BRONZE AGE.

The Bronze Age is a prehistoric period that was characterized by the use of bronze, in some
areas proto-writing, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second
principal period of the three-age Stone-Bronze-Iron system, as proposed in modern times
by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen, for classifying and studying ancient societies.
An ancient civilization is defined to be in the Bronze Age either by
producing bronze by smelting its own copper and alloying with tin, arsenic, or other metals, or by
trading for bronze from production areas elsewhere. Bronze is harder and more durable than
other metals available at the time, allowing Bronze Age civilizations to gain a technological
advantage.
While terrestrial iron is naturally abundant, its high melting point of 1538 °C (2800 °F) placed it
out of reach of common use until the end of the second millennium BC. Tin's low melting point of
231.9 °C (449.4 °F) and copper's relatively moderate melting point of 1,085 °C (1,985 °F) placed
them within the capabilities of the Neolithic pottery kilns, which date back to 6,000 BC and were
able to produce temperatures greater than 900 °C (1,652 °F).[1] Copper/tin ores are rare, as
reflected in the fact that there were no tin bronzes in Western Asia, before trading in bronze
began in the third millennium BC. Worldwide, the Bronze Age generally followed
the Neolithic period.

Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details

Western Asia and the Near East were the first regions to enter the Bronze Age, which began with
the rise of the Mesopotamian civilization of Sumer in the mid 4th millennium BC. Cultures in the
ancient Near East (often called one of "the cradles of civilization") practiced intensive year-round
agriculture, developed writing systems, invented the potter's wheel, created centralized
governments (usually in form of hereditary monarchies), written law codes, city-states and
nation-states and empires, embarked on advanced architectural projects, introduced social
stratification, economic and civil administration, slavery, and practiced organized warfare,
medicine and religion. Societies in the region laid the foundations
for astronomy, mathematics and astrology.

MESOPOTAMIA CIVILIZATION

INTRODUCTION.
The (pre)history of Mesopotamia ranges from the earliest human occupation in
the Paleolithic period up to the Late antiquity. This history is pieced together from evidence
retrieved from archaeological excavations and, after the introduction of writing in the late 4th
millennium BC, an increasing amount of historical sources. While in the Paleolithic and early
Neolithic periods only parts of Upper Mesopotamia were occupied, the southern alluvium was
settled during the late Neolithic period. Mesopotamia has been home to many of the oldest major
civilizations, entering history from the Early Bronze Age, for which reason it is often dubbed
the cradle of civilization.
Mesopotamia literally means "between the rivers" in ancient Greek. The oldest known
occurrence of the name Mesopotamia dates to the 4th century BC, when it was used to
designate the land east of the Euphrates in north Syria. Later it was more generally applied to all
the lands between the Euphrates and the Tigris, thereby incorporating not only parts of Syria but
also almost all of Iraq and southeastern Turkey. The neighbouring steppes to the west of the
Euphrates and the western part of the Zagros Mountains are also often included under the wider
term Mesopotamia. A further distinction is usually made between Upper or Northern
Mesopotamia and Lower or Southern Mesopotamia.
Upper Mesopotamia, also known as the Jezirah, is the area between the Euphrates and the
Tigris from their sources down to Baghdad. Lower Mesopotamia is the area from Baghdad to
the Persian Gulf. In modern scientific usage, the term Mesopotamia often also has a
chronological connotation. It is usually used to designate the area until the Arab Muslim
conquests in the 7th century AD, with Arabic names like Syria, Jezirah and Iraq being used to
describe the region after that date.

Significant development.
. Introduced mathematics for architecture.
. Developed their own written language.
. Introduced arches and vault in architecture.
. Invention of wheel.
. Astronomy science was invented, developed their own calendar.
. They had developed their own number system used to divide time. Ex. 1 minutes= 60 seconds,
1 hour= 60 seconds.
Early Dynastic period

SUMERIANS
The entire Early Dynastic period is generally dated to 2900–2350 BC according to the Middle
Chronology, or 2800–2230 BC according to the Short Chronology. The Sumerians were firmly
established in Mesopotamia by the middle of the 4th millennium BC, in the archaeological Uruk
period, although scholars dispute when they arrived. It is hard to tell where the Sumerians might
have come from because the Sumerian language is a language isolate, unrelated to any other
known language. Their mythology includes many references to the area of Mesopotamia but little
clue regarding their place of origin, perhaps indicating that they had been there for a long time.
The Sumerian language is identifiable from its initially logographic script which arose last half of
the 4th millennium BC.
By the 3rd millennium BC, these urban centers had developed into increasingly complex
societies. Irrigation and other means of exploiting food sources were being used to amass large
surpluses. Huge building projects were being undertaken by rulers, and political organization was
becoming ever more sophisticated. Throughout the millennium, the various city-states Kish,
Uruk, Ur and Lagash vied for power and gained hegemony at various
times. Nippur and Girsu were important religious centers, as was Eridu at this point. This was
also the time of Gilgamesh, a semi-historical king of Uruk, and the subject of the famous Epic of
Gilgamesh. By 2600 BC, the logographic script had developed into a
decipherable cuneiform syllabic script.
The Sumerian king list is one record of the political history of the period. It starts with
mythological figures with improbably long reigns, but later rulers have been authenticated
with archaeological evidence. The first of these is Enmebaragesi of Kish, c. 2600 BC, said by the
king list to have subjected neighboring Elam. However, one complication of the Sumerian king
list is that although dynasties are listed in sequential order, some of them actually ruled at the
same time over different areas. The last native Sumerian to rule over most of Sumer
before Sargon of Akkad established supremacy was Lugal-Zage-Si.
During the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the
Sumerians and the Akkadians which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of
Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a
massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted
scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the 3rd millennium as a sprachbund.
RELIGION AND CULTURE
ECONOMY
Sumerian period art
Like many ancient cultures, the Sumerians developed art that was largely reflective of
their religious beliefs. The Sumerian art medium of choice was clay which was abundant
in the region, but statues made from stone have also been unearthed. Often artist
decoration adorned functional items such as pottery, weapons, or even farm
implements.

Architecture

The beginnings of monumental architecture in Mesopotamia are

usually considered to have been contemporary with the founding of
the Sumerian cities and the invention of writing, about 3100 BCE.
Conscious attempts at architectural design during this so-
called Protoliterate period (c. 3400–c. 2900 BCE) are recognizable
in the construction of religious buildings. There is, however,
one temple, at Abū Shahrayn (ancient Eridu), that is no more than a
final rebuilding of a shrine the original foundation of which dates
back to the beginning of the 4th millennium; the continuity of
design has been thought by some to confirm the presence of the
Sumerians throughout the temple’s history. Already, in the Ubaid
period (c. 5200–c. 3500 BCE), this temple anticipated most of the
architectural characteristics of the typical Protoliterate
Sumerian platform temple. It is built of mud brick on a raised plinth
(platform base) of the same material, and its walls are ornamented
on their outside surfaces with alternating buttresses (supports) and
recesses. Tripartite in form, its long central sanctuary is flanked on
two sides by subsidiary chambers, provided with an altar at one end
and a freestanding offering table at the other. Typical temples of the
Protoliterate period—both the platform type and the type built at
ground level—are, however, much more elaborate both in planning
and ornament. Interior wall ornament often consists of a patterned
mosaic of terra-cotta cones sunk into the wall, their exposed ends
dipped in bright colours or sheathed in bronze. An open hall at the
Sumerian city of Uruk (biblical Erech; modern Tall al-Warkāʾ, Iraq)
contains freestanding and attached brick columns that have been
brilliantly decorated in this way. Alternatively, the internal-wall
faces of a platform temple could be ornamented
with mural paintings depicting mythical scenes, such as at ʿUqair.

The two forms of temple—the platform variety and that built at

ground level—persisted throughout the early dynasties of Sumerian
history (c. 2900–c. 2400 BCE). It is known that two of the platform
temples originally stood within walled enclosures, oval in shape and
containing, in addition to the temple, accommodation for priests.
But the raised shrines themselves are lost, and their appearance can
be judged only from facade ornaments discovered at Tall al-ʿUbayd.
These devices, which were intended to relieve the monotony of sun-
dried brick or mud plaster, include a huge copper-sheathed lintel,
with animal figures modeled partly in the round; wooden columns
sheathed in a patterned mosaic of coloured stone or shell; and
bands of copper-sheathed bulls and lions, modeled in relief but with
projecting heads. The planning of ground-level temples continued
to elaborate on a single theme: a rectangular sanctuary, entered on
the cross axis, with altar, offering table, and pedestals for votive
statuary (statues used for vicarious worship or intercession).

Considerably less is known about palaces or other secular buildings

at this time. Circular brick columns and austerely simplified facades
have been found at Kish (modern Tall al-Uhaimer, Iraq). Flat roofs,
supported on palm trunks, must be assumed, although some
knowledge of corbeled vaulting (a technique of spanning an opening
like an arch by having successive cones of masonry project farther
inward as they rise on each side off the gap)—and even of dome
construction—is suggested by tombs at Ur, where a little stone was
available.

Sculpture

The Sumerian Worshipers (from the Temple at Tell Asmar), ca 2900-2500 BC. Found in the
collection of Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. (Photo by Fine Art
Images/Heritage Images/Getty Images)

Practically all Sumerian sculpture served as adornment or ritual

equipment for the temples. No clearly identifiable cult statues of
gods or goddesses have yet been found. Many of the extant figures
in stone are votive statues, as indicated by the phrases used in the
inscriptions that they often bear: “It offers prayers” or “Statue, say
to my king (god)….” Male statues stand or sit with hands clasped in
an attitude of prayer. They are often naked above the waist and
wear a woolen skirt woven in an unusual pattern that suggests
overlapping petals (commonly described by the Greek
word kaunakes, meaning “thick cloak”). A togalike garment
sometimes covers one shoulder. Men generally wear long hair and a
heavy beard, both often trimmed in corrugations and painted black.
The eyes and eyebrows are emphasized with coloured inlay. The
female coiffure varies considerably but predominantly consists of a
heavy coil arranged vertically from ear to ear and a chignon behind.
The hair is sometimes concealed by a headdress of folded linen.
Ritual nakedness is confined to priests.

It has been thought that the rarity of stone in Mesopotamia

contributed to the primary stylistic distinction between Sumerian
and Egyptian sculpture. The Egyptians quarried their own stone in
prismatic blocks, and one can see that, even in their freestanding
statues, strength of design is attained by the retention of geometric
unity. By contrast, in Sumer, stone must have been imported from
remote sources, often in the form of miscellaneous boulders,
the amorphous character of which seems to have been retained by
the statues into which they were transformed.

Nergal
Nergal, a Mesopotamian god of the underworld, holding his lion-headed staffs, terra-cotta relief
from Kish, c. 2100–c. 1500 BCE; in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, Eng.

Courtesy of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, Eng.

Beyond this general characteristic of Sumerian sculpture, two
successive styles have been distinguished in the middle and late
subdivisions of the Early Dynastic period. One very notable group of
figures, from Tall al-Asmar, Iraq (ancient Eshnunna), dating from
the first of these phases, shows a geometric simplification of forms
that, to modern taste, is ingenious and aesthetically acceptable.
Statues characteristic of the second phase, on the other hand,
though technically more competently carved, show aspirations to
naturalism that are sometimes overly ambitious. In this second
style, some scholars see evidence of occasional attempts at
portraiture. Yet, in spite of minor variations, all these figures adhere
to the single formula of presenting the conventional characteristics
of Sumerian physiognomy. Their provenance is not confined to the
Sumerian cities in the south. An important group of statues is
derived from the ancient capital of Mari, on the middle Euphrates,
where the population is known to have been racially different from
the Sumerians. In the Mari statues there also appears to have been
no deviation from the sculptural formula; they are distinguished
only by technical peculiarities in the carving.

Deprived of stone, Sumerian sculptors

exploited alternative materials. Fine examples of metal casting have
been found, some of them suggesting knowledge of the cire perdue
(lost-wax) process, and copper statues more than half life-size are
known to have existed. In metalwork, however, the ingenuity of
Sumerian artists is perhaps best judged from their contrivance of
composite figures. The earliest and one of the finest examples of
such figures—and of Sumerian sculpture as a whole—comes from a
Protoliterate level of excavation at Tall al-Warkāʾ. It is the limestone
face of a life-size statue, the remainder of which must have been
composed of other materials; the method of attachment is visible on
the surviving face. Devices of this sort were brought to perfection by
craftsmen of the Early Dynastic period, the finest examples of
whose work are to be seen among the treasures from the royal
tombs at Ur: a bull’s head decorating a harp, composed of wood or
bitumen covered with gold and wearing a lapis lazuli beard; a
rampant he-goat in gold and lapis, supported by a golden tree; the
composite headdresses of court ladies; or, more simply, the
miniature figure of a wild ass, cast in electrum (a natural yellow
alloy of gold and silver) and mounted on a bronze rein ring. The
inlay and enrichment of wooden objects reaches its peak in this
period, as may be seen in the so-called standard or double-sided
panel from Ur, on which elaborate scenes of peace and war are
depicted in a delicate inlay of shell and semiprecious stones. The
refinement of craftsmanship in metal is also apparent in the famous
wig-helmet of gold, belonging to a Sumerian prince, and in
weapons, implements, and utensils.

the Standard of Ur
The Standard of Ur (detail), mosaic of lapis lazuli, shell, coloured stone, and mother-of-
pearl, c. 2500 BCE; in the British Museum, London.

© Fernando Fernández/age fotostock

Relief carving in stone was a medium of expression popular with the

Sumerians and first appears in a rather crude form in Protoliterate
times. In the final phase of the Early Dynastic period, its style
became conventional. The most common form of relief
sculpture was that of stone plaques, 1 foot (30 cm) or more square,
pierced in the centre for attachment to the walls of a temple, with
scenes depicted in several registers (horizontal rows). The subjects
usually seem to be commemorative of specific events, such as feasts
or building activities, but representation is highly standardized, so
that almost identical plaques have been found at sites as much as
500 miles (800 km) apart. Fragments of more ambitious
commemorative stelae have also been recovered; the Stele of
Vultures from Telloh, Iraq (ancient Lagash), is one example.
Although it commemorates a military victory, it has a religious
content. The most important figure is that of a patron deity,
emphasized by its size, rather than that of the king. The formal
massing of figures suggests the beginnings of mastery in design, and
a formula has been devised for multiplying identical figures, such as
chariot horses.

In a somewhat different category are the cylinder seals so widely

utilized at this time. Used for the same purposes as the more
familiar stamp seal and likewise engraved in negative (intaglio), the
cylinder-shaped seal was rolled over wet clay on which it left an
impression in relief. Delicately carved with miniature designs on a
variety of stones or shell, cylinder seals rank as one of the higher
forms of Sumerian art.

Ea (seated) and attendant deities, Sumerian cylinder seal, c. 2300 BC; in the Pierpont Morgan
Library, New York.

Courtesy of the Pierpont Morgan Library, New York

Prominent among their subjects is the complicated imagery of

Sumerian mythology and religious ritual. Still only partially
understood, their skillful adaptation to linear designs can at least be
easily appreciated. Some of the finest cylinder seals date from the
Protoliterate period. After a slight deterioration in the first Early
Dynastic period, when brocade patterns or files of running animals
were preferred, mythical scenes returned. Conflicts are depicted
between wild beasts and protecting demigods or hybrid figures,
associated by some scholars with the Sumerian epic of Gilgamesh.
The monotony of animated motifs is occasionally relieved by the
introduction of an inscription.
Pottery

Excavations at Tepe Gawra in Iraq in 1936-37 brought to light the foundation

walls of a “pre-Sumerian” acropolis, dated before 4000 BCE, and relics
indicating that the “Painted Pottery Peoples,” long considered primitive
except in their mastery of ceramic art, “enjoyed an advanced and balanced
civilization.”

Northern Ubaid period (4500–4000 BC); pottery; from Tepe Gawra and other sites (Photo: Daderot /
CC0)

There is also evidence of planned community building, even of monumental

architecture, with interior piers and pilasters; of religious activities centered
in temples; of seals; of the first datable goldsmithing in the form of gold
beads, and thus the first datable jewellery art of the region; of musical
instruments; of an earthen jar bearing “the first landscape painting” – all
ascribed to a time five hundred years or more before the date previously
accepted as marking the dawn of history and civilized art.

In other words, Sumerian culture – which previously had been considered to

be on a par with late Prehistoric art – is now known to have possessed many
of the cultural attributes commonly associated with later Egyptian civilization,
among others.
The Stele of the Vultures (c.2800 BCE)
Out of the excavated ruins of Lagash, a Sumerian city-state, archaeologists
recovered fragments of a stone tablet (or stele), sculpted in low relief, which
had been commissioned as a war memorial by King Eannatum.

On one side the monument recounts in pictures and text the military
successes of the all-conquering King Eannatum. He is depicted oversize,
leading his soldiers into battle. Nearby are heaps of dead bodies belonging to
their enemies, while vultures fly overhead carrying away dismembered parts
of the slaughtered.

Stele of the Vultures in the Louvre Museum (PHOTO: WIKIPEDIA / CC BY-SA)

The other side of the tablet shows the approval of the Gods. It depicts a god
holding the heraldic symbol of Lagash while neatly destroying its enemies.

This item of narrative relief sculpture is believed to be the earliest known

instance of a story told in pictures, of sustained visual art: its theme being
“war” – one of four main themes of the day; the others being Kings, Gods
and Hunting.

The Stele of the Vultures is an important example of Mesopotamian sculpture

from the late Sumerian period, but is less representative (of Sumerian art as
a whole) than the little animal figures, in the round and in low relief, the shell
plaques and the seals, all of which are more in character as products of the
early city-states’ studios.
Statues
There are statues in the round, of the true Sumerian period, which give
evidence of an aptitude for the full-sculptural medium, although there is
nothing that approaches the nobility and the subtle aesthetic expressiveness
of the figurative Egyptian sculpture of the Old Kingdom period. Indeed from
the thirty-first century, down to the time of King Gudea, about the twenty-
fifth century, there appears to have been very little change in the
conventions of the art, and certainly no great improvement in skill. Some of
the later full-length statues of King Gudea are massive, effectively simplified
and reposeful, but there is little of the inner sculptural life, of the plastic
expressiveness, that so distinguishes contemporary rock-carving along the
Nile.

Limestone statue of Gudea. From Girsu, Iraq. 2144–2124 BC. Extensively

reconstructed. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul (Osama Shukir Muhammed
Amin FRCP(Glasg) / CC BY-SA)
Decorative Art
It is rather in the field of figurines, and particularly when animals are dealt
with, that a distinctive excellence is achieved. There is, for example, the
figure of a donkey (dated 3100 BCE) which Queen Shub-ad had attached as
a mascot to the rein-guide on the yoke of her chariot asses. It is a pretty bit
of realistic sculpture, showing canny observation, but with due regard to the
figure’s use and placing. Sculpturally appealing also are certain bulls’ heads
in silver and copper. Some of these were ornaments on lyres and perhaps
should not be judged independently. But the values are of the sort that
render the fragments effective even when wrenched from the original
context.

Incidentally, the modern world owes its knowledge of Queen Shub-ad’s

donkey and these bulls’ heads, and the shell-plaques from game-boards, to
one rich find at Ur, and their preservation to a custom common during early
human civilization. According to the etiquette of the First Dynasty, about
3100 BCE, when the queen died a large number of her ladies-in-waiting were
entombed in her burial chamber in the royal cemetery, to give her what aid
and comfort they could in the afterlife. With them were walled in such earthly
treasures as the queen’s chariot and harps and chaplets and toilet articles.

Sumer is believed to be the birthplace of nail art around

3200 BCE, when men started colouring their nails with
“kohl”, a lotion containing lead sulfide.
Headdress decorated with golden leaves; 2600–2400 BC; gold, lapis lazuli and carnelian; length: 38.5
cm; from the Royal Cemetery at Ur; Metropolitan Museum of Art (Photo: Metropolitan Museum of
Art / CC0)
The art in general, of headdresses, jewellery, gold vessels, and statues, runs
to excessive ornamentation and lack of taste in adapting observed natural
detail to decorative or plastic purposes. It is, in fact, already a decadent
standard of art that we have here, of a time when the ability to formalize
beautifully, common to so many primitive peoples, had passed into florid
overabundance and into a striving after exact representation for its own
sake. Some of the discovered chaplets are like flowered wreaths copied
directly from nature into gold and other precious stuffs. Each leaf is true to
its botanical model; every vein is shown. Art is no longer creation nor
selective adaptation, but imitation of natural beauty.

Gold helmet of Meskalamdug, ruler of the First Dynasty of Ur, circa 2500 BC, Early Dynastic period III.
(Photo: Akieboy / CC BY-SA)
Cylindrical Seals
A miniature art originated by the Sumerians, and to be perpetuated through
the Babylonian-Assyrian supremacy, was the sculpturing of cylindrical seals
in low relief. Writing in Mesopotamia was done on wet clay slabs, which later
hardened into permanent tablets. It is owing to the indestructible character
of these tablet documents and “books” that the twentieth-century world
knows so much of the details of Sumerian and later Mesopotamian literature
and life.

To sign the clay, or mark it with his device, the important personage carried
a personal seal, and this commonly was ornamental and pictorial. “Every
Babylonian,” wrote Herodotus, “carries a seal, and a staff carved at the top
into the form of an apple, a rose, a lily, an eagle, or a like device.”

Cylinder-seal of the “lady” or “queen” Puabi, Royal Cemetery at Ur, c. 2600 BC; British Museum
(Photo: Steve Harris / CC BY-SA)

A small cylinder of hard stone, such as obsidian, agate, or quartz, or of the

softer alabaster, was carved as a “negative,” in intaglio, so that the
impression of it in the clay came out in relief. It usually showed a
composition with figures, and very often was a token of the owner’s devotion
to a certain god. Literally thousands of cylinder seals (not to mention flat,
ring, and cone varieties) have been recovered, as well as innumerable clay
documents bearing their impressions.

The early examples may show roughly geometrical designs or solar images,
and there are also primitive pictographic inscriptions. Certainly soon after
3500 BCE the figured seals begin to reflect a considerable skill in relief
picturing and a high sense of stylization. There is a sharpness, a crisp
delineation of separated figures against uninvolved backgrounds, which
perfectly belongs to this exquisite lapidary art.

Akkadian Empire
The Akkadian period is generally dated to 2350–2170 BC according to the Middle Chronology, or
2230–2050 BC according to the Short Chronology. Around 2334 BC, Sargon became ruler of
Akkad in northern Mesopotamia. He proceeded to conquer an area stretching from the Persian
Gulf into modern-day Syria. The Akkadians were a Semitic people and the Akkadian
language came into widespread use as the lingua franca during this period, but literacy remained
in the Sumerian language. The Akkadians further developed the Sumerian irrigation system with
the incorporation of large weirs and diversion dams into the design to facilitate the reservoirs and
canals required to transport water vast distances. The dynasty continued until around c. 2154
BC, and reached its zenith under Naram-Sin, who began the trend for rulers to claim divinity for
themselves.
The Akkadian Empire lost power after the reign of Naram-Sin, and eventually was invaded by
the Guti from the Zagros Mountains. For half a century the Guti controlled Mesopotamia,
especially the south, but they left few inscriptions, so they are not well understood. The Guti hold
loosened on southern Mesopotamia, where the second dynasty of Lagash came into
prominence. Its most famous ruler was Gudea, who left many statues of himself in temples
across Sumer.

Akkadian Culture

Akkadian civilization used the cuneiform script, which they had adapted to their own
language. Evidence has been found that the Akkadians also used Sumerian writing,
but that Akkadian writing also began to be used following Sargon’s laws, especially
among citizens who had been offered administrative posts by Sargon.

In regards to Akkadian architecture, it is worth noting that no architectural vestiges

that would allow us to know exactly what architecture was like in this period remain.
There are remains of works and palaces restored by the Akkadians, but the ruins of
cities like Akkad and Sippar lie buried in unknown locations.

Akkadian Religion

The Akkadians practiced a polytheistic religion that had a lot in common with other
Mesopotamian civilizations’ religions, like the Sumerians’. As such, it was a place
with political and social organizations where religion was very important, with a
powerful priesthood and where the ruler was considered to be the representative of
the gods on Earth. The gods in Akkadian mythology were, in general, related to
different natural phenomena and explanations of the ways of life in Akkadian
society. The gods that make up Akkadian mythology are many, but the following can
be considered the most important:

An or Anu: An was the sky god and was also considered to be the supreme ruler of
all gods, with different phenomena relating to the heavens, like the stars and the
constellations, also under his control. As in other mythologies, such as Greek
mythology, where the sky god Uranus was described in the same way, in Sumerian
mythology An was represented as a celestial dome that covered the Earth. The
Akkadians inherited this representation of the god of the heavens from the
Sumerians who, as the supreme god, also had the fates of other heavenly and divine
beings under his command. Therefore, among his most important responsibilities,
he was also tasked with judging human and divine crimes and any subsequent
punishments.

Enlil or Bea: The god Enlil is of outstanding importance not only in Akkadian
cosmology, but also in other related cultures, like those of
the Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians and Hittites. Enlil was associated with the
winds, storms and breathing. Enlil was also the father of several natural deities, such
as the moon god and the wheat goddess. Due to Enlil’s close relationship with
agriculture, he was one of the most prominent gods in the Akkadian pantheon and
was considered responsible for storms and, consequently, rain.

Sin or Nanna: Sin was the moon god in the Akkadian pantheon, who was known as
Nanna in the Sumerian pantheon. He was the main god of the city of Ur, so during
this city-state’s period of supremacy, he reached heights that could rival the
previously mentioned god An. Sin also had the important task of being the god of
wisdom and related arts, due to the relationship of the moon with knowledge of
astronomy and astrological divinations, which were extremely important aspects of
Mesopotamian culture.

Utu: Utu was the Akkadian Sun god. The concept of the sun was of great importance
in an agrarian-based society such as the Mesopotamians’, although the god Utu is
exceeded in importance by other gods, such as the aforementioned god An. He was
considered to be the god of justice and truth, since the sun sees and knows all.
 Enlil Akkadian God

Ishtar: The goddess Ishtar is one of the most well-known Mesopotamian goddesses
today due to the famous remains of monuments dedicated to her kept in the
Pergamon Museum in Berlin. Ishtar was the goddess of fertility, love, sex and
passionate and fierce war. There are many myths relating to this popular goddess
and her many lovers, and her cult has even been linked with rituals of sacred
prostitution, although this has not yet been proven absolutely. As in all ancient
civilizations, fertility was a fundamental part of life, economics and social
organization, so Ishtar was considered a very popular goddess. Ishtar is also
considered to be a deity parallel to other goddesses from other mythologies of the
ancient world, like the Semitic goddess Astarte or the Greek Aphrodite.

Other important gods in the Akkadian pantheon were Enki or Ea, the creator of man,
and the god Shamash, who was also linked to sun worship.

Akkadian Culture’s Contributions

The Akkadian Empire adopted Sumerian culture. However, they implemented certain
administrative reforms; they established a rigorous territorial organization in which
they had a central territory administered by the king, and several territorial
subdivisions administered by one or several governors according to the area’s
importance and size. They created a standing army. The King was deified in life.

The Akkadian language is one of the oldest Semitic languages, and the first
documentary evidence of it, written in cuneiform characters, dates back to
approximately 2400 BC. It was the language used in cultural spheres and diplomatic
relations. The Assyrian and Babylonian dialects were derived from Akkadian, which
were used in the territory until the Aramaic replaced them in the fourth century BC.

The Sumerian custom of raising large stelae, commemorative monuments, in special

places in the cities continued during the Akkadian Empire. The power of empire was
demonstrated and its military successes were publicized through these works. A
mountainous landscape with trees can be seen in Naram-Sim’s stela, depicting a
scene in which the figure of the king Naram-Sim dominates, being of a greater size
than his subjects and enemies, and is crowned with a helmet with two horns from
the gods. The victorious king crushes the corpses of his enemies with his foot, while
he kills two others and others fall down. The Akkadian soldiers on a lower level raise
their heads as a sign of admiration and respect for their king.

Architecture

One would indeed expect a similar change to be apparent in the

character of contemporary architecture, and the fact that this is not
so may be due to the paucity of excavated examples. It is known that
the Sargonid dynasty had a hand in the reconstruction and
extension of many Sumerian temples (for example, at Nippur) and
that they built palaces with practical amenities (Tall al-Asmar) and
powerful fortresses on their lines of imperial communication (Tell
Brak, or Tall Birāk al-Taḥtānī, Syria). The ruins of their buildings,
however, are insufficient to suggest either changes in architectural
style or structural innovations.

Sculpture

Two notable heads of Akkadian statues have survived: one in bronze

and the other of stone. The bronze head of a king, wearing the wig-
helmet of the old Sumerian rulers, is probably Sargon himself.
Though lacking its inlaid eyes and slightly damaged elsewhere, this
head is rightly considered one of the great masterpieces of ancient
art. The Akkadian head in stone, from Bismāyah, Iraq
(ancient Adab), suggests that portraiture in materials other than
bronze had also progressed.
bronze head of a king
Bronze head of a king, perhaps Sargon of Akkad, from Nineveh (now in Iraq), Akkadian period, c.
2300 BCE; in the Iraq Museum, Baghdad.

Interfoto Scans/age fotostock

Where relief sculpture is concerned, an even greater

accomplishment is evident in the famous Naram-Sin (Sargon’s
grandson) stela, on which a pattern of figures is ingeniously
designed to express the abstract idea of conquest. Other stelae and
the rock reliefs (which by their geographic situation bear witness to
the extent of Akkadian conquest) show the carving of the period to
be in the hands of less competent artists. Yet two striking fragments
in the Iraqi Museum, which were found in the region of Al-
Nāṣiriyyah, Iraq, once more provide evidence of the improvement in
design and craftsmanship that had taken place since the days of the
Sumerian dynasties. One of the fragments shows a procession of
naked war prisoners, in which the anatomic details are well
observed but skillfully subordinated to the rhythmical pattern
required by the subject.

Some compensation for the paucity of surviving Akkadian

sculptures is to be found in the varied and plentiful repertoire of
contemporary cylinder seals. The Akkadian seal cutter’s craft
reached a standard of perfection virtually unrivaled in later times.
Where the aim of his Sumerian predecessor had been to produce an
uninterrupted, closely woven design, the Akkadian seal cutter’s own
preference was for clarity in the arrangement of a number of
carefully spaced figures.

cylinder seal
Cylinder seal impression from the Akkadian period with a combat scene between a bearded hero
and a bull-man and various beasts; in the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago.

Courtesy of The Oriental Institute of The University of Chicago

The Akkadian dynasty ended in disaster when the river valley was
overrun by the mountain tribes of northern Iran. Of all the
Mesopotamian cities, only Lagash appears somehow to have
remained aloof from the conflict and, under its famous
governor Gudea, to have successfully maintained the continuity of
the Mesopotamian cultural tradition. In particular, the sculpture
dating from this short interregnum (c. 2100 BCE) seems to represent
some sort of posthumous flowering of Sumerian genius. The well-
known group of statues of the governor and other notables,
discovered at the end of the 19th century, long remained the
only criterion by which Sumerian art could be judged, and examples
in the Louvre and British Museum are still greatly admired. The
hard stone, usually diorite, is carved with obvious mastery and
brought to a fine finish. Details are cleverly stylized, but the
musculature is carefully studied, and the high quality of the carving
makes the use of inlay unnecessary. The powerful impression of
serene authority that these statues convey justifies their inclusion
among the finest products of ancient Middle Eastern art.
The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin

The Victory Stele

of Naram-Sin

The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin was found in Susa of Iran. It is known that the purpose
of this limestone carved stele, is to celebrate the victory of Naram-Sin the King of Akkad, over
the Lullubi. Naram-Sin was the grand son of best-known Akkad King Sargon. The stele tells
a story about what happened in the battlefield. Naram-Sin himself is the biggest and the most
important figure depicted in the stele. Everyone else on the stele, looks to Naram-Sin directly.
This victorious commander has been depicted much taller than other warriors in a traditional
manner while leading his army in an attack on the mountain.
Other Figures in the Stele

Lullubi King Satuni

His helmeted warriors gridded on their axes and bows, are going after him as an indication
of loyalty. Naram-Sin tramples the bodies of his enemies, while Lullubi King Satuni tries to
tear the arrow piercing out of his throat on his knees. Another figure behind him, raises his
hands to his mouth, begging the Akkadian King for mercy. But Naram-Sin’s attention was
focused on top of the Zagros Mountains where the Akkad army marched to conquer.

Stars in the
Victory Stele of Naram-Sin
At top of the stele, two oval figures which possibly refer to stars, glitter their lights upon
Naram-Sin in order to provide a protection to him, while he is climbing to reach them on top
of the mountain. It is seen that peak point of the mountain and those solar circles, touch each
other slightly. The Akkadian king wears a conical helmet with horns which is a traditional
symbol of the privilege for gods and is armed with a large bow and axe. The King Naram-Sin
has a heroic representation which depicts himself as a god in a sense. He has some effects on
the artistic and literary expressions of that period.

Victory Steles as Political Propaganda

Akkad King Naram-Sin

The stele indicates a change towards a clearer and more conscious use of iconic and epigraphic
monuments having the feature of propaganda and celebration for a ruler's achievements.
The elements in the stele, already developed in the Early Dynastic period, from votive statutes
to victory steles which were remodelled for the purpose of spreading political propaganda.
Those votive monuments were not built only in Ekur of Nippur. Some of them were built in
other sanctuaries in the whole empire from Sippar to Ur. The statues basically remained with
the king in a standing posture on a pedestal. They generally were decorated with prisoners
of war or defeated enemies.
 Akkad Troops
following Naram-Sin

This representation, together with a bunch of inscriptions and dedications, changed the aim
of these monuments in time. Previously these monuments have been implying for a king
to worship the gods. Then the purpose of them became celebrating the victories of a king.
The way of these celebrations has created more opportunities to express a new role for the
ruler. When a warrior was able to win a fight in the Early Dynastic period, his depiction would
take a place in the block of the stele, however he was representing the urban
community which contains individuals with initiatives. They seemed in shape of the kings
but carved in smaller sizes.

BABYLONE
Babylonia was founded as an independent state by an Amorite chieftain
named Sumuabum in 1894 BC. For over a century after its founding, it was a minor and
relatively weak state, overshadowed by older and more powerful states such
as Isin, Larsa, Assyria and Elam. However, Hammurabi (1792 BC to 1750 BC), the Amorite
ruler of Babylon, turned Babylon into a major power and eventually conquered
Mesopotamia and beyond. He is famous for his law code and conquests, but he is also
famous due to the large amount of records that exist from the period of his reign. After the
death of Hammurabi, the first Babylonian dynasty lasted for another century and a half,
but his empire quickly unravelled, and Babylon once more became a small state. The
Amorite dynasty ended in 1595 BC, when Babylonia fell to the Hittite king Mursilis, after
which the Kassites took control.

Economic Activities

The economic activities which developed during the First Babylonian Empire are
well-known thanks to the laws of the Code of Hammurabi, which is a very important
historical source and which helps historians to know what the economy was like
during the Babylonian Empire.

Religious Beliefs in Babylon

Ancient Babylonia

They constructed great monuments as is the case of the temples whose buildings in
form of terraced towers reached a total height exceeding 100 meters (328 feet). The
temples also possessed decorations in relief narrating important aspects relating to
worship and the deity to which homage was made on the walls of the main rooms.

The most important gods represented in these temples were the following:

• Anu: was the principal god during the most ancient era. He was the god of the sky.
Enlil: he is the son of Anu. He carried the “tablet of destinies” with which he
controlled the future of all beings. He ended up replacing his father as king of the
gods.
• Ea (o Enki): is the god of magical knowledge, who controlled fresh water, so
important for agriculture in Mesopotamia. He was also charged with teaching the
different trades to humanity.
• Marduk: son of Ea. He was the principal god of Babylonia. He became king of the
gods, beginning with the Babylonian Empire and also to other regions and cultures in
Mesopotamia.
• Ishtar: she is the goddess of love. With various names, she was known in all of
western Asia, becoming the most popular goddess of the Mesopotamian pantheon.
• Nabu: master of scribes and god of wisdom.

Unfortunately, due to the conquests and destruction of cities, to which was added
the deterioration of time and erosion by environmental conditions, many of the works
of art of the Babylonian culture were destroyed, but those which have been saved
outline an important image for us of the general characteristics of the culture in
these ancient cities.

This ancient civilization possessed important knowledge related to astrology thanks

to which they created a fairly accurate calendar, of which many aspects are still
used. They possessed knowledge about medicine, the prevention of sicknesses and
the containment or spread of the same, which is surprising today if one takes into
account the antiquity of this nation. The knowledge they possessed
regarding mathematics is astounding.

Contributions of the Babylonian Culture

Ancient Tower of Babylon

Fundamental contributions of the Babylonians regarding technology, science,

medicine, astronomy, and laws.

• The Babylonians achieved important results in the treatment of

sicknesses beginning with organic natural compositions like honey and medicinal
plants. They carried out surgical operations, diagnosis, and prognosis of recognized
sicknesses in a written compendium.
• The prevention of sicknesses with the application of measures of personal
hygiene which included frequent ablutions, washing of hands, boiling water and
production with this of medicinal drinks as well as those for regular use. Also the use
of symbols and described signs in their tablets which correspond to distinct
sicknesses known to them and how to treat them effectively.
• Creation and implementation of the first penal code of laws to regulate people’s
behavior
• Creation of religious services which spread, with modified versions, to other ancient
cultures.
• They achieved the attainment of metal alloys with which they produced tools,
weapons, and elements of decorative and utilitarian character like metal sculptures,
jewelry, metal vessels, shields, bangles etc.
• Advanced knowledge regarding the use of irrigation for agriculture, rotation of fields
and crops.
• Utilization of cuneiform writing on baked clay cylinders and tablets, a technique
inherited from the Sumerians, has contributed valuable information with which
aspects of history, traditions, and culture could be documented.
• Surprising technology for the production of vitrified bricks used for the decoration of
palaces and temples.
• Advanced mathematical and astronomical knowledge about constellations, distance
from the earth to the sun, the solstices and equinoxes, that the orbit of the earth was
elliptical, the number of planets in our galaxy, among others. Also the velocity of
heavenly bodies using geometric figures like the trapezoid.
• The creation of the wheel in Sumeria and widespread use of the same in all of
Mesopotamia.

The Babylonians and medicine

Babylonian doctors were capable of operating on their patients quite effectively and
were punished if the patients died according to what was stipulated in the code of
laws. In all of Mesopotamia as in Babylonia, the concepts of diagnosis of
sicknesses, prognosis of the state of health of patients and the study of possible
complications were introduced with time; based on the experiences previously
recorded on their ceramic tablets in cuneiform writing.

These tablets, which came to form a sort of compilation or book regarding the
theme, reflected with detail descriptions containing symbols and signs which
correspond to the distinct sicknesses know to them and how to treat them
effectively.

The cleanness of a city was seen by Mesopotamian cultures as an important

element in the prevention of sicknesses. Where they obtained this knowledge still
remains a mystery, above all if it is taken into account that we are talking about
conglomerations of humans who formed civilizations in which the theories on the
matter indicate civilizations like those of the Neolithic period.

Metalwork in Babylonia and the rest of Mesopotamia

Ancient Babylon city

They were able to obtain metal alloys with which they produced tools, weapons, and
elements of decorative and utilitarian character such as, for example, metal
sculptures.

Techniques like “granulation,” of fine appearance and great variety, as well as the
system of embossing metal; with exquisite mastery in the results, were widely
utilized in jewelry, decoration of weapons, shields of war, metal vessels, etc.

They did not produce these objects only for their own personal consumption, but
they were instead marketed, having a wide demand for their quality even in
geographically remote areas. The technique of applying Chalcedony beads was very
popular at this time, as well as their beautiful works in applications of Lapis lazuli.
Advanced knowledge regarding the use of irrigation for agriculture, rotation of fields
and crops permitted them not only to settle in those areas which presented
limitations with conditions not suitable for agriculture, but also to prosper in such a
way that population growth and sustenance was possible through the infrastructure
they developed, managing to be one of the most important empires of the era whose
technical and scientific advances were assimilated by other cultures as well.

Babylonian system of laws

The city of Babylon reaches its greatest splendor with the figure of Hammurabi, most
important king of the first dynasty of Babylon, who reigned between the years 1792
and 1750 B.B. He cemented and provided the basis to the Babylonian Empire.

Hammurabi’s code of laws, the first legislation know to history, possesses a

surprising property and it is its capacity to be understood, its wisdom and the
understanding of human behavior which it demonstrates.

It is significant that many of its precepts are in force because they foresee many of
the possible situations which may be presented in the social or private lives of
individuals. This code catches sight of aspects which today are contained in the
modern legislations of many countries. This advanced thought which systematizes
and governs according to a written code how justice and the behavior citizens will
follow will be imposed reveals a high level in the development of this civilization.

Cuneiform script on baked clay or stone tablets and stamps

The utilization of cuneiform script inherited from the Sumerians, (the predecessor
culture to them in that region of Mesopotamia), has contributed valuable information
with which aspects of history, traditions and culture could be documented, starting
with baked clay cylinders and tablets with cuneiform writing.
The Cuneiform Alphabet

Cuneiform writing

By these tablets we have been able to know that the main product which they
exported were woven products and that great quantities of gold and silver which
came from the tributes of smaller cities under their dominion were at their disposal
to be used as much in the maintenance of the cities as in the army and military
campaigns. Only the scribes were versed in this technique and for this were widely
appreciated.

The Babylonian nation had the same needs for subsistence as the other nations had,
they were also conquered in the same way they conquered other nations, their
necessity for protection which reaches from defense from enemies, injustices
against the weak, appropriate weather conditions to develop their crops and all the
other reasons for which human beings venerate a deity or heroic figure; all were
present in Babylon and contributed to creating and promoting the spread of religions
through the world. These religions were based on stories which oddly enough have
points of contact with the stories of religions of other cultures in the rest of the
planet. Many of these stories even coincide with passages of the Bible, and stories in
mythologies like the Greek and Roman mythologies.

Advanced knowledge of astronomy and the creation of astrology in

Mesopotamia
 Babylonian tablet recording Halley’s comet

One of the great mysteries which this culture presents us is how it was possible that
they, like the Sumerians and Assyrians, knew such advanced elements of astronomy
as if in fact they had been able to contemplate the cosmos from a perspective
external to the earth and not a simple contemplation of the stars from the surface of
the planet. But in addition, all this knowledge obtained only during the short time that
this culture arose, developed and later was extinguished.

They knew the number of planets in the solar system, in a relief is shown a
representation of the solar system with the planets rotating around the sun. They
possessed specific mathematical and astronomical knowledge about the
constellations, distance from the earth to the sun, the solstices and equinoxes, that
the orbit of the earth was elliptical, they knew how to calculate the movements of the
sun, the moon, stars, and planets.

They could calculate the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses and in general
knowledge which humanity only came to rediscover thousands of years after the
flourishing of these Mesopotamian and Egyptian cultures. They situated the sun as
the center of the galaxy around which the planets rotated.

Their broad knowledge of Astronomy and mathematics permitted them to develop

an effective system for recording time. They decided to register the passing of a year
for which they included twelve months. For the course of a month, they selected 30
days, the day in twelve hours, an hour in sixty minutes and a minute in sixty seconds.

The recent translation of Babylonian ceramic tablets has brought to discovery that
their astronomers could, utilizing the geometric figure of a trapezoid, establish the
location, movement, and velocity of stars.

They did it by calculating the area of a trapezoid they had traced using values
obtained in their previous observations of sightings of the star in different points of
observation, measuring later from one side to the other of this geometric shape and
averaging out the results. In this way they obtained a number, corresponding in total
to the velocity and the time passed from when it moved from one point to the other,
therefore the velocity of its habitual passage in a determined period of time.

On one of these tablets it is described in detail; how using these advanced geometric
calculations, they could determine at what velocity Jupiter moved between different
points of observation, by which they could measure its habitual velocity.

The Babylonian priests developed the zodiacal system of signs corresponding to the
planets, constellations etc. originally there were thirteen, later they were reduced to
twelve. This knowledge later gave rise to the development of what is known as
astrology.

The Invention of the Wheel

The discovery of the wheel in Sumeria around the year 3500 (B.B) in the
Mesopotamian region, was one of the most important technological advances in the
history of mankind. The Babylonians received this invention and developed it even
more in the sense of the multiple applications for which they used the wheel. It is
nearly impossible to create a mechanism of movement today which does not entail
the use of the wheel.

Their buildings and temples were constructed based on knowledge of mathematical

measurements and physical principles which today appear to us normal to know, but
the great question is how the Babylonians and Mesopotamian cultures knew them
5000 years before. With the translation of the tablets written in cuneiform, new
elements progressively reach us which contribute a little more light as to who the
Babylonians, and the cultures with which they had relationships, whether by
invasions or simple commercial relationships, were.

sculptures
The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text composed c. 1755–1750 BC. It is the
longest, best-organised, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East. It is written in
the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian, purportedly by Hammurabi, sixth king of the First
Dynasty of Babylon. The primary copy of the text is inscribed on a basalt or diorite stele 2.25 m
(7 ft 4+1⁄2 in) tall. The stele was discovered in 1901, at the site of Susa in present-day Iran, where
it had been taken as plunder six hundred years after its creation. The text itself was copied and
studied by Mesopotamian scribes for over a millennium. The stele now resides in the Louvre
Museum.
The top of the stele features an image in relief of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun
god and god of justice. Below the relief are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text: one fifth contains
a prologue and epilogue in poetic style, while the remaining four fifths contain what are generally
called the laws. In the prologue, Hammurabi claims to have been granted his rule by the gods "to
prevent the strong from oppressing the weak". The laws are casuistic, expressed as "if ...
then" conditional sentences. Their scope is broad, including, for example, criminal law, family
law, property law, and commercial law.
 Code of Hammurabi

The Louvre stele

Created c. 1755–1750 BC (middle chronology)

Location The Louvre (originally Sippar, found at Susa, Iran)

Replicas: various

Author(s) King Hammurabi of Babylon

Media type Basalt or diorite stele

Subject Law, justice

Purpose Debated: legislation, law report, or jurisprudence

Neo-Assyrian Empire[

Assyrian Crown-Prince, ca. 704–681 BC. Nineveh, Mesopotamia. Metropolitan Museum of Art.

The Neo-Assyrian Empire is usually considered to have begun with the accession of Adad-nirari
II, in 911 BC, lasting until the fall of Nineveh at the hands of the Babylonians, Medes, Scythians
and Cimmerians in 612 BC. The empire was the largest and most powerful the world had yet
seen. The Assyrian Empire extended itself in great measure due to its brutal military
methods. It maintained its dominion by means of the use of a common language
and religion, together with the violent suppression of internal revolts. The Chaldeans
defeated the Assyrians in Babylonia, which gave as a result the Neo-Babylonian
Empire, personified by Nebuchadnezzar

.
Government

At its apogee, the Assyrian Empire was governed by kings whose power was
considered absolute. Under their leadership, the empire came to be well organized.
By eliminating the posts of governors which the nobles possessed by inheritance
and instituting a new hierarchy of local officials directly responsible to the king, the
Assyrian kings had greater control over the resources of the empire.

The Assyrians also developed an efficient system of communications in order to

administer their empire in a more practical way. A network of mail stations was
formed, which used relays of horses (and mules or donkeys in the mountainous
lands) to carry messages throughout the whole empire. The system was so effective
that a provincial governor from any part of the empire (except Egypt) could send a
question to the king’s palace, and receive an answer in a matter of a week.

Religion

As much in the life of the people as in that of the kings, religion represents one of the
most important factors: it was the gods who introduced the Assyrian king as their
vicar, charged with administering the country which belongs to them and punishing
the pagans.
Under the reign of Tiglath-Pileser I, the most important gods were: Ashur, supreme
lord in charge of the inauguration of the kings; Enlil, father of the earthly gods and of
the countries; Sasmas, god of the sun; Sin, god of the moon; Adad, god of the storm,
and, finally, Ninurta, god of war and the hunt. The goddess Ishtar, the descendant of
the ancient mother-goddess, presides in war and love.

The cults were not immovable, and the gods were frequently supplanted by others in
the adoration of men. Under the king Tukulti-Ninurta, the god of the hunt, Ninurta,
was imposed above all others; under Ashurnasirpal I, Ishtar received all favors, while
beginning in the reign of Adad-Nirari III, Marduk and his son Nabu were worshiped
not only in Babylon, but also in all of Assyria. With each renovation of the cults, new
temples were raised and new cities were founded. Some cults crossed the borders
of Assyria and expanded through the entire Middle East. Such occurred, for example,
with that of the goddess Ishtar.
Languages

Like the Sumerians and the Babylonians, for writing their language—an Akkadian
dialect, related to the Semitic languages, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic—the
Assyrians employed characters which, written from left to right in horizontal lines,
were very complicated. Because of this, beginning in the reign of Sargon I, the use of
Aramaic language and writing—which were syllabic and therefore easier—would
expand more and more, not only among the people, but also in the court.

The kings of Assyria had the important events of their reign recorded with great care.
Thus we owe to Ashurbanipal the formation in Nineveh of an immense library, whose
vestiges have allowed us to know the history of their dynasties, their conception of
the world and the relationships which thus existed between the gods and the men of
the country of Ashur.

Art

Sculpture

Any history of late Assyrian art must be concerned primarily

with relief carving. Some statues in the round have been found, but
the comparative ineptitude of the majority of them suggests that
this form of expression did not come naturally to Assyrian
sculptors. Portal sculptures, which many would consider the most
characteristic Assyrian art form, are not statues in the round but
“double-aspect” reliefs (that is, they are meant to be seen from
either the front or the side), apparently derived from a Hittite
invention of the 14th century BCE. These impressive guardian
figures—usually human-headed bulls or lions—decorate the arched
gateways and are sometimes supplemented by others set at right
angles on the adjoining facades, their heads facing sideways. Each is
composed from a single block of stone weighing up to 30 tons,
roughly shaped in the quarry and then carved in situ.

winged bull with a human head

Winged bull with a human head, guardian figure from the gate of the palace at Dur Sharrukin,
near Nineveh; in the Louvre.

Rama, CC-BY-SA-2.0-FR

Less spectacular orthostat reliefs form a continuous frieze of

ornament around the bases of interior wall faces. There is evidence
that they were placed in position before the walls that they decorate
had been completed. Their carving in situ could thus be executed in
full daylight. This form of architectural ornament dates from the
first quarter of the 9th century BCE and seems to have been a
genuine Assyrian innovation. The earliest slabs, from the 9th-
century palaces of Ashurnasirpal II and his son Shalmaneser III at
Nimrūd, are about seven feet (two metres) high, with the design
arranged in two superimposed registers separated by a band of
cuneiform inscription. In those from later buildings, such as Sargon
II’s palace at Khorsabad, the individual sculptured figures reach a
height of nine feet.
The subjects of the designs on these reliefs are rarely related in any
way to religion. Superstitious symbols do occasionally appear in the
form of benevolent winged beings, or genies, but the primary
purpose of the picture is the glorification of the king himself, either
by scenes of ceremonial homage or by extended pictorial narratives
of his achievements. The most popular theme, giving rise to
numerous variations, involves detailed scenes of military conquest
and the ruthless suppression of revolt. These are often arranged
episodically to represent successive events in the progress of a
single campaign: the Assyrian army prepares for war; led by the
king, it crosses difficult country on the way to attack a walled city;
the city is taken, burnt, and demolished; the enemy leaders are
punished with conspicuous brutality; and, finally, the victory is
celebrated. Scenes such as these are distinguished above all by their
stylistic vitality and fanciful detail. Animals as well as men are
carefully observed and beautifully drawn. The principles of
perspective as later defined by the Greeks are unknown, but
attention is given to the relationship of figures in space and to
devices for suggesting comparative

At Khorsabad, late in the 8th century BCE, some notable stylistic

changes are perceptible. The lively carving of narrative and
historical subjects has been replaced by more tedious symbols of
pomp and ceremony. In keeping with the winged bulls and genies of
the portal sculptures, stiffly arranged files of courtiers, officials, and
servants stand immobilized in the routine of ceremonial homage.
The monotony of the figures is occasionally relieved by the sparing
use of coloured pigment on the stone.

In the 7th-century palaces of Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal at

Nineveh, the reliefs suggest a reaction in favour of narrative and
violent activity. The slabs are covered to their full height by
complicated battle scenes in which the progress of the fighting is
suggested by episodic repetition. Types of landscape are depicted
schematically, and significant episodes or individuals are identified
by a short inscription, without impairing the overall rhythm of the
design.

In the intervals between their military campaigns, Assyrian kings

appear to have been much preoccupied with hunting, and scenes
from the chase provided an alternative subject for the reliefs. Lions
hunted with spears from a light chariot and herds of wild asses
(onagers) or gazelles are subjects that stimulated the imagination
and sensibility of the Assyrian artist.

“Dying Lioness,” detail of an alabaster mural relief from the North Palace of Ashurbanipal,
Nineveh, Assyrian period, c. 650 BC. In the British Museum.

© Irstone/Dreamstime.com

A contrast to these descriptive carvings is provided by the formal

monumentality of the Assyrian rock reliefs, secular or religious
devices carved on vertical rock faces in localities such as Bavian and
Maltai to commemorate historical events that took place there.

The Assyrian talent for relief ornament was not confined to

sculpture in stone. First seen during the reign of Shalmaneser III
(858–824 BCE) are striking examples of relief modeling in bronze.
The huge wooden gates of a minor palace at Imgur-Enlil (Balawat),
near Nimrūd, were decorated with horizontal bands of metal, 11
inches (28 centimetres) high, each modeled by a repoussé process
(relief hammered out from behind), with a double register of
narrative scenes. Their subjects are much the same as the stone
reliefs, but even greater ingenuity has been used in adapting the
designs to so confined a space.
Painting and decorative arts

When greater economy of labour and material was

necessary, mural paintings were substituted for slab reliefs. At the
time of Tiglath-pileser III (744–727 BCE), a country palace at Til
Barsip (modern Tall al-Ahmar) was decorated in this way, with the
conventional motifs of relief designs rather clumsily adapted to this
very different medium. A few years later, such paintings were
extensively used to decorate both wall faces and ceilings in Sargon
II’s palace buildings at Khorsabad. One magnificent panel of
formalized ornament has been reconstructed. It is painted in
primary colours on a white ground.

There is evidence that the Assyrian palaces were well equipped

with furniture. The wooden components have perished, but
the ivory ornaments with which the furniture was enriched have
survived in great quantities. Of these “Assyrian ivories”—relief
panels, inlays, and other forms of ornament—only a small
proportion can be attributed to indigenous workmanship. The
remainder represent either loot from the cities of Syria and
Phoenicia or the work of craftsmen imported from those regions.
The carving is often technically superb, and the enrichment of the
ivory with gold, semiprecious stones, or coloured paste by cloisonné
or champlevé processes (whereby the applied decoration is outlined
by raised metal strips or fills depressed areas of the surface that
have been cut out to receive it) gives increased elegance. The
designs, however, are for the most part a pastiche of misunderstood
Egyptian symbolism and are often less attractive than the purely
Assyrian devices.

NEO BABYLONIAN EMPIRE

The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire was a period of Mesopotamian
history which began in 620 BC and ended in 539 BC. During the preceding three centuries,
Babylonia had been ruled by their fellow Akkadian speakers and northern neighbours, Assyria.
The Assyrians had managed to maintain Babylonian loyalty through the Neo-Assyrian period,
whether through granting of increased privileges, or militarily, but that finally changed after 627
BC with the death of the last strong Assyrian ruler, Ashurbanipal, and Babylonia rebelled
under Nabopolassar a Chaldean chieftain the following year. In alliance with king Cyaxares of the
Medes, and with the help of the Scythians and Cimmerians the city of Nineveh was sacked in
612 BC, Assyria fell by 605 BC and the seat of empire was transferred to Babylonia for the first
time since Hammurabi.

Hanging garden.
Characteristic development

Babylonian vitrified bricks

Among the techniques that the Babylonians developed, the production of vitrified
brick used for decoration of palaces and temples stands out. The decoration of the
entrance to the city known as “The Ishtar Gate” stands out, in which numerous
vitrified bricks colored with intense shades of blue and other colors which show us
representations of animals which it is supposed had the job of protecting the
entrance to the city.

This technique imitated by other cultures has unfortunately disappeared and in spite
of having tried to reproduce it in the present, the attempts have been unfruitful. It is a
mystery how they were able to produce in substantial quantities these vitrified
bricks. The pigments utilized in addition to natural material themselves were diluted
in exact, precise quantities and producing this on a grand scale would require such a
knowledge of chemistry and the properties of natural compositions that it is truly a
mystery how they were able to achieve it, or how they managed to obtain this
knowledge which not even today has been able to be reproduced.

During the reigns of Nabopolassar (625–605 BCE) and his

son Nebuchadrezzar II (604–562 BCE), there was widespread
building activity. Temples and ziggurats were repaired or rebuilt in
almost all the old dynastic cities, while Babylon itself was
enormously enlarged and surrounded by a double enceinte, or line
of fortification, consisting of towered and moated fortress walls.
Inside the city the most grandiose effect was obtained by the
disposal of public buildings along a wide processional way, leading
through the centre of the town to the temple and ziggurat of its
patron god, Marduk. Where the street passed through the inner-city
wall, the facades of the famous Ishtar Gate and those facing the
adjoining street were ornamented in brightly glazed brickwork, with
huge figures of bulls, lions, and dragons modeled in relief. This form
of decoration—a costly process, since each of the bricks composing
the figures had to be separately cast—provided a solution for the
problem of embellishing mud-brick facades. It appears again in the
court of honour of Nebuchadrezzar’s palace, using a more
sophisticated design that suggests familiarity with Greek ornament.
For the rest, there are few innovations in the planning of either
palaces or temples during the Neo-Babylonian period. Also
(strangely enough, in view of the prolonged excavations that took
place at this site), examples of contemporary art are limited almost
exclusively to cylinder seals and terra-cotta figurines of
unpretentious design.

Ishtar Gate, Iraq

A reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate, at the ruins of Babylon, near Al-Ḥillah, Iraq.

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

 Hanging gardens of Babylon

There is a well-known legend about a tall building known as “The Hanging Gardens of
Babylon” which seems to have been a building with a terrace which contained many
plants. The gardens didn’t really “hang” in the sense that they were not suspended
from ropes or anything of the sort.

It seems that translation errors have determined how the legend has been told
throughout time. As there are no suitable records available, or at least ones that
aren’t descriptions made by Greek historians, it still hasn’t been possible to clarify
the true facts about this mystical building with a garden.

There is, however, an interesting description by the Greek geographer Estrabon. He

described the gardens around the first century B.C. and wrote that they consisted
of vaulted terraces raised one above the other and resting on square pillars. He also
explained that these pillars were hollow and filled with earth in order to allow larger-
sized trees to be planted. He added that the pillars, vaults, and terraces were built
with constructed with baked brick and asphalt.

Recent studies conducted to find a possible correct location of the gardens have
drawn new light on the fact that they were probably not in Babylon. There is still
much work for the historians, archaeologists, and specialists to do in order to find
out the truth about these mystical and mesmerizing gardens of Babylon that have
held human imagination captive for centuries.

The structures they built had a simple design due to a difficult terrain and a scarcity
of materials. The bricks used in the construction of buildings were covered with
colored ceramic (baked and glazed clay) or with white stucco on which they painted
frescoes.

It is amazing how these craftsmen managed to create such beautiful bricks in a

process which they perfected so that the bricks sparkled in the light of the sun,
leaving the spectator breathless.
If we take into account that the mixing process to make the blue pigments required
rigorous proportion control (to the nearest millimeter) of the substances used, added
to the fact that these mixtures were made in large quantities, always achieving the
same flawless result, we can only wonder at the skills and knowledge that these
craftsmen had in such ancient times.

They drew beautiful plants, some of them exotic, and fantasy animals where the
artists’ imagination equaled to the stories of the legends. They also made geometric
figures with designs that in some cases are slightly reminiscent of the legacy of the
Sumerians with other new elements which adapted to the physical space that they
decorated.

The sequential and narrative designs on the buildings whose fragments are still
preserved have provided important facts about the history, traditions and the
conception of the life of the Babylonian culture and of the Mesopotamian region in
general.

The people of Babylon used a white stone called alabaster which is abundant in
certain parts of the River Tigris, on which they carved embossments to decorate the
most important buildings.

Art in Babylon: Painting

The concept of perspective was still quite primitive and the figures are not equally
proportioned between objects and figures as they are in real life; this applies to both
humans and animals. The artist generally made the most important characters
bigger, for example, the figure of the King is the largest in the group, followed in size
by the important figures that represent power after the King, and ending with their
subjects.

Fragments of remains have been found of the painted decoration of the Mari Palace,
which decorated the Audience Room, the Royal Patio and other rooms in the
residence, and are important because they show four types of common scenes in
Babylonian culture.

Common topics in Babylonian painting:

• Mythological characters
• Images of war
• Alms and offerings
• Sacrifices
• Inaugurations or presentations

People’s heads are shown in profile even though the person is facing front-on
(frontality). Their faces are inexpressive; as in the Sumerian culture and other regions
in Mesopotamia. In many cases, these figures also have large outlined eyes. The
presence of beards, long curly hair, embroidery on robes and fringing on dresses
show a keen eye for detail, which also achieves quite a reliable representation of
what things were like, contributing to a more effective communication which is
surprising in its closeness to reality.

The topic of the embossments was almost always secular. The interior walls
represented scenes that show the pleasant life lived inside the palace and the
exterior walls showed scenes of hunting, battles, and told heroic stories that praised
the King and epic legends. The ronde-bosse sculptures sometimes had giant
proportions and were mainly placed at the entrance of the palaces, serving as
guardians of the premises. They were figures where humans merged with animals,
winged sphinxes, griffins, and lions, as can be seen in Assyria and Sumer.

Walls of Ishtar gate way

Time line.