THE UNKNOWN ABOUT SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD

A LAW AND LITERATURE RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT

Submitted to 

School of Law 

Alliance University  
 

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF 

Dr. Sabina Zacharias 

School of Law 

Alliance University 

RESEARCHERS 

ABHYUDAY SAMANTRAY

AMOGH SHARMA
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Law and Literature Research Project Report has been prepared
by ABHYUDAY SAMANTRAY and AMOGH SHARMA under my supervision and
guidance. The Research project is the students’ original work completed after careful research
and analysis of data collected. 

This Law and Literature Research is a term assignment conducted as a part of Continuous
evaluation for the course of Law and Literature [NLAW 102] of Semester II. 

Date: 23/03/2020 

Dr. Sabina Zacharias 

School of Law 

Alliance University 
 UNDERTAKING

We the undersigned hereby give an undertaking that this project report titled THE
UNKNOWN ABOUT SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD is based on the data
collected and analyzed by us. This Law and Literature Research is a term assignment
conducted as part of During Semester Assessment for the course of Law and Literature
[NLAW 102]. 

Date:  5TH April, 2020 

ABHYUDAY SAMANTRAY

AMOGH SHARMA
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, we would like to thank Alliance University, The School of Law for giving us the
ability and opportunity to undertake this research study and to persevere and complete it
satisfactorily. 

Secondly, we would like to thank Dr. Sabina Zacharias, who gave us the guidance and
knowledge about the topic which helped us a lot in the completion of this research. She has
been there providing her heartfelt support and guidance at all times. She has given us all the
freedom to pursue our research, while silently and non-obtrusively ensuring that we stay on
track and do not deviate from the core of research. 

Lastly, we would also like to take this opportunity to thank our parents and friends who have
constantly been there as a source of love and moral support. 
 CONTENTS

Chapter 1- Introduction
1.1- Overview
1.2- Methodology
1.3- Scope And Objectives

Chapter 2- The Taj Mahal

Chapter 3- Petra Jordon
Chapter 4- The Great Wall Of China
Chapter 5- The Great Pyramid Of Giza
Chapter 6- The Colosseum
Chapter 7- The Chichen Itza
Chapter 8- Macchu Picchu

Chapter 9- Conclusion
 CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW

7 Wonders of the World (2000–2007) was a campaign started in 2000 to choose Wonders of
the World from a selection of 200 existing monuments. The popularity poll was led by
Canadian-Swiss Bernard Weber and organized by the New7Wonders Foundation based in
Zurich, Switzerland, with winners announced on 7 July 2007 in Lisbon.

The New7Wonders Foundation said that more than 100 million votes were cast through the
Internet or by telephone. Voting via the Internet was limited to one vote for seven monuments
per person/identity, but multiple voting was possible through telephone.] Hence the poll was
considered unscientific. According to John Zogby, founder and current President/CEO of the
Utica, New York-based polling organization Zogby International, New7Wonders Foundation
drove "the largest poll on record".

The program drew a wide range of official reactions. Some countries touted their finalist and
tried to get more votes cast for it, while others downplayed or criticized the contest. After
supporting the New7Wonders Foundation at the beginning of the campaign by providing
advice on nominee selection, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), by its bylaws having to record all and give equal status to world
heritage sites, distanced itself from the undertaking in 2001 and again in 2007.

The New7Wonders Foundation, established in 2001, relied on private donations and the sale
of broadcast rights and received no public funding. After the final announcement,
New7Wonders said it didn't earn anything from the exercise and barely recovered its
investment.

Although N7W describes itself as a not-for-profit organization, the company behind it—the
New Open World Corporation (NOWC)—is a commercial business. All licensing and
sponsorship money is paid to NOWC.

The foundation ran two subsequent programs: New7Wonders of Nature, the subject of voting
until 2011, and New7Wonders Cities, which ended in 2014.
1.2 METHODOLOGY

Methodology is unique procedure used to identify, analyse and to figure out which data is
important to be used in the project or assignments. There are three types of general research
1. Descriptive which is mainly based on surveys and content analysis.
2. Associational which is based on co-relation or casual comparison.
3. Intervention basically the experimental and action research.
Our assignment of legal method and legal research is fully based on descriptive research
method. Methodology helps in quick analysation of the key points of research conducted by
the group members; quick analysation means, it helps in figuring out what sources are used,
how seriously the assignment is been taken by the students and also how much efforts
students have given to the assignment; and that’s also why methodology is important.

Questionnaire-
In simple words questionnaire is a process in which some questions are asked to some
specific selected person and data is been prepared on the basis of their answers; and that data
is used in the assignment. Mostly answers are obtained through closed ended questionnaire
with multiple choice answers option which is somehow time saving and easy to observe and
prepare data.
There are two types of classification in questionnaire-
1. Open-ended questionnaire is a type of questionnaire in which answers is given in “yes/no”
form. These are used to gather qualitative data.
2. Closed-ended questionnaire are used to obtain quantitative data.
1.3 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE

So here in this topic we discuss about the SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD AND THE
MANAGEMENT RELATED TO THAT. So hereby, we focus more on the construction of
the archaeological monuments and how these construction took place back at their time
period and how these monuments stood through all these years without more or new human
efforts to renovate them or re-construct the monuments. Few were natural made and yet there
are many which was made by Human force.

These Monuments till date stands to be the most outstanding creations by Human or by
Nature. The Literature falls on us by the cravings on the monuments by the creators of the
monuments.
 CHAPTER 2- TAJ MAHAL

The Taj Mahal is well known across the world for its historical value, its tale of love,
and its stunning beauty. The Taj Mahal is located in the historic Indian city of Agra.
It houses the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, the wife of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan.
It is said that the Emperor loved his wife dearly and was prompted to build the Taj
Mahal after her death as a testament to his love. The construction of the Taj Mahal
was completed by 1632. The construction of the temple cost the equivalent of
US$827 million today. In 1983, the Taj Mahal was inscribed by the UNESCO as a
World Heritage Site. Today, it attracts 7 to 8 million annual visitors each year.

 Construction of Taj Mahal

As you can imagine, the Taj Mahal required a lot of people for its manufacture. The
specialists of each profession were called to work on a site that brings together the
peak of its activities up to 20,000 people. It was started in 1631. 17 years later, in
1648, the mausoleum hand was completed. The complete site was completed in
1653, 5 years later, the years that were used to build the enclosure, the ancillary
buildings, and especially the gardens.

 The style
The architecture of the Taj Mahal is clearly Indo-Islamic. It is a style combining
Hindu art, traditional in this territory, and Islamic, this religion has been conveyed so
far. The mixture of the two allowed a reinterpretation of the many Hindu traditions
in an Islamic form that dominated the region since the time of the Delhi Sultanate
(1192 - 1451). Subsequently the Mughal Empire took over and Indo-Islamic art took
various forms depending on the political climate of the time. 

 Craftsmen
Most of the sculptors were more of Bukhara, the calligraphers of Syria and Persia,
the workmen making inlays of southern India, the stone cutters of Baluchistan, and
so on. Other regions were widely represented: Rajasthan, Malwa, Gujarat and
Punjab, for example.
 As for the workers, they were up to 20,000 on the site. Most of them were
recruited from North India.

Persian lists show us that a certain Ata Muhammad, blood-tarash (stonemason) of

Bukhara, worked on the Taj Mahal. He was paid 500 Rupees a month. Shakir
Muhammad, Gul-tarash (a sculptor) from Bukhara also, was paid only Rs. 400, while
Muhammad Sajjad, a Merfiar (Mason) from Multan, and Chiranjilal, a pachchikar
(facadier) from Lahore, were paid 590 and 800 Rupees a month respectively. But
these simple names pose a problem. Indeed, we see that stone masons came
Bukhara, and this city, small and little known, was not especially famous for its
stonemasons. But India is a specialist in lapidary works, the art of stone is
widespread and stonecutters are legion on the spot. Moreover, even in the time of
Tamerlane, two centuries earlier, Indian labourers were called upon to work in other
regions, particularly in Samarkand (to build a large mosque). So why bring
stonemasons elsewhere? And above all, why have they paid so dear, knowing that
the equivalent of the time of the Rupee would nowadays correspond to several
months' wages of a worker?

 Origin of materials
Contrary to popular belief, the Taj Mahal's mausoleum is not made of marble, it is
only covered. Indeed, the walls of the monument are red brick, made on site for
obvious reasons of transport. It seems that these bricks have also been used for
scaffolding, but it is not certain because at the time we used a lot of bamboo or
even wood, to make these scaffolding.
The huge white marbles were made in Makrana, southwest of Jaipur, about four
hundred kilometres away. To transport them the stonecutters had to rent trolleys
whose expenses were charged to the royal treasury. The logs were cut with great
precision, without any cracks.
The builders used different types of marble, which came from different regions and
countries: Rajasthan, Punjab, China, Tibet, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, and even the
Arabian Peninsula were stone exporting centres.
Three types of stones were used in the construction of the Taj Mahal, they are
indicated below by their local names.
The construction of the Taj Mahal involved the use of semi-precious stones such as
Aqiq, Yemenite, Firoza, Lajward, Moonga, Sulaimani, Lahsania, Tamra, Yashab and
Pitunia which were used for incrustations; rare and unusual stones such as Tilai, Pai-
Zahar, Ajuba, Shelter, Khattu, Nakhod and Maknatis which were used in marquetry,
for the famous pietra dura, for floors, and turrets and common stones Sang-i-
Gwaliori (by will, gray and yellow).
Sang-i-Surkh (red sandstone), Sang-i-Musa (black marble) and Sang-i-Rukham
(white marble) were used for foundations and masonry and as exterior facades. The
red wish comes from Fatehpur Sikri, nearby, from Tantpur and Paharpur. White
marble was purchased in Makrana, Rajasthan and was paid for, as shown in the
three contracts exhibited in the museum’s. Semi-precious and rare stones have been
brought from distant places such as Tibet, Kumaon, Jaisalmer, Cambay and Ceylon.

 Decorative works
The work of incrustation of stone decorations required a highly qualified workforce.
These specialists in lapidary marquetry were Mogul who had been trained in inlay
techniques by Italian craftsmen employed at the Emperor's court. There is an Italian
influence in floral details partially representing European medicinal plants. These
plants were considered as paradisiac vegetation, hence their presence on the
mausoleum, but also on the mosque and the pavilion of the guests. To achieve them
the craftsmen have used forty different types of stones, all of them precious and
semi-precious.

 Calligraphic inscriptions

Since the use of human or animal images is strictly forbidden in Islamic traditions,
other styles of decoration have to be used. There were floral decorations, many, but
also a lot of calligraphic inscriptions. As one might expect, it is mostly verses from
the Quran that have been written. They are found inside and outside
the Mausoleum. The talented Persian Abd-ul-Haqq, who gets the title of "Amanat
Khan" for his work, created the calligraphic decorations of the Taj Mahal. It was he
who made these inscriptions on the tomb of Shah Jahan's grandfather, Akbar, on the
orders of his father Jahangir. He was, therefore, a person well known to local
artisans, and it was only natural that he was called upon to build the Taj Mahal. He
was the only one authorized to sign his works on the Taj Mahal, which allows us to
obtain valuable information.
It is these dated signatures that make it possible to have a common thread of
advanced work. We can see that the calligraphic works started from the top down.
In 1937 the calligraphic work was almost finished. The calligrapher Amanat was
rewarded for his work by an increase in his salary and an elephant, which was far
from negligible at the time. He died in 1647 or 1648, after completing the
inscriptions on the main door, on which is inscribed his last signature: "Finished With
his help, the Most High, 1057". This anachronistic date is explained by the fact that
it counted in lunar year.

Cost of the construction

How much did it cost to build the Taj Mahal?

This is a question that is not so difficult to answer because the work was the subject
of a transaction between the site manager and the craftsmen from all over to work
on it. It is a little over 41,848,426 Rupees.

In fact, the funds for the construction of the Taj Mahal were provided by the Royal
Treasury of the Emperor and the Treasury of the Government of the Province of
Agra (Subah Akbarabad) and the accounts were scrupulously kept by Lala Rudra
Das. The main sources of expenditure were the cost of stones and wages paid to the
workers. Stock and labour, there is nothing so modern since.
Cost of each part of the complex has been calculated separately, for example the
cost of the marble base (chhakka) with the 4 minarets is given to 5 177,674 rupees,
that of the main tomb is 5,345,361 Rupees. The famous balustrade which surrounds
the two cenotaphs cost 468 855 Rupees. About 50 sources of expenditure have been
made and the total cost of building the Taj Mahal is RUB 41,848,426. He was paid
466.55 kg of gold from loyal treasury.
Myth busted

Among all the fascinating myths and legends that surround the existence of Taj
Mahal, there is one in particular that is the most grotesque.
According to the myth, it is believed that Shah Jahan ordered the hands of the
craftsmen and artisans who were involved in creating this fantastic monument to be
cut off after the completion of Taj Mahal so that they may never be able to build
another monument as glorifying as Taj Mahal. Apart from the dismemberments, it is
also believed that on orders of Shah Jahan, even the eyes of those involved in
construction of Taj Mahal were forcibly taken out of their sockets so that they may
never be able to witness anything that is more beautiful than the monument they
built. Many of the historians find this horror story false and baseless as no records or
evidence has been found yet that claims the possibility of it happening in those days.
But despite these stories being baseless, they manage to spook the senses of every
person who hears the story.

 Literature on Taj Mahal


Described by Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore as “the tear-drop on the cheek of
time”, it is regarded by many as the best example of Mughal architecture and a
symbol of India’s rich history. The Taj Mahal attracts 7–8 million visitors a year.
This list is for books that heavily feature the Taj Mahal.

For a non-fiction is should be the main focus, about the construction, history and
people behind it.

For fiction, it should also be a major focus and feature it in extended detail, either as
it is being created or afterwards. A fiction book about the Taj Mahal's creation and
construction would work. A book that only features it in a sight-seeing stop would
not.

CHAPTER 3- PETRA JORDON

Petra originally known to the Nabataeans as Raqmu, is a historical and
archaeological city in southern Jordan. The city is famous for its rock-cut architecture
and water conduit system. Another name for Petra is the Rose City due to the colour
of the stone out of which it is carved.

Established possibly as early as 312 BC as the capital city of the Arab Nabataeans, it
is a symbol of Jordan, as well as Jordan’s most-visited tourist attraction. The
Nabateans were nomadic Arabs who benefited from the proximity of Petra to the
regional trade routes, in becoming a major trading hub, thus enabling them to
gather wealth. The Nabateans are also known for their great ability in constructing
efficient water collecting methods in the barren deserts and their talent in carving
structures into solid rocks. It lies on the slope of Jebel al-Madhbah (identified by
some as the biblical Mount Hor) in a basin among the mountains which form the
eastern flank of Arabah (Wadi Araba), the large valley running from the Dead Sea to
the Gulf of Aqaba. Petra has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985.
The site remained unknown to the western world until 1812, when it was introduced
by Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt. It was described as “a rose-red city
half as old as time” in a Newdigate Prize-winning poem by John William Burgon.
UNESCO has described it as “one of the most precious cultural properties of man’s
cultural heritage”. Petra was named amongst the New7Wonders of the World in
2007 and was also chosen by the Smithsonian Magazine as one of the “28 Places to
See Before You Die”.

 Construction of Petra

Petra. The spectacular sandstone city of Petra was built in the 3rd century BC by the
Nabataeans, who carved palaces, temples, tombs, storerooms and stables from the
soft stone cliffs.
 Style
Throughout Petra, the architectural style was a blend of Assyrian, Egyptian,
Hellenistic, and Roman influences. One of the best known architectural structures at
Petra is called the Treasury. It's called this because locals once believed that it
contained hidden treasure.
 Craftsmen
Large and ornate tombs built by the Nabateans eventually gave way to Christian
churches constructed by the Byzantines, who considered Petra the capital of the
province of Palaestina. During this evolution, while the Romans ruled the city after
the Nabateans and before the Byzantines, the Petra Roman Road was built.

 Origin of materials
The scale of Petra is just immense – 10,000 people lived there. So it's huge, and it is
made of sandstone – in the desert. It only rains for a short period of time [each
year], but very violently. ... They had to build these incredible buildings out of
sandstone, and then protect them from the rain.

How was Petra fashioned out of this sandstone?

We figured out how they did it through the laser scanning. They put giant steps into
the mountain so that they could see the quality of the rock and by building these
steps there was nobody hanging by ropes or dangling dangerously off the mountain,
so they were able to stand on safe ledges while they did their work. They wanted to
make sure the masons were safe because these people were highly skilled and there
weren’t many of them – nobody wanted them to die moving things.

 Literature of Petra

 Petra appeared in the novels Left Behind Series; Appointment with Death; The
Eagle in the Sand; The Red Sea Sharks, the nineteenth book in The Adventures
of Tintin series; and in Kingsbury's The Moon Goddess and the Son. It played a
prominent role in the Marcus Didius Falco mystery novel Last Act in Palmyra. In
Blue Balliett's novel, Chasing Vermeer, the character Petra Andalee is named
after the site.[56]

 In 1979 Marguerite van Geldermalsen from New Zealand married Mohammed

Abdullah, a Bedouin in Petra.[57] They lived in a cave in Petra until the death of
her husband. She authored the book Married to a Bedouin. Van Geldermalsen is
the only western woman who has ever lived in a Petra cave.

 An Englishwoman, Joan Ward, wrote Living With Arabs: Nine Years with the
Petra Bedouin[58] documenting her experiences while living in Umm Sayhoun
with the Petra Bedouin, covering the period 2004–2013.

 Plays

 Playwright John Yarbrough's tragicomedy, Petra,[59] debuted at the

Manhattan Repertory Theatre in 2014[60] and was followed by award-
winning performances at the Hudson Guild in New York in 2015.[61] It was
selected for the Best American Short Plays 2014-2015 anthology.[62]

 Films

 The site appeared in films such as: Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade,
Arabian Nights, Passion in the Desert, Mortal Kombat: Annihilation, Sinbad
and the Eye of the Tiger, The Mummy Returns, Transformers: Revenge of the
Fallen, Samsara and Kajraare.
 Television

 Petra appeared in episode 20 of Misaeng.[64][65]

 Petra appeared in an episode of Time Scanners, made for National

Geographic, where six ancient structures were laser scanned, with the results
built into 3D models.[66] Examining the model of Petra revealed insights into
how the structure was built.[67]

 Petra was the focus of an American PBS Nova special, "Petra: Lost City of
Stone",[68] which premiered in the US and Europe in February 2015.

 Petra is central to Netflix's first Arabic original series Jinn, which is a young
adult supernatural drama about magical genies in the ancient city of Petra.
They must try and stop Jinn from destroying the world. The show is shot in
Jordan and has five episodes.[69]
 CHAPTER 4- THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA

The Great Wall of China is the collective name of a series of fortification systems
generally built across the historical northern borders of China to protect and
consolidate territories of Chinese states and empires against various nomadic groups
of the steppe and their polities. Several walls were being built from as early as the
7th century BC by ancient Chinese states; selective stretches were later joined
together by Qin Shi Huang (220–206 BC), the first emperor of China. Little of the
Qin wall remains. Later on, many successive dynasties have built and maintained
multiple stretches of border walls. The most well-known sections of the wall were
built by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644).

 Construction of the great wall of china

The Great Wall easily required the greatest human effort of any ancient
construction! 100 million tonnes of bricks, stone, and soil were transported and
assembled by millions of soldiers, peasants, prisoners, and animals using basic rope,
wood, and basket systems on remote terrain ranging from parched desert to steep
mountain ridges.

4 Great Wall Building Materials — stone, soil, sand, brick

Most of the (restored) Great Wall sections we see today were built with bricks, and
cut stone blocks/slabs. Where bricks and blocks weren't available, tamped earth,
uncut stones, wood, and even reeds were used as local materials.

Wood was used for forts and as an auxiliary material. Where local timber
wasn't enough, they had it delivered in.

Stone Great Wall Sections

In mountain areas, workers quarried stone to build the Great Wall. Using the
mountains themselves as footings, the outer layer of the Great Wall was built with
stone blocks (and bricks), and filled with uncut stone and anything else available
(like earth and dead workers).
Soil Great Wall Sections

On the plains Great Wall workers made use of local soil (sand, loess, etc.) and
rammed it into compact layers. Jiayuguan's Great Wall section in west China was
mainly built with dusty loess soil — "the most erodible soil on the planet". It's
amazing that sections 2,000 years old still remain mostly intact!

Sand (and Reed/Willow) Great Wall Sections

The Great Wall at Mutianyu was built with bricks.

Sand doesn't stick together, so how could a wall be built with sand? Sand was used
as a fill material between reed and willow layers.

West China around Dunhuang is desert. Innovative builders there made use of reeds
and willow brought in from rivers and oases to build a strong wall. Jade Gate
Pass (Yumenguan) Great Wall Fort was built with 20-cm layers of sand and reed, an
impressive 9 meters high.

Brick Great Wall Sections

The Ming Dynasty Great Wall was mostly built with bricks. To build a strong wall
with bricks, they used lime mortar. Workers built brick and cement factories with
local materials near the wall.

Transporting 100,000,000 Tonnes — by hand, rope, cart … goat?

The Great Wall over the ages used around 100,000,000 tonnes of stone, bricks, and
mud. According to history and legend, there were three ways to get the materials up
the mountains and across the plains...

Carried by Hand — the usual way

Workers carried most of the stones and bricks up the mountains on their shoulders
or backs. Bamboo baskets were used for soil, loose stone, and lime mortar.

Human chains were also used to pass the blocks and baskets up. Lining up on
narrow mountain paths was more efficient than trudging back and forth.

Primitive Technology — wheel barrows and ropes

On mountains with flat enough paths, one-wheel barrows were used. Basket and
pulley systems were used over deep valleys, and materials were also pulled to the
top of the Great Wall on ropes.

Animal Use — doubtless fact and doubtful legend

Doubtless horses/oxen and carts were used in the flatter areas for transporting
materials, and camels were used in the deserts for long distances.

There is a doubtful legend that when Badaling's Great Wall section was built on the
steep mountains, workers used goats to deliver the materials. Goats are renowned
for being good at "climbing", so it's said people tied bricks on goats' horns and made
them carry them up the steep mountains.

 Budget to build the Great Wall Of China

Great Wall of China Cost: CNY 635 billion (approximately USD 95 billion)

 Total revenue of Great Wall of China

Domestic visitors – 16,000,000

International visitors – 8,200,000
Total site visitors – 24,200,000
Total revenues - $ 2,888,000,000
 Literature on the great wall of china

Great Wall Labourers’ Laments

During the construction of the Great Wall, millions of people died. Many poets
expressed their resentment with poems, along the lines of:

‘Every brick, every stone, and every inch of mud are filled with Chinese people's
bones and sweat and blood.
 CHAPTER 5- THE GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA

The Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of Khufu or the Pyramid of

Cheops) is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza pyramid
complex bordering present-day Giza in Greater Cairo, Egypt. It is the oldest of
the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact.
Based on a mark in an interior chamber naming the work gang and a reference to
the Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu, Egyptologists believe that the pyramid
was built as a tomb over a 10- to 20-year period concluding around 2560 BC.
Initially standing at 146.5 metres (481 feet), the Great Pyramid was the tallest man-
made structure in the world for more than 3,800 years until Lincoln Cathedral was
finished in 1311 AD. Originally, the Great Pyramid was covered by limestone casing
stones that formed a smooth outer surface; what is seen today is the underlying
core structure. 

 History and description

Egyptologists believe the pyramid was built as a tomb for the Fourth

Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (often Hellenized as "Cheops") and was
constructed over a 20-year period. Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu (also called Hemon), is
believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid. It is thought that, at
construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 146.6 metres (481.0 ft) tall, but with
the removal of its original casing, its present height is 137 metres (449.5 ft). The
lengths of the sides at the base are difficult to reconstruct, given the absence of the
casing, but recent analyses put them in a range between 230.26 metres (755.4 ft)
and 230.44 metres (756.0 ft). The volume, including an internal hillock, is roughly
2,300,000 cubic metres (81,000,000 cu ft).
The first precision measurements of the pyramid were made by Egyptologist Sir
Flinders Petrie in 1880–82 and published as The Pyramids and Temples of
Gizeh. Almost all reports are based on his measurements. Many of the casing-stones
and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid fit together with extremely high
precision. Based on measurements taken on the north-eastern casing stones, the
mean opening of the joints is only 0.5 millimetres (0.020 in) wide.
The pyramid remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800
years, unsurpassed until the 160-metre-tall (520 ft) spire of Lincoln Cathedral was
completed c. 1300. The accuracy of the pyramid's workmanship is such that the four
sides of the base have an average error of only 58 millimetres in length.The base is
horizontal and flat to within ±15 mm (0.6 in). The sides of the square base are
closely aligned to the four cardinal compass points (within four minutes of arc) based
on true north, not magnetic north, and the finished base was squared to a mean
corner error of only 12 seconds of arc

 Materials
The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks which most believe to
have been transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing
was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in
the "King's" chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from Aswan,
more than 800 km (500 mi) away. Ancient Egyptians cut stone into rough blocks by
hammering grooves into natural stone faces, inserting wooden wedges, then soaking
these with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, breaking off
workable chunks. Once the blocks were cut, they were carried by boat either up or
down the Nile River to the pyramid. It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of
limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite (imported from Aswan), and 500,000 tonnes of
mortar were used in the construction of the Great Pyramid.

 Large work force.

Some research suggests alternate estimates to the accepted workforce size. For
instance, mathematician Kurt Mendelssohn calculated that the workforce may have
been 50,000 men at most, while Ludwig Borchardt and Louis Croon placed the
number at 36,000. According to Miroslav Verner, a workforce of no more than
30,000 was needed in the Great Pyramid's construction. Evidence suggests that
around 5,000 were permanent workers on salaries with the balance working three-
or four-month shifts in lieu of taxes while receiving subsistence "wages" of ten
loaves of bread and a jug of beer per day. Zahi Hawass believes that the majority of
workers may have been volunteers. It is estimated that only 4,000 of the total
workforce were labourers who quarried the stone, hauled blocks to the pyramid and
set the blocks in place. The vast majority of the workforce provided support services

 Art and architecture

Arguably the most famous form of late Prehistoric art, the pyramids of Ancient
 Egypt are the world's largest funerary edifices or tombs. Developed from
the mastaba tomb, they are one of the most enduring symbols of Egyptian art in
general and Egyptian architecture in particular. Ancient Egyptians believed in an
eternal afterlife, and the purpose of the pyramids was to safeguard the Pharaoh's
body and all the belongings he would need after death, in order to facilitate his
passage into the after-life. Thus each pyramid routinely contained a wide variety
of Egyptian sculpture, mural painting, jewelry and other types of ancient
art necessary to sustain the deceased in his after-death existence. So far, about
140 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt, most of which were built as burial
tombs for the country's Pharaohs and their consorts, during the Old and Middle
Kingdom periods (2650-1650). The oldest known Egyptian pyramids are located at
Saqqara, near Memphis, just south of the Nile delta. The earliest among these is
the Pyramid of Djoser (constructed about 2630 at Saqqara) which was designed
during the third dynasty by the famous architect Imhotep (active c.2600-2610
BCE). The tallest one was The Great Pyramid of Giza (c.2565), which was
designated one of the Wonders of the World by Antipater of Sidon, and is now the
sole surviving member. Exactly how many paid labourers were required to cut,
transport and erect the stone megaliths from which each pyramid was constructed,
is unknown, although estimates vary from 30,000 to 300,000. However, the huge
resources needed to create such colossal works of ancient architecture, shows how
rich and well organized Egyptian society was in the Third Millennium BCE.

 How Did Egyptian Pyramid Architecture Evolve and Develop?

The architectural design of the pyramids was a reflection of both politics and
religious custom. Until about 3,000 BCE, Ancient Egypt was effectively two
countries with two traditions of burial. In Lower Egypt (to the north) the country
was wet and flat, and the dead were buried under their family house which was
usually built on higher ground. In Upper Egypt (to the south) the dead were
buried away from settlements, in dry sand at the edge of the desert. A mound
was usually erected over the grave. When the people and burial customs were
united, during the period 3000-2700, it became customary for nobles to be
interred in a simple tomb called a mastaba. This was a simple tomb consisting
of a flat-roofed, rectangular structure, made from mud-bricks, with slightly
sloping walls, inside which, a deep burial chamber was dug into the ground and
lined with stone or bricks. After a while, the flat roof of the surface building was
replaced by a pyramid design.

 How much would it cost to build great pyramids today?

Even with cranes, helicopters, tractors and trucks at our disposal, it would be tough
to construct the Great Pyramid of Giza today. Its construction 4,500 years ago is so
astounding in some people's eyes that they invoke mystical or even alien
involvement. But the current theory of the building of the Great Pyramid — the
notion that it was assembled from the inside out, via a spiraling internal ramp — is
probably still the best construction plan.

Following that plan, we could replicate the Wonder of the Ancient World for a cool
$5 billion.

CHAPTER 6- COLOSSEUM

- ORIGIN AND DATES

The Colosseum or Coliseum (/kɒləˈsiːəm/ kol-ə-SEE-əm), also known as the Flavian

Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium; Italian: Anfiteatro Flavio [amfiteˈaːtro
ˈflaːvjo] or Colosseo [kolosˈsɛːo]), is an oval amphitheatre in the Centre of the city of Rome,
Italy. Built of concrete and sand, it is the largest amphitheatre ever built. The Colosseum is
situated just east of the Roman Forum. Construction began under the emperor Vespasian in
AD 72, and was completed in AD 80 under his successor and heir Titus. Further
modifications were made during the reign of Domitian (81–96). These three emperors are
known as the Flavian dynasty, and the amphitheatre was named in Latin for its association
with their family name (Flavius).

The Colosseum could hold, it is estimated, between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators, having an
average audience of some 65,000; it was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles
such as mock sea battles (for only a short time as the hypogeum was soon filled in with
mechanisms to support the other activities), animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of
famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for
entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing,
workshops, and quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although partially ruined because of damage caused by earthquakes and stone-robbers, the
Colosseum is still an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome’s most popular
tourist attractions and has also links to the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the
Pope leads a torchlit “Way of the Cross” procession that starts in the area around the
Colosseum.
- MATERIALS USED DURING THE CONSTRUCTION OF COLOSSEUM?

Materials used in the construction of the Colosseum were chosen carefully. In the below of
the building, heavier materials such as tuff and lime were used, which was known as grading.

Roman builders know and discovered different techniques to build this giant edifice. Stronger
but lighter mortar, bricks and volcanic stone were used by them.

1 – Travertine: The limestone which was used in the main pillars and walls were strong and
brought from Tibur. It was generally white or yellow

.2 – Tuff: Tuff is softer than travertine and it brings elasticity.

3- Concrete: Concrete was invented by the Romans. It was cheap, quick to make, and easy to
use.

4- Bricks: Bricks were mixed with water, sand and tiles.

5 – Iron / Bronze Clamps: In order to bind stones together these clamps were used.

6 – Marble: Marble is used both in decoration and the entrances of the cavea in Colosseum

7 – Lime: Lime was used as binder for the cement by adding water. It was made of limestone
which is heated.

8 – Mortar: Mortar is mixture of cement/sand and water.

9 – Stone: Stone was used on the outside walls of Colosseum and the sections of the building
that took the most weight
- WHO CREATED COLOSSEUM?

The construction of the Colosseum  (Colosseo) began under the emperor Vespasian in
72 AD and was finished in 80 AD under his son Titus. The site chosen was a flat area
between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills. In addition, a canalized stream ran through
the site. The area was inhabited by the 2 century BC and was devastated by the Great Fire of
Rome in 64 AD. Consequently, Emperor Nero used main part of the area as his personal
domain. Domus Aurea and artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes
were built there. Consequently, much of the Domus Aurea was removed, the lake was filled
in and the site became the location for the Colosseum.

Its construction was funded by the opulent spoils brought from the Jewish Temple after the
Great Jewish Revolt in 70 AD

After the war, around 100.000 Jewish prisoners were working on the massive
construction. Moreover, the slaves undertook manual labor. For instance, they worked in the
quarries as Tivoli where the travertine material was quarried and transported stone 20 miles
from Tivoli to Rome. Along with them, teams of professional Roman engineers, painters,
builders and decorators worked on the construction. The Flavian Amphitheater
constructed with wood, limestone, cement, mortar, and tuff materi
- LITERATURE RELATED

The Colosseum represents the power, brilliance, and brutality of the Roman Empire. The
sheer size of the Colosseum, its architectural design, and its function are still marvels to
behold today. However, what took place on stage with the systematic killing of hundreds of
thousands animals and people bears a grim reminder of the violence and cruelty that is core to
the history of the Colosseum and the Roman Empire.

The mystery and marvel of the Colosseum has made it the centerpiece of Rome and a
milestone in human achievement. As the oracle of the Venerable Bede put it, “When the
Colosseum stands firm, Rome too sands firm; when the Colosseum falls, Rome too falls;
when the Colosseum falls, both Rome and the world will fall.”

- CARVING

The Colosseum has always been a monument surrounded by mystery and legend. In
researching this monument, I found it interesting to be able to corroborate or dispel some of
these legends and see the extent to which they have been exaggerated.
 CHAPTER 7- CHICHEN ITZA

- ORIGIN AND DATES

Chichen Itza was a Mayan city on the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. Although it’s an important tourist
attraction, Chichen Itza also remains an active archaeological site. New discoveries are still being
unearthed in the area, providing even more insight into the culture and accomplishments of the
Mayan people, who ruled much of present-day Mexico and Central America prior to the arrival of
European colonists. Chichen Itza was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988 and, in 2007, it
was voted in a global survey as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.

- WHERE IS CHICHEN ITZA?

Chichen Itza is located about 120 miles from the modern-day resort town of Cancun, on
Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula.

The name Chichen Itza is a Mayan language term for “at the mouth of the well of the Itza.”
The Itza were an ethnic group of Mayans who had risen to power in the northern part of the
Yucatan peninsula, where the city is located.

The well in the name refers to a number of underground rivers that run beneath the region
and likely served as the source of water for the city. This easy access to water made the
location perfect for a city the size of Chichen Itza.

- WHEN WAS THE CHICHEN ITZA BUILT?

Historic accounts differ as to when Chichen Itza was built and ultimately developed into a
center of political and economic power. Some accounts place the establishment of the city in
the early 400s A.D., while others suggest construction started a few years later, in the middle
part of the fifth century.

What isn’t up for debate is that Chichen Itza was a significant center of political and
economic activity in the Mayan culture by roughly 600 A.D.
By then, it was already one of the largest cities in the Mayan world, covering nearly two
square miles with densely packed commercial, residential and other structures made of stone.
Chichen Itza even had its own “suburbs,” with smaller homes occupying the outskirts of the
city.

- WHAT MATERIALS WERE USED IN CHICHEN ITZA?

Located on the Yucatan peninsula, the Mayan city of Chichen Itza was built out of limestone
blocks chiseled out of nearby quarries. The blocks were so finely cut that they fit together
without mortar. The sheer weight of the limestone stabilizes the structures, some of which are
nearly 1,000 years old.

This UNESCO World Heritage Site has elements of both the Mayan and Toltec architectural
styles. One of the most noted structures is El Castillo, the stepped pyramid of Kukulkan. The
pyramid is covered with carvings, including the outlines of twin snakes along the staircase,
leading to carved serpent heads at the bottom.

Other structures that have survived earthquakes and limestone erosion include the Warrior's
Temple, El Caracol, an ancient observatory and the ball courts. Evidence exists that some of
the carved walls were painted in bold colors, but today the intricate carvings of battle scenes
and various deities are mostly bare stone.

The city was built near two limestone caverns that held an underground water supply. Called
"cenotes," these cisterns are found throughout the Yucatan. At Chichen Itza, no one is really
sure if the drying up of these two cenotes led to the eventual abandonment of the city or if
Chichen Itza's downfall had political undertones. The answer may someday be found in the
carved limestone blocks of this ancient city.

- CARVINGS

As we walked through the smaller temples and ruins, I was barely able to keep my attention
focused on Alejandro’s tales or the lush carvings of Maya gods, mythical animals and birds,
and human figures singing and dancing all over these monuments. When would we get to the
great pyramid?
- LITERATURE

The Maya were skilled farmers and created a sophisticated written language. They also
carried on trade throughout a network of cities that went as far south as Panama and as far
north as Central Mexico. They developed a number system which included the concept of
zero and used their mathematical knowledge along with celestial observations to develop a
sophisticated calendar and to create monuments to observe and commemorate movements of
the moon, the sun, and Venus. Several of these monuments can still be seen at Chichen Itza
today.

Even in its abandoned state, some of the most significant buildings such as the Temple of the
Jaguars and the Ball Court still stand in remarkable shape. The layout of the city, with the
temples and pyramids located in neat clusters, is a testament to the design and architectural
skills of the Maya.
The condition of authenticity met by the site at the moment of its inscription was maintained1

1
 Gobierno del Estado de Yucatán 2007.
  Sharer and Traxler 2006, p.562.
  Miller 1999, p.26.
 "Estadística de Visitantes" (in Spanish). INAH. Archived from the original on 8 July
2012. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
 Chavez 2015.
  Anda Alanís 2007.
 Freidel, p.6. Sharer and Traxler 2006, p.581
 CHAPTER 8- MACHU PICHU

ORIGIN-

Machu Picchu (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈmatʃu ˈpiktʃu]) or Machu Pikchu ([ˈmɑtʃu ˈpixtʃu]), is

a 15th-century Inca citadel situated on a mountain ridge 2,430 metres (7,970 ft) above sea
level. It is located in the Cusco Region, Urubamba Province, Machupicchu District in Peru,
above the Sacred Valley, which is 80 kilometres (50 mi) northwest of Cuzco and through
which the Urubamba River flows.

Most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was built as an estate for the Inca emperor
Pachacuti (1438–1472). Often mistakenly referred to as the “Lost City of the Incas” (a title
more accurately applied to Vilcabamba), it is the most familiar icon of Inca civilization. The
Incas built the estate around 1450 but abandoned it a century later at the time of the Spanish
Conquest. Although known locally, it was not known to the Spanish during the colonial
period and remained unknown to the outside world until American historian Hiram Bingham
brought it to international attention in 1911.

Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca style, with polished dry-stone walls. Its three
primary structures are the Inti Watana, the Temple of the Sun, and the Room of the Three
Windows. Most of the outlying buildings have been reconstructed in order to give tourists a
better idea of how they originally appeared. By 1976, thirty percent of Machu Picchu had
been restored and restoration continues.

Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historical Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 1983. In 2007, Machu Picchu was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of
the World in a worldwide Internet poll.
- CONSTRUCTION RELATED

The granite rocks used to construct Machu Picchu were extremely heavy with some weighing
over 55 tons. The stones were either pushed up the mountain by the bare hands of hundreds
of men or chiseled from the side of the mountain itself. Machu Picchu was constructed with a
technique called ashlar which involves stones being perfectly shaped so that a mortar is not
needed. The stones are fit so well that not even the blade of a knife would fit between them

More than 150 buildings make up Machu Picchu. These buildings range from temples and
sanctuaries to baths and houses. There are also over 100 flights of stairs in Machu Picchu.
Most of which were carved from one single slab of stone. To find out everything you need to
know about visiting Machu Picchu

To stop the structure from sliding down the side of the mountain the Inca people also built
over 600 terraces. For their time the advancements they made in structural engineering were
unheard of!

To combat the fact that Peru is extremely earthquake-prone, every building built in Machu
Picchu was made earthquake-resistant by the Incas! When an earthquake does strike, it is said
that the stones of Machu Picchu dance.
2

2
 Jarus, Owen (31 August 2012). "Machu Picchu: Facts & History - Abandonment of
Machu Picchu". Live Science. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
 CHAPTER 9- CONCLUSION

Explorers,
You have seen so many things around the world, and learned so much about math, science,
and vocabulary! The things you have seen are all part of the Seven Wonders of the World!
There are many more to explore, but you now have a foundation to explore other wonders of
our wonderful world! You were able to connect math, science, and vocabulary, what else
could you connect to them? Can you connect math and science to your everyday life? I
challenge you to see the connections in your day-to-day lives to the explanations of why
something works the way it does. Question the way something works, wonder why, and how,
and you will never have a dull moment. Because you do not need to travel all the way around
the world just to learn- there are questions right in front of you begging to be asked- and
begging to be explored!

  Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu". UNESCO

World Heritage Centre.
  UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
  escale.minedu.gob.pe – UGEL map of the Urubamba Province (Cusco Region)
 Carlotto et al. 2009