Amphibians are cold blooded tetrapod composing of the class Anura, Caecilians, and Salamanders and

uses cutaneous respiration for breathing.

Reptiles are cold blooded tetrapod composing of the class Tustidinata, Crocodilia, Phidia, and Lacertilia
and characterize with scales.

Herpetofauna is the collective term referring for amphibians and reptiles.

Herpetology is the study of amphibians and reptiles.

(a) Geckos and the Palawan Ark hypothesis (Blackburn et al. 2010, Siler et al. 2012);

(b) the Dual Invasion pattern in stream frogs (genus Hylarana; Brown & Guttman 2002, Brown & Siler
2013) versus multiple faunal exchanges between Mindanao and Sulawesi (Indonesia) in fanged frogs
(genus Limnonectes; Evans et al. 2003, Setiadi et al. 2011);

(c) complex back-and-forth dispersal between Luzon and the Visayas in Philippine slender skinks (Siler et
al. 2011a).

Major geological features and approximate tectonic evolution of the archipelago (Hall 1996, 1998;
Yumul et al. 2003, 2009):

(a) The Philippine Mobile Belt [BP, Bicol Peninsula; EM, Eastern Mindanao; L, Leyte; M, Mindoro (red );
PMC, Palawan Microcontinent (light blue); RIG, Romblon Island Group; S, Samar; V, Visayan PAIC
[Pleistocene Aggregate Island Complex (orange)]; ZB, Zambales Block of Luzon ( green); ZP, Zamboanga
Peninsula of Mindanao ( purple)],

(b) the Palawan Microcontinent Block, and

(c) the hypothesized modern colonization routes into the archipelago.

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, or CITES, is a
vital international treaty designed to protect the world's wildlife and plant species from overexploitation
and extinction due to commercial trade. CITES categorizes species into three Appendices based on their
conservation status, imposing varying levels of trade restrictions. It serves as a global regulatory
framework, with over 180 member countries or "Parties" committed to controlling and monitoring the
international trade of wildlife and plant products. CITES aims to ensure that such trade is sustainable,
legal, and doesn't threaten the survival of species, promoting scientific collaboration, conservation, and
biodiversity preservation.

The "Philippine Red List of Threatened Wild Fauna" is a comprehensive assessment of the conservation
status of wildlife species in the Philippines. It categorizes species into various threat levels, from critically
endangered to data deficient, based on scientific research and expert evaluations. This list is
instrumental in guiding conservation efforts, policy-making, and resource allocation to protect the
Philippines' rich biodiversity. It includes diverse taxa, from mammals to invertebrates, and encompasses
both terrestrial and marine species. By providing a clear picture of the status of its wildlife, the
Philippine Red List plays a crucial role in preserving the country's unique natural heritage and addressing
the challenges of biodiversity loss and habitat degradation.

"Project Palaka" is an environmental initiative in the Philippines aimed at conserving and rehabilitating
degraded forests through community-based efforts. The project focuses on restoring critical habitats,
particularly for the Philippine hornbill or "Palaka," a threatened bird species. It involves tree planting,
reforestation, and habitat protection, engaging local communities in sustainable forest management
practices. "Palaka" signifies not just the bird but also symbolizes the preservation of biodiversity and
ecosystems. The project's holistic approach integrates conservation, community development, and
education to address the interlinked challenges of habitat loss, climate change, and wildlife protection
while promoting environmental awareness and sustainable livelihoods.

The terms "synapsid," "anapsid," and "diapsid" refer to different groups of reptiles and their
descendants, primarily based on the number and arrangement of temporal fenestrae (openings in the
skull) behind the eye sockets. Here are the key differences:

Synapsids:

Temporal Fenestrae: Synapsids have one temporal fenestra behind each eye socket. This is a single
opening.

Significance: Synapsids include the ancestors of mammals. They are often referred to as "mammal-like
reptiles."
Anapsids:

Temporal Fenestrae: Anapsids typically lack temporal fenestrae, or they have a solid skull with no
openings behind the eye socket.

Significance: Anapsids are considered a primitive group, with living members including turtles. Some
researchers classify them as a basal group among reptiles.

Diapsids:

Temporal Fenestrae: Diapsids have two temporal fenestrae on each side of the skull, one above the
other. This characteristic is a synapomorphy (shared derived trait) defining the group.

Significance: Diapsids include most reptiles, such as lizards, snakes, crocodilians, and birds. They are also
considered more advanced than anapsids and synapsids in terms of skull structure.

In summary, the primary distinction among these groups is the presence and number of temporal
fenestrae. Synapsids have one fenestra, anapsids typically lack fenestrae, and diapsids have two
fenestrae. This classification is significant in the study of vertebrate evolution and the relationships
among different groups of reptiles and their descendants.
 Reproduction & Life Histories with emphasis on Philippine Amphibian and Reptiles

The skin of amphibians is a remarkable, multifunctional organ. It's thin and permeable, allowing for gas
exchange and water absorption. This feature enables cutaneous respiration, a vital function, especially
in aquatic species. Amphibian skin has mucous glands that maintain moisture and provide protection.
Some amphibians possess toxic skin secretions, indicated by bright colors, as a defense against
predators. The skin also aids in thermoregulation by absorbing heat. Sensory cells in the skin detect
various stimuli, and it provides basic protection against physical harm and pathogens. Amphibian skin
adapts to their environment and ecological niche, reflecting their diverse lifestyles.

Reptiles possess a diverse array of skin adaptations. Their skin is covered in scales, which provide
protection and minimize water loss. Unlike amphibians, reptile skin is relatively impermeable, reducing
water absorption. They rely on lungs for respiration and don't respire through their skin. Scales serve as
armor and come in various forms, from the hard, bony scales of turtles to the overlapping, keratinized
scales of snakes and lizards. Some reptiles, like chameleons, have specialized skin cells that can change
color for camouflage or communication. The skin of reptiles is vital for thermoregulation, and it's
adapted to the specific needs of each species' habitat and lifestyle.