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AN INTRODUCTION TO MAMMALS

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 AN INTRODUCTION TO
MAMMALS

Abstract
Mammals are the most diverse species on Earth. It is vital to understanding the
origin of mammals by using fossil records as evidence. Fossil records that are
recently discovered hold a significant information regarding the origin of mammals.
Mammals have different sizes, forms and shapes. These varieties help mammals to
demonstrate adaptive behavior in order to survive the environmental and habitat
changes. All mammals are interacting with each other. Human, as a species of
mammal, domesticates the other species. The domestication may impact the
intelligence strategy of some mammals. The domestication requires studying the
behavior of species related to the physical structure, such as migratory behavior,
communication behavior, and sexual behavior. The reproductive system in mammal
differs from the other species. Mammals have several reproductive strategies that
are aligned with the changes in environment and habitat.

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3489.3208

SAMEH ABDELGHANY
1 AN INTRODUCTION TO MAMMALS

An Introduction to Mammals

Mammals are the most diverse species on Earth. It is vital to understanding the origin of mammals
by using fossil records as evidence. Fossil records that are recently discovered important information
regarding the origin of mammals. Mammals have different sizes, forms and shapes. These varieties
help mammals to demonstrate adaptive behavior in order to survive the environmental and habitat
changes. All mammals are interacting with each other. Humans, as a species of mammal, domesticates
the other species. The domestication may impact the intelligence strategy of some mammals. The
domestication requires studying the behavior of species related to the physical structure, such as
migratory behavior, communication behavior, and sexual behavior. The reproductive system in
mammal differs from the other species. Mammals have several reproductive strategies that are
aligned with the changes in environment and habitat.

The Origin of Mammals

Mammals are evolved from early amniotes as the fossil records show that the therapsids have
similar features of both reptiles and mammals. The early amniotes had divided into two main lines:
synapsids and sauropsids. Synapsids are said to be the origin of all mammals including extinct
mammals. Therapsid – mammal-like reptiles, belong to synapsids. Sauropsids- that includes
anapsids and diapsids are different than synapsids in the structure of the skull and the number of
temporal fenestrae behind eyes. The first mammals arose before the extinction of synapsids in the
Jurassic period, 195 Ma (Habib, 2014). I can argue that mammals are evolved from amphibians. Both
amphibians and mammals have two occipital condyles in their skulls. Mammals have left aortic arch
to resemble amphibians. This is assumed by H.T Huxley (1880) (Dhami and Dhami, 1987). However,
I do not agree with him on this point. In amphibians, the exoccipital is evolved into occipital condyles,
while basioccipital is evolved in mammals into occipital condyles.

Dhami, P. and Dhami, J. (1987). Chordate Zoology. New Delhi: R. Chand & Co.

There are insufficient fossil records that explain the origin of mammals. The fossil evidence that is
discovered in Spain, Spinolestes xenarthrosus, is beneficial. It shows the skeletal morphology changes

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2 AN INTRODUCTION TO MAMMALS

through geological time. This is an excellent fossil that explains the ancestor of mammals. It shows
some skeletal events in the evolutionary history of mammals, for example, the mandible that has a
single dentary bone. It also indicates that dentition is evolved and specialized. The braincase is large,
and the body covered by fur, which means it was endothermic. The Cynodont that existed about 260
MA is a transitional fossil (BioLogos, 2012). It shows that the early mammals had two jaw hinges. I
would maintain that this fossil is a vital one as it shows the slow development of the ears.
Paleontologists have found a pair of bones in the cynodont fossils that developed slowly to ears.
Personally, I prefer referring to the Spinolestes xenarthrosus fossil. It was the primary fossil that I
based my discussion with my colleagues.

The evolution of synapsids achieved in several steps. Those steps are called “pulses.” There are seven
pulses of synapsid evolution (Palaeos.com, 2016):

The first pulse – Permian, the pelycosaurs were occupying the tropical areas. Its body was
ectothermic, and the body form was medium to large size. They had a sprawling posture. The early
pelycosaurs were meat-eating synapsids. The second pulse existed in the early to middle Triassic.
Therapsids appeared that have evolved from pelycosaurs. They had a higher metabolic rate than
pelycosaurs. They occupied a more comprehensive range of habitat than pelycosaurs; the jaw
musculature has become bigger, and the posture has improved. In the Late Triassic, the third pulse
existed. The cynodont therapsids evolved. The body structure is modified, the first appearance of the
diaphragm, secondary palate, specialized dentition and some evidence of endothermic characters.
The fourth Pulse – the Late Triassic to Mid-Early Cretaceous, the first appearance of early mammals.
They covered wider geographic areas, but with little diversity. The fifth pulse, first thorium
mammals, Late-Early Cretaceous to Late Cretaceous. It is associated with the diversity of angiosperm
plant. The sixth Pulse, abundant in Early Paleocene to Middle Eocene. The appearance of archaic
therians and didelphoid marsupials. The species were abundant in tropical forests worldwide. The
seventh Pulse occurred in Late Eocene to Recent. By Middle Eocene, the modern therions marsupials
are limited to South America, Asia, and Australia. Mammals inhabit a broad range of areas with the
diversity of different groups like bats, whales, and hominoids. The terrestrial mammal size is ranged
up to 5000 kg while the aquatic mammals' size is up to 10000 kg.

Mammalian Adaptability

Mammals have different forms, sizes, and shapes. This variety because it occupied a broad range of
areas on earth. All mammals have mammary glands, which are a group of cells that secrete fluids
(Biggs et al., 2004). Mammal also has a unique form of skin and hair. The skin is composed of two
layers – an outer nonvascular epidermis layer and an inner layer of the corium. The surface of the
mammalian skin is covered with lipids and organic salts. This coat has antifungal and antibacterial
properties. It is a crucial part of the mammal form. I believe its importance is its moderate body
temperature and blood pressure. Terrestrial mammals have hair that covers their bodies. Whale
adults are hairless. However, they have hair in utero. Some aquatic species have fur, such as in
beavers. Some terrestrial species have also fur that covers their bodies. The importance of hair is it
works as an insulator. Hair also can be work as a sensory organ, as in cats, dogs, and whales. The
teeth distinguish all mammals. Teeth in mammals are well adapted to their different types of food.

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3 AN INTRODUCTION TO MAMMALS

Some hoofed mammals have cud-chewing that helps mammals to break the cellulose plant wall into
nutrients that they can absorb quickly. The aquatic mammals have excellent strategies for adaptation.
The body shape of them is unique. It has fish-like shape, the head is elongated, and streamline body.
It is a vital body shape as it minimizes the resistance of water during locomotion (Chandran, Rani,
and Sekar, 2007). Aquatic mammals have large sizes and weights. It reduces the loss of heat and
skin friction.

Domestication and Intelligent Strategies

Domestication is a process that has taken an extended period to have unique economic importance.
Domesticated animals initially are used as a source of food, such as sheep and goats. Some of the
mammal species, dogs, for example, were used in hung games and to warn breeders of dangers. I
would like to maintain that this strategy is an excellent early strategy of domestication as some of the
villagers still used dogs to protect their yards. Here, in Kuwait, and near to my workplace, some local
Camel breeders still use dogs to protect their camels. Later, domestication provided economic
importance. Breeders used mammalian milk for trading. Horses played a significant role in
transportation and wars, as well. There are several examples of successful domestication for
economic importance. Llamas Lama glama, wool is used commercially, Water buffalo, Bubalus
bubalis, are used to plow rice paddies and pull carts (Ryan, Vaughan, and Czaplewski, 2015).
Personally, I like the idea of the economic importance of domestication. The interaction between
humans and animals is beneficial for humans. However, sometimes, domestication has some cons.

One of the remarkable con that might affect the domesticated animal is the reduction of its
intelligent strategies. Some studies have noted a systematic decrease in the size of the domesticated
species brain compared with their wild species (Zeder, 2012). The studies discovered that mammals
with a larger brain have high degrees of brain reduction, while the smaller brain size species has a
little effect on brain reduction. The decline in brain size is a clear sign of the decrease in the species'
intelligent strategies. Some of the species have a significant reduction in their brain size; pigs, Sus
scrofa, Silver fox, Urocyon cinereoarenteuc, and Sheep, Ovis aries. Although these studies have robust
evidence of the reduction of intelligent skills of domesticated animals, I can argue that it might miss
some of the methods of domestication. In the circus, you can see that the animal trainer trains his
animals to do some games. Animals can jump and play with their trainers. However, if we look into
the wild, intelligent skills, such as hunting skills, it might be true that the domestication might affect
these skills.

Mammalian Behavior, Diversity and Communication Strategies

The mammalian behavior depends on its physical structure and its lifestyle. Mammals are
endothermic, so they need more energy than ectothermic of the same size. The thermoregulation
plays a vital role in the way mammal behaves. Sensory organs affect mammalian behavior. As well,
for example, the auditory functions play an essential role in some mammal species. Bats and some
marine mammals have very advanced and specialized echolocation capabilities. They emit a sound
signal and interpret the received reflected sound waves to determine the objects’ positions. Also, the
vision sensor in mammals is developed in many species. The spectral range of the mammals differs
from species to another. Not all species have full-color viewing (Hogan and Ervin, 2016). Nocturnal

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4 AN INTRODUCTION TO MAMMALS

mammals have large, well-developed eyes. Mammals use vision in hunting, navigation, locomotion
and foraging. They use vision also in communication. Some species release odors as a defense against
predators. The structure of mammal’s teeth can determine the hunting behavior of mammals. Lions,
for example, can hunt by using its limbs and sharp teeth to control its prey. Some mammal species
that live in territories will defend their areas by pushing away other individuals. Many species use
pheromones to identify their territory boundaries. Aggressive behavior involves actual or potential
harm to another individual (Huntingford, 2016). A magnificent example of aggressive behavior is
found in a male bighorn sheep. When another male threatens the territory of the male bighorn sheep,
they fight to the death to protect his territory

Communication in mammals varies from a species to another. The marine mammals have different
means of communication than terrestrial mammals. Some mammals use sounds, sights, touches, or
smell to signal each other. In marine mammals, for example, Dolphins use sound to communicate.
Some species sing to attract females, such as humpback whales. Whales are an excellent example of
using low-frequency sound to communicate. These sounds can be used in both social and sexual
signals during communication. I would like to argue that communication in the marine ecosystem is
tough. Water can transfer a few amounts of waves, so marine mammals use water current, some
frequencies of sound, and sometimes odor to communicate. However, terrestrial mammals use a
wide range of communication skills. Humans use language and writing skills to communicate.

Mammal species occupy a wide range of Earth's surface. They existed in all continents and all marine
ecosystems. There are around 5000 species of living mammals, classified into 125 families and 29
orders (Wilson, 2016). There are three main classes of mammals; Placental mammals, Pouched
Mammals, and Monotremes Mammals. The most diverse living mammals are rodents. The high
diversity of mammals is a result of two significant events; plate tectonics, as the continents, have
moved throughout the Earth's geological history and mammal’s migration. Migration is a movement
of an animal from its habitat to another. There are many types of migration. The marine mammals
and large herbivorous mammals demonstrate a seasonal migration strategy. Mammals migrate to the
most favorable conditions of food and weather. Bats, for example, in the cold and temperate regions,
move to warm areas in the winter. Some mammals, especially herbivorous of cold regions, have
summer and winter ranges, such as caribou. In temperate areas, some mammals such as African
antelopes, they use the seasonal migration strategy to avoid the draught (Feldhamer et al., 2015). The
migration can be a change of altitude, or latitude, or both. Most mammals migrate horizontally; other
mammals migrate vertically. Some of the marine mammals move from the deep water to the shallow
levels of water. I believe that these different strategies of the mammal migration helped to provide
a broader diversity of mammals. This, in my opinion, gives the mammal a unique advantage to occupy
vast areas of Earth.

Mammalian Reproduction

All species of mammals reproduce sexually-that means the male’s sperm fertilizes the female’s egg.
Mammals viviparous that produce offspring alive. However, there are some egg-laying animals, such
as the duck-billed platypus. Mammals offspring are not born immediately after fertilization. Offspring
need a period of development in the uterus or womb. This period is called gestation; that is called in

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 4
5 AN INTRODUCTION TO MAMMALS

human as pregnancy (The Open Door Web Site, 2016). Both males and females have specialized
reproductive systems. The external structure of the male reproductive tract consists of the penis
and the scrotum. The scrotum contains testes that exist outside the body. The urethra is a tube that
carries the sperm to the female vagina (Brooker, 2011). The female reproductive structure consists
of several organs. Ovary, the site of oogenesis, is responsible for hormone production. Oviducts,
uterine tubes, provides a place for fertilization. Cervix and uterus exist at the end of the vagina. The
male sperms move through the cervix into the uterus. The vagina is a tube that lies posterior to the
uterus.

Reproductive systems in different mammalian species (Prior, 2014):

Monotremata Marsupials Placenta

Method Sexually: They produce a Sexually Sexually
hard-shelled egg
Feeding baby No nipples Nipples existed Nipples Existed

Female - No vagina but one - There is a posterior - Two ovaries.

reproductive opening called urogenital sinus: - Two uterine tubes.
Structure cloaca. two vaginae and the - A single uterus.
- Uterus has two urethra. - Single Vagina
chambers. - A pair of uteri and a - Mammary glands
- It is paired with cervix extends from are not part of the
ovaries similar to the top of each reproductive
those in birds and vagina. system
reptiles. - Mammary glands
- Mammary glands

Male Same as in the Placental Same as Eutherian - Two Testes.

Reproductive Mammals mammals, but the - Scrotum Sac
Tract bifurcate penis is around testes.
posterior to the - Penis
scrotum. - Urethra
- Prostate.
- Ejaculation ducts
at the end of the
urethra
Examples Platypus Kangaroo Human

Reproductive Strategies

Many mammals used to breed and to mate seasonally when the environmental conditions are
suitable for reproduction and breeding. Females of some species store male sperm until the condition
of the environment become ideal for fertilization. This is a vital strategy in order to adapt to
environmental changes. This approach called Delayed Fertilization. Another strategy that some
mammals practice is Delayed Implantation. Some females delay eggs. I believe this strategy is not

SAMEH ABDELGHANY 5
6 AN INTRODUCTION TO MAMMALS

that much effective than the delayed fertilization. Not all mammalian females can delay producing
eggs. However, the third approach is Delayed Development that means the female can delay or slow
down the development after implantation (Wund, and Myers, 2016). This is the most efficient
strategy. I can argue that this is a more efficient adaptive strategy than the previous two approaches.
However, the delayed implantation in many diverse groups of mammals that the delayed fertilization
and delayed development. The late development strategy is rarely understood. I cannot understand
this strategy and in which cases the animal may use. The long-tailed weasel, Mustela frenara, and the
least weasel, Mustela nivales, both occur in the same habitat. However, the least weasel demonstrates
delayed development; the long-tailed does not (Feldhamer et al., 2015), so there is no particular
method for the reproductive strategy in some mammals.

Conclusion

It is evident that mammals are descended from early amniotes. The fossil records show how
mammals are related to the early amniotes. These evolutionary stages have done in several steps
called evolutionary pulses. Domestication has used as a source of food and animal games, but now it
has economic importance. Mammals occupy a large diversity on earth; that is because of the
successful migratory behavior. They have physical structures that help them to communicate and
reproduce.

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