaves was collected from
the top, middle and bottom strata. Thus, 15 - 20 leaves were collected from each pepper plant
stratum in each plot. In addition, five flowers and five fruits were also collected from each plot.
All samples were placed in zip-lock bags and labeled to indicate the plot and plant part. Samples
were transported to the laboratory for further processing. Adults and larvae of S. dorsalis in
each sample were separated by following the methods as described by Seal et al. (2005a, b).
Within field distribution. The within field distribution of S. dorsalis was studied in
plots of four different sizes- 6, 12, 24, and 48 m2. Spatial distribution of S. dorsalis in Scotch
Bonnet pepper fields was studied in two years by collecting terminal leaves contained in a group
of 3-4 leaves at the tip of a branch. From each of five randomly selected plants, one such group
of terminal leaves was excised and placed in a zip lock bag to prevent escape of S. dorsalis. All
samples were transported to the laboratory for further processing as discussed in the previous
study.
The Spatial distribution patterns of S. dorsalis were determined by using Taylors power
law (Taylor 1961) and Iwaos patchiness regression (Iwao 1968). Taylors power law
parameters were obtained by the regression of log10-transformed variances, s2, on log10transformed mean numbers of S. dorsalis adults and larvae per sample by means of the linear
regression model: log s2 = log a + b log x (Taylor 1961). Similarly, Iwaos patchiness regression
(x* = + x) is the regression of mean crowding, x*, on the mean x (Lloyd 1957, Iwao 1968),
is a sampling factor depending on the size of the sampling unit and
is the index of
aggregation in the population. In both instances, a population with an aggregated distribution
has a b value > 1, while this value is significantly less than 1 for a regular distribution, and not
significantly different from 1 for a random distribution. The fit of each data set to the linear
regression model was evaluated by calculating the r2 value.
Statistical Analysis. Data on the within plant distribution were subjected to square root
(x + 0.25) transformation to stabilize error variance (Steet & Torrie 1980). Transformed data
were analyzed using software provided by Statistical Analysis System (release 6.03, SAS
Institute Inc. Cary, NC; SAS Institute, 1989). General linear model procedures were used to
perform analysis of variance. Means were separated by using Duncan Multiple Range Test
(DMRT).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Within plant distribution of S. dorsalis. We found S. dorsalis on all above-ground
plant parts (Table 1). Mean numbers of S. dorsalis adults and larvae were most abundant on the
terminal leaves, 2nd most abundant on middle leaves and least abundant on bottom leaves,
flowers and fruits (adult: F = 7.77; df = 4,15; P < 0.05; larva: F = 13.93; df = 4,15; P < 0.05;
total: F = 16.88; df = 4,15; P < 0.05). The mean numbers of S. dorsalis adults and larvae did not
differ among those found on the bottom leaves, flowers and fruits. The least number of adults
were found on fruits, and the least number of larvae were found in flowers, but these numbers
were not significantly smaller than those for any other plant parts.
Within-Field Distribution of S. dorsalis in 2004.
The values of r2 obtained with both Taylors power law and Iwaos patchiness
distribution were higher for plot sizes of 24 and 48 m2 than for 6 and 12 m2 plots. This indicates
a good fit of both models to the data on adults using terminal leaf as sampling unit in 24 and 48

184

m2 plots. The slope in either model was significantly higher than 1.00 (P > 0.05) indicating that
the distribution of larval populations in all plots, irrespective of size, was aggregated.
Within-Field Distribution of S. dorsalis in 2005.
The results from both Taylors power law and Iwaos patchiness were in agreement that
the distribution of adults in the 6 m2 plots was random and that it was regular in the 12, 24 and
48 m2 plots (Table 3). The values of r2 from Taylors power law ranged from 0.22 0.99
indicating moderate to good fit to the data collected from the various plots, while those from
Iwaos patchiness regression were low for 6 and 12 m2 plots (indicating poor fit to the data), and
0.99 for the 24 and 48 m2 plots (indicating a very good fit to the data in larger plots (0.99). The
distribution pattern of S. dorsalis adults in various plot sizes at Russ farms was fairly similar in
two seasons in 2004 and 2005.
Southwood (1978) observed that when a population in an area becomes sparse, the chances of an
individual occurring in any sample unit are so low that the distribution is effectively random. In
the present study the population abundance of S. dorsalis was low with frequent occurrence in
various samples indicating aggregated pattern of distribution. Southwood (1978) also reported
that the dispersion of the initial insect invaders of a crop is often random. In the instance of S.
dorsalis, adult populations were localized at a certain part of the crop field. In one field under
the present study, infestation starts at the edge of a field covering 6 m wide strip and proceeds
south to north along that 6 m wide band with the progression of time. Seal et al. (1992) reported
that the wireworms, Conoderus rudis Brown, C. scissus Schaffer and C. amplicollis Gyllenhall
oviposited in a regular pattern in a field with a previous history of infestation; but the distribution
changed because of the movement of the medium and large larvae. In the present study, the
distribution of S. dorsalis was variable in various plot sizes which might be due to the movement
of the adults from one plot to other. S. dorsalis pupates in soil, and the prepupae may have
moved short distances away from the plant before entering the soil to pupate. Thus only the
movement of adults might have shifted the distribution pattern in certain plots.
From our results, we draw the following conclusions: (1) S. dorsalis population tends to
be most abundant on terminal leave; 2) flowers and fruits have the least numbers of S. dorsalis;
3) S. dorsalis adults were aggregated in the largest plots.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are very grateful to the Plant Quarantine Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and
Labour, Kingstown, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines for the use of laboratory facilities, local
transportation and arrangements with growers. This study could not have been accomplished
without the facilitation and encouragement of Mr. Philmore Isaacs, Chief Agricultural Officer.
Also we are grateful to Mr. Emil Williams and Mr. Lauron Baptist for allowing us to conduct the
studies on their farms. Financial resources and guidance were provided by the Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Service, USDA through the leadership of Dr. Daniel A. Fieselmann, National
Science Program Leader and Ms. Carolyn T. Cohen, Caribbean Area Director. In addition
financial support was provided by the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station and the University
of Floridas Center for Tropical Agriculture.

185

REFERENCES CITED
Amin, P. W., and J. M. Palmer. 1985. Identification of groundnut Thysanoptera. Tropical Pest
Management 31: 286-291, 340, 344.
Ananthakrishnan, T. N. 1993. Bionomics of thrips. Annual Review of Entomology 38:71-92.
CABI. 2003. Crop protection compendium: global module. CAB International, Wallingford,
UK.
CABI/EPPO. 1997. Quarantine Pests for Europe, 2nd Ed. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
FNGA. (Florida Nurserymen &Growers Association) 2003. Report of the Florida Nursery,
Growers & Landscape Association (FNGLA). Orlando, Florida, USA
Iwao, S. 1968. A new regression model for analyzing the aggregation pattern of animal
populations. Res. Popul. Ecol. (Kyoto) 4: 35-46.
Mound, L. A., and J. M. Palmer. 1981. Identification, distribution and host plants of the pest
species of Scirtothrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Bull. of Entomol. Res. 71: 467-479.
SAS Institute. 1989. SAS Users guide: statistics; SAS Institute. Cary, NC.1988.
Seal, D. R., M. Ciomperlik, M. L. Richard and W. Klassen. 2005a. Comparative effectiveness of
chemical insecticides against the chilli thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera:
Thripidae), on pepper and their compatibility with natural enemies. Crop Protection
(submitted).
Seal, D. R., M. Ciomperlik, M. L. Richard and W. Klassen. 2005b. Distribution of the Chilli
Thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), within pepper plants and
within pepper fields on St. Vincent. Florida Entomologist (submitted).
Seal, D. R. R. McSorley, and R. B. Chalfant. 1992. Seasonal abundance and spatial distribution
of wireworms (Coleoptera Elateridae) in Georgia sweet potato fields. J. Econ. Entomol.
85: 1802-1808.
Steel, R. G. D. and J. H. Torrie. 1980. Principles and procedures of statistics: a biometrical
approach, 2nd ed. McGraw Hill, New York. 633 p.
Southwood, T. R. E. 1978. Ecological methods with particular reference to the study of insect
populations, 2nd ed. Wiley, New York.
Taylor, L.R. 1961. Aggregation, variance and the mean. Nature (London) 189: 732-735. 1984.
Assessing and interpreting the spatial distributions of insect populations. Annu. Rev.
Entomol. 29:321-357.
Thirumurthi, S., K. A. Ali, and T. R. Subramanian. 1972. A note on the varietal incidence of
grapevine (Vitis vinifera) berry thrips (Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood). South Indian
Horticulture 20: 92-93.
Toda, S., and S. Komazake. 2002. Identification of thrips species (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on
Japanese fruit trees by polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length
polymorphism of the ribosomal ITS2 region. Bulletin of Entomological Research 92:
359-363.
USDA.2003. Port Information Network (PIN-309): quarantine status database. US Department
of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and
Quarantine, Riverdale, MD, USA. (Restricted access database.)
Venette, R.C., Davis, E.E. 2004. Chilli thrips/yellow thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood
(Thysanoptera: Thripidae) Mini Pest Risk Assessment. Univ. of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN,
USA. 31 pp.
_____________________________________________________________________________

186

Table 1. Within plant distribution of S. dorsalis adults and larvae on `Scotch Bonnet pepper
plants in three fields in St. Vincent based on samples taken during October 2004 (Field
1), March 2005 (Fields 2 and 3).
Location on
S. dorsalis
Pepper plant
Adult
Larvae
Field 1
Terminal leaf
4.50a
5.50a
Middle leaf
1.75b
2.00b
Bottom leaf
0.50b
0.75c
Flower
0.75b
0.25c
Fruit
0.25b
1.00bc
Means within a column of each field with similar letter do not differ
DMRT).

Total
10.00a
3.75b
1.25c
1.00c
1.25c
significantly (P > 0.05,

Table 2. Distribution of S. dorsalis adults on terminal leaves in a scotch bonnet pepper fields on
St. Vincent during October 2004.
Taylors power law
Plot size (m2)
6
12
24

Iwaos patchiness regression

r2

r2

0.28

0.09

0.63REG

0.17

0.70

0.56REG

0.37

0.08

0.38REG

0.34

0.83

0.39REG

0.99

0.09

0.04REG

0.99

1.28

-0.03REG

0.99

0.01

1.29AGG

0.99

-0.28

1.29AGG

48
AGG, aggregated distribution, b significantly > 1; REG, regular distribution, b significantly < 1;
RAN, random distribution, b not significantly different from 1. These distributions are
significant at P < 0.05 based on Students t-test. Numbers of plots (n) are 2, 4, 8, and 16 for the
6, 12, 24 and 48 m2 sized fields, respectively

187

Table 3. Distribution of S. dorsalis adults on terminal leaves in a scotch bonnet pepper field on
Russ Farms, St. Vincent during March, 2005.
Taylors power law

Iwaos patchiness regression

Plot size (m2)

r2

r2

0.38

-0.05

1.02RAN

0.07

-0.13

1.04RAN

12

0.22

-0.17

0.79REG

0.01

0.44

0.43REG

24

0. 99

0.36

0.40REG

0.99

0.32

-0.48REG

48

0.99

0.36

0.40REG

0.99

0.32

-0.48REG

AGG, aggregated distribution, b significantly > 1; REG, regular distribution, b significantly < 1;
RAN, random distribution, b not significantly different from 1. These distributions are
significant at P < 0.05 based on Students t-test. Numbers of plots (n) are 2, 4, 8, and 16 for the
6, 12, 24 and 48 m2 sized fields, respectively.
Table 4. Distribution of S. dorsalis adults on terminal leaves in a scotch bonnet pepper field on
Baptist Farms, St. Vincent during March 2005.
Taylors power law
2

Iwaos patchiness regression

Plot size (m )

r2

0.61

-0.25

0.12REG

0.64

-0.95

1.72AGG

12

0.69

-0.32

2.63AGG

0.58

-1.18

1.89AGG

24

0. 95

0.48

3.30AGG

0.99

-2.83

2.79AGG

48

0.99

0.59

3.93AGG

0.99

-3.47

3.20AGG

AGG, aggregated distribution, b significantly > 1; REG, regular distribution, b significantly < 1;
RAN, random distribution, b not significantly different from 1. These distributions are
significant at P < 0.05 based on Students t-test. Numbers of plots (n) are 2, 4, 8, and 16 for the
6, 12, 24 and 48 m2 sized fields, respectively

188