4 English Grammar for Today ‘A new introduction Geoffrey Leech Margaret Deuchar Robert Hoogenraad MACMILLAN cmon in© Gootrey Lote, Margret Deucher, Robert Hoogearia 982 Allright reserved No eprouton, copy or tansmison of ‘hs pbs maybe made wit weten permission, No pararaph ofthis puiearon maybe reproaced, cope or ‘suited ve with writen prin on accordnce wi the poinnn Ue Coppa Dei so Pos Act 508, ‘rater the tame oan once pernstng aed copying {Suey he Copia Liens Agony, 9 Totem Cou Rosa Loudon WIP SHE. Ay person wh dos ay wuts act in elation his ueton ay einen exis rsecaton ad ie for damage. int publi 1982 by ‘THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Hovngrl, Bsinguoke, Hampshire RGD 2XS td Landon ‘Compania eresenstves throwghow he wer ISBN 0-333-3054-0harcover ISBNO-335 506409 paperback Printed in Hong Kong pene 1982 (wth caren), 1984 with eiso), 955 (ic), 1986 987 98,1980, 1981, 1983, Contents Foreword Preface Symbols and conventions (o ean a: TRODUCTION 1 What grammar sand isnot ‘Grammar apd ole in language “Good” ant ‘bad? grammar Variation in language [English and other languages Grammar and effective communication ‘Grammar in prose style (Grammar in poetry Conlon Everciet PART B: ANALYSS 'D Sentences and thei parts 21 Prologue: pris of spech 22 Thehierschy of units 23° Grammatial notations 24 Uaing teats 255 Form and fonction 25 Summary Beeries 3 Words 31 Open and closed word cases 32 The open dases 34 Sommary and conshsion Beerciaes 30 2 36 37 ry 56 ss 2 B 4contexts Phrases 41 Clans of pha 42 Mainand ubardaate phases 43° Noun phases and related phrase clases ‘44 The adjective phase and the deb pase 45° The ver phrwe 46 Sommay Beeres tense Sil Elements of the cause 52 Complex sentence 53 Finite and nonfnte clauses 54 Declarative interogatie and imperative clause SS Actie and passive aus S16 Move on clause structure 57 Cause paters 58 The structure of non-finite causes 59 Parsing simple sentence 5.10. Summary Beeries ‘Subordination and coordination 61 Subordinate causes 62 Fite subordinate causes 63. Tae functions of subordinate causes 64 Nonfinitesubordinas causes 65 Direceand lndivest sbordiation 66 Skeleton analyse 67 Coordination 63 Summary and conclusion Exerc: asic and derived structures Ta Constventstrectare grammar 72 Badeand derived strotures 73 Mising’ elements 74 Sot eonstiuents 73 ‘Double analysis" 715 Back to parsing 7 58 0 85 7 n 1% n * » 2 2 84 86 "7 3 31 93 100 01 105 1s 107 109 mL Eo 93 113 13 us us 119 120 123 17 78 contents Style and transformations ‘Summary and coneusion Beercaes % pant c: aeucarions | | : | Tnodctory Speech and wating: which comes ist? unclons of wating and sesh ‘The form of speech and wring Linguistic harcterstics of speech and wating ‘Azalyss of spoken and written diesouree Cencusion Tnsrodustory ‘Tenor ‘Teno and discourse Domain Domain and dicoure Combining categories of use Exerebe Analysis of literary discourse 101 102 103 104 How toamiyse syle lutrative extract Outine analysis Further iustatve extracts for dacuson Bxerises Grammar and problons of wage ‘Opinions about grammar Prescriptive "les ‘The pests of wage The problem of personal pronouns The problem of number concord ‘The problem ofthe goer matcline Probleme of lips 2s 128 ne 145 us us 146 150 151 153 uss 158 se 166 1st 168 110 m m im 114 usvi Bn contexts 11.8 Dangling on-fnte claves 119 Condusion Exeries Grammar and composition re 122 03 08 n3 126 Answer to exercises Fur Index er realire 180 181 182 186 184 190 191 we 193 ws 199 2s 28 184 Foreword ‘Voisin the Baglsh Asoiation ave been urpng for some tine tat ‘he moment ip for anew English gramsar fr usin schools colleges nd univers and the Amoiation hasbeen fortunate in bringing to (ber tee authors whowe distinction and experi eminently qualify ‘em fr the task and' pubsher long established inthe Se. Tt i probably true to my that not many years ago sucha book could aly ave attracted a publisher, fortwo very good resons, “The clmate of opinion has for long been unftvoursbi to ving rammatial teaching to nati speakers of English. From cases that Sle need not go into ere, the old tradition of school grammar wane. “Grammnas foc Toei Ierers was acknowedged to be unavoidable the eet us could manage without. And 4, of course, many of us aid; Sd perhaps we fet the language survived qltehappily when we dd not {Ook too Cony, whether 4 teachers cea students ofa nea users fof the language, 3 he imprecision, the incoherence and - let us const often the incompreenablity of much of what we read or even ‘wrote in oar everyday Ines, SA ceond reason Wat severly practical ti after al, ot ong since Profesor Randolph Quirk complained of the absence of any yound {sterion by which to establish what really was acceptable English: the Srter ofa feching grammar iat the grammatical lewel lost Tatiely without « body of descriptive data, and so he has to rely {angel on a hesitant and nertain introspection ino his own wsage o is intuve knowedge "That the situation has changed is due in great measure to Professor {Quik and his collages inthe Surey of English Usage, at University College, London, and to its daughter project at the University of Tancancr, where Profesor Leech and is colleagues are investigating * Rando Ql, comsen na tee rp in i ss on a ei [gue Med and Moore (Lomion Longman 1968110x FOREWORD present-day English withthe si ofthe computer. By far the most im povtant achievement of thi new emphasis on the study of Engh [arma through ft usage in the Isngusge Ie surely the monumental ‘Grammar of Contemporary Engiah which is widely regaded as sutbortauve. “Authorttiw’, Uke the word ‘authority’ ie kely to sais hackles, snd 4 te prope to point ou that it authoritative statements of the ‘ts of English today that aren question, not rulesastohow weshould| ‘or should not expos oureles Re there wilbe, based on unqueston- thle fat, but often It sa mater rather of grades of acceptability. We Tateve ther is now a growing body of option eager for direction of| ‘hirkind, WWehope that Bln Gramma for Today willsere a vatsbl ool for students, however litle thlr Koowlodge of eemmaticl terms, a alo for teacher, whether Inclined more toa traditional or « modem fpproach, who belive thats rstumn to 2 viglant and welinformed tad towards the language they use and lve slong overdue "The English Assocation Is grateful to the authors for the care they ‘nave gen to the prepartion ofthis book, and to thos ofits members snd offs Executive Comittee who red earier drafts and contated suggestion for improvement. Further sugestios from readers wil be ‘wolomed. GEOFFREY HARLOW (Chairman, Publications Subcommittee, The English Assocation, 1 Priory Gandess, Bedford Pak, Tendon, W4 ITT * by Rai Gu ey Gnomes ah etx Sati (Goosen: Lona, 17 Preface “his is an lataductory outs in English gramma for use in Engish- ‘madi schools, coleges aa universities, Lamentably, theresa present to recognised ple for Engluh grammar in the Brith educational Cuca, En fact 8 ll possible fora student to end up witha degre in Engl ate Brishunivesity without having case to know tho fst thing about English grammar, or the grammar of any other language Buti we ace rights supposing that the time sight fora real of the subject in schools, tte wil be » rowing acd fr introductory ‘Soursey at various level, Thu thie bok as a multiple parpos. I ‘rimily designed as coursebook fr salents atthe upper secondary ‘Boe (oc forms) and the tetary level oles, polytechnics, ulver- Stes), but it is also adapted to the needs of teacher intersted inex loving ¢ new approach fo grammr, or of any person keen fo catch UP ‘th subject 50 wetchedly neglected by our education system. If grammar is to besome tal subject inthe English eusicaum, we tye fo enor finally the spectre of Browring’s grammarian who Gave us the doctrine of the enclite De ‘Dead from the wast down, ‘Rober Browning, The Gramimarions Funerl) ‘That spectre sll aunts our colectve consciousness inthe form ofa Viciorun schoolmaster instilling gulty felings about split infntivs| And dangling prtepee, and vague Tears that grammar may prove tobe fothing els tha hacking the corpses of sentences to pieces and stick ing labels onthe resting fragments. That is why’ some ofthis book i evoted to the correcting of preconceptions. Part A Intoduction is meant to provide «reorientation: dspeling myths, and seeking 2 new {Appa f the veoe uc yanmar i peewneday eduction. Pert B. “Anaya is the man ar ofthe book, presenting a method * {ng the grammatial structure of sentenoes, Pat C, “Applicatx FOREWORD roent-day Enlish with the ald of the computes. By far the most i fortant achievement of this new emphass on tho study of English fzammar though is sage inthe language surely the monumental Grammar of Contemporary Engish, which is widely regarded a suthorte. “Authortie’, Uke the word ‘authority, likely to raise hackles, ‘and so ts prope to point ou that it authoritative statements of the faetoF English today that are in question, not rulesasto how we should ‘or should aot expos ourselves. Rules there willbe, based on unguston thle fat, but often it isa mater rather of pades of acceptability. We belive there is now 2 growing body of opinion eager for direetion of this kind, ‘We hope that English Grammar for Today wilsere as valsble ool for students, however lite thelr Knowledge of grammatical tems, and also Tex aches, whether nclaed more to a tadltionl or a modem Spproach, who Talive that a rtura to a viglant and wellinformed tude towards the language they use and love i long overdue. ‘The English Association Is grateful tothe authors for the care they ‘havo given to th preparation of this ok, ani to thos ofits members sd of its Executive Commitee who red ear rafts and contted Suggestions for improvement. Further suggestions from readers wil be swolomed GrorFREY HARLOW Chairman, Publcations Subcommittee, ‘The English Assocation, 1 Priory Gardens, Beford Park, indon, W4 ITT 1 by Randolph Qu, siney Geetuun, Guotoy Leech and Jan Snrteik (onion: Longa, 1972), Preface ‘This isan Intodetory course in English grammar for ase in English ‘medium schools, colleges and universities. Lamentably, thereat present ‘0 recogaised place for English grammar in the Buitsh educational uric, fn fact i stil possible for astuent tend up witha degree in Englah at Beith university without having cause to know the fist thing about Engish grnumar, or the grammar of any other langue [Buti we are ight fm supposing that the ime is ight foc a real of| the subject in tahool, tate wil be a rowing need for introductory ‘courses at various levels. Thus this book ha a multiple purpose, Ii ‘Primal dened st couse book for stents atthe upper secondary {evel (ech form) andthe teary level colleges, polytechnic, univer sites), but iti abo adapted tothe needs of teachers interested inex ploring «new approach to gram, or of say person Kees to catch up ‘with eobjec 40 wetchely neglected by our educational syste if grammar isto become a ital subject in the English curiculsm, we tye fo exocce finally the specte of Brownings grammarian who ‘Gave us the doctrine f the ence De ‘Dead irom the wait down, (ober Browning, The Grammartan’s Funeral) ‘That spectre stl aunts our collective consciousness inthe form ofa ‘Victorian schoolmaster inating guy feelings about split infntves Ain dangling participles, and ygve fers that grammar may prove tobe nothing else than hacking the corpse of satences to pieces and stick ing ibels onthe vesting fragments. That s why some ofthis book i ‘devoted tothe correcting of preconceptions. Pat A, “ntoducton is tneant to provide a reorientation: dapeling anys, and seeking 2 new fppmisil GF the vue of grammar tm presutay education. Pat Dy ‘Analysis the main prt ofthe book, presen ¢ method fr dese ing the grammutial structure of entenoes. Past C,“Applations showsxi PREFACE how this method of analysis can be used in the study of style i its broadest sense and inthe development of writen language ls. ‘The ystm of grammatical analysis introduced in Part Bisinluenced by the semle grammar of McA. Halliday, and more directly by that found ia Randolph Quis etal, A Grammar of Contemporary English (1972) ands adaptations ia Quik and Greenbaum, A Unvesty (Granonar of Englth (1974) and Leech and Svar, A Communicabe Grammar of Engl (1975). 1s feamowork which hasbeen widely ‘opted inthe tudy of Eglh by notaative speakers, making informal ‘we of moder developments in lnguiss, but not departing without {good reason from tadiona terme snd eitegories which aze to some {xtent a coramon cultural hetage of the Western world. Naturally the Framework has had to be considerably simplified. Grammar, for our purpot, is defined In a ntrow sense for which nowadays the tem ‘Symax is someties usd. It means roughly “the rules for constructing sentences out of words and it excludes, tcl speaking, the study of ‘what words and sntencs mean and how the ae pronounced. ‘Exerees ave provided atthe en ofeach chapter, bat ther funtion fn each Pact somewhat diferent. For Par A the execs ae merely fn encourgement towards thinking on new ins about grammar. Ia Part B the exerces are mush mote fully integrated into the leaning process, important for students to et thelr progres ia understand- tng the sjeem hy doing the exercnes where diated, In part C the exercises in Chapters 8-10 invite the student to try out the system of (wammatial analysis on diferent styles and varieties of English. Here [ram wil be seen in relation to other levels of langue, euch ‘eaning and vocabulary, as pat ofthe total funcdoning of language a ‘ communiation system, "The book can be ued a a course book, each chapter providing one cor two weeks work, though the exercises are varied in form and pur pote, Some exercises const of problems with more or less defite Snswers and in those cass answers are gen atthe back ofthe book (p.199-214), Oiherexereies are openended tasks fo which no answers tt be piven, The exercles which have anowers provided are so ndicted by the rosvzeference ‘answers on. 00 alone the heading. Thus Mae using the Book for peat sty wil ain some feedback, while ‘eachers using the book ata course book wil fad enough material for ‘woek-by-veek preparation and discusdon, in addon to the exercises ‘which students may check for themselves. Following the Answers to Exucss, we lit books and aris for Further Reaing (on pp 215-17). The ist alphabetical, andon the fe ‘ccaion in the text where we need to refer to one ofthe works sted, references ae given by the author's name, the tie, and the date of PREFACE ai publication: og “Crystal Lint, 1971" It would be imposible to [ive due ered to grammars and ther scholars whose work and ideas [ve influenced this book deel or iniecly; where such Meas have ‘Become part of the curtency of present-day linguistic, we make no attempt fo do. “though the book does aot Include a losary of technical terms, the function of sich a losury can be matched by careful use of the Index, in which technical terms of grammar ae listed alphabetically, ‘ogetier wit the pages on which they are introduced and explained. "We tank Martin MeDonald for providing us wth the material quoted on pp 131, 193, 135-5 ‘We owe a general debt 10 the English Association, which provided the impetus and opportunity for the writing of this book, and.» more patiolr debt {0 the Chatman of it Publetons Subcommittee, Geofivey Harlow, and to other members of the Asocation, especialy Raymond Chapman, who have piven us encouragement and detaled uldance Lancaster CCEOFFREY LEECH August 1981 MARGARET DELHAR ROBERT HOOGENRAADSymbols and conventions ‘The szetons whore the symbol or convention is fist intoduoed, and where the grammaticsl category i most fully discussed, are here shown in backs Labels Function label An Advetblal(253;5.13) My Main verb (25.3348) Aue “Ausliny web G53; 0 Objct @25.2;5.1.2) 43) 04 Dizet abject 5.5). © Complement 253:5.12) OF Indirect object (5.6) Object complement (55) Prediestor(25.2:8.1.1) CE Subjecccomplement——S_—_Subject (2$3;5.L1) (23:56) Voc Voeutve 6.) Ho Head 25334.) ‘M_—(Pre-or post) modifier 5341) Form labels ACI" Adverbia cluee (6.1.1; NCL Noun dause(611;62.1) 622) NP Noun phnse 2.5.1: Aj Adjective @5.1;323) 43) AP Adjective phate @-S.1; yp Proposition (2.5333.34) 4a) Por Prepostional cause (62.5) Ay Adwib @5.;324) Ph Fhutse(22) ANP Adve phge(25.1; pn Pronoun (3.13332; G42) 43.2) (CCL Comparative cause PP Prepostional phrase (624) @5:;433) svata01s aND CONVENTIONS w sbordinaingoreo- == N_ Noun (25.1;321) ‘ordiatng) con RCI Relative dase (62.3) junction(31;335) ~ Genitive muzer (4; .hause(22) for Ci, ‘434 ‘Cling. Clen,see below) SCI_Sbortnate clause (5.26.1) 4 Detemniner(3.1:33.1; Se Sentence (2.2), 432) Vi Verb (25.1;322) (sed Enumerator (3.13333) for fuller or operator. GP Gentine phrase 05.5, wet) 434), ¥ Opecatorib (.1;33.) 4 mtenecton (3.1533. VP Vers pra 25.1583) ‘MCL Mais dause (52) Wo Word (22) Composite labels 1, ACI, CCI, NCL and RCI combine with ng, en to form composite ‘abel for nonin dus pes ch tate de Gi hodiae "| GayrAce Neher 6a) Gon “tn ceo ‘Vand combine with o, 5, ed 1 ing, en to form compost label for finite and non ft vec forms: Vo Prewnt tons or base form Ve Third person singular present tense form } (3.2.2,3.36,45.1) Ved Psst tense form Vi Ininsuve (451) Ving “ING or preset participle Yor “Recreate ¥ 2a,a3.483) Specialised ies ‘The folowing symbols are used, mainly in 4.5, for sbelases of Aue and Aus:Mod Modality (45) vibe Primary eb t0be(3.3.6 Past Pasive voice (45) 35) Por Pecective aspect do Dummy? ved do (45; G3) 452) Propewive pet hv rimary vee 4 Ave a3) G35)43) mm Modal mb (.3.6;45)wi SYMBOLS AND CONVENTIONS. “The following particles (3.3.8) are used as their own abel: it ‘empty’ subject there ‘existent there (7.72) oa) for infinitive marker (34) rot saute negation (4) {i soxnd clauses ©) round phases ean) fepraten word constituents ‘hele wo ox more coordinates (6.7) fnclore an optional constituent (2.4.4) links interrupted constituents of sunt (5.13): 0g (he) kit nay [ Labeing ‘The aymbol* (ote) rede an ungrmmatel consicton 25.1. Fon nbls 21) havea ital ail for open cases, lower cat Tor coved le, Tey ace weten as uss before te opening trackt oc before the word: xe(yaYou). Function abe 3.2) arin ain the text whe weting them se raring: cae 8 for S- They are won ar oper before the opening bast or ttre the word: (You! nation pis form ily 21,338) the function els witen hove te form abet es ou, Skeleton analysis 6) rea direlly subordinated constituent (6.5.1, 66) shore tn indie subordinated constituent (6.5.2, 6.6) “The aymbo + (pls) stands forthe coordinating conjunction inked hordnation (67) ‘The comma is usd between coordinates in unlinked coordination Yer) ‘Tree dlagrams (232) S205 9.9m how to bull up uly labelled toe agra, PART A INTRODUCTION1 What grammar is and is not 1.1. Grammar and its role in language [es important fom the ouset that we are dear about what we mean by the teem GRAMMAR inthis boo. Many people think of prammar as Yatherborig schol subject which has tle use in elif. They may Ihave come acoss the concept in Latin 0" lee, in Eaglsh composition, for ln the explanations of teacher as whit poo! or "ba grammar So grammar soften asocatedin people's minds with one ofthe follow- sgammar is completely wrong, but they do not represent the whole plete In tis book we shall se the term grammar inrternce tothe mach anism according to which anguage works when tis sed to communicate ‘with other people. We cannot se ths mechanism eoneretely, becuse it [i represented rather abstractly inthe human mind, but we know i is ‘thae because it works. One way of dessin this mechanism sas a set ‘fale wilh allow us to pot words together in certain ay, Dut wich do not allow others. At some level, speakers ofa language must know ‘those rae, ocherwis they would not be able to put words togeter ins meaningful wy. ‘Even they have never ard ofthe word grammaralnatve speakers ‘of English (le. thowe who have learned Engl ar tel ist langasee) know at least unconscious that adjectives are placed before nouns in English. Thos you would get unanimous agreement among Englsh spurs tat The bie ook ison the ble where Dhe wa adjective, Book s noun) Isa possible sentence, wheteas The Book ble it om the table i not. if we stidy the grammar of our native language, then we ae tying ‘to make expt the mnowiedge o he inguage tat wealreasy hae, We might do this out of pure curiosity a to how Inguage works, but we ‘ight alo find the knowlege wef fr other purposes, We might wish 34 [ENGLISH[GRAMMAR FOR TODAY to teach Engl to frelgnee, or example, of wouk out how a foreign lnnguaps i diferent from our ov. Or we might want 19 work out how the language of poetry or advertang makes an ingact onus, lean (0 ‘tice and improve our own style of writing. ‘So fr weve eid crely that gamma isa mechanism fr puting ‘words together, but we fave si ite sbout sound or meaning. We can Think of paar a Being conta prt of language which lates sound find meaning. The meaning of a message conveyed by language has tobe fonverted into words put tether scording f grammatical rls, nd these word are then conveyed by sound. The term PHONOLOGY iscften| neg to mean the sytem of sounds in language, and seMATIC, the ‘ystems of meaning, However, in thisbook we willbe concerned mainly ‘wih. the central component of language, GRAMMAR, which relates [Phonology and semantic, or sound and meaning. The ilationstip be {ween the thre components in epresered in Flgue Figure 1.1 ‘Semantics ‘Grammar Phonology ‘So meanings are conveyed, va grammar, in sounds but what about ting? One of the eas which many people have about languages that {thas odo withthe watten langage. The word grammar in fact comes from the Grek grapho, meaning wre’, Du although statements the origin of words such at th may be interesting soil, we ean- ‘ot rely on them o tll us the cunent meaning ofthe words reanings Change inte, Tadionaly, grammar di have todo with tho watt tanguge, especially that of Latin, which continuo be stuled and ‘ued ins wtten form log ae It had cand tobe generally spoken. But the waten form of nguage really only secondary toitsspoken form, which developed fist. Chkren ean to speak before they lea fo wie, and whereas they letn to speak naturally, witout tition, from the lnguae they hear around them, they have fo be teu 16 Arte: Ht iyo covert hic speech tox written or secondary Form. Tower, waking performs an extremely important function in out fallure Gee Chptr 8) an inthis book we Bll Wey gemma ab Inechansm for producing both speck and writing. Therefore we can ‘modify our revots diagram as shown in Figure 1.2. WHAT GRAMOUAR 1S AND IS NOT. 5 Figue 1.2 Phonobay ‘Semantics ra ng tems 1.2. ‘Good’ and ‘bad? grammar "The terms good and bad do not apoy to grammar inthe way in which ‘We ate using that term in this book. If we Wew grammar asset of rales ‘whic deserve how we use language, the als themselves are pot good ‘rad, though they may be described adequately or inadequately ins ‘eserition of how the language Works. Linguists who write grammars are concerned with desribing how ‘the language ls ed rather than preserbing how i shouldbe used. So if itis common for people to Use sontenoes sich as Who di you give this, fo? hen te rls of a desrptiv gaammar must allow for this type of Senience nits ues, Thos concerned with prescription, however, might onder this to bean example of bad grammar’ and might sgest that ‘To whom did you gve this would be a better sentence. What is con- ‘dered better ot wort, however fofno concer toa descriptive ngs, fn writing a prommar that acsounts for the way people sctaly se language. If people re communicating efectively with language, then they tmst be following rales, even if those rules are not univesally tpproved. The role of the linguist i thus analogous to that ofthe {nthropoigit who, if asked to desc a yateuar culture's eting Tubts, would be expected to doso without exposing personal opinion fs to what they should be like, The later would be prescriptive ap- ‘roach. lee probably easier, howewer, o avo being prescriptive when eating with cultare other than our ow. Ax spears of oar native language we are bound to have feat or proscriptve notions about how, it soul! be usd. But we should beable to separate the expression of ‘our own opinions fom the activity of describing actual langue se ‘though the foo ofthis book i tobe on descriptive amma, we have to recognise the existence ofpreseriptve rls, uch a that which Says that one sould qoid ending sentence witha preposition. This "Tle wat broken in the example quoted abowe (Who did you gv his tot) because the pepoation #0 & place atthe end of the sentence, reserpine rues are leary not grammatical ues i the sme sense as Ascrpuive roles, so might be eppropriste to cll thr rules of gram- faved! eiquetes Then ove cau > Ul whut some people cll bad ‘rama fe akin to ad mannecs Le refers to something you might Iwan to avoid doing, onl to convey a good impreson ins particular6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY situation, Some people consider it bad manners to put one's eows on| the table wil eating and yet, fom a descriptive olnt of ew, oscars father often, Nevertheless, people who eat regularly at home with their ‘cows on the table might avoid doing it ata formal diner party, simply ‘cae t would not be appropriate behaviour in sucha wetting Sil there are oceasions when being on on theying ules whit one would nat normally obey “Fis ead us tothe point that, as woll a knowing the grammatical rules of language, Is speakers aso have to Know how to we the language appropriately, and this often Involves a choice between dif ferent opto oe diffrent LANGUAGE VARIETIES. 1.3. Variation in anguage 131 Introduction Ii-we were to take + dopmtily prescriptive approach to langue, we ‘nigh suger that tere was Just one, ‘omee™ form ofthe langage ‘which everyone should we, We might reognise that not everyone speaks the correct form of thelnguaz, but we would describe any ther orm simply wrong however, We are to take the descriptive approach explored in ths book, we eaanotdimiss some forms of language a incorrect: we have tobe prepaed to desrbe all ites of language. ‘A deseitve approach fecognises that there are many varieties of @ language auch ae English. We can eatily Americans as speaking ina “ferent way ftom Bitsh people, northerners fom southerners, Young ftom ol, middle cass people rom workinglas peopl, and men from twomen, So language wl vary according to crn characteristics of ts ‘USER. A wie’ speoch may well elect several ofthese characteristics simulianeously for example, young woman may wellspea diferent fiom botha young man and an oder Woman ‘So language cin vary fom user to user, depending onthe users ‘pecsonal characteristic, This 90 meant fo imply that each peron {peaks a uniform variety of languape which never changes, OF course ‘poech may change a personal characteristics change: as young person ‘Becomes olde, a northerner moves south, or socalcas: membership tGhnges asa result of edueaton, for example. In adition, «person's Speech wll ary according to th USE. at speechisput to. or example, the way you tact a filend wil be diferent from the way you alk 0 [Snoaager The wey you tall om the telephone wl be diferent om thn tray you tlk to somoone face to face, and you wil we yet anther ‘avy in wing alter. Your language wil als vary acording to what |WHATGRANBEAR If AND IS NOT 1 you are talking about, e. spor, pots or religion. The variation of Tinpuage eesoring to ite woe menns hat each wor has a Whole range of Tunguage varies which e or ah leans by experience, nd knows how to wse appropriately If you talked in the castoom as you would in the pub, you might be considered ilmannered (dis might be using "bad [zammar fom a preciptive point of vew),and if you addressed your fend as you would your teacher, you might be laughed Ws ow omer tion tng cord rand wt a sore deal 132 Variation according to wee Gharacteritin of the anguage ver which can effect language include the following! reponal oii, social class membership, age and sex. A ‘ful term fn connection with thew characteristics is DIALECT, This it ‘often ded to deserve rial ogi, asin, for example, Yorkshire ‘alot, Cockney (London) dislect, But canbe wsed to refer to any language vrety related tothe personal characteristics sted above. ‘REGIONAL ORIGIN, We ean often tll where a person coma rom by the way he or she speaks. Depending on how far we are withthe aety of a ven region, we may be able to identi, fr example, (Cockney, Yorkshire, Soous (Liverpool) or Geordie (Tyneside) speech, ‘We ean Hentfy speech on the bass of ts pronunciation, voabulry or grammar, For example, in Yorkshire daect, asin some other northern {Edtet he words pu and pur are pronounced slice becaute the vowel found inthe standard or southern pronuclation of words sich as ust, ‘hs, eup ete snot wed. The dict also has its own voeabulary, for trample, the use of che word happen to mean ‘perhaps Fnally,on the level of pramumar, Yorkshire dialect has were asthe ast tense ofthe ‘er De nalts forme, 30 that, for example, he were ishearé commonly Insead of he war, So dnc cn be eatifiod on the lees of promunc- ston, vocsbulary and rama. Voesbuliry end grammar are the mos base levee for describing dialect, since regional pronunciation, or ‘gional ACCENT, can be Used When Speaking standard English swell as when speaking a epional lect "A this plat i should be emphaabed that the term dilect does not imply an ioorect or deviant eof language: itis imply used to mean ‘valet of language determined by the characteris of usr Some tines, however the term may be ued to refer to vareisof the guage ‘which are not STANDARD. The standard language isin fact just another ‘arity or dalect, but ia Beltain i happens to be established os that ‘ety which generally wed by southern Beith, educated speakers ‘F the Langage, and in writing aod in ple usage suchas on radio and “elevision. Ir sometines known as BBC Empl or even ‘The Quen8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY English. Standard Engh ot inherently beter or snre‘pamaaticl? than non-standard English (all varieties ave grammatical in that they {follow ules, but it has prestige for soci athr than linguistic eatons. Its prestige i due tothe fat that it is ultimately based on the speech of educated peopl living inthe southeast of England, whee the in Dortant institutions of goverment and eduction became exsbliha. ‘Because standaré English sth best-Known variety of Engin Brita, ‘we chal ust for analy in Part B of thls book, SOCAL-CLASS MEMSERSHD. The extent {0 which we can identify socials dialects is controversial but te socal clas ofthe speaker foes seem to affect the variety ofthe anguape aod. In Brita there ‘an interesting relationship between socal slat and the we of tanard ‘and nonstandard spech in Ut the “higher” you are up the socal sae, the les lksly you ae to use nonatandand or regionally Aentifable ‘speech, This means that itis not usualy poasble to iSentify the eponal Dackgiound of, for example, an uppe-micdle-cas peaker educated at public schol. Tomake tls clearer, imagine that you tel rom Land's Ed to John O'Groats talking only io Factory workers and taperecoré- ing thei speech. Then, on th way back, you take tho same out, but ‘ecord only the speech of ‘profesional suchas doctors and teaches (On comparing the tapezecordngs you Would expect to find more ‘atiaton nthe speech of the workers that in tha ofthe profesionals ‘The speech of workers would contain higher proportion of features which ae not found in the standard lnguage, Several of these features ‘would be found in more than one aeafor example, done asthe past tense of dois found in both Liverpool and London among werking-as ‘speakers (who might say, for example, done as opposed tod i). "AGE. Lis is Known about tho effect of age on lanevage vation, ‘but there may be grammatical features which disingish ae dialect 0 some exten. For example, the question Do ye hive some money? ‘would be more likely tobe take by a younger speaker of Bish English (tis common for speakers of all ages in American English) thananolder speaker, a the latter would be more lel to say Have you (01 some ‘money? The way young people speak eof pate interes nay ‘be indcative ofthe dieetion in which she language i changing. SEX, Thete seem to be some ingusti dferencesscoording to the speakers sx, though litle i yet known about them, However ceria ‘rammatialfntures have been tzoclted more with wormen han with ‘nen, and it hasbeen found that women are more ely to use standard than men, Tt should by now be cer tat perl character of te language user can combine to affect the varetyof guage wd. The termcilet fas been vse for convenience to Scent the effete ofthese caacts- [WHAT ORAMOAR IS AND IS NOT 9 Inte, ati, for example, reponal det, socials der, ut thee ‘remot ray seprato ones. All he characters ntrat with one Soother, 20 that any individual wl speak a Tanguge vase) made up of features fom several lect, 133 Variation according to te {As was point out in 131, 00 user of language uses one uniform ‘arity of language. Language also varies acording othe se fo which Ite put, Wh he term ditc x convenient to refer to langue Yari- tion according tothe user, REGISTER canbe used 0 refer to vation {scordng to uke Gomer ao known as ‘tle’) Regier can be Suhdiided ino thee categories of language use, each of which affects the language vast. These ate: TENOR, MODE and DOMAWY "TENOR: This has todo with the relationship Between a speaker and the addesee(s) ina pres situation, and soften characterise by seater ‘or lesser formal. For example, «request to close the window might be Would you be so Kind as fo cbse he window? ina forma situation, compared with Shut the window, pews in an informal situation, Formality alo his the effect of producing speech which Is dose tothe ‘andard, For example, a witnesin court might be cael to say He ‘dn’ do, Your Honour, rather than neser done which might be ‘aid to Cockney speaking fends outa the courtroom. A speak has {okaow which sthe ght kind of nguage tows in which drcumetances, ‘ough sometimes the wrong choice may be made debberately, for humors or sarcastic effec. MODE. This ha o do with te effets ofthe melium in which the language is transite. Spoken language used in faetoface situations rakes use of many ‘nonsebal movements sich ay gestures and Tall ‘xpreeonsOnthe telephone, however, the sul chanel isnot rahe 50 that, fr example, Yes has to be substituted for headnodding. In ‘writing only the vil chanel is avalbleso that theofTet of ntonaton, ‘or tone of vic cannot be conveyed, except, in pat by graphic means such as exclnation- and questionsmarks. Witte language usually in- Wolves the additonal curated thatthe adreee, who 0 present, Cannot respond immediatly and this has an effect onthe language For ‘example, in letrs, dict questions tendo be less common than in onverstion, 2 that you might be more ely to write, for example, ‘Let me know vhether you are coming than Are you coming? Ths category of mode is particularly relrant forthe distinction between ‘writen and spokea language, and tis wil be iven further consideration in chapter. DOMAIN. This has to do with how language vases aconding to the ‘actty la which plays part. seminar about chemistry, for example,0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY wll invole a witer range of vocabulary, more technical terms and possibly longer entences than a convertion about the weather (ones by meteoroloits!). Siilry, the language of pal document wl be ferent fom that of an advertisement, and the language ofa rious Service wil be diferent from tht of newspaper eporting. We can ths {efer tothe domaine of chemistry law, religion, and soo ‘As with dnet variation, the categories of register variation ll affect lunguage simultaneously so that we cannot really identify dsrete reuters any more than discrete dialects Also, dialect and repister “arltion interac with exch other since both the dimensions of weer and ‘Ge are aways prevent “To summarise what has been sid in this selon (13), language varies scoring to both wer and use. Cetaln pesonal characteristics wl be reflected in te speech of given petion and that person wil als have sts o a range of varieties appropriate for various ws 1.4 English and other languages 144 What isa language? ‘So far we have shown that a langage such as English has many diferent ‘arses, which reult from a combination of factors. We have aso Shown that these varies ae aot separate entices, and tht although they ean be descubed onthe bas of linguistic Features they cannot be categorically dstinguisod from one another. ‘We have act questioned the assumption, however, that a language snade up of such varieties can be clea distinguished from all other [nnguage. Is true that we have separate labels for diferent languages, eg. Engh, French, Chinese, but the exstnce of labels should not Asie us ino believing that these are linguistically welldefined entities, (One ererion used to define a langage is MUTUAL INTELLIGIBILITY. AC coring to this, people who can understand each other speak the same language, whereas those who cannot do not. But thee are degrees of ‘comprehension, For example, southern Brith English speakers may ave difficulty understanding Geordlo, end American Engish speakers ‘may fad It vitally incomprehensible” Thee even les rutul itl bility In the roup of “dlects refered to os Chinese: speakers of Mandarin, for example, cannot understand Cantonese, though both use ‘the same writen language. On the other hand, n Sendinai, speakers of Norwegian, Dansh nd Swedsh can often understand one another, ‘ven though they speak what are called diferent lnguage. Scandinavia ‘were one political entity, then these languages might Be considered WHAT GRAMOKAR IS AND 1S NOT " lect of just one language. So the cxtesa for defining languages are ten politi and geographical rahor than tcl igus 1.42, Grammatieal rls in English and other Tee iangunge vary reed aba standard langage rather than dialect (sally fornomtingiste reasons), then it as more soci prestige. “This explain, for example, the nstenceof separatists in Catalonia that Catalan i language rather tat a dialect of Spanish, When language Variety dose not have socal prestige, ts grammatical rules are often ‘iematied This ere of the Yule of mutple negation in some English Aigcass or example. Tle rule allows sentences such as den se nothing (1 didn't se anythin), which would not occur inthe standard "The high prestige of the standard leads people to claim that mute negation is wrong because ie ogkal or miseading. However, we have ‘eve ead Freoch sedis complainabout multpeneptionin standard French which has Je ma re, containing tvo negative elements tnd rien, asa teanation ofthe Engl sentence. Moreover, Chaucer fad no lnbition about the mater when he wrote (in the Probgue to the Gaterbury Tale) Ho never yet no ieyaye ne sayde Inaihiriyf unto no mane wight (te never ye dat speak no dicourtesy In ali fe ono kind of penoa") Infact not content wth double negation, he ues four nepatvesinthese {wo tines? Malte negation was perfectly acepablein Chaucer's period. THis mportant for English speaker of whatever variety to ease that other languages or vate may follow diferent grammatical ues, We nnotastume tht othe languages or vretes wifi the famework tthe one we know wel, Thr Kind of mistake was made inthe past by asea scholars who teed to desibe Enlh i the framework of atin. For example, the prescriptive rae that I sgt and 8 me {s wiong comes from assuming tat the dsnction between and me Imus be the same ae the dneton made in Latin between ero and me. ‘Ths ules ota ll descriptive nce Jisme oscurs often In Enlsh. any of us fist become svar of the existence of gammatcal res siteon rom our own when we lear foreign language suchas French, German o Spanish, We find that, for example, the les of wor order in these languages are ifferent from English in French adc objet pronoun must precede the ver rather thaa foo 1.80, fr example, ce hom i ansutd a Je evs tray“ him se), In German the innit form of the verb must be placed at the end ofthe ventnce,2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY ‘2 that, for example, wilgo tomorow santo a Joh werdemorgon sehen ‘iterally“ wll tomorrow go) In Spanish subject pronoun or foun comes after a past participle in question rather tan before, >| that, for example, Have you forgotten the word? is transated as fle ‘olvidedo ated i polaba? (literal, “Have forgotten you the word?) "However, French, German and Spanish sl show considerable simaity to Engh in their grammatical rules, forall four languages belong 10 {he INDO-EUROPEAN group, and have been in cose cultural comtat. In all four, for example, you can form questions by changing the order of words inthe sentence. Ths isnot tive of all languages, however in Japenese, fr example nicht en Indo-Europea naga qucstons tue formed bythe adtion of particle (ka) atthe end ofthe sentence ‘So Suauksan waar meas" Saruktiplng vie Steuktson vw imase a? means Is Mes Suz going” ‘Thee examples have served to vtat tat we must avoid precon- ceptions about the form which grammatical rules wil take in a gven lnnguage or langage variety. Instead, we can find out what these ules axe by observing the way people speck or wate in different situations. ‘Once we have done this, we can return a this Book doesn Chapter 11) {o questions of prescriptive use. 1.5 Grammar and effective communication ‘The maln function of language so communicate with other people. We said in section | 2 hat thre was o such thingas ood!” or bad grammar 1 is legitimate, however, to distinguish between good and bad com- ‘munication. In her wards, language should not be etlusted according to wat typeof grammatical rules i follows, but aconding to wheter 1 conveys its mesage effecvely. Is quite posible, for exazple, to speak oF wit according to the grammatical rules of sandard English, fd yet to produce langage which unclear or dificult ofolow. This Can be described asad syle’ and the folowing examples fom witen English usrate the point (1). Tris ies pote that aa that frend of mine knows pints (2) _Taaw stina book tata former teacher of mine thought of mone @ by cannot dink cold milk thou be bole. @ ‘ano belonging to 2 lady going abroad with an oak case and cared les. (5) The prov of what contribution the public should make to the swimming poo arose (6) Shetan given theo in London vp WHAT GRABBAR IS ANDIS NOT 8 ts interesing to consider why certain sentences are fet tobe ls ue {sly constructed than other In (1) sod (2) he sentences ate pt together ina may which makes them diffical to unmveland understand. For example, in (1) who painted the peture-the gor the ind? Most ‘people wil have fo regead the sentence in order to puzzle out exactly ‘that i's saying ln @) abd (4 to construction ofeach sentence leads {oan ambiguty: what the Welter intended to sty isnot cles sto. ‘This docs not neces imply that che reader cannot workout the {tended meaning. You ae ullksy, for instance, to imagine tha the Tay rather than the mak to be Boded in (3). But you amie at this nck tn spite of grammar rather than eons ff The grammar fpeumits «second meaning, which Ike an ftersmage lurks distracting [the background. In (S) and (6) he dial i that there seems tobe 2 lack of blanc, atophetine in the construction of exch sentence. {To solve this diffialty, one sould change the order of the words 5 fellows (5) The problem arose of what contiution the publi should make fo the swimming Poo (6a) Shea given up the Job in London [At this stage we shal not attempt to explain exact what the matter wrth (I) tis enough to mote that these ae Just three types of dt Fealy do forming sd sterpeting grammatical sentences, ‘Since using anpuage i 4 sil ts ineitable that some people are mote ake inthis espect than other. Thar sno nee to ink from ‘ralaton ofthis il” for example, saying that one writer asa beter ‘ipl of writing than srothe. Is etl fortis purpose, tobe aware ithe grammutclrexources ofthe language, andthe various possibilities thigh may be open tothe wser who wants to make effective use of the EEnguage Ia thi way we gan consis contol ovr the skal of using Tnnguape, This one ofthe rain reasons for learning about pram, ad weal tues to tn Chapter 12 1.6 Grammar in prose style [At the other extzema fom sentences (1)-(6 te the products of itera imasters of pose style, In Iteratre, the resources of the language, cluding grammar, ueed not only for efficent communication of Hens, but for effective comrnunication tna broudersese:communicat- fig an nterpeting people's xpeconce of Me, india an collective ‘This means ting language in special ways, 2 canbe iustated, on ial sale, by oven a short sentence like the flowing“ ENGLISH GRAMMAR FORTODAY (7) To tive ke to love~ all reason Is aglat i, and all healthy inte frit (Gere Butler, NoteBooks) ‘The éifcaty of making ease of (7) s quite different from that of ‘aking tense of (1) and (2). An wouual sentiment is exprased ia ftrikng and unevl wey. This typical of rary expression, rd means that mich meaning s condensed ito few words, Let us bie con ‘der how grammar contabates 0 the effect, parieulsely through ‘paraletion: the matching of one conseutio wih anther, sma one igre 13 ca sul representation o this paral Figure 1.3 wie] lke «| ove all esion ‘Albay instinct is is insti forit As the diagram shows, sentence (7) i cleverly constructed 90 a8 to bring ovt to parlelisns. The fit is one of nlarty (2 Be.0 love) an the sesond sone of contrast (al reason. all heathy insti). ‘The paallms are expremed by symmetry in the actual choice and combination of words, 0 that almom every word inthe wntence is ‘alancod sgncandy against another word. Even the sound of words hslps to undetine these relationships: the analogy between te and ve 4 emphaased by simlar promuncstion, andthe word like, which “radiate betwee the wo, esmbles the forme in appearance and the biter in meaning. Sentences exit primarily ine ather han ingpace,andso the order in which words ocour i portant for Lterary effect. Suppose (7) had read ike tis (7a) To ei ike to Lore ll heathy instincts fort and all reason sensi ‘The remalt woul hae bee to sess Yeason'at the expense of stn — most as i the write were iaviting us all to coms suede, Thi is |WHATGRAOIAR IS AND ISNOT 5 ‘because thar sa general principle (oe 12.23) tat the most newsworthy fd important Information in sentence tends tobe saved tothe end Sentence (7), a Butler writs i sop rather than pessimistic for he plas natin in fumpbaat postion atthe end, adding the ‘word eal for further optimile emphasis The fist par of 7) po- Vides a further example ofthe saiieance of ordering. Let us iapine {hat Butler had weiten To love i lke fo ie. In that as he would be comparing loving with ving’ rather than vce vera As itstands (7) In effex says: "You know about love being the teumph of heathy {instinct over feton, don't you" Now Tm telling you that be el is [ike that? That tho stance Bogine with what we may all shared {eneal knowledge (the traditional conception of love defyiag reason), Sd extends thie wellknown ds to new sphere rather, generaies itt the whole of ie Soi Buller had water "To love js like tole, the whole effect would have been altered, to the baflement of the reader, “Tis extremely simple example shows how much the way we con- strut sentence - the way we put the parts together ~ an conte {o the effect makes on a reader of listener. If we want to understand the wrtues of god writing, whether a studenisof erature, or aswriters ‘urseles, we heed to undertand something the grammatical resources ‘ofthe language, andthe ways in which they may Be exploited, 1.7 Grammar in poetry “The same appli o poetry Poetry and grammar seem tobe poesapat ~ the one mggestve of “he spark o” Nature's fre the other ofthe cold tye of analy. Buta poet Would be fools to procaim Tam above ‘gama fori isby parmaticalehoie that many of the speci mean lage of poetry are schievod. Often these effects show "poeticlience~ ‘the poet's acknowledged prilge of deviation from the rulesor conven tone of everyday Iaguago. Without the rules, of ours, the poet's {ovation from the rules would lav its communicative forge The fllow- Ing short poem, on a nun’ taking the ve, shows some ofthe charactet- fis (In adliion fo thos of mete and thyme) which we may expet {0 find in the language of poe @ Heaven-Haven bre desied to 0 ‘Toads where fes no sharp snd ded hal “And a few les Dow6 ENGLISH ORAMMAR FOR TODAY And have sted to be Where no storms come, Where th green swell iin he havens dom ‘Aad ot ofthe swing of the wa (Gera Maniey Hopi) [Asin (7), but more obviously, word stko up special relationships wth fone antes because of similis of sound snd meaning, and also be ‘ose of slates of grammatical structure. The fst tendency is best ‘itated by the pan i thee, Haling the Words heaven and haven ‘The second tendency i evident in the marked paral of the two stanza, az shown in hi elton esto Ga) hae —edto- And Lhave _edto— ‘Where ‘Where ‘To fields whee Where ed ‘had ‘We could study, further, the unEngish grammar ofthe second ine (Were springs not farther thn Where springs do not fai) the inversion of the normal order of wes inthe thi line (To ll where sno sharp (and sided hay and the postponement of the adjective dumb othe end ‘of the seventh Hine, Sich unusual Testures of prammar contribute toa ‘range disoiation of words fom tet expected contexts that simple nd ocdinary words ike sprigs, les, bow, sl! and sing seem 10 [Main sbpovmal Tore. Ir enovgh hore to point out that the poet's vty in language voles both extra feedom (including freedom to Aepart from the rues of grammar), and extra discipline (te discipline tnhich comes withthe superposition of special structures on language) ‘We shal later (Chaper 10) explore the applization of grammar to the stady of tert, trough specimen anal, 1.8 Conclusion In this chapter we have almed to provide a backcioth forthe study of| English grammar, We ben with a attempt to ‘iemythologe the sub- ject that to dispel rome mlconceptons about grmmas which hae ‘oan prevalent in the pas, ad stl have influence today. "We showed how the notlon of grammar mus alow for variation in language, and that We cannot prescribe the form which grammatical ‘les wi take, We thu ejected the possi of evalusting grammar eal, but went on to show bow language canbe ued fr mote ores ‘effective communication. In Patt Cf this book we wl return to some Of the points which weave managed totals only briefly and simply \WHAT GRAMOHAR I$ AND IS NOT " so far, and we will abo dusete the practical benefits of studying {Pammitforundertanding out language and wing it mor effectively. Part B, whic folows, ims to make you avare of your knowledge ‘of how sandard Enplsh i stroctred. We tall be intoducing gram- ‘tial texniology nd techlgues of anayss that wil enable you to Alesrbe this stroetre Part of understanding grammar i learning how {oo I, so we would urge you fo work through the exercise i each ‘haptr in oder to apply your new knowledge, Exercises vere Lt ‘True fase questionnaire (ots your understanding of the chaptes) ‘The following statements shoal be beled tue or as: (aenerson 7199) 1. Thestudy of grasumar must include the stay of Latin. 3. Grammar canbe ten aes set of rules Walch we follow when we tr teagan. 3, We an follow the grammatcalales of ouraatve langage without Bi owing them comeioul. "The tndy of grammar wi improve your spelling. Grammar ony deals with the ody of wing, because orginally heat wt’ in Grek 6. Chilren ave tobe propely tutored in ther language if they are {lear to speak grammatically. +7, Stuiying grummar voles eraing how people thou speak I sinaowect to end amntence with prepostion 5, Americas English sens grammatical han Brith Engi (0, ‘The way we speak depends, among other things om 8 personal Sharcteais 11, The way We speak to frends is Sentcl tothe way we sesk to 12, Duar inferior to the standard ngaag 13, Pactory workers inthe nor and south of Bala difer more in fir epecc tha Jo doctors 14, The term TENOR reer the pitchef your voiceina given situation, 1S, Whatever you can some inspeech, you canalio convey n wet, 16, Medsie could be comsered a lanztge domain [illanguage follow the sane grammatical rls 1a, AURtEneE nck ic to oncertaod mst be ungrammate 19, The ue of language in erature ithe sme as in convertion, 30, Poets icene in offic permstion to write post.8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY arcse 1 (answers om p199) Qusifiaton of ttences Sttof the folowing sentences have something “wr {fo wook out whether each 'A--ungrammatcel in he snse that it doee aot fllowa ule observable i he lnguags beharour of native speakers of English; 1B “bad etiquette’ from the point of view of prescriptive grammar Geter with them, Ty (© “bad tye" inthe sense tht i doesnot communlsateefecurey 1, Team recommend this candidate for the post for whch he apes ‘vith complete confidence. 2, Taint going nowhere tonight, 3. We'need more comrenersve schools 4, Tovar ornot to was, that be te ask, $1 Thetelines he dene fens deep down things. & How ase yous it han long ine that we don't hve heared from 1 8 5 0. youreain "given the prevent that ad Boosh in the shop in which I Fan met the mato whose house weat yesterday. Him and me ar going othe beach today. ep sl bpd hh ne tn te ae Wt "Ta othe sort of Enaish up with which 1 wil ot pat Exess 1 ansers nd sures on p.200) dentin categories of ruse ua (set 133) ewify the categories of language st in test saps of angus, 8 follows “Tenor formal or iformal Mode spoken or watt, Domin sdvertsing,ouralsm, or eligion ‘Beomple After reading this, other central heating ystems wont 10K fonot. Tenor: informal, Mode: welten; Domain: advertising, 1. The Senate yesterday announced the creation of» nineman com Tutt tovenizate th relationship between Bily” Carter 3d Colonel Qadsatts goverment in Libye. 2, Pine and glory and wislom, thaakapving and honour, rower and iit, beto ou God forever aad eve! Amen [WHAT GRAMDIAR I§ AND 1S NOT 9 Anywhere return stil ont SOP. Contour ing looks sper, it fee mares "what's likely ¢o happen now? Well the Fepert hasbeen vent co {he Director of Public Proseation, new of er certain eden,PART B ANALYSIS2 Sentences and their parts (Grammar ca be bsiely described a6 a set of rules fr constructing and for analysing sentences, The proves of analysing sentences into th puts o” CONSTITUENTS isn as PARSING. In thisand the next ie ‘faplers we shall gradually bud up a simplified technique for parsing English vontences, It parsing sem at first a neptive proces of taking things to ples, remember that by taking a machine to pices one learns how it works, Analy and eyntheiae two aspects ofthe sae process ‘ofunderstanding, Thschapter introduces the main concepts of param, svith examples. you find parts of aia, cw be a comfort to Tinow that all he Sascations of Chapter 2 wl be dealt with in more ‘et ater on 2.1 Prologue: parts of speech 241 Atos First, hore i a shor text which may be sten as avery easy general “knowledge test about English prrnmar. Its purpose is simply to start, you thinking on the ight lines n some cases, no doubt, this wil mean Femembering what yt learned may years ago, and hae rarely thought shout since, Gta sentences (1)-(4) make alt, in four columns, of the ital ‘hed morés which ae ()) nouns, (i) verb, (i) adjecties, and Go advebs: (1) New cars are very expensive nowadey (2) Tunderstand that even Dacula hates werewobves. (@)_Lhave wom more rounds of go tha you have hd hot dimer. {3 Mother Hustard went tothe cupboard, Long viny for food fonbe ber dos (©) Now tnt you ave ade thet, my why you afd the word as you di, Ths wil sguie some Kind of definition of what « ‘ou ave, am adjective ran adverb 23Pa ENGLISH ORAMMAR FOR TODAY fyou remember about traditional word chasse, or PARTS OF SPEECH as they ae called, your Its wil be something ike the following: ca, Dracus, werewobes, rounds, golf, diners, food and dog ate nouns, are understand, hates, won, ha went, loking and ge ate verbs; new, expensive and hora adjectives; ner, nowadays an snl ae ade, Je wer to exp your it, you may have ud friar defitons © ‘Armoun ia naming word: it eer to a thing peron, substance, (‘A veri doing word: it refers tn am aeton* (Gi) sAn adjective isa word which describes or qualifies 2 noun.” (is) ‘An adver 2 word which desrbes or qualifies other types of ‘words, such a vebs adjectives and adverbs" Tig a ety sat ein in ef mn i Sh deine stl Saupe pc ee Ss ettrg our gunnar bt es ate (y ‘ot ape te Shaya me ee oral nt cb es nam ut oct 1 ec Bo efoto aa Opa he lee Po ae me Thiet Gut ay edt door oars ‘Rie wen he weld se sting so tet rahe eo ar ina sro eee al gf chasm ance Ara sonra dens Ohta eae te ia ocean of hse pt mn a a aed one Nos Say win wn ln ste Socpon way to pov boa ont p elon eta ae ‘nina Noa te Soa te ew var srw eels a et Sure sand ce hoes ee on We Tee mon my eter Son anne Bec gy Be dean ae eat na ee feo, An wit Tho ova our tt ere Sie i eS tae Se a ond pode tara att hohe a etme pr opt hn Dennen ane f Basel hed Secchi py one eet Ne Daan nes er eT e Ra sel al t ‘Bang ka sh ree "a ‘Son hotse enticed fe ae et SENTENCES AND THEIR PARTS 2s 4 bout many ABSTRACT NOUNS wh ke rd, ated in ole ev ab'oc an aja reduereacion wee; nee! {Pease kines doerntdernc; ool te: abhernocky? Fe a crehron meaniog in defining word clases, The Soe cae, iy oben we aoe (many hae noted bet) Fa de oem ach Lew Cros Jabbersoaty we ant a ae mnmne words ven thogh te J not know rang: asi, an he sity toes hd gov and sinble inthe wate: ’Amimey were the Bororoves, ‘And the mone rath outgsabe know fo tne, hat fre and Borogve ae nous tha 2, Mende tet ata sy and mina edhe. eas we know? Cartan ot on atount of sing! Rat, Petey ak wor on thet ottoman ts pstion Bove NSS GeEIuT eas nie volar pra ein of ou) Set oe Si sie Dt om een 1 ot Chou ut) at wea 24 mee ence would mit he comps The a ony pasta seehloh ut ty tow the kind of ites a grata. San oft pad wh boak on Banat as © sage Ta show a sae sl ot pray pe Sion meaning, 13. Te fn Soman of pant ee Re Laattten tot oman delons ae fe and ae slo di To a si ya le eta ga wet anced etiam oe Ree re sate un, bn dg ma, We ie anon ht a nnn he at ie Tae of ris wd me cae ee ee an te cj wt a oe thy ac meg ‘oe a scene seach ne amt le canon ear Sa a tir ipo he, Say asin ot ad gi paws robs2% [BNGLISHGRANOLAR FOR TODAY type, hres cages docks nd penguins ae in meres dees ie! The mine cote of caters wit acy sige ees ‘Sum Jute chase casts oho tale fon ds ale “dy tan ors, 0 soe num atten? = othe and ome verb et wey ‘than others. The typical, or ope, hou a the wich eto pepe sia {5 te Ingen, nelly to manber smote the he ate his iden ian Te aot poms with te st os ‘ut ungae aswel, Stary, hey wean wae though th mast common ve fae enolase iat folios, then, esl fie when dee penal soto te words ach yp enrlyraetae e nae Ta ot weaous t's 2 wlio of he ey Sound mal aor, oul ee nin is concept of fue” ear apes nau cing bat sto to formal specs of ceftion. Fa anes pp oasis Dalin-sands peal vb hsp tne in bah aca Gh havea pul may (og ven, fhe whieh hve al 3. suman hr as We wh a ge a tte, Gina nt ede palo matenatal sen, bt Bas smh in common wt bloga yer ett ivlesoaaring Gitetaand bas fry wg Te ie ty af guns poste the docile pltypan Thin means ates nat siva Signy ce of eso i reenet about wha hte bet aias eta etn ee ‘Exercise 2a] ot pea 22. The hierarchy of units ‘The SENTENCE isthe largest unt of language that we shal be concerned ih ere sentence conponed of nar ut, CLAUSES, PASS GRAMMATICAL UNITS OF ENGLISH syMBOL, Sentence + Cause so B Word h For convenience in parg, we ge each grammatical category we ne trodue shorthand symbol, The symbols nd abbrevtons aed nts ‘book ae sted om pape 3, SENTENCES AND THEIR PARTS a “The wnits SENTENCE and WORD need tl introduction as they ae fuiy dearly repeonted in ove wsting system. In general we shall enti them acsording tothe usual convention: that ‘be denied by an ntl capital letter anda final fllstop (or question. ‘attr exclamation, and a word wil be delimited, for most pur pws, by = space (or punctuation mark ther than a hyphen oF apo pte) on en e 72S the ipl unio which sentences ae compo. A scotence may const of one or mare causes, For example: (5) tack Syrak wul eat 2 ft ‘This, standing on its owa, is a sntence. Bt (5) can also occur as part of larger une (©) Usok Spat cout et no fat), ahs wife could eat n ea, (5) Brey eld knows (tht Jack Spret could ext o fa Here (6) and (7) ar sentence, but the parts of them in quae rackets gnats are uns intermediate between clase and word. Th comin of nlve words, but these words are grouped ito four phases: (8) (By Uncle Olaf vas munching) (ls peach) (with lsh), 0 creas meat teres aaa ae aca me aaa ate aaa cermrmere as eens Se ate ‘Aclause consist of one or more phrases ‘Aphmse consist of one or more words Lower # Avo ; tant wo otc that we ee sg i’ 2d ow int Tella! wu wees that wit ofthe ight const ag ‘A sentence const of one or mare claies 1 put soe that thos comention a aot aves flow Iwan 1 Ie Wi ded we era? Hota a Hee Wh You a toa ee ee he al th daar wl cao 09 Srpunl'ns out €1, we sow sia a ree ate Sando eae ware me olay on, RESIST Soto desta ete inne wd8 ENGLISH ORAMBAR FOR TODAY of one or more of the units of the next lower rank, Soa seatenes cas ‘Sesto ony oe cane center lt Sr SENTENCES) se ‘only one word. Compare sentence (8) with (6) {(OtaN (munch) (peaches) (contented) The whole of hs etence ia sgl clases by the square ‘rackets and each word ao comnis «pat Gn toed aca For hat iatter, a wel ten an cont single wud: Shon sentence consining fone ane cosine Pras cos, ‘A ft lactis concept fren may sem ane but the foow- ing analog may belp fo cay Er nother human setety at ting, bt exting te cold op an ale of our any maa, court ping mouthf Amel my cont of one or more ne urea cour may soa of oor mre tan one Sling as tclping may const of one or moe than one moutful Sock sak ssl adaptable enough to azount for wile wrt of human stag ‘avon aa tom aserensnure tanga ich ony ase ee ‘ison heiingy oa re snack whe, Italy someone haste {0 et Smythe rank sae of gama scout for awe oops of ngage beheour.Obvouty, the rank of nt not eceay feet eof anos an, ees ens of oly for Words wheres he aun qarernces tC), wih of omer a, con smn seen werd 23° Grammatical notations For both daity and brevity, it i estentlto ave away of represent ing grammatical structure on paper. la fact, it is wslul to have two «ferent graphic notations: bracketing and se dingrems, 23.1 Bracketing Wiohave already usd a simple wet of BRACKETING conventions (©) Sentences ae marked with an tcp ter andl al (©) Cates are enclosed in square brackets: []. (o) Phrases are enciowed in ound brackets: (), (© Words ae separetd by spaces (6) IE we need to separate the grammatical components of words, we conse dash: SENTENCES AND THEIR PARTS » So in (@)-(L1) we have as complete patsng as can be managed at resent (©) (Our land-Iady) (keep) (a sttt—ed moot) (in er atti] (10) [(Uncle Oia) seage—iy) (vous) (isnt peach). (11 tetey) Coe plying) (Assnad (tome) (next wee] ‘Novice that ein They're playing (11) belongs with plying rather than with Tey, To se thi, we expand "eto are, whlch early belongs 0 the verb pase are playing. igrams {Tae bacetingy of ©)-(11) ae easy to use but they do mot ve ery ‘Sear visa petre ofthe elation between constituents. Por this, when ive ant fo, we can replace the brackets by a TREE DIAGRAM (32 Pipe 2.1, vewe2s : ® t a r4 Wo Wo Wo Wo Wo Wo WoWo Wo Wo fee eee] (Gucland—lady) (Keeps) (@ stuff—e moose) (inher ate) symbol Cl ete which we nodule ae he we as anus Tor rds de te, tur al os of he sae ak Gt ‘fon on fet od) ype these lov he Bach amie ne eps tn of wot for sel, SEERA cor te dupam mane Toe pn Our indy ont wo words te Ouran ens ‘The conventions of bracketing and diagramming sould be our sve and no our masters we shuld oe them only to show Whats pertinent for our purpose. For sxampl, ifs sentence contains a single clause it ‘soften unnecessary to show the dause lee, and its often unnecessary30 _ENGLISHGRAMBIAR FOR TODAY to label the words. The tre shown ln Figure 22, which may be called fn ABBREVIATED tre diagam, show some simplifications, Figure 22 Se sefct Uncle Olaf samgely devoured. is sth peach Wo We may een want o snp hag een furs, an pods an [UNLABELLED tree diagram (see Figure 2.3), ir Figure 23 Se ‘They “e plying Arenal at home next week ‘Thus we can we the notations lexbly,to show whatever information| ‘we consider important. But it aso important tobe abe odo com: plete parsing when necessary, and for this, we ned tobe abl Yo raw a FULLY LABELLED tee diagiam, suc as Figue 2.1, where every con stunt labaled. [Now try Exeris 2.) 24 Using tests in bracketing and drawing te dagrme we fav toot fr pari ‘cil ene a mo dar at we cata {athe pueture of sentence macly by pase Sserigi weneed ‘to investigate actively the relations between it 8 by using various GRAMMATICAL TESTS, eee 242 ei ong (11) we exo re nto, ad 0 made tear tht eae epante ve blaping tte a pleat SENTENCES AND THEIR ARTS 3 with They, We can sso expand a word by adding ater words 910 {how tha ihe word isacting aes phrase. For example, eachof the words fof Ge) canbe expanded ito a word group" (2) [ (Olaf) (munchea) (peaches) (contented) } (88) {conte Ota) (has munehed) (A peaches) (ery contetell)]- Such additions, although they ad something to the meaing, do not ‘hangs the relation bse the prs of the sentence. Hence theround ‘rackets in (8) correctly show (Ol), (munched), et, 8 phrases, ke the phrases of 8). 242. Substttion tests Sometimes, een though we canpot use an expansion text, by sbstitt- figs word sequence for a word We can se thatthe word actly behaving asa pre, For nstanc, in (01) we marked They ané Arsenal se pais: (it0) (They) ate paying) (Arsenal) (at home (next wee) [And to help show that ths analysis scorect, we can replace cach of| ‘hos constituents by a Mord group having the same Function, anda sar meaning (118) (Thee team are playing) (our team) (at home) (nent weak)! 243. Sobuaction tests ‘Tie opposte of an expansion test a subtraction test, i. omitting Tome part ofa construction, In Jabberwocky in 21.2, tone inthe {ly foves was secogised. at « coun, and this in pat was because {ation tells ws tht fore (athout the -s) would als be grammatical Equally (10), we marked the ed asa separate grammatieal sfx of ‘rou edad this partly jostied by the fact that the remaining ‘Sart of the word, devours el capable of standing alone a soparate word, 244. Movement tests {in (10), Unte Ole sragey devoured his sth peach we ete sary {aerate pr ther tana prt of pe sagt dvr, habs man becuse sorely can be moved ceewhore inthe case, + onthe we of he ple foowng am 3:21.94, mn 115, 9.172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY ‘without noticeably changing is meaning or function inthe clase, and ‘without dragging devoured with tt (4100) {Saragey) (Uncle Ota (devoured) (i sath peach). ‘Thae tests wil be refined as we go, and at the moment must be used pith caution. Also bear in mind that, because grammatical eaeporet ave fuzzy edge, one testis ruely enough: we often have to tly on {A mumber of diferent tet in desing which analy isthe covtest or best one, Nevertheless, thetstsare already uefa and thiss parila ident in recogisig types of pase. Each phate dss has Keyword? spss csoeml 1, a whieh provides it with sme. For example, {5 (12) the ‘keywords’ of the phrses are follows: a oo adjetve adres Anat Gin) (hs sehed) ther samy). Gust rected) own verb sijectve adeeb phase phane ine Phrase ‘And we can se that these words are esentil othe structure, ia that if se reduce the sentence to a minimum by subtraction or ubattion, ‘we end up with them lone (128) {CGinays (soomed) (grumpy) (recent IE we want to indicate which constituents ae optional, we can place ‘them in erly backs asia (128) (120) [((Aunt} Glad (Qas) seemed (ate) grumpy) Guat recent) (Now try Bxercte 20) 2.8 Formand function ‘This brings us to the general qutstion oF how to easy grammatical nits, To explain how sentences are constructed, it so! enough ‘entity consituets such a clases, phrases and words; we ts oad to Mentiy thes as belonging to various classes, 251. fom ass ‘se hve en wd edie ino word cae so 0, Se Gn A nts phn (NP ver pre (VP deve pas IAD) sed rs (io gene prot (OP and pid pie ae SENTENCES AND THEIR PARTS 3 hepa ead worl casita 032,445) Forthe moment, rte hat on eon why we ne 0 ety ich ‘as to xpi he orden whlch lena th tense cat ital aad to pth eo @) ito ay oe 2) (Orla (ae ast mooi) Un be a), (G0) Stocco (ested soon) urna her st) {52} “Nae moom) en in er ot (ur wa) Nor would itt pt the worn any oer nr within he ae: (20) [Landay 0 (ee ae moon) (a ati) Te tse dram shown i Fg 24, aap fom wntenc (1), Sows how the exon inaraton soa he nd wor casa be InGide, by wing last LABELS Figure 24 a seat eo ll Hits P x a a ' it ‘Aunt Gladys seemed rather grumpy just resontly _Aenatively, we can show the se deta by LABELLED BRACKET. nc cg te Cabelas asp ere each worded openig ret (120) cl Geto uCidpp vetvseme) Caves aeomy) Sita ce Grammar ose wich odes ae permite. For exam, the Ser VP NBNP AvP in) ssormaly waa n Ens 2.52 Funston cams: clement ofthe came ‘aies suchas NP, VP, and AJP ae called FORM CLASSES because the ‘lasifleation of phrases in thls way depends on bow the uni is com * anssai *) beforeasestence mas it a deg ewrannetl4 -ENGLIST GRAMMAR FOR TODAY posed of smaller units, or on how it form can vary. But I also ocesary to clay unt Into FUNCTION CLASSES: tat lo casy| ‘hem according to how they ae used to form larger uns A uni’ funtion eis determine sich things a what positions it can, and ‘whether iis optionl "The noed for Function lane illustrated by another version of () (20) (Our landlady (keeps (a stued moos) inher ati). (0) (Ua stated moose) Cheops) (our landlady) (a hee ate] ‘The sequence of phrases isthe same in Both Sa) and (9): NP VP NP PP. But the relationship between phar inthe clauses quite diferent, and this is reflected inthe very siffreat meaning of @). In walional terms, our landlady in (9) the SUBHECT (S)of the aud astuffd ‘moose Is the OBIECT (0). In (Ge) these functions ae revered, 0 that a ‘Stuffed moose is the sbjec, and our land is te object. We all ‘se thes ditional teens, but we sal also combine thm wid less ‘unitiona, but useful tem fr the verbal element: we shal el keeps ‘in both sentences the FREDICATOR (P). To exemply the concept of ancion, we sal init ou attention at this point othe thre elements, ‘5,0 anid P, leaving til $1 the fuer treatment of suse Tunctions, ‘cludig dhose of units such as on she ari. We us the term ELEMENT for funtion cases such 465, O and P. These thes elements can be di- tinguished as follows 4, Ps the only element ofa clause whichis verb phrase, and so there iste difficulty in identifying it. 2, Stypelly comes before F, whereas 0 typically comes after P. 3. S typially denotes the ctor of the action represented by P, ‘whereas O typically denotes the ‘sufferer ofthe action 4, Smust normally be present (ina main declarative ls), whereas Osoften omitted ‘Uslog thie starting-point, we can Went the fonctions ofthe phrases in (13)-(17), Noi by the way, another pce oF notation - we mark the function cis of unit bya asd ial ter immediately in rot of| (23) Sete) work. (18) (84 big sed apple) P(g nave fallen). (15) (any gentlemen) * preter) (tondes) (16) (Qty aun) "ides) %a yellow tieyele)] (17) PEveryone) “wil enioy) (Uncle Olas fonera). * en weting neta bel, wun efor Pete SENTENCES AND THEIR PARTS 35 253. Function clases ements ofthe phrase ‘To finish this rit survey of gamanatical clases, let us tke a look at ‘the fonction of words in phrases. We sal identi two function ses: HEAD {H) and MODIFIER (M, Ia the examples shown in Table 2.1, (Covgh thie rot always the eas) modifiers come before the head Tebe2 ‘woowwas on) | _HEAD CN con par Bor by ad any | bicycle thatstange | esting both isch eldeay spinster | gretaunts ihe Headeven explo" iblebaisees | toupte ‘etve phase (AP ‘ewant acraileiniahdl snore | Seta rmuch much | happier ‘xtemely | marow “aver phrase (ANP) ow 7 too | Sowiy very very | often In general, the head i the word which cannot be omitted from the piuase, whereas modifier are optional. Ths applies to NP, AJP and [AvP in veto phases, however, the relation between the constituents is Aitfcent ftom thi, ad Instead ofthe terms modifier and ead, we we the terns AUKILIARY Yb and MAB ver (ste Table 22). ‘Table22 auxuanis au) — | yatta) Ver pirae WP eee mute | working may navebeen_| broken36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY Preposiiona phrases, on the other hand ar essentially noun phrases S99 wth am inal rpotn() haf on unr Ge Tale ‘Tabie23 P| MODIFIERS (wy | HEAD GH) reposional pine PF) | im ry ot strong convictions We an now reprsta sentence (12) a tee diagram, this time using FUNCTION LABELS instead of FORM LABELS Tor each nods (ee Figure 23). (Here two futher finetion cls, C = complement and a = veil ave tobe used ~ se 3.23 and 3.24) Figwe 25 a seat 3 P ¢ 4. Ph ete. EEE EEE tot ‘Aunt Gladys has seemed cather grumpy just recently MOH de eo M oH MH Wo Hl t Alternatively, we can represent the same sentence as s bracketing with funtion abel: (122) (80 aune Hotays) (A ns Memes) Prather ramey) A (Mine races) (Now try Bercses 24 and 20] 26 Summary Jn this chaptor we hav atrodoed ina preliminary way: (2) Arak seal consisting of four units: sentence (Se), claus (2), ‘phrase (PA, and word (Wo), SENTENCES AND THEIR PARTS ” (©) Form lases of word: noun (), verb (V), active (A), adver (AV) and preposition (p) (©) Form ches of phate: noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), jective phrse (AJP), adver pase (AVP, genitive phase (GP) fot prepsional prabe PP) (©) Function ares within the phrase: modifier (20 and head (2); sna verb (aux) and main verb (8D). (©) Function clases within the clase: subject (9, object (0), pre- Aleator (P) (wo farther elements, complement (C) snd aerial G.willbe considered late). (©, Theollowiag conventions for brackets: (round brackets enclose a phrase [square brackes enclose a ase (0) easy brackets endose an optional constituent Exercises Bere 2a Te ie a significant point about nonsense words, such as those in Jebberwosky, thst we can put these words Yo WoIK in new sentences ‘which we know tobe grammatical, For example 1. Atos minair than a ath, but a borogove is mimset of al, 2 Dtyou'se tha thy tove gibling and outgibing? But the folowing, for example, snot grammatical: 3," Tmomed ath mina. ‘Think up five new examples of (a) sentences which ae grammatical And of (6) sentences whlch are ungrarnmatia, sig Caz nonsense ‘words Dac the eons for the alferences between a) and (0). As, See how many grammatical frmsof the same word (eg mimsy/minsier} ‘mimsist) you ca in xercie 2 (anwereon p.200) aw tee dlagrams lke Figure 21 (9.28) forthe folowing entences 1. [Those stadents) (have made) (an interesting discovery] 2, [Without doubt (tepay) (has been) (tremendously success). [Now reduce these diagrams o (a abbreviated tee diagrams, and (9) un- ‘Gagrams Last, tendate the tree dlgams shown i snd Zab ovr lato bracketed sentenes ie 1 and38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY igure 2.60 a career ae olay of wee hang ly te wo Figure 2.60 a en ti \ ‘the ales fave sted Hs pkys without merey xecie 26 Prere Menon and substitution (24.1-242), convert ¢heone-wond ite phe following sentences into una of two or more words Paras own vocabulary, abd make minimal changes tothe eaten sit stand) 1. {(Foniht) (we (eave) (London) 2, [Somes (abe) ook) (youn) ‘Now, wsingeubracion and bation (24.3 Pie following sentences fo one-vord phases, Shot of fst fu words (YOU ay We PB ‘hey ersten: ny [eras paintings im the Dos! Palace) (are considered) (without out Gs retest masterpieces 4 {ert sor mat) Cnty rw Cm oon eer sted) xercne 24 ‘SENTENCES AND THEIR PARTS » {answers on p. 200) Tranate the tee dagrm shown im Figure 2.7 Into a sentence ‘Mi bracketing abled with form abel ke (2c), . 33 — : Lf --< NaN 1 ‘Typlally, Aunt Belnda had teen uterng plates all eveing 2 ‘Transate the folowing sentence into labelled tee dag, ke Figre 249-33: cults) vis yfinding) npaymodem ajFrench ybteatus) ‘aplaifscnating)] ‘Transat the tre digram shown in Figure 2.8 into a seatonce ‘eth bracketing lnbeld wit function label Uke (128), p36. Figure 28 ‘rants the following tentence int Ibe tree diagram ike Figure 28: Soanrose) "Mean Meype) °Mousines Metter) 4M ery eapiay)© ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY [Beers 28 (answers on 7.202) Tnatt the fanction abel §(ebjet),P (predictor, and 0 (objet) as Tres se in font ofthe pare tracets in the folowing sentence, sper re jeniy the predator, chen the subject, and then the object (ay 1. (Linde Joanna) A yas seeping 2. (ehtnis Hon) mus be Misha’) 3. (@%the Mpoor ei) #thas MY seen) (Meven Hahows] s. [exon Cnt Mace) Mey Heit eta Meany As Marne Words Inthe next three chapters we extend and explain in reser deal the onecpts of grams Introduced in Chapter 2. 1s simplest for ust Start atthe bottom ofthe rank scale, focusing on words in this chapter, then ascending the scale to phrases in Chapter 4, and to causes i ‘Chapter 5. It wil become clearer, however that we eannot fll under ‘and one unit without faking proper account of the others. 3.1. Open and closed word classes (Our frst tak is to elaborate on the form clases or parts of speech, troduced in 21. There ae two major Kinds of word clases in Engh ‘open los and closed clases. The OPEN CLASSES we shal recone sre showa in Table 3.1 Tebke3t mmx class | Symbol [Exams Now N [fir eke, water thing, Beauty, thous Veeb(e tatters) | [sine mal, go, become, seem, water Aaectve 1s [oar ei ane, rent, Adverd ‘Av ow, there, xtmly, actualy, pat, way, loday ‘Test ches ae known as open lies because we ean ruily coin row words to ad to them eter real words, cr nonsense words such as Uy and foresee 24.2). Tele membership is aly open- Mabsurd), an enumerator (al! Mppeen, oa genitive pre (John). ‘Two ofthe less usual posites ae state in: 1 the re greedy ake Qa re). ot in such cases hare ually @ noun which semantilly under stood to be the head: eg. [The greedy people) (wil take) (al thee loaves) () The PREMODIFERS ofan NP may be: (Determiner (his morning), hare git, ee (G)Enumerators: ovo eas), (the hind man), et. (Gi)_Adjectives: (Mred shoes), older muse), et. (0) Nouns: (2 arden fence), (a Meo rin), London pubs), ee (9) Gaui, pres: (Med), omeane er) problems), te * snare the Mew York; Oafod Set an bu J Bet oust ini an an owe may eat he ol ume sconso ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY (8) Advis (inti poston: aula ni), (hi) Some tem desrot cteorie, sch as adecwve phrase, ip (awfity bad) weather); other phrases (M (round the elock) seve); compound words of vious Kinds (4 sbwited Bumpin) Ven and Ving forms of vids (puted chs), (0 omig to, Tus st bt oF premodier i miseellanous that we cant hope io deal wih I thoroughly. There often doubt at to wheter, for {cane + moder i phase or compound word, 4 whether Sor ening ined or Sng k's ve or an are deed fom a Yet, For pring purposes, we may hae to ke some ater abitery Sections for sxampl, wean lt hypheation Jtemine whether. Somehing i tobe teed sa angle word, and we can make some {2 hoe backeung tacone in cdr to rele anbiie nich (22) ya (etal ating) tae metal cating Bade) (©) TherostaoorFEns ofan NPmay be: (i) Prepositional phrases: (the best day p4f(of my Ue) (1) Relative elaases: (a quality which 1 admure). (li). Vasous other per of modifier, including ADVERBS (the git Mapua) ansecrves (someting nasty (nthe woodshe), NOUN PHRASES in apposition (ihe bandcoot, Ce hy imarsupia),ai other types of ease Ge 6.3). ‘Becae of thee various kinds of mii, x posble for an NP to ‘eachoonedrsblecomplenty With premosieatin alone, sch phrase 1523) ae pom, though rc a Mine Mint evo Mansais Meine fMivor 23) Matoluey ihe Mat Mowe fanaats Maine ft owachen {In posmoification thee isn principle no Imi co the Ingth of NP. ‘The occurence of subordinate Ps as portmosifiers i very common, and its important to distinguish cases ie: (24) (he gi py the table ppt the carved Ise) (25) the gic pe (bythe tle) pith the sunburn lee) In 24) one FP postmodifies gi, andthe other PPis subordinate tit, postmodhtying abe In (25) however, both FPspostmodiy gt. [Now tay Execs 4 and 4e.] PHRASES e 432. Pronouns (pn) and determiners (8) Pronouns and determiners are two closed word casts inthe NP which ave simar subaivions: PRONOUNS function as #1 Personal pronouns: /, we, you, he, she, they, me, us, cher, psf, youre, himself herset t. Demonstrative pronouns ty, that, these, those (Quantifer pronouns: (General some, any, none, several ee (8) Compound’ everyday, somone, anything, nobody, et. (© Gradable: many, much, move, most few, fever, ite, leat, ihe pronouns: who, whom, whose, wht, which, whichever, ee. DDETERNINERS funtion as “Articles: the, fan ‘Demonstrative determines: same as pronouns. (Quaniier determiners: (@) General some, any, no, evry, ee (8) _Gradable: mea pronouns Wh. Determiner wha, which, whatever, whichever [Notice hat, fo example, the demonsrativsand the gradabe quantifiers ‘ar the same for bath pronouns and determines, Nevertheless, we shall treat these a separate word clases; the simple role that word from these clases which function at heads are pronouns, d chose which function as modifiers ae determiners. This rule has ove exception: the scaled POSSESSIVE FRONOUNS my, your, ther, whose, te. Meat ‘modifies, a inmy ster, your book te But strictly, these ar coe of ‘Mbordinstion, the pomenve pronoun acting as head of 2 genitive uae: gC pour) Ataounite Hook) yt et) Maite Mot Fey Gee Ge Since, a obverse in 4.3.1, a GP can function as the head of an NP, the same applies toa posesite pronoun: athe head of GF, i can in Airey act sb the head ofan NP. Compare tho functions of your (3M) nd yours (oH) 8 (28) and (2) (26) (5 firma are Sp (you) Loooky. (20) 18 Those Boooks) flare) Sou) ‘These sentences, by the way, alo show the diference between shove ‘sa pronaun and thot a determin [Now ty Exerebes 40 and 6)64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY 433. Prepositional phrases (PP) FONCTION. Inthe clase, PP act as advesbial (4) (28) (fay Mona (ve (a aces fy ta) fa Om). “The adverbial PPs have vious measings (te 5.13). Thus in (28) the three Ps are sdvebials of time-when, means and place, answering the ‘questions When?, How? and Where? in NPs, APs, AVBs and PPs sub ‘ordinate PPr acts postmodies (re 43.1, 44) STRUCTURE, Me hae eedy nied in 2.5 that PD have exactly the samo structures as NPs, except that they are introduced by a pre potion, ie. PP= pNP. Nosally prepositions sr nsparable fom the bead (and modifier) which folow them. There are, however, various ‘cumstances in wich a preposition canbe separated frm it fllow- ing NP Compa (29) (roams tui wie Sone fmt me) (30) (robes (yet) fp (ony foi) In 29) wlth wiih isa PP, but in (30) the preposition has been If ‘Standed” at the end of the elause, and the pronoun which which follows in (29) fae traed ie inte separate NP. ‘Another way ia which prepositions may separate themselves from the following NP is in iioms Bike look at, ook for approve of, deat tthe, We may compare two apparently sina sentences (31) Profesor Dumtbello ives a tower. (22) Profesor Dumbell indulges in wit partis, 1m (31) the PP cles hasan adverbial function (Where does Profetnor ubelo live? va tower) But (32) in sems more closely connected ‘vith ger, 0 tat indulges ca be almost egarded as an iomatic ‘ef compound, Thus wale the claus avucture of (1) is SP 4, that [oF (23) might Be transobed a SP» O, the preposition being a ogue’ Constituent of clatie structure, lathe manner of patel discussed in 338, idioms ie bok at, ee for, indule jn, ee ae sometimes called [PREFOSMIONAL VERBS, and the NPs whch follow them PREFOSITIONAL ‘OBJECTS. Menton should also be made of another typeof rib idiom ‘yey common i Eaplsh: that of PHRASAL VERBS Ie make up, rake unases 6s off hang about. But in these eases, the second word up, off, about, ‘le isan adver athe than prepoiion (ee 3.3)" 434. Thepenitve phase (GP) ‘We have avady piven some altention to thi construction, and need do Title moee than summarise what har leady been si FUNCTION. GPs funtion ether as premodiirs (M) or as heads (2) InNPs SRUCTURE, GPs ae ast like NPs except tht they end withthe particle 5) ie, GP= NPS), which i not, however always teparataly Pronounced, Some pomesive pronouns are ivenuar, im that they Funetion a8 GPs, but do nt end i's gy, mine, 44. The adjective phrase and the adverb phrase Compared with NPs, AjPe and AvPs tend to havea simple structure ‘Although they const ofthe sume elements ((M")H (MP), n practice they often const of only heed, nd itis unutal for them to have ‘more tha one premier and one pied. 444 The adjective phrase (AP) "Funenion. Inthe cause, AjP function ax complement (C) (230) (Mis cttee it (001 (230) {Adon rina ctr iho Inthe pr, AP ca fenton a prenodien io NPs: (28) fa Shoo tae in Hot bea, STRUCTURE, The head ofan adjective phrse isan adjective, which may be spl (big), comparative (bugger), or superlative (igi) (se 323), Premodiiere are always adverbs! typclly, adverbs of degree (extremely, rather, t00, Yer). Some, expecially ery and 100, can be "esl sei and_pepostons ve constitute am ipprtant but athe Foti Ena ume, cn Mao, te often tying to weigh up the merits of alternative stone there mo sch Sila Sec hme eS, a wenn tee ae66 [ENGLISH GRANOLAR FOR TODAY redupliated (very very very tal. Postmodiiers can be eltheradveros (indeed, enough) ox PP: 35) Cyery Kea indeed) Hlpice enough) 20) Mater 200M ot Me tor amor) We lg find certain kinds of clauses as postmodifiers: younger (chan ‘thowght) too hot [or me to drink| ete. 442. ‘The adver phrase (AVP) "FUNCTION. AvPs fonction nthe clause ae adverb (4) (Se 5.13) STRUCTURE. The head ofan adverb phrase isan aver (An). Other is, th structure of AVP isthe sme at that of AP: 7 ota Ahsaner Hsoo Kasey Mtor eomtor) ore sy fenan a e 45° The verb phrase (VP) FUNCTION, The VP always acts at predictor (P) in the cle, Although we shall need to distinguish in 5.3 between finite and non- Frnite aun, a present we reset oureles to faite causes, which ‘eas that we concentrate on the fullest kindof VP, the FINE: VER PHRASE STRUCTURE, We have aleady outlined (ia 2.5.3) the stuctue of| the VP in terme of two Kinds of slment: the rain verb (i) 2nd susiaris (Aut). The suis ae optional, and precede the main verb, At te most geneal level the suucture of the VP is (x) {ue} (Aux) (uc) Mo. But this is not by any means the whole ‘Hory, In practi one can ditagulsh sateen diferent kinds of VP, land, moreover, four diferent functions performed by the avilares ‘themselves (se Table 4.) mn this table, we have replaced the general abel Aur by some more specific function labels: Mod, Po, Prog and Pas. Modis alvays filed By one of the modal (n) (33.5). Pers always filled bythe primary verb hase (he), and Pog is always filed by the primary verb bet Saal, she Past postion ts always fled by be, andthe ma vere positon (4) canbe fled ether by a full er (W), or by one of the Primary verbs (6 he, do). We can now explain the stuctre ofthe VP In more deal as? (Hod) (Per) Pr} (Pas) Mo). The terms ‘modal, = pe. Ba fi zis j= |= Tk = be tere [ites | 18 = |e: (|e so_[s [Es EE EE [e [GTR eta pane ai, Ph AWE YOR ‘perfect’ ‘progressive’ and ‘passve" relate o the Kinds of meaning xpresed by the elements they label “The formula just. given explais that the elements of the VP can ‘only occur in stret onder, for example, could have worked and had ‘bean wating ae grammatical combinations, but *hive could worked and Nbeen had walting are not. However, thee is tll something tobe explained: samely, that each auxilary determines the FORM of the ‘rb which follows it eg. has worked occury, but thes working dos £04 To exo thi er, we have to tint the dein of verb form. 454. Verb forms In Table 4.2 (p68), the tables of verb forms given in 23.2 and 3.3.6 are expanded, sat (0 apply not only to fillers But also to operator. ‘verbs (ie. to modals and primary verb). We also make a dstnston here’ between FINITE and NON-FINITE forms, In the FINITE. VERS PHRASE, the fst word i always. FINITE VERD FORM In Table 4.2 we have now labelled an additional ver form, in addition ‘0 Vo, Vs, Ved, Ving and Ven. This new form is the INFINTTE form (Vi) of the ver, But I dies frm Vo ony i the ‘wet be, To all intents and purposes, then, the infinitive i the form« cut GRAMMAR FORTODAY rnases ° rabies aa a a Med Pog Me Mod Pas Me =e a m] \ fre ra] \ [el | aie [me tg T si] [ine T w =f = Tare Pet 1 4 Ter igle |S. = my te telng my te iP = = ‘The Engh VP in ft canto all be deserved by means of one sx often usa sry of eng ates He ofthe verb which has no ending, jus ke Vo, The ules for combining ‘ers i the ver pase can now be expesed asin Table 4.3 "Thus If we want to construct a VP withthe structure Per , the ‘ules of Table 43 say that the Mo must be a Ven: eg. hus taken. If ‘we want fo construct more complex phrases such as Mod Prog My or ‘Mod Pass My, te ule wil werk as shown in Figure 42 ‘The nondaiil parte of any VP ate always nonfinite (Vi, Ving, or Ven). Thie means that there a quite diferent way’ of describing the srture of the VP, this time notin terms of ux ané Mb, but in terms ‘offi id nonsfnite ver Fononanwn where F finite, and AY = none Table 43 Fanaton | Chisafver | Formof twine vt Modal (oi) wODAL VER) | INFINITIVE (i) eet Epctite) | uavecne EN PARTICILE (Ves) ‘Somes. | Progressive Speco) | BEC) 16 PARTICIPLE (Ving) ima see) JN PARTICIPLE (Ves) ‘Sapo [ata va GY | VeDWWT (eine) ter, these intricacies do not have to Bother usin the procedure of Paring » sentence. For most purposes, t wil be suficient to label [Phuc by means ofthe funtion label ux and Mand the form label (ar am modl, be, hy, do) and V. For example vot@feats) ects playing) ve( it! must 490) vite shouts {be Wwockin) va(Aimunt {ee fing My Mr doe) 452_ The dummy operator'do (One important data of the VP has sil tobe dealt with: the specal role ofthe auxin do, Taser we ented tho small closed clan of ver (3.1) as operator: vevbs (1). This mame is especily appropriate, because these ves in their finite fom (normaly ay fst auxlary) are used in various “operations” such as making» cause negative or interrogatve. Consider epation: (38) she con sing (38a) She con-nor sing. (She oo sng) (G9) shets ining (29) She isnot singing (Shean singing) (40) 1 ay been sue (4) thas nor been sung. thas’ een une) ‘To form the native, we simply add the partite nor (or its reduced70 [ENGLISH GRWAR FOR TODAY ‘eron ') after the fist word of the VP, which i finite operator But what sbout this ca 1) She sane (ta) *Sho sang nor (419) She did nosing. (Sho a’ sing) In (41a) we cannot add not after the fit operator, because there i 0 opeatorerb in the ‘VP. thee is only the fuller song. So the regative rule just stated cannct work, ules we can find an operator. verb. The BUNDY OPERATOR do comet fo the rexeue ithe vat that takes the role of operator whore there i no other verb to do 19, ‘asin (410), Notice thatthe verb be acts a8 an operator evn when ft Fsetioas as 2: Bunter is my fiend > Bunter i nor my fren. ‘The sme sometimes splits in some varieties of Engh, to ave as sain verb: He hay any tess But nowadays people frequently use the operator do in sich cass’ He doce? have any idea [NOW try Execie 4) 46 Summary ‘The following, then, ave the foal structures of the sx types of phrase ‘A. Noun phrases (NP): M8) 1 ME) where (hend) may be: N, pn, Aor GP -M before (premodiits) ay be: dA). NG, ee ‘M alee Hf (postmodiies) may be : FP, NP, Ay, A elatlve nus, Propositional phrases (PP): 2M") HO where p is prepodtion, and ‘MH snd M ae exacly aa noun past, ©. Genitive phrases (GP): Ht") ‘where's the genitive pacts snd ‘MH and Mare ain noun phases (complex postmodiirs, weve, are rare in GP). D. Adjective phrases (AJP: MP HUM ‘where df (head) A} ‘A before H (premodifirs) ae normaly Ae ‘M after (postmodiirs) are PP, Av, and some clauses, PRASES n Adve phases (AVP): M0} 7) ‘vere (teat a AY, and Aes in As 1. Verb phases (VP): (Aux) (Au) {Aue} (Aue) Mo whore al Aux are (operator), nd ‘Mo is eherv(perator se) ot V (fall). ‘The function of thes pase clases inthe clause can be simmaried as shown in Figure 4.3 The artow X-—> Yi tobe interpreted: "X may be a Y". We tun ip Chapter § to a more deal description of how Bluases behav in aus gue 43 s > ° c 4 Subject Predictor Object Complement Advebi ve NPP ae » Exercises Exerc da (answers on p. 203) ‘Which prs, nthe following, te main and whlch are subordinate? 1. {ary Chad (te mb) 2 [CThe lee (of he itl lm) (vas (as white (as snow). 3 [eveyone cin towa)) (admis) (ihe whitenes(o the fess (of Gary) tte amd) )- Exacta y__(answerson p. 203) ‘Examples (24) and (25) os p.62 ustrte a posible ambiguity of pro postional phates, To which of theexamples(p,72) do these descriptions mow (a) Two Pe portmodity te same nea (FH) (PD. (8) One PP srobordinat to other PP(.-21(p.-J1(PP), (3) The aterpetation is ambiguous betwen (2 ad ()n ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY 1 (herintret in the cons of Roman Bln) 2. the lader of the revolution in October) 3. (ihe courage of a tapat bay) 4 (2hatde of words in Partament) 5. (hell ot Romeia 1827) Whe highest ate of ination in Europe) 5. (ataher often chdven wit exe ecord Bxere de (answers on p. 203) "The following are NP in bach the order of premodifen ie sable: 1. sisters, two, Cader’, gly 2nd, el, cared, eens, small 3, ets, netockng, Chines, ntzate ld, thos, old dspusuing, Victoria, drawings, few, gute 5. talant, new, Molders, hypothe, gelogea 6 cylindrical, second, Morea’, steam, condenser, revolutionary 1. tower, church, Golo, ey, ancient fist hundred, touts, the, forte, al, slmost 3: sesponabilties, mora, new is, Beary 10: te Ree, ay, socal, London A. Unscramble the words into tir comect grammatical onder, (In the words end phrases hich are elements ofeach ome cases there may be more than one posible oder) Indoing A, you ave exeresed your aby, a4 speaker of Eels to spol res for ordering premodifiers in an NP Ty to formate thse rules Fst workout the order in which these cass ormaly ‘cca if they are combined: Nye, GP, Aj, d, Av. Second if there ‘hore than one member ofthe sin clan the sae NB ze there ‘ny pinches for deciding in which order to ut them? abel for each Forexample, {he NP the new factory here i Lancster may be analysed fine Mew Htactory Knee ln Lancaster. se {the skeleton inthe cupboaré tha steange ely Ia the people present Stanley historle meeting with Livingstone at Ui Sl thove tte fruit ternoon meetings of the committe fast yen. URASES n rere de answers on 209) Te mot impotan chery of pronouns that of the pesos ‘rowoune ln ute 14 te penood pronoun ae nge toring D'aiminitos tical known sr pono Cla, ses, Ga er ln ye (aca ene od ener, Causing ferent). Often ther incon ae uted, wih meant th sme orm hn to go into ferent Sues (ou ih src boner und 11)Completethe We 9 fig ine susbered prs ete ee Sal = a come [ele ee ee Eercze f (prtimimary consideration of construction to bee ‘amined Ise) ‘Examine these st of sentences in which the VPs ae itaiied, and {hen desctibe aswell r you ean: (th rules fr forming constructions ‘Toetow, and (the eeumatances under which the dasa lary ois used in English 1, Ordinary Declantives Negative Sentences She i working She nor working ‘They hal eaten them. ‘They ad no eaten ther, ‘She works had She doe not wore ha ‘They made ake ‘hey not make a mistake, 6, Quetions 4. Emphatic Sentences Teake working? tad they eaten them? Doce se wort ba? Did they makes mstaker Yes she 5 working Yess they aD eaten them, ‘Ye she DOES work have ‘Yer they DID mae a mistake, Bhat wt fn th et fom wl (Se fre eon7 [ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY oT questions Shed working on he “toy eoton them, had te? She works har, does’ she? {They made a mike, didn’? thor? £. Comparative Clnses Sie? working harder than Bit Thy eter mae tan we She works herder than I do. Tey made more mistakes than wedid Clauses 5.1 Elements of the clause We have recognise five principal elements ofthe clus, and it snow time to explain them more exofully. They are shown in (1)in order of| thedeggeto which they are “ental” Yo clause strustre (1) CLAUSE ELEMENTS Lebel Predictor e subject, s Object ° Complement ¢ ‘area 4 ‘These five aus elements are strated in (2): (2) ioe ont Fare pin) ter Rome aie ee ‘This example so gives the typical ordering of those elements. SA.1_ Protiator (P) and subject (8) ‘Tho PREDICATOR Sr Ue only element whih sa veh pas. The SUB- {Ecr normally precedes the predicator,and thee is CONCORD betwoea ‘the eject and prediatr st repards NUMBER ad FERSON (ie Exel 4e, p73), Number concord i tated i (2) (Souay eee pt) oad gh 8, st 7 {3 [Snnecticman Morden bree pus que soften posable to we «substitution tes, substituting one ofthe subject penonal pronouns (ee. 73) (we, he he the) forthe {Bite ajc ton Ys Ba very inl ty see tpt om. ‘ow and personal pronouns have Sint forms when they at 38 abject He prefers har, She prefers in 66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY We shout emphasise the nad to we several tess when identifying ‘nus elements, Consider the sentences in (3) and (6); (9) Adin he box) are) Sax seat) (©) (8CTHe box) contin) (as sbi) ‘The ctitera of position and meaning (252) donot help to entity $ sod O hee, but we can sll rely on texte of congord an pronoun sub. stitution (They are inthe box Tt contains sx sult). 3.2. Ubpect (0) and complement (©) The OBIE is very closely tied tothe predicator in terms of meaning, nd typically denote the person or thing mort intimately affected by the action or state, et, denoted bythe P. The COMPLEMENT can look superficially tke an object (both can be NPs), but a tens of meaning It provites s definition or charactersation af the or 0. Objects end complements normally follow th ©) Kater Fie CG) (8) (Gus) 7s)“ seoundre there are oth an O and Cin the caus, then normaly the Cftlows theo: ©) ates) Feateay (Gus) a sounds) In 0) in (8), ascounirel characterises Gu in Mp'sopinion anyway. 5.413. Adverbiai (A) AADVERBIALS fill out the clause by adding extra evcumstanti infor ‘nation of vaious kinds, raging from tne snd locaton tothe speakers ittude OF the clause elements that we have examined, they ee the leat closely integrated into dause structure = and this goss especialy for sentence alverbils ‘The first point about adverbs i that there eno fixed number of| fem in a cau; in thls they are rather Ike modifier in the NP. The ‘more comnon adverbial types aze ted in Table 5. together with typical question which el them. The casein (10) has four adwrbis: 10) A cActuaty), Sere works) (at nome) (very carey) (enese ay is variants (10s) and (106) show that adverblas are generally much ‘more mobilen the eause than the other aus elements we hate mt. cuauses ” 209) (Sat) Avery re Mvorts) Ait nome) Acre dev, Macey) Sere (105) Ares days) Se) Avery ere) acta) work) tat om ‘So mobile are certain aves hat they canbe plac inthe mile of the intraping is leat, asin (1) where e ew symbol (iene the merrpted elements ofthe pn: (1 oat Fen on vere) Adverbs are also optionan ort clase ype. They can normaly be ‘mite om th casein (13), (12) [Ble works et home very rarely], {He worksat home], (He works] [Now try Exercies 5s and 5b.) Tables. Adve type Blcing question Example Poe Where? ona box) Dinction Where tojfrom?———_ftofrom York) Time when When? fon Sunday) Durston How long? (fora month) Frequency How often? once a week), esery dy) Manner ‘How? in what manner? {guilty ith confidence) ‘Aseney ‘By whom? (tl dark ranger) Cont Tolforrehom? {19 Mery, (for hima) Retson Wy? (Beccuse of her mother) Condition In what circumstances? ifyou do the des] Degree Hoxmici iow {somal tovone Sentence expenses tins, infact (consequent) iver “connection et) 5.2. Complex sentences ‘So ar we have dealt only with SOPLE SENTENCES consisting f single MAN CLAUSE (MCI), which is precisely a clause that can sand aloe a 4 simple sentence (ince tns'& the oMly element lathe sentence, to function label necessary): (13) se mettPU scratch your back]8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY But the majority of English sentences that you ate likly to met in texts ae COMPLEX SENTENCHS, ie. sentences which contain addtional canes “Thee ae two ways In which additonal clauses can occur ins com plex sentence. Two or more clauses canbe COORDINATED, tht i they ‘am be linked ar unite of equal satus: (14) ge yeil You scratch ny back] and yci Pl semtch yours} (Or there may be one or more SUBORDINATE CLAUSES (SC), 2, laues which are grammatically SUBORDINATED because they se itt of another Slee “A subordinate Cau neither an lament in another cau thivexampie 5) sewcilfetitvouscratch my bac] S(O serie) Stour) cx ees postmodern pra within ae: (16) se wcittme pon Ma {wove back seth) sould sth, mine Complex sentences can sso result from a combination of coordination and sbordintion of clases, for example: 07) sencilStgci thatthe earth iszo0nd) and eto can ho Became} wa nce «ring fl We sll be dealing with subordination and cvondiation, and with class of subordinate clases, inthe next chapter. The emuinder ofthis hater, pe om 53, wi be concened pir with les of 5.3. Finite and nonfinite clauses So far we have dealt only with FINITE. VERE PHRASES, containing & ‘nt ve, which sa verb showing TENSE (pas or present) and SUBJECT {CONCORD ’ (for person and number), andi either the OPERATOR (dhe ‘st eunlary vei in the VP) or the MAIN VERB if thee leno operator (eeu). ‘But thee ae also many NONFINITE VERB PHRASES, containing no finite ver. Table $2 shows that na non-iite VP all the ers must be Vi, Ving or Ven. (Mota verbs have no nonfnte forms) Examples of ‘ite and non fiaite VPs (se 4.5.1 are shown a Table 2. The particle causes ” abe s2 fmm ve sructue | Nowemre VP siacture ¥, ne My tine Se jeer ae | toot tol iseaten SE Mey | beaten eu, fe tee dus ie teebeoneaine 43°45 hy | Mvinter ten (5 i {i always followed by Vi, and it ean be considered an optional prt (ofthe Vi Form, fn facts the usa practice in Eglish to quote webs inthe ToaWINITIVE (Co Vi) form: to Be 10 create, 1 bludgeon "The claus we have dealt with so far have been FINITE CLAUSES, in which Phas besn ante VP. But there aze also many NONINTTE (CLAUSES, Le. tues In which Pisa noninite VP. Examples of faite si non fnite subordinate clauses are cote would betes scilityougg( tol) ven a) 1. nites The best thing would be sclfor you ft tl) ereryone. tron nite SC (20) sci Tat Spock (poate eas isting. nite SC i lala tli) pointes ear $s intiguing (none ‘ite St) IscitAs the fb fps) inihed, we went home ery. rae se sci The ob (Me bin) finished, we wont home eat ‘nite St “The fate subordinate clauses have finite verbs in the Ved, Veand Ved forms respectively, while the nonfat subordinate canes have non- finite verbs nthe Vi, Ving and Ving forms respectively, Almost all non- finite causes ae subordinate clause a oe 54 Declarative, interrogative and imperative clauses [Now we tum to main clauses, of which there ae three major forms ‘in English, The DECLARATIVE MOOD ie generally used to make sat-"0 ENGLISH ORAMMAR FOR TODAY mont. I the most base form ofthe cause, and the clauses we hare boning a examples have almost all een decaratve (24) Jim wat post hes eters. ‘The BTERROGATIVE HOOD is most commonly used 10 ak questions: (25) Wit Sim post ehese eters? (G9) Who wil! pos these eters? Finally, the DSPERATIVE MOOD is most commonly used to ive orders cor rake requests: (27) Post thee eters, S441. Theiaterogatve ‘There are two Kinds of inorogatives. The YES-NO OTERROGATIVE, ‘eg (25) above atk fora yes/no answer It always the fine operator {hat caries his contrast between ‘yes and “no nt only negation (ee 4452), but a strong, postive afimation: (28) Sim won’ post these letters (G9) Jum wil pst thes letter. (wil ares the emphasis) In forming yes-no interrogatives we place the finite operator inthe romient positon before inthe case (60) tas Sipe) ped that eter? (Py. ¥) Gd fie Meno ped that eter? (P=. --¥) ‘A with aati in 45.2, there is no operator in the delat, then the coesponding interogatietxes dummy aia do, followed by sine (on) Bate scratched my back]. P=V) G3) {ybid Slo) yacatch my back? (P*¥. 9) eis do (ed = di that i finite, and thus express present and past tena, Albo notice tha the nteogative, the verb phrase spl nto {oar ahora the or pave elt when a adel sited int (ep. 77 2 (te 'Ge4eabeay patne eine Stew) 5) fee he) ally Vasahine) igs) oo dieu? ‘The second kindof lateoatve isthe Wi-INTERROGATIVE 8. (26) bore, which as about one of the cause elements §, 0, Cor A (or {ometimes abouts phe element) ung a Wi WORD: ‘Wie DETERMINERS: what, which ‘Wil PRONOUNS: who, what), whose, which, what ‘WH. ADVERBS: where, whe, wi, how [Note that how counts a wh: word in slo of its speling. Because ah nterropative ean interrogate, the nite operator is normaly plied before, and then, becaus the wh word ithe fos ‘tattention, tis plac Before the operator: (26) (Pew sitet? {Gn (Aeomer) hg ae) sden 26017 (28) (non or) wag te) Fading? (29) (4eHow acd She) "(pe workin]? In ose cases where the wh word th S element, towers, neue Coots ou he ote, so that we nih up With the arma, decree, dee (40) evo) Mae ca sand? {Sewisch window) Mas roke)T? 542 The imperatne Wl te deca and inteogatve both have a $c or the rer maybe an ineoga pronoun) so ie P the mpetve fata nonin Pad no We cn hn ofthe igre a being dene fom a esate by deletion of *(you) and of the VP operator will: (41) (vou) wa we) tow es (G2) [ema hou er In the imperative he Fist vet inthe VP thus Vi How do we know that itis not Vo, wish ls ential to Vi forall verbs except be? There te two reasons. Fie, when we have the verb Bein an imperative, it takes the VI form, not ihe Vo form: (43) Be quiet! NOT: *Are quit! Stcond, if t were Vo, P would be finite, and therefore contrast in| tents between peesnt (Vo) and pst (Ved) would be pose, But there ‘sno uch coats: (44) Rano Gesbop, BUF NOT: *Ran tothe aber. So the yerb mat be Vi. fact this is bvaysa good TEST FOR FIVTIE- [iss ofa VPI the VPA nt, tcan show sobject concord and an alte8 _ENGLISHGRAMAAR FOR TODAY sation in tense between Vo/Vs and Ved, whe fi non-inite it does fot, Sine Vo = Vi forall but one verb, and Ved ='Ven for very many ‘er, i often a good idea to test Pfr finiteness, 5S. Active and pasive clauses ‘Weave aleaty me the active and psive volt Inthe er hrs (4.5), thw we ms cmsidr them in the dau The ACTIVE VOICE ithe lemme flor ofthe cla (45) 15¢She) Phas eaten) Cmy porrigee) G3 Se) ear set madey Be Ste ap ore (5) esha" oee desing fin tisbe) “The PASSIVE VOI he more med fof the ase a which the Seoresponds tn meaning fo a8 O (or very ocasionally and) oo ‘cpondog sie cue So pres G5) wel he conepond- ing psi: (48) Sg porridge) "4 been eaten) (8) 18 potty oaspot made Co me) 15(1) P(was not made) (a cup of tea). (60) tGy(taie bs)” bon set) 9] “The Sof the comesponding activ becomes an optional of AGENCY in the psive, nary slays a PP marked with the preposition by: (61) ct bet) "Cas bean tp) (a (by Gove) 5.6 More on clause structure aving defined the clase elements P,S, 0, C, A, we must now ito luge some exta details of aus structure “Thee are we kinds of objet (0), and two kinds of complem 3 (C). ‘A pintcr OBJECT (Od) i the most sual kind of object, and an DIRECT OBJECT (0%), when it oocus, comes between the predator nd the Gre! object Te Of is normaly optional, and can very often ‘be replaced by an A element, 2 PP introduced by oor for, coming ater he (52) (Scrom) Perowe) Qone) His ten). (525) Stow) "(showed nis etehing (to me). ha ‘eniyy? cout) Scher brother) %(a sandcastle). (530 estore Sty) but) a sand) Aor her bother) cuavses 8 (casonally, the OF occurs alone after the P, asin the joke: (54) Waiter, do you serve rata? Biove a Wesce anyoey ‘The ambiguity of Od and OF allowed the water to misinterpret the Csiomers question. But unless there a need to disngulsh them, we ‘hall oe O for Doth Ofand Od, "Thera alo two kins of sommplement, SUDIECT COMPLEMENT and ‘onrecr COMPLEMENT. When ve wish to distinguish them, we cn Symbols them Cy and Co, The subject complement characterises or tserbes the subject, whereas the objet complement charcterses Aegrbes the diet object: (55) {Sloe Wateot) was) Ma gat boxe). (56) Sceveryone) (conidered) (Joe Waeat) (a reat boxe] ‘Once again, the diffrence between the two subclasses can be usally Tecognse by thee potion, as wellasby their meaning. The Csnormaly| follows P (whi typically coataas the copla verb 10 Be), and the Co ‘oamally follows Od clause normaly contains only one complement, tithe Co Co, "To complete the lst of what may oocur in clause, we most finaly ‘meation ome ‘perigherl element, Fis, to closed classes of words, ‘sonjunctons and iatxections (se 3 3.5,3.3.7) (57) Uh is cottes cream asin (8) dnd so weat on ‘We treat these simply 2 particles (se 338). Second, a NP may oscur asa VOCATIVE (Vo), a phrase which Wentifis the ptson addres (39) Come iat th aden, f(a (60) 1% (Dearest Rees), lam wating torso, 6 (youtle monte). Voatives re optional and obi andere therefore morte adverbs than anyother type of eonsitunt Notice theifference in role between fhe voctive in imperative clauses, andthe subject in declratie causes (61) (G00, pa aenon (Ct Sp Foe payeetention) (Only the voeatine cane omited or mowed to the end of the case, Now ry Exercise Se.)cs ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY 8.7 Clause patterns ‘Advebils (A) and peripheral elements (G, and Voe) tend to be ‘optional pats ofthe clause. When we fave striped away the optional ‘ements ofeach claus, we are let witha nucleus which may be called {ts CLAUSE PATTERN. For example (62) Bur gee, Alle, you mus be king me now, baby. ‘The clus has th structure [3 § Yoe SPO A Voc). But once we have thrown aay the optional slmonts, vo ar loft with a maces [S PO} the cause pattera, When ilustating clause patterns, itis eonvenient to ‘ie 3 main lie inthe declarative mood, inthe active voice (se 5.4, 55), and with the unmasked (or most nese) word order. Sand Pare always obligatory, but whether O, C and A are obligatory chiefly de- pends on the main verb. For example (63) ‘The chef stuffed. "[SP) The chef stuffed a chicken {8.2 01 ‘The chef talkee, [SP] *Thechet talked astory*18 PO! sThechef seemed. *[5P] The chet seemed munery [SPCI ‘The che serves hunch [SPO] The che! served me uneh, [8 POF Od] ‘We can arange the principal clase elements in a hirrchy:P,S, 02, 01, C._A. Then, tang P at 3 reference pont, the further dowe the Ierachy we move, the more likely the clase fnction is tobe optional, and the more fee sts potion in the cause. So Sisgenealy obligatory in decaatives, but is obligatory with only a smal number of verbs sch as put the poston of $s elatively fixed, but the positon of A i rather fee, “The most common claus pater for English are shown in Table 5.3, together with an example ofeach, and st of some of the verbs that take that pattern. These clause patterns can always be extended ‘with ational optional elute elements: prticlaly 4, and somatines (Cand 0. Fornsance, we could extend the [SP 04] and [SP 010d] patterns using the example in Table 53 (64) He avaye putt ser inthe evening (5.4 PO 4 A (G3) Actua ue sold her the took shes to, dating. [A $ POF 04 Ca Yori Among the verbs sted in Table $3 fr atch cla pattern thea peat del of ovtiap, for many verbs can occur in more than one pattern, often witha noticeable o even extern change in meaning For Instance, the ver Keep occurs nal the patterns in (66) causes a5 ‘Teble$:3_The major lause patterns for Enaish (SPI: fe want Verba sity de ork ome, run see, dream, et look, Dehave, and many more 15? Oa): te caught ‘ets: each, ht, i, in, ul, work, run dream, ea, ook, Behave ad many more [57 Oi): [she served him). Verbs: sere tell and few thers thsi fact an one ‘Webs: se give, tl, send, buy, ‘Somimon dase pater Dnake, and some others his ian Ena Stpatent bu ited clause ater Engh [SP 0104); [She so him the book]. [SPCI: (Heisking/a mune). ($F 04 C1 (He proved her strona ie). ‘Vets: be, become, seem, look, Verba rose, eall, make, hin, ppear ands few Ser: ha” a some otra this fi ofimites but important lame med he patter, peters [SPAL: [He ieehere [SPOdA): {ie put cece [She thinks sbout [Shetelehimaboxt ‘esba:b, stand an ve, ‘Veber pu, place, kee, tl > reside, no, think tl reve, frm, worry anda few others bere diferent bry (66) {SPO}: Gledys keep pet python, [SPOCI: Gladys skeoping Archie happy [SPOAl: Gladys keeps her pet python in the bath {S201 0d}: Gladys iskeeping Ache a pee of pe [SPCI: Gladys is Keeping very fi [SPA]: Theplece of ple ls koping wet ‘The verbs of Enlsh are, by ad large remarkably leible in the hse patterns which they govern, ant though often takes some imagination to thine of plaosible seamples, oprs of the langage ae constantly put ting the verbs to new usr. For thet reaoneit ie ften safer to speci, ‘what clase patterns a piven ver cannot take, [Now ty Exercles 5 intse)1% [ENGLISH GRAMDIAR FOR TODAY 57.1 Pasine cause patterns iris gener le tht cate patter with an obec can be changed fino a'punive clause pttern, with the same cain ve, in which this ‘hject functions ae sajec, Ths each clause pattern oa te ght-hand SBSSrTtabte 5 above ean be converted nto a passive pattern which Fits into the corresponding poston on the lefchand sie (67 (sP0) +18 Pl Ieainy (ext) (ds bal] > [he ba as eg) Oy Bi] (os) (grovoul =(8P 00 ye ea 1 ct or i 0) im) (6) IsPOcl=IsPC1 Ue ef ea [389 onma cr them (70) (SPO) *{8PAl [esi Grud (th pepper (in my soup) (The peppe (was rt) Gniay sup) dy 81 For the [SP Of] and [SP 0 Oa] patterns, thereisalos moré common nite veson, in whlch the OF becomes the subject: for example He Mo eed by her, as sol he car. Each passive pattern hasan optional PP of agency (bhi, et) 5.8. The structure of noninite clauses Coresponing othe three nomi orm of the verb (Vi, Ving, Ven) hore sre thee types of el, ia Which thowe forms ossu a the fst Ce ualp elomett of the predictor, We cil thebe types of lane Swine CLAUSE (Cl), ING CLAUSE (Cling and -PX CLAUSE (Cen) Fespotively, Even tough they lack a finite verb, such constructions ae lysed as uses because they canbe analysed into FS, 0, CA jt ike nite cases: (OD inte else: [for $p(vou) Fo 1D Qolorersone Eos ving (pointed ox) (5 POL Besse) cram 81 “There oe oto det pt fom he er, wich tings on ite trom ite cases, Forex, in infin claes tke 71) 2 di efor ory ete the ate nd tet peste {0 tormaly recede he VP Inu ans (2) te bet often £PZateferm, Ie Spock above (bt se 1.43), Batt mre Sinicant tht inter rerpcs, these nonfne claus hav almost cxauses a ‘the same structural posses as finite causes: they can, fr instance, te cli in terms of the au pater in Tle 3. One post shout noninite causes, however, is that the Ss frequelly omitted: (74) (The best hing would be cat tl) everyone) | (9) [ote Having) (poited ear) i a characteristic of Valea] (78) (cual Educated) Mat Eton), Ne published his trandation of Herat the age of 18] - "The en clauses are pasve in meaning, and have passive cause patterns, 5.9 Parsing a simple sentence ‘We now have al he pana resures we ned to pare «spe Enh tec. Forts pron, we um 6 OW seh wh contain all word canes 56) (7) Butts, te oo ulster had one Nome without Bet ‘hae no single ight way ops a tence but earl pays 0 ‘ork down thease (22) surtng with he somone and wong Sete wadeof with Rompe. Aen we, © eye damental oe eck (0) then ent the gama funtion of ac Seat, {i aay ety te dam oa a ah of tow Step (i) ges us anew st of units o begat whole cyl of (and Gi on all owe again Ge Figure 51) Fue $1 Netty: (Inmet consents (@) Grammatical functions ofthese constituents (Gi) Clasof units filing these fonctions Ss @ = @— w a 92 ow mw 6 = wo — wo Wo: eae88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY Because a tee digzam beng ou the nature of grammatical analysis visually, we sal bud up a tre diagram (rather, bud one down!) for (77) above, sep by stp, Se: ()_ Theres only one VP, (ha gone), s0 thee should be only cone elite (00 Figure 52), Figure s2 Se (But alas, the two ualy sites had gone home without her]. Se: (3) Because we have a single clase in complet sentence, it amb amin ae We oo ue fnton a none ded ‘Se: (Gi) This isa main cause (MCI (ee gue 5.3), Figure $3 Se et [But alas, the evo uply sisters had gone home without her) Wi now have s claus to pare 1 G)_We bracket the constituent phrases Note that But ia con- Junction (and therefore does not count ata phase (ee 3.38) The ‘ane apie othe ntrecion (aa. (See Figure $4) h(i)” We identity the cause elements (om 5.1, $6 if in doubt) (Gee Figure 5.5.) Nowe that bur and alas do not have faction labels, be: ‘cause they are wamsmatial particles (3.3.8). ‘Gh (il) "Now nll the clas of phrase filing each function (ee ‘Chaper 4). (See Figure $5.) Note that bur and alas are labelled at thas stage because, although they ae nat phraes, they areclauie constituents, | | | | cuavses 9 Figure 5.4 Se wet [Bot alas, (the two ugly ster) (had gone) (home) (without he) Figure 85 I I (Bat alas, (the two ugly sisters) (had gone) (home) (without her]. Figure 5.6 Se Mot a4 8 boA 4 ‘ ve oAw | | | [Bur has, (the two uely sisters) (had gone) (home) (without her) ‘We now have four phrases to pas: Ph: (This stop is vacuous i this ose, snce all the elements of the phases are words, and thee ae aeady iene for us by ur ‘writing system, But later, when we pare phrases with subordinated ‘hres in them, this tp wll be a necesary one.%0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY Ph: (i) Now identify the phvase clement Gee Chapter 4). This s fay any, but remember the VP (Ge 4-5) and preposions ce 4.3.3) ‘The brackets become supertuous at this stage, 20 me omit them (one Figure 52) Figure 5.7 Se et a4 3 Poa 4 NPP Ae Pe fT &h | [+ | | But alas, the to ualy sisters had gone home without her, Ph: (i) Mentiy the ls ofthe words filing each phrase function (Gee Chapter 3). Remember that we hae aleady Wentifie the cs of but and alas, ani remember the preposition without, which doesnot receive a function label because ita aril (oe Figure 5.8). Figure ss a4 5 Hi 4 NP VP Ave Pe Wh dee # H fea wry awe i | r Bata, te tbo sen Ba poe Aw tate We have now parsed the sentence a fully at we can do without par ing words into their grammatial constituent, [Now try Exetese $f] | i | | | | | | cuauses ot 5.10 Summary In this chapter we have distinguished () In addition tothe cause elements P (predictor), 5 (abject), 0 (Gbjee), Complement) and A verb), the peripheral elements Voc (cate), ¢ (conjunction) and i (iatsjetion); also Od (A sect object) and’ O Gdect object), Cs (abject complement) {nd Go (object complement. (©) Main lauses (MCD;and subordinate clauses (SC, which are parts (0) Declarative, interroative and imperative as categories of MCL (@) Chuse patterns [$F], [SP 0}, [SP Oi], [SP OF0d), [SPC], [SPOC}, (SPA) and POAT. (©) Three kins of tonite clause: afintive (CI), ne (Cling), ad en (Chen) eawes Exercises rere $2 (anoversonp. 205) Teeny te lute rere (in terms of BS, 0, C, A) of he follow: 1. (ky ite) aba) ha) a good cy) (over a wedding) 2 [Cthat stor sbou ive alan nthe ann (has Bem deni] 5, tal them! (rere worrying) (about thelr own probiens)) 4 [tne poe (east (he tie Godanded) 5. [le Ctrebas) (Reger ac) (once sei) & Hoe wae pte ete of ie roo Gein 1. {Gho dou) they wit a) the same old tory) (tomorrow) Exercise 5b (answers on p, 205) [Now identity the pire clarer of the clause elements in the above xercie Se (answers on p. 205) Distinguish the clause srtures ofthese pale: 1 The porter called me stax ‘The porter ealled me a blckguard, 2 Mi wat oping gt wh ra Dax was oping al with brazen sudacty. 3, Leaey sounds an intersting a {esey Knows a intersting Be2 cuavses 4. He found his secretary aeetaleeypewrtr. He found his secretary a reliable yp. 5. Mom of ue aze working this evening Most of us re dreading ths evening, Exercise Sd___ (answers on p. 205) estily the olmte pattems (ee Table $3, p. 88) ofthe setencts in Exerc Sa, hy deleting optional adverbial. Exercise $e (answers on p.203) ‘Grammatical ambigtis playa part in sen often ator fsb) jokes Expnin now the folowing joker explo amgutier of clause srastne smndjor word mesg 1. The potie are looking for aman with one eye.” “Typlea ietiency 2. How do you gt down fom an elephant?” “You Jou" youget dowa fom a duck 3, "You've beea Working in the srden for hours, What te you pow ing? “ed! 4. ‘obcarsed the day he was born.” “They must have pown up eal in those dys” Exercise Sf (answerson 206) Pas fully the following sentences, by drawing tee diagrams a e00m- ended in 5. 1. {80 mam (an stand] 2. [G¥eu) (have been eating) (oo many green vs (rent). 3. Daa) Ce given) (the earl singers) (a eheque (for thowsand pounds) (in lbeng constveats of the verb phrase, restrict youn! to Aus, 1, vand ¥) 6 Subordination and coordination After thee chapters onthe grammatical units of word, phrase and cause, you may now be expecting a chapter on th highest ut ofall on ou ‘rata rank seal (22), the SENTENCE, ln ft the sentence does ft have a strture like that of lower unite zetence le siply ate {or the lagst stretch of language we normally conser in grammar, snd which normally consis either of (2) gle clase in which cass {it isknown as a SDOPLE SENTENCE; or of (8) more than one cate in which case iC is known as a COMPLEX SENTENCE. In the complex sentence the clauses may be related to one another by SUBORDINATION ‘orby COORDINATION (ee 5.2) Subordination, as we hve seen (4.2), ot nests elition be tween two casts; It may be a reltion between two phraes, or 0 words. The sme applies to coordination (ee 6.7). But to begin with, elimi our atention to subordinate and coordinate CLAUSES: (2 {You puttout te plug 1 scream] (Two simple sentence.) (©) Yes pu ct thee and seca) (Tw cordate mala (2) {Cif you pul out the pg), scream] (One subordinate clavee sd One main clause within one and the sae senfenee) ‘The bracketing of (2) and (3) reveals x eruildfference between the ‘vo relations: subordinate clause is always part of another claus, while a coordinate cause is joined with another claus (or clases) of the same satus, atthe same lawl ofthe tree. Tht becomes claret in es diagrams (ae gues 6.1 and 6.2 oven. We ull deal wit subordinate cuss fut and return to coordination in 6.7. Thus by the end ofthe chapter weshallhave deal withthe wrious ‘ways in which sntenes can be composed of causes. 6.1 Subordinate clauses (SCI) Like other kinds of ganunatcal construction, subordinate clauses ae 3a ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY Figure 64 Se Your at dl pg a1 sea, ewe ta * f * ; TT : oJ irs pao ep 1 tn. recognised in part by thee fonction, and in pact by thei internal tas: 6.11 Function We can clsily subordinate luses by thee sbilty to function within larger units, especially within clauses, For example the subordinate clase what this country needs funetions as S, O and C inthe follow ine (2 [va his country neds i good ten-cent cig) (5) Ass poiicin, you shoul know what scout) needs). (6) [A/detzese in taxtion i exactly [tha hi county need} We can therefore say that what shi country needs in (4)-(6) isa NOUN {cave (NCD, wih function sma to that ofa NOUN PHRASE (NP) nm the other hand, in (7) the clase while we were anu i at AD. VERBIAL CLAUSE (ACI) with sn ADVERMIAL function Inthe ise SUBORDINATION AND COORDINATION 9s (7) (The bua husk away [ie we were aruing}) ‘We cn tell thatthe function ofthe lau is debi because it has the characteris of adverbial at dizcused in 1.3 (2) leis optional (f. The Bursar snk aw), (©) Ieismoblle (cf. he we were arg, the Dug sink away), (©) Teanswersthe question When di the burglar ink vay? ad ths sows self to bean adverbial n terme of meaning, In thn rsqcts, while we wore arguing eke an advo pte, uch during our argument (8) The buna dunk away (uring our neuen 61.2 Servcture In their internal structure, subordinte causes are dsble into the clause elements, , 0, C4. Ifthey were not thee would bono jxti- cation for eaing them clauses ata. For instance, What this eountry ‘needs, which san Sin (4, must itself be broken downinto the elements Osh: 4a) (S12cona) Scans country) Pineedsy]*s) a good temcent i ut in addition, subordinate clases usualy have some maker ox other to hep indicate their subordinate status, There ae thes types of atk ig © A susoRDNATING CONUNCTION: €6. when, that, Deaue, although. ()A.Wit CLAUSE ELEMENT: eg. wut, who, whoever, which gl What time, how. A wi ceseat Isa phase which contains of ‘consists of wh. word (ef 4.32) (Gi) A NONEIKITE PREDICATOR Ge 5.8). As mentioned inthe fart shaper, nonfnite causes (Cl, Cling, Clea) ae thos which have Vi, Ving or Ven a tho fist vet oftheir predictor They ely ‘occur a ain enters, Examples ac: (Martha wit took ee gf Sake)" (wen) (those thes) 4) fart wi tok ee (OC oharerer Sah) wea] (a _foarena wu ook ee *{"(vearng) (those clothe) Wh: elements, tke subordinatng conjunctions, generally come atthe benning of the clause, What distinguishes a we element from con-96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY Junction is that iti on ofthe major elements in elas, such a, 0 ‘rd. Inadition, it hasa special interrogate or relative function Remember alo that, as with wary shove clothes, in (i), & non Anite clause often has no subject. Theretore, we can unlly Wendy a subordinate clause by its wey fst word, which ely to Bea market ‘of types (), Go (a) abore. But there ae two dicts to mention The ist ie hat chore san ‘overlap between conjunction and wh- words, When, where and fot ‘example, belong fo both eteores. The second i that thee ae eet types of clause, espeally common ia informal Fgh, which have no Introductory marker at all. We sal cal the ZERO clsuses, because they have no overt sign of ther subordination to another case, Let us now examine the various cant of subordinate luse, concentrating fist on finite cnx, [Now try Exes] 62 Finite subordinate clauses {62.1 Noun causes (NCI) ‘The main types of nite NCL are theses AL THAT ss bopn with the g thar (2) (Sctharghoss ett} (narely controversi) (10) {(Seamas oeleres) (char ghoss ranth ae sunrise) 1B. Zefo THAT-claves are jst lke thot causes, except that that itself i omitted. 4 ts for 20 tha. clave ie therefore whether we cam insert the a atthe begining ofthe ce’ (1 {C0 (ois) Cake) 8he earth round (12) (0) (Gol) Gake)° [ear the eae round} (C.__ Wit clawes begin witha wh element which may fonction within themas 0,4, ete 13) {5,807 tole) ihe tgaspoon) (is) (a myer) (14) {amin (asked) Gao, 244 ow) (grow) (ny cao) 9) te70n (e wt) BO wmcheer gh Gos 0 ote ary). Jost as that noun clauses often have the role of indicet or eeported atements (2p, 168), 0 wh- noun clauses often have the cleo in Alec o reported questions, We ean this sonnpue (11) xn example OF tm indirect statement, with (16), which san indtectyes-no question: (16) 1 ask) (Ike) {efwhether the earth was ound] SUBORDINATION AND COORDINATION 7 62.2. Adverbal causes (AC) like acrerbe and panes wich act as avebils, ADVERBIAL CLAUSES (2 be clad semantically acording to what question they answer. ‘Table 61 shows some major types. Examples ofthese types ae: 17 {Thar wont hereyr they cou find work}. (ace (G9) {iene hrm ssc she short | aon (13) [ler te wert oer we resin on ayn) {G0} {ret him some money "io thar he could By Rms (pose) cary PY sotow ene tuations carey obo wie butt ‘condition Can Aldimough no goats were scored), it was an excing game) (conta. Table 6.1 avert [Eline danse of question dinatingconiunet Place, Where? here, wherever Time? WWhent | ehen, Before, ero, while unt, ince, wheneier Manner) comparton | How’? an or or tough Reason Way? Breau a, since Parpose may? fo thon Order that Condition Uf unter Contrast ithowsh, though Avera clauses have mvunings which are not often found in other {ivebialy and vloe vera. ‘Thin sway the ble of meanings here i Scent different trom tose in'33.4 and 3.1.3. For example, we fave found st convenient to combine the meatings of time-when, uration and frequency in one catoory of sdverbal lusts of te, [Again we have to beware of ovetapping uses of conjunctions. For example, os has 4 tumber of efferent measings, and ance can express titer time or eas: (29) Ue ot my tes yey], ven ben able odo ‘This sentence is ambiguous between the two Interpretations. "Al these ACs we latoduced By a onjunetion. Thee are also Wi |ADVERBIAL CLAUSES and ZERO ADVERBIAL CLAUSES, but these are98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY les common, and tend to function at sentence adverbial - (24) and (26) ‘lutte the wi ype and (25) the tra type: (24) 14 towers hard Fer), 1 always tite test). (25) [Wombats ir undertaps ate wtaly tales). (26) They breed copiousiy, “which wa pty ‘The ACI in (26) s very sina toa celatie cise (6 6.23), and such nus are sometimes called ‘enental relative case’ 62.3 Relative clauses (RCI) [RELATIVE CLAUSES function as postmodifers ina noun phrase or pr- postlonal phrase, and are thus only indzeetly part of snothe clase (Gee 422,65.) Finite reat dates typically bein withs RELATIVE PRONOUN, socalled because lates the auto the wor orally ‘ounor pronoun, whichis the head of the NP (20) (Doyouknow Sp(tenfone jh iwho can end meatypewsites)}? (28) {Do you nave Gla Levpetriter gE ohch you can lend mel? In @7) and (28) the arrow shows the relation between the relative pro- noun andthe hand ofthe NP. Like noun clauses, relative clases canbe introduced by awh: word, ss in (27) and (28), ot by shat or by zero. We may thus distinguish wi RELATIVE CLAUSES, (27), (28), from THAT RELATIVE CLAUSES, (272 (28s), and ZERO RELATIVE CLAUSES, (285). Te lat two tyPus ae usted by: (220) {Do you know anyone [thet can lend mea typewelter])}? 83) {Do you have (atypewsiter (har you can lend me] TT (240) (Do you have a typewriter [you cts lend eT? ‘The word thar In (275) and (284), however, i diferent fom the thar Which introduces noun clauses: Isa relive pronoun, lke wh and which in 27) and (28), rather than a conjunction. To te thi, notice, that the words who, which and chan these sentences have & NPs Tanetion oF Sor Oi the RCL self ozone aro) eas tet) am) Me ype (0 epemster (4 ahavicdy Sou) "can end) oe. ‘By the way, in standard English only inthe second case can the pronoun SUBORDINATION AND COORDINATION %° be omit: az ete die not noma bfomedby deleting ete proooun futon (218) “(Do yon know (avon ean end mea typewitr) 1 In sition to elt pronouns (nk, whom, which, who, tha) thes arrive seb Coherent), whch sa nage ‘ane cat (29) (the nouse (4 (where) Sc) "Gspent) °Cmy childhood) (20) (the year (4 (when that) Sc) "(was born). ‘Two ther posits, ors Rc intodunl by an adi 20 Qin wih the vate adverb is omitted, an thar RQ in which tit fonction art de (30a) (the year (51 Peg 1) G08) (he yor Aha) SOD ou tom. ‘et after posbly 1s the we ofa prepotoal pease in which these ponoun ce bed. (605) he yar Ein wi) $)ewas bord) (31) (the chldren (fy(wite whom) 8 (used to play). ven the doesnot esha te numberof suc vations on fener ike (0), rp to ee the peposton sone {iendo the nerandvo pace be ae pronoun ins catomay font portion, oes to omit (308) (the year {Chat $00 Pwas bora) pind) (Gta) (the chldeen (°C) "(used to play) wit), [Now ty Eerie 6.1 62.4. Compara dane (CO) ‘Omeanarnve CLAUSES a lke ROB in that they ba a ostmady- ing fueton. Une RCI, however, they may postnodiy not only ‘nouns, But alo adjecties and adverb, The mow common snd most ‘ppial conpanatie case bea to recognise, bese flows compara form such as more, lst, ger ane ntadoed bythe {Se} hr: (32) titnscounry, weet Stmoretood Ql lthen we ean g0¥1). (62) te cenit iter a a tha * inser pope’ ech steno ie (27) do os.400 ENGLISH ORAMDIAR FOR TODAY (94 (Youmust have been working p(bder then Fought (95) tier screa Simore oa tathan Si) "eve had) noe ier) ‘As we can from (35). 2 CCcan be a fll aus; but more often it has ‘ne oF more ‘missing elements. We sal have more to ay about tte ‘misions in 7-3. Under this same heading of “compart clay ‘be include a ange of clases of degre, introduced by such contrctons Sa a8 20am 20 that G9, fae net aru ce gt he cou poy 7) {Ben snot (awe atid Geile tome peopl ak (38) (ewes Cato jhe ilar he rs bucked) 625 Propositional clases (Pct) PRETOSITIONAL CLAUSES, lke prepositional phrases, begin with ape Postion, Just at PP are ike NPs (2.53, 43.3), s0 PCs ae lke NCL fa Symbolic form, we may represent this paral a follows: pt NP= PP; BNO" PCL in fine proportional cues the pepouon flowed y awh. element (25) (The butler was antonised fat what Res] (40) WernvePeitle“evidence i of who commited the muzde) ‘The function of a PCL, as these examples ilustate, ‘the same a that of PP: it ean be elther an adverbial, 1 postmedier. 6.3. The functions of subordinate clauses ‘Table 62 provides a summary ofthe function ofthe subordinate causes ‘stated in 6.2.1-6.2.5. On the right of thi table, we hae lite the Table 62 RETLY SKNORDWUATE CLAUSES ict which een fee News chan 620), ‘bet dsr 622) ‘etn eet 625) 0.6 | compare: |SDIECTLY SURORDWATE CLAUSES (Ge caw wich ae clement ofp) Eon aeneca9 | saaens [Winn ompee a. ‘eponional cane (62) | fonctions | Min NE, AP ve | COME APP SUBORDINATION AND COORDINATION 101 tlements which are closest in their function to the clause clases ted fon the lft, In the middle of the table are given the most common Functions ofeach class We should mention, in concuson that there ae some less common functions of sibordinate claes which have not ‘been Musuated Consider tht example (40 ft pr ht sphere tampa he Sut Downs}) “(proved) “(totally incoerect)] Air certain nouns such a report tn (1) We can have a NC, 8 well at {RCI as posuinoder in an NF. The hat late in (1) canbe mistaken fora RCI but one way to distinguish It fiom RCListo note that nt ‘that doesnot have the function ef a sative pronoun: thar came, for instance, be replaced by which: sche report [whih elephant Te following sentence, infact samblguous between the two interpretations (42) (He received (a message [oharshe had et] [that she half him] in (42) 6 a elatve claus, the NP mens ‘a message which she had Tet hin’; bot ti NCI the mesaing i 4 Imesige othe effet that she had et hi’ ‘A further typeof NCI function, that of postmodern an adjective plus, filusrted i (33) (43) (8c any “tease Yorahie pan ba cola) Ad these fection my ells by 8 PC: (48) 15 sea) "Ca nd for winter ot opponents my gon 64 Nomfinite subordinate clauses In the lst chapter (5.8) we introduced noni claves, and divided them into thee eases according tothe form of the predator: infinite sdnues (Ci), NG clauses (Cling), and EN eles (Clem), We now show how these categories combine withthe furcional clesiation of eu coidnate causes gen in 62.1-62.S. For example, an -ING cle can be further elastied as 2 NCL, as an ACL ats RCL az CCL, e+ PCL We ca esly combine the label forthe cantons make com poste labels; eg NCling means “ING noun cause’, AClen ines “EN adverbial caus In looking at the following Ist of example, remember that, sully, nonfite clases do not havea sbject.ry "NOLS GRAMMAR FoR TODAY GAA. Nonfinke noun cases £2" samme wou CIAuses Qt): (45). (They advze him 4 (4o exes) (hisob) 4 (immediately). (45) (ane, tao you)" sen 4(careaty) 11 3. -G NOUN CLAUSE (Cag tye Sevine) a shox) Ain your betoom)] 2 serous mute (48) [ee yg (em) "(ing threatened) (by the ga 64.2. Non-nie adel cles 20 ININTIVE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE (ACH (49) (People wrkovertine Ayn onder Ooean) extra mone (50) (f(T escape) deteton], Re wore indigo hale Wo can often insert the conjunction none befor the infin an ‘ACH This iets tat the cae’ eight ofa adverb Pupor. B, -ING ADVERBIAL CLAUSE (ACling): GD (acag Not (enowin) °(Bie's intention), the lies Senet the agtoment] (52) [Thecommittecadjouned st 9 p.m. lpg ll further busines) (oeing postponed) “(until the next meeting 1 ©. DC ADVERBIAL CLAUSE (ACen 63) Uyoat*CHeary) Figuis) Acs human beings), they fe ented the quays bac] (54) (marbes Kreesmith, 2, isnead)"(covee)], wasted from the cotrtsoom] 643. Nonfinie relate clauses Av” NFINITVE RELATIVE CLAUSE (RCA): (58) yh bet carl ator S08) "Go bay) 58) yaGsome tots gi with wick)" de) Uh 2B, ING RELATIVE CLAUSE (Ring) SUBORDINATION AND COORDINATION os (51) (We talked pp(to the peasants ge ovorking) Atin the roe ‘i400 ©. -ENRELATVE CLAUSE (Rte): (58) p(T information pene) %an) (at hes ote). 644 NonSinite comparative clauses ‘Thos are less common! (69) {Shear ay tact ly ha to RMD (60) (He is (etter at sleeping o@fag [than doing a fob}. 645 Nondinite prepositional clases ‘The sing clause (PCling) occurs in this category: (61) They escaped plat “cine (rough «window [Wow ry Bert 6) 6.5 Direct and indirect subordination ‘When we nroduoed the rank sale of grammatical units(2.2) we asumed {hte elon te ava ut ofthe ext owe a or example, that clases are composed diectly of pass. Bat we have ‘ow een that thisneed not beso: unlt can bean element () of enother ‘nit ofthe se rank (eg. an edverbial clue as an element of another tls, or (Sof another unit of lower rank (og flatve clause as an ‘lment of noun phrase) Subordination of type (a) may be called Dr RECT SUHORDIATION, ané subordination of type (b)INDRECT sUB- ‘ORDINATION. We summarise these types, together with the kind of bracketing asocated wit them, in Figure 63. The arow here means “am be part of. The broken trou ~——-» indaes that subordination within the word does ake pce, that it snot such general phenom non as subordination within phrases and within causes, Thee folows hove «summary ofthe various typer of tabordiation, the most impor: fant of which we have sready dealt with (Seo Figure 6 3 oven) 654 Direct subordination AL Clause-vithinelase [[CI]: eg, NCLas 5,0; AChas A. 1. Phrase-withinphrae (Ph): e PP as Mot an NPor of another PP.ro4 ENGLISH GRAWOIAR FOR TODAY Figure 63 itr \ / Wout“ Diret Indirect subordination sbordination c.Wordwithinword: eg. tor, writing paper rock-hard, festa Jing. In COMPOUND WORDS, ike these, onewerd (og: thenOU fez) ‘occurs ak prt of another word (eg capo). 652_Inliret subordination ‘A: Chase ihinphrase([C]: eg, RCL as Anan NP oc a P 3B. Phrase-vithinword’ eg. ome compound words contin pre- yea prs Ho hal} meat om) moter (¢. Chase-ithn-word: his ss doubtfl category, bt we might argue that an expression lke barterpudding uring contest i a Soa ‘word in which the sequence (barter pudding)? Onin) ba the Srucure ofan ing las. Te As penerallyagred thatthe principle of subordination (als called embedding) i sent to gramira, but ther fe dagreement om how ‘exactly subordination ist be applied to partcalar constructions tis ‘common, for example, to repard a PP as a phase containing prep ‘ston followed by 1 subordinate noun phrase, sin D: (D ro(pin woth bows) Fetpis Wet, ‘But we have prefered the simpler analysis (I) Although ()isthebatter analy fom some points of iw, i tends to iake the PP appear more SUBORDINATION AND COORDINATION 1s complex than it actually i. Simiary, te posible to regard genitive phiste se 4 NP subordinated within» word (e determiner) Dut gan, ‘we have prefered an analysis Which involves less subordination, ‘Whatever solutions one doses o partial problos, an important ‘points that subordination can be replicated oat to make sentence at Complicated ss we wish: (6) wwohxcnoxsinonsey) wie ter) ole ren) oo theory, thee igo eo the posits of subordination within sbordinaion~ a fac which eal the couplet ‘Great eas have ite less upon thee bac to bite om, “Ane teas have lier ess, and Soe Infinitum. 64 Skeleton analysis ‘Because subordination introduces so much potential complexity into the structure of sentences, it useful to have a simplified notation for showing the yes of structure. Thswillbclleé SKELETON ANALYSB. ‘eee diagrams, although they show structure clearly, tend tobe bulky (ee Figure 64), a aaeean 5 ; ih ay 4 ih ti the man Inthe abby ont fm ate -z ‘Thu i 6 convenient to summarise a structure ike that shown in igure 6.4 by placing singe line under a symbol, to indicate that what- fer constituents occur undeseath that Une azé the elements of the106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY conrituent named above it, For example, (63) shows the same NP as Figure 64 (63) » ‘orn @uNT {In skeleton analysis we nea to we only the function labels A Further trample the following analy of the phrase my unele's frm in the orth of Seotlan: () w_a__) Oni) (MAM) mH 646.1. Skleton aus mays a sor way we cn ie selton cause analyse show the stra {re ofssenensen terms mana subordeae clases, Thesentence: G68) (Sjtaat Sehe ent) "Gn (a)} 7G) Sabon) (to every 22 (66) (ew peopl) "cet ° [hat Sucka) #1] canbe analyte: (6s) (S_PCAl (gsr, (66 18?0_) tasF1 But seston analyst most weful when weare analysing more complex {Sentences containing a sumer of subordinate clases (esa sone hn aa ey mae at ‘Skeleton analysis: (saro 1 Fo. tes Fe) (O3PI (0SF ‘A further devie of abbreviton isto ws double undening as a means (of representing INDIRECT subordination. Suppose we ze analysing & Sentence containing relate dawse: = SUBORDINATION AND COORDINATION 1 (68) [A site i «person pcalwho never pays 2 ene ace uness threatened with prosecution) 1. @ src 1 @ (Pe. ora (saPOa 1 “WaPoa 1. (Pal (oPAl ‘The skeleton analyses (a) and (b) ate both methods of showing the Tiractare of sentence (68); But whereas (2) ows the structure of the Freee Sd the seat cor fe a enatieuent (0) omits this ve, End ingly shows the clauestastures. The double underiing for in: ‘drect subordination js way of saying Tam taking this short cot to Sve wilting out structures which ae in any ease irrelevant tO my pu pose? [Now try Exarise 6d] 6.7 Coordination ‘COORDINATION, lke subordination, is way of making a sntence as GSptee as we ike. Though coordination (ypicaly signalled by the ‘njnctions and, o, or bul), cave, phrses or words or indeod parts [them cane conoined 0 forma more complex construction which {nevertheless of the same rank and Kind. In Figure 6.1 (p. 94) we ‘Somed how this worked inthe eae of coordinate main clases. Hee tus examples of the coordination of subordinate claves (Figure 6.5), {he coordination of pases (actually NPs) Figure 6.6) nd he coord ation of woud (asta aecsives) (Figure 6.) Figure 6s108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY Figure 66 For breakfast, I have 2 cup of tea and a roll, be 7 ieee t 7 ea | ah el a ysl ‘Again, however, it 6 convenient to save space and effort by using skcleton analysis for most purposes. n skeleton analysis and in abled trackeig, We oe ANGLE BEACKETS {0 enclose the two ot more el Inents, of COORDINATES, as we shall ll them, of a coordina con ‘ruction, Examples (@8) (1) repent the structures of Figures 6.5, 66 nd 67 (69) (oyatwra 1) and ev)“ Seo ret thine (70) {Por beaktast, thave Gana ca of en) and Np (4 11D] SUHORDINATION AND COORDINATION 109 (7D (ste painted a Mahe gad ayes) poste] In skeleton anys i is convenient t use the“ sign to indicate the coordinating eonuntion: (72) Prue grou, bat Leather tke hin, (SPC) + {5.4 POD) (G3, You can po 8 hegue or cap 2) #(@ 10) ‘There can be ambiguity sto what is being coordinated for example, ‘He wos wearing oi shoes and user may Fay 0% imply tat he {rowers ar 8. The two abies ae (9) plo shoes) gand were) 0) Sptoitenoes and rouse, 67.1 Omitting conjunctions ‘There may be more than two members ofa coordinate construction: (74) The primary colours are fo and green and blue...) tin such cates tural for the conjunction to be used only once, before the lst eoordiate: (75) Bap an be Gotied ed, poached, or seamed. ‘Alo, conjunctions can be omitted altogether. This may be called UN- LINKED COORDINATION (76) (You nots man, you're a mouse ‘To represet unlinked cordiation, we may we acommain the selton aly thus (76) isarlysed ([SPnot C], (SPC). 68 Summary and conclusion In thi chapter we have introduced clsiication of subordinate clauses oun chuse (NCD; adverbial cle (ACD); relative clause (RC); ‘mpanitive daase (CC), prepositional ance (PC). ‘The abbreviations for these may be combined with the abbreviations for sonfate clauses (Cl, Cn, Cen ee 5.8)to form composite bels such a NCling (NG noun clause); ACK infinitive adverbial awe), Rls (4 relative clu).ENGLISH GRAMBIAR FOR TODAY “The angle brackets () are wed to enclose coordinate onstruction, ‘whether the coocdnates (members) ze clauses, phrases, words, ete ‘We have inuoduced a mod of analysis, keeton analysis, which can be vied fo summarie a structure which it would be tedious f0| tale nfl, Skeleton analysis makes wse of: 0) Ondinary fonction labels such 8 SPO C4, Met, (i). Undediing to indicate subordination. {ii), Double underining to Indicate indirect subordination. (0) Angie brackets () te snslow a coordinate construction,‘ t9 indicate linked coordination, abd comma to indiate unlinked coordination. We now have the means to arlyse the most complex entenocs, and it tv! be fitting to ead tis chapter with an exarnple of parsing (of a Sentence ftom P.G. Wodehouse, The Code of the Woosters) which it ‘oles a varity of strutores, including both subordination and coord ation of clase, Fist, ere isthe sentence i ts crginal printed form: ‘he lnghed ~ abit ouder than T could ave wished in ny fai Sate of heath, ut then se isawayen woman who endsto ring ‘lst fang from the cling when amuse Now bee isa vson wth bed bracketing uatS (sie of Miarden GMa dit Houser than ASAD sfetecous ave Med Ata Hay) fat Haat Mego Het} )gbe west See) fhe) ween dt away) Sia woman Sito) Yetiendn Zigkto Mri louse fe IyFCtaing Higtion Yate Heit A fen (Mamas) Finally, ere is skeleton clause analysis of the same vntence: (5PA__J+asrac » 135? 41 Bro A roe iar eal Now ty #xorse 6) We anaiys abi at's dase adver, asasinge word, Other azayses ‘would be posse SUBORDINATION AND COORDINATION ut Exercises [Exercie 6x (answers on . 207) Draw tee dagrams (complete with form and function abel) of sen- tence (5) and (7) on pp. 94, 95 respectively Exercie 6b (anoerson 208) Exch of the following sentences contains one subordinate luxe, For ‘ach nus, dosrve fe suet in terms of 3 0. C40) 3 tether iis noun aus (NCI, an adverb cise (ACD, or alate {Esswe (RCD, (in oe cane of cach adverb clase, tem fs mea Ings ime, condition, cones, 1 When we asked her], she sang anol Prtagonan ise Shesang cate tne, [otha everyone woul go sa] have forgotten [who eave us this preset] {The pore [ho wave un his present was my sea uncle Cedi Stenbacker had lige room (un which he Kept sigan foes for bis experiznonts] [ny you Bouse that elephant gu] I cannot imagine [atthoush Pauls sometiners touch rather lie him. ‘Thay tellme [te eats voraciouly] ‘Thesnale| he ext voracious] ae expensive, [Bxercie 62 _(azswees on p. 208) THenfify the nontiite clasts bracketed inthe following sentences 8 Cling, Cen, and ay wht funtion they hae (8, O, A, A rere [spenking to you so rudely) {am very sory [to have caused ou offence) {or Max fo pay Rs gail mel would e very sures. sae (Spurs beaten by Vila ast Saturday {Having remarkably stron tet], Batman soon severed the res conning i. ave several important hings [2 ato her. [Duncan hating reed for the right, Lady Macbeth put her sister plan int effet. TAlveys haunted by pulty memories], Ne lusked a the scene of Necime. Exercise 64 (ansvers on p. 208) ‘The following sentences are pmatialy ambiguous, Show the amb tutes by avin two diferente skeleton analyes foreach netenca ‘Rh samc‘ oomment to enlan how the bug ee 1. Leet citing her bite 2. Tedeary remembered the time when Tlooked at my watch.m INGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY 3, told him that I had waiten the essay before he gave the lect, 4. Topeak the truth frankly ban unsafe poly For the following, three diferent skeleton analyses canbe given: ', The combatant prod to sgn a peace reaty in Geneva lst woe, 6 We mnt od te farmer who own the lle where we can came. 3. Mound tie dog smoking x cle. Exerce Ge (answers on p. 208) ‘Again, distinguish the different interpretations of the same sentence by ‘ifort akleton analyses, using angle bracket () to enclose coordinate ove Danish butter and chess. ‘Thor officers always wer punk berets and mowsaches, ‘She as pase hor examin Preach, Gorman an English erature, ‘The manvecripe very od and ct to ea, ‘Tt evening we tayo indoors, eadng abd iting letters, Twas taveht by the am who taught Mabel and the woman who fue you and Fred ‘Tac ncghbouthood ie infested with stray ctsand dgsof usstion- she parentage, 48, Mouatjoy wasa ret lover and ardent student of English language 7 Basic and derived structures Chapters 2 to 6 have oulined » method of parsing English sentences In thie final chapter of Part B, we concentrate on some difficulties you fe likely to meet when you apply ths pursing method to seatences You rest in texte, At we do this, we shall ketch ip an extra dimension to thes of grammar that the sudy of what we may call BASIC and DERIVED structures This wil emble us to Jeal with range of tzammatial patterns which do not Fit nel int the iow of grammar {far prevented. But Fi, let us take sock of What has beta dose up 7.A_ Constituent structure grammar In Chapter 2 (p. 23) we defined grammar, roughly, 8a et of ‘ules for ‘ofr, shave been pray ed in analysing’ ether than “constructing: eset, we have Down ating ta pusng of sentences, and have been mainly concerned vith the kinds of ree which enables to iden tho constiuents of Seatences, and their structures. For example: (@) “The structure of an NPis MOD. (MEY (peityng the suture ‘falas of connitent) (©) ‘An Osan be an NP or sn NCI (crying what cases of constituent ‘an fila given functional sot. (©) ‘Asabordizate clause canbe eter fst or none (opeciying the sbelaes of onstituten) ‘Such ls canbe uted in nas, but i they were formulated precitly enough, they ould abo De ued for consructing of generating {Fammatial sentences by ele, For example, we could ue such role onsract a sentence like The quettion may are. Bat we cou not Use them to conse sonteness sh (1) The sk may ee (2) "The question are may.na ENGUISII GRAMMAR FOR TODAY Way not? Because each of these sentences vltes one of te rates of English grammar, Ta (1) a isa V, not aN, and cannot therefore be tel as heed of 4 aoun pra, 1n (3) may isa modal auxiliary nd We I tunes, can only oreur before the main vei, not aftr I. Thus the rls that have been presented in artherpasive sense asa means (tana canals be tought of na more active, prodctve sense as MODEL ofthe English speakers Knowledge of grammar, whether tis fed tov analyse sentences, t0 produce them, or to judge whether Sentences are wammatieal on. ‘The model_we have presented may be called 2 CONSTITUENT SSrRUCTURE model of grahmar, and works pretty wel. But there are Some anpects of Eopish grammar which it tis to expan. Some of {Bem have bee glimpsed sready. Ou esponse to them isnot to throw fay the whole model, but rather to see how the model can be ine rove or extended to cope with thers, The re diagrams of constituent Erocute grammar provides two-imensonal view, and what we sim {fo now isto make that grammar threemersiona by intodvelng the focon of BASIC and DERIVED structure, For thi, we call ona further in of grammatical ul called « TRANSFORMATION." Thisis he kind fof rule which relates two different constituent srscurs, [Now try Exerc 7a] 7.2 Basic and derived structures Te is often said that Enc has 2 Fay fixed word onder, but that ‘ception orders ac allowed. Actusly, when people discuss Englsh Swowordet, they simoxt nvrably cefer fo what woul! be more onetiy called “phase order = the order of elements inthe clause (he ‘Srdor of words in phtues being moze or les fined). And in this onection me have aleady astumed a neutral, base order of clause tmonts'S ®,0,.A.- whichsthat ofthe normal decaativ clase ‘We have already imple, however, that some other clause types~ es. [pesion,cletie clauses can bo explained as systematic deviations ‘Hom this expected order, Hare are some more examples! (2) 1 (ator (cook {3 (Coekeals) (D (adore. sro. os ‘BASIC ORDER DERIVED ORDER TURES Ean gone on fr came Nema en 1973). Oar to me ay inal of th concep a mee Sf exe ‘uta eons eto sence sete | | | | sic AND DERIVED STRUCTURES us (2, imoomareeania maeomon are (40) {Catan ope (ook). DERIVED ORDER CSP (2) (therm (came) Gowe). =“ MASCORDER SPA fs Ideenianeiaerin]. summer 47 Je) (Dowson) DenweDonoeR 457 We can now compose rouphandeadyruls to explain sich variations fof oader (eee Table 7.1). These rules can be called ‘trasformatins* ‘ecause they change one cause stretae lato another. The advantage ff auch tabs is that they alow sto Keep the idea of a bad’ or Speita ordering an ordering that wil be used unless there some ‘eas for doing otherwise ~ and at the same time account for acept- Sie departores fom this order. We have already adopted such an Spproath, for example, in explaining question (in 54.1), and eelaive uses (in 62.3) Sine constituent structure ean be dslayed in two- “mensional ree diagram, Figo 7.1 Bows how transformations give ‘inenta,thitd dimension to gamma. This diagram shows the relation Beeween (3) and 3) by means of he Tooting rule ~ Rule Table 7 Figwe 7.1ne ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY ‘Transformations ae either OPTIONAL of OBLIGATORY. Rule 1() i optional Decause ether order i grammatial: (6) ‘Serbey) (eat 2) “tne Teas Rane]. (60) (Ccthe Texas Ranger Seey) Pcl) (me) Rule 1(0), om the other hand, is obligatory, because only the derived ord possibe: (2) st oswreeve 150) Flam doing) oad (7a) Yaw se (chat) 5) "ar dong. In suc ease we obviously cannot say thatthe base orders the more likely or expected one; nevertheles, i the contest of English as & whol, the $0 onder is sual. ‘Another way of expressing the same thingistosay that he P O/CJA ‘orders the unmarhed order ie the netal order Gat is used Wien ‘here Is no reson fo Us some other arder- whereas the O/C/A SP frder i marked, The deaved, or marked, form is often, but aot nocesariy, the let frequent one, and the one which is sylstically tore noteeble, 7.3. ‘Missing’ elements 734. Omiaion of relative pronouns ‘Another phenomenon of grmmar that we have encountered, end inhi the constituent structure mods des not expla, isthe existence ‘of thos” elements which do not occur in a iven sentence, ‘evethsles“undersood” as part of the meaning ofthat sentence (8) Theories (ich) (he) nvented)] were incredible. 108 (a) Thestores [he (vented) were inerediie, [SPI In socordance with Rule 1(0), the relative clause in (8) has is objet (Ghe relative pronoun which) in font postion. But in (82), whichis ike (6) inal other spect, this objects omted-We would lice os, all ‘the same, that the object na sense is cher” in (8, because met is ‘eb which cannot normally occur without an objet: He imental Is {neammatel. But how ean we st thatthe pronoun act ther’ on the one hand, and 3s tere” onthe other? Away to make sense ofthis fle isto treat (Bs) ata derived structure, and to say that arte of RELATIVE PRONOUN OMISION comers (8) into (83): ‘BASIC AND DERIVED STRUCTURES a7 Rule3:‘A_ relative pronoun preceding the subject can be omitted" 732. Ombsion in comparative dauses Like reatve cus, compartie clases canbe aking in on ore othe elements: (2) oir tater [tan "ee (ete ees) cad) But unlike the relative cus case, there no option in this ease of clause in which the ‘sng element actually occu: (29) "iti tlle (than he seems tal} So this sam example wher the omission i obligatory But ually the ‘omindons in the comparative clause ae optional: (103) [Ann can knit mittens faster [han Pam ean Kait mittens] [gsPo (10%) (Ans cam et mittens faster than Pam can}}. 6) $ Aux] (105) (Ana ca eit mittens faster (than Pam). (PP) In (10) so much of the basic structure of the clause has ben omitted that what remains is mecely a prepositional phrase (chan behaves here like & preposition), So omleaon can actully affect the rank of constituent In (108) the auxlay remains, but the rest ofthe cause 's missing. This tustates ELLTSIS (ee 13.4), the type of omision which avoids repetition of words and structures used elsewhere in the context (inthis cas, in the MCI. The constuction of (10) s deed father tha base because, contary to base constituent structure rales, tlhe ours without i 733. Omision in coordinate constructions ‘We have already absered ow coordination of words and phases often imple epi (11) {Moy an her siter)) (ae (il) (schoo) ‘parted fom these of te meen by commas o ther punctation maths ice Seah er wn en, nee ee chus ENGLISH GRAMBIAR FOR TODAY (11) has meaning which canbe spelled ut 28 (11a) {Cfoth) 4) (ti) (at schoo] and [her ster) () (at shoo ere apn the notions of baic and derived structure ae helpful, A fatenge containing two coordinated phrases (here NP) can be regarded ‘Setniog Hom a sentence with two coordinated clauses, The sme is tue of coordinated words: (413) (Crh hte) (vas Camazed and detighed)) (Oy what he so) mest the sea: (12s) {(The butler (oes amazed) (by what he saw) and (he tle) (ors datihted) (oy what be 207) We can easily think of (11) and (12) a being derived by sist fom the move somplex sentences (11s) and (1a). But there o dieu {hpusing them as they stan, once we allow coordinated words and ‘hes ke Molly and her ster). Less straightforward, howeves, are Riper of coordination where the coordinate parts are not whole Constituent, Fo instance! (13) {(She) ( (G00 (out of Be and nent (0 the phone)? Here the elements coordinated are whole clauses except forthe ube: SPA + PA) Sil more tieky ie a ‘where the coordinate parts are not even composed of elas elements ues (veo ee 0) Sosh examples as (13) and (14) exemplify {(0n( phone) (the hotel and order) ome burc) 1 Figure 72, My 0. one) (he bored) and Me ‘rder) (ome anc) | | | [BASIC AND DERIVED STRUCTURES 119 RANCHING COORDINATION, and Figute 72, in which the coordinate "rvetutes branch out of shared part ofthe clause, shows why this is sn appropsate mame, ‘Thee 0 ary way of decding, in sich cases, whether the sentence consist of one or two clauses, Perhaps itis most senile to ay tha if the two coordinate parts have afferent man verb, they are diferent {Sauses, On tis basi, both (13) and (14) ae complex sentences, each ‘ontalning coordinate clauses. "Thee and the preceding examples can be explained by a rle of ‘coomTmeaTION REBIICTIN. sry ously flows Rule 4: "Two oF more coordinate clauses can be reduced in length bythe omission of any words and structures ‘which are mere repetitions of what is in one of the caves” 713A Tagquestions {There ates numberof conditions under which eiptcal causes such as that of (106) occur, They cur, for example, in eps to questions (15) Who would tke sane coffer would]. [5 Aux} Perhaps the most interesting type of eliptcal clause is the TAG ‘QvESTION ~ an interogaive cause which staged” onto the end of 2 declaative ie, and which ats as a request or confmation: (16) {We must eo now], maser’ we]? (Aux not S17 (27) [You aren ening, [ar youl? [Awe 31? Such questions, which s10 common in convertion, ae a rather centre feature of Engl. They change acording to the form ofthe Glecaratve clause, whereas sla tags oter languages (eg, French IMestoe pes, Ilian non 2 vero) ae invaable. Tag. questions are “ificale rom the paring pein of view, not jut beease of their ‘ipa form, but because their relation with the preceding clause Seams to fit nether the patter of coordination nor that of sub- tnlination, Perhaps i isbettr, fs decision must be made, to eat tags torr of unlinked coordination (67.1) (48) sgl Youcan drivel, yeafcant youl? (19) sis fe sa that), yc he? 74 Split constituents We have alteady met constituents which ate split info two parts by an “otra element:120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY 20) (Serie eam) us (often) beaten) (ur ten] at) PecqnSigou) div) Mace)? Such discontinuities spol the neatmess of the constitvent structure Sexe ruling tee ingame with criscrosing branches, as Figure 73 shows, ewe ® \ ala 5 AP O a rhea oh ewe VY aN TET Lt “Thee team has often beaten our team. ‘ocean, helps to supped teria simpler as structure for ee een and tha the epting of phrases ares in died {ot et Fs enna spoon, sce the ogo hs clause sea etic ise se cements may osu ina Siento, Shou spleng (201) Sree tam)" ete ®(ou tem) (ote) (ata) Sevou) "(ean arive) a ea). Se to acount fr (20) an (21), we can postulate (2) le which So fram fal poston wo ea postions nthe le, more whch ves fw sbjc nd finite operator. Here ln, and "af invading the otons of base sroctre and derived the Pot able a to ake pnetalationy, be 0 aera, ‘rete agi gamma whch woud otherwise sum Dali iow ry Execs To and Te 7.8 ‘Double analysis’ 'A fina problem with a purely constituent structure model of graromar [BASIC AND DERIVED STRUCTURES nt fs that it sometimes leads to wo conlitng analyses, neither of which Ss saisfactory on ie ow. TSA The pasive reconsidered 1h passive clause clase cae ofa structure which stems to require a double analy (22) Sri") (ee ea duran) (on thee (220) (Sethe cat bum) "oa item) (on the ep) (by Fido]. ‘Te setation Vetween thee two sentences (and sma pi) i obvious, dl canbe represented by a rule converting an ative type structure ice {G2 into a pasve ype structure lice (23) ales (passive) {ortional) [fhe Sy |= [fn henry In words, this means that the object ofthe active clause becomes the subject of the pase clause, and the subject of the active clase becomes the AGENT of the pave clause, Leth adverbial introduced {By the preponton by. Traiionsly, the oa-Surlr tn (228) has been Called the “grammatical” subject, but the opel objet of the las, Bol how ean an slement be both Sand at the same time? In terms of simple constteent structure model it cannot; but in terms of the Aistnction between base and derived stractue, ts perfectly sensble to sy thatthe car burglar le O in base structure, bu Sin the pase ered strctore, In this way, transformations alow us to have our he at iy at apa ems sa both comet. 752 Sobject ring Hie isa sightly move complicated example of the same type. English there & ¢ common (ype of construction, called CATENATIVE (chance), where a sequence NP, + VP, + (NPs) + VPs VP, Being n-ne (se Table 72 ove ‘Since there ae two VPy there most be two Pe, and therefore two causes a finite clause and's noninite one. But the sats of NPs Is luncear stam Oia the mn clause ore Sin the non‘ite cate? or (23) and (24), the etter ofthese two analyses the ister. (230) Scioiny F(aszed (Sever) to warm) (is shipper}ba cumonsnrosent rata AcE SNE mee ee shes ie pee | a ales, ex [eer [Bae Be S| Se | Be G3 be sece,| Bosom | GE | S| | | SS || | Bie Ee “The following arguments favour (233): (4) _ The Vin the main clause, dei, isthe kindof verb which takes th 0 (ea. John deed a bath). Go) We can change NPs VP, +NP, oto the pasve without & {hang of meaning, thus suggesting that these thee elements shouldbe tnalysed ae lus, with the structure [S PO} (238) (John dese (he tippers to be warmed by his valet] (©) NPy +VPs +NPy is lpsly equivalent to «finite NC function Inga obec: (23). (John desire (hat hie valet should warm hi ipper 1 (On the other hand, for (27) and (28) the best analysis sams to be Aifferet: Caray Berinay Pts) ene secretary) O40 ep) a ett} “Th arguments in favour of (270) ar (8), The Vin the main cave ake the pattern [SP OF Od} (08. They ‘ld measton). ("Nr behaves like the O of the min lus, that i can Bosome sject ofa pase clause (78) [te secretary wa told [type ater by Ta (On this cate, unlike that of 23), it iomly the VP, + NPs thats Topical eutealent toa nite NCI: (2%) (Tina old the secretary (tat she must type a ete] but Nor: (274) *UTina tld [thatthe scztary must type a ete] [ASIC AND DERIVED STRUCTURES 3 ‘So we have found that class which appear on the surface to hae the fame kind of structure, lke (23) and (27), actully equ different iialyees The main difficulty comes, however, when we look a Sentcboes ke (25) and (26). For some purpose (08 fr argument (6) shove) they are ike (23) (264). {Bob considered (that gammaris a waste of time} ] Bot for other puspons (eg argument 2) thay are ke (27): (26%). Grammar was considered [tobe a waste of time] by Bob] Thus we have to entertain conting analyses ofthe same sentence (263) (Bob considered [grmmar to bea waste of tims] (264) {Bob considered grammar [to be aware of tel “This lem, like that which rose withthe subject ofa pase clase, fan be revolved Hf me allow both analyses to coexist ~ that of (260) being the asic stucte (the one whichis appropriate “logally speaking) and (260) the derived srctue, To get fom (262) to (268), swe apply a fle which ras the subject of 2 subordinate eiause and Iker the object ofthe malin clase! Rule 6 Caubject alsng) [Sr, Sey scl, try) 1 UP, Re scalvr,-- 1)" 7.6 Back to parsing CCatenative constructions sucha those of (23)-(28) above are among the most problematic constructions in English they demonstrate more flea than any of the examples 10 Tar the ned for both base and eve structures to be considered the analysis ofa sentence. But {hate isl stole forthe "two-dimensional parsing of tee diagrams tnd labelled bracketing, Its very convenient to be able to beak down Sentences, 0F sequences of sntencer in text, into their visible or odie "working put For this purpose a parsing ofthe dried Stricture that fe roguired, We must have a seroceable method of Stalpsing the sentenoe a appears when wetten down om a page, but "abe lintve clas ee belo as «complement, bees os se Fr obese epee fo wntese Ie Bab comin pears wn of mena ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY this method must be rather more exible chan that which was allowed {beh Chapters 2-o; we must even be allowed to improvise to some tent the way we represent the sucture of sentences. Consider ‘hse examples of dried cause structures (29) {€¥ou) (shoul always) arive) [before the boss doe (50) ip), on) fae) omen [oer “The main clause in 2) may be beled (SABAI, showing te opt Tis te hoioaal basket. The sabortnate ibe ty be ciyed as [3 Stel, ina way which mes clus element () with Sine ames (auc) (133, 7.34), showing that elias as ‘tgnved ths ase of Hs main verb n (30) the mun clause has 160 “Iie elements which split tbe predator (ASAPO, and he ‘ante clases Maa sanded preponion: [to Pp All these ottione soreciy tender the sroctues of thei caus, eventhough Tour of them ally confor to the constituent suture model, ‘Tiurby clus ie analyed exhaustively at ech rank, 164 _Amalternatie analysis of catenaive constructions Returning to eatenatve constructions, we may find cures puzzling Iabortumy ove the reasons for ehoosing between thee lterative “mules for what appeas tobe the same type of construction. For Gay Ge) and (28) it can be argued tha the following diferent prsngs tf derived sracre are tobe eve: (2H tsP0_1 1570} (26) (sPoaC 1 Fe (28) {sPoLoa) Tro} (24) 4 tke you tote this ete, (26) Bob considers grammar to bea waste of tine (08) She eked me to phone et. Moreover, the boundaries between thee three analyses are srmetines Uncen i maybe better fo replace this analysis in terms of sub- brination by another typeof ali which hs been wiely adopts. Ta ie wean the "one saueeconeprediato ule, and to allow & finale inst to contain mote than ope predictor, of which oly the fit canbe fine, So in ation tothe elgt clave patterns sted in ‘Tose £3 (p85), ther also may be patterns suchas the following BASIC AND DERIVED STRUCTURES ps [sPm..1 (Por... Mary was tog Mary wasis eto wo. (sP Ping. Is PO Fiag..1 Mary stopped talking Mary stopped me talking, [sP Pen...) [sPore...1 Mary at disuse, Mary st he end attacked (Gee Pi, Ping, ad Pen sand respectively for infinitive, ng and ‘redicatve In fctbyadmiing etauss wath more than one predator, Waa pens doo to das th many petra we (21 Ber ix going to have to try to get me to help him mend the sink] fas the srastre (SP PFOA 0 PO]. Hower, the convenionce NG ef amt ayo ee Peng atte and weoffer it sa erate tothe parang cxempieg ‘by (24), (26) and (28) above: ee (2 tsPon01 29 (srorcl (8) 8001. 7.7. Style and transformations From te examples goa, it wil be cla thatthe anfomatio rom ban to dered stares leaves the content of 3 sertonce ley cane Hee many oman party tae, wk tnove contents around la the setenoe-are primary syle a Rnaion For empl why soul we prefers pie serena oan auivalat active one? The anwer i mogeted BY the folowing, In tlch the find and commicateely most important element (oe 1223) ate aed (22) The heney rin have destroyed seventy houses (Gan) Seventy houses have bon dstoyed by the heey ai (Gab). Seventy Hous have bon destroyed. ‘One function ofthe pase a8 in (524, to put the main emphasis on the gia! subst” of the sentence, by moving it towards the end. "Novee in this connection, the diferent emphasis of (32) and (52). [Another function of the passive, quite the opposite af this to permit the ‘oil subject to be omitted altogether, as in (32), which Inks16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY ‘he optional set Corset (22), (82) and (225) we ely Inte diferent conmunat ete, 0) mt G2) #6 ay "To condud th shape, we now data number of other ae ot Sve tasfomain nal of then eof he hag of Sct Inger ee to tov men othe nto te ttn ironing), o to ove ovr tt ead Cpsigsoanet) The faction of Postpone gral move Sema toe Poston wher nt tenn fratn aes he fet oon an sent eee tae cone wt tether gone ben etn 17 ‘Cel sentence ‘often poset form a numberof fie “cnr” sEArENcES" from the same basic sentence: e (23) Soha was wera ik rock ae twas tha wa wen ink sock a ht. ‘pin sock tat Joke sor reagan {2} ‘lenght tat Tobn war wenan pasos i fowing i rough approximation tothe ul for forming let (© hoo an eens of te cae # may be SO, Cor A, bat (“Move that element (which we may call X) into the inl aon, then pets 1 the pop subj! a the eh fo (Gd “Thioduce the sot of the cave by the rate pronoun 1 following Xx.” f 7 ‘Thus in (33) the following structures ae derived Itbes that POA) (a) ItbeOtnas Pal [8] bed thats PO] e} Ispoa) > Tile ttc’ ders ae rom the ft that ig ase ‘is ‘left’ into two separate clauselike parts. But iti general eel 4s cue wi to py her fe ep 177.2 ‘Existential sentences ‘This type of clause resembles the ‘lft sentence’ in that tis introduced by aapecil partici as subject, followed by the vetbfo\be. The prop? [ASIC AND DERIVED STRUCTURES i ssbjec nthicae is the so-caled EXISTENTIAL particle there, inroduc~ {ng proposition of existence: (64) Noboty was around, + Tere was nobody round, (G5) A few people ae getting promoted, > There area few people (G6) A whole box hat been stolen, + There has teen a whole box olen ‘The follwing is 2 rovsh approximation to the rule we can use for Aevving existential “renenoss fom a. siaiitforward declarative cau: [sbex] + [Therebesx1 howe $ i an indefinite NP, and X is anything which i added to ‘Complete the clave after the operators RE. 1.73, Extrposton ‘Tide term ir aed fora construction in which a noun caus, usally ‘ne fntioning ae set, postponed to the end of she MC, and is ‘placed ints ase postion bythe empty” abject ef. 62.1) (67) {OW you say to thom) doesnt matter], [It doesnt mater [seat yous to them (28) {That the caput hasbeen seted) is encouraging] [It sem our tba the inputs hasbeen seta} (8) [{To move ni arm] exuss him considerable pon]. [It eases ln considerable pain (to move his eal ‘The clase is ually the most complex constituent, and extrapostion postpones st in accordance with the principle of ‘endoweight” ee 12.2.3), Soin thi eae it the base structure rather than the derived siractute that 4 the marked one, The aralyss of the changes in G1)-(G9) eas folows: om risers) om Brel mrcg| 0m Ge Foroet =P OL01g “Thee moe type of stylistic transformation willbe Slustratd without18 ENGLIBH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY 7.74 Fronting of subordinate clause object I coavenlnt to take the extesposion construction of 7.73 a the base structure for this example of fronting (40) teva pleasure to teach her. > She's a lease to each, (41) Ie etic to play 2 saxophone. A saxophone i iliclt to play. (42) fun tobe with Margaret. > Margaret fun tobe with, 128. Suhatitation for indirect ohjnt (G3) Ti ent Freda a telegram, Tim tent tlorem to Fred (44) Moira knited her mother a tez-cosy.—+ Notts katd a te-cosy {or er othe, (45) Bis Goding Ae brother job. Bile nding fb for his brother. 7.76 Postponement of postmedifcr (46) The time to think of many things has come,» The time as come fe thisk of many thins (41) A meeting of al the ratepayers was hei. A meting was held of ‘the ratepayers (48) hae les time than I ued to have nowadays, T have less time nowadays than Tue fo hate, [Now try Exercises 74 and Te] 7.8 Summary and conclusion In this chaper we ave been able ony to touch on sme ofthe more subile and complex areas of English grammar, As far as parang con ered, these constructions reque u to introduce some latte ito ‘the notions for granimaial analysis intragace in eater chapters ‘We have reinttoduced and extended the ise of fr showing a split constituent, and have extended the practice of using named Parties (eg. not, if, thee) in our labeling notation, We have als) ‘ecopnised the ned for parsing with mixture of rake. [Ate] for Tag questions) where ep sve is to “efeti’ structures, ‘The inreduction of stylistic transformations ia. leads naturally into the application of grammar to the study of syle and compotion {pics which are developed later inthe book, ASIC AND DERIVED STRUCTURES ne Exercises Exercise 7a (answers on p. 210) [pplnn why these are not grammatical sentences in English: 1, *Thestanding a the door gil wat euking, 2 Sy nas got aod intresting, 3. SH has very good reputation fr, Five you any comments ont? Exercise 70 (eneweronp.210) Examine nce age poe of tencs gen inExarcie (7) Formulae at irasformation, rales by wiih neprven, dbo mia bentanan ig goeelone nd compass may be Alte fom the bee decane trate” Ada mel re tol ‘ey oY ett rete oovot n atllly igor ay ut of coum the mare rece you can make {om the outer You ‘nay soe eter speoal symbols or oriary words) Eyercse Te (answer on p. 211) Brcket the following sentences contsning branching coordination, ‘sig angle brackets a in examples (13) and(14) on p. 118: 1. Every moming Pat gets nt her car an drives tote office, Hive you been itening to the radio or watching television? Ubouahts puppet for Linda an ea) -bet for Malcolm. [A lt the Eh went back to sehoolané we had aes. Unfortunately Jack Spat kes ean met, but his wife does. Witt practice, your vice wil gow more veal, and your breathing ore controle, Exercse74 (answers on p21!) Tr Tavent two mare examples ofeach ofthe sylitic transformations Introduced in 7), 1215 and 77.6, Gie both the base andthe Aerved structures 2. Give as preci and general a description a you can of the relationship between the fwo structure,130 [ENGLISH GRAMDIAR FOR TODAY Bxerce Te (answers on p. 212) Dos aksleton cate anaes (66.1) of the following sentences 2 1 was ou that, alchoush Rose had often been to her Aunts in ‘Southtord she ad never talked lone with her cousins before, There was sinister atmorphere aboot the deur cotten, a 5 was here that Gilpin had decideé on hs lst, desperate couse or ection. PART C APPLICATIONS8 Discourse analysis: speech and writing 8.1 Introductory If you have worked through Pat B of this book, you sould by now be quipped to analys the structure of Engl sentences, In this chapter lan the next we aim o demonstrate how tis knowlege of gamma ct ‘be applied to the analysis of DISCOURSE, o pieces of lngusge wish sate bigger than sgl sentence “The term DISCOURSE apples to both spoken and waiten language (trary an nonsterary), i fatto any sample of language sed for any purpose. In Part B we used mostly Invented senteners fr analy, and didnot pay much attention tothe context iawhih they might hae ‘ecared. This was neces in order o focus onthe sentence a. unit (of language structure, but now we sal expand our horizons to lok at ‘hunks of language i atl we, In 1.33 we Briefly examined the categories of language use which affect language variation for al language users, Thess catagories were ‘TENOR, MODE and DOMAIN. The cxtogory of NODE ls prteual ie ortant becausoitiselatd to thedstinetion between speech and wating ‘As we said in 13.3, mode ‘ha to do with the effects ofthe mei in ‘which the Inguage i transmitted, The obvious dtnction for English {is between the anditory and vil medi, that between speech and wing. nT. we made the pont that grammar i atleast st much he dy lof speech asthe study of walt, Weng intrinsically no “beter oF “worse than speech, but each peforms diferent functions in soit, es iferent forms, and ext diferent Ingutic characteristic. I this chapter we shall compar speech snd writing in dtaly and out ‘comparison wil be dusted by the atalyni of spoken and witen di 8.2. Speech and writing: which comes fist? 1 1.1 we said that the written language i Secondary toitsppken form, 1134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FORTODAY which developed fis However, it should. ot be secondary in our {onsderaton, for a We sal go, writen and spoken language hae di {erent functions, different forms and diferent lng charsteriice, In the history of the human race, spoken language certainly cane before wing We have no evidence ofthe existence of a wating sytem of any kind before about 3500 9C, wheat we asume thi rpken Tanguage existed well before then, Inthe history of ndivivalsobetie, spoken language slo predates waten language, aad many languages spoken today fave no written form. For the indidual,too, spoken ‘nguags comes fry since chron learn to sea before they een to However, in societies which do have writing systems (uch asthe ‘Roman alphabet, used for English and many other languages), theweten Janguage i very important fom a soil and educational plat of view [ would bo ipo to imagine our own society functioning ss we know it without the advantage that writing gies (oe 83). Literacy it lowly astociated with cvlstion and education Is 0 woader, then, that the written language usually has greater socal peste than the spoken language, and mare official recogation. Speech isofenevalsted Sbeialy according tots closeness to the written language, which eX his why standard spoken English probably closer to writen Engh than is any other spoken wasity. Waite Isiguage is oRen viewed more coret’than spoken language, and as more worthy of study. Abo, ffom a gl pot of ew, waite language takes precedence waiter contract, for example, ls more binding than a eral or spoken soe sent, However fom a nguitiepitof ew we cn ny my tat speech and wilting are different; we cannot ay that one fe superior the other, 8.3 Functions of writing and speech ‘The sock prespe of written language is probably derived from the le fucose ten ty emf oeoaiy. " Witing has the advantage of relative permanence, which lls for record comping in form independent of the memories of those who oep the records. Italo allows for comminication over a ret distance (Gy letters, newspapers, et), and to large number simaltaneouly (by ‘publications of all kind). The invention of the tape recorder, the tl ‘hone and the radio have helped overcome the Limitations of the ‘ston angoagesepuding tne, distance sed numbers, but Se we ‘lively recent developments inhuman history. “Another advantage of writen langues that it isnot only permanent, ‘but also visible. An important consequence ofthis is thai canbe cae DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: SPEECH AND WRITING fully planned and revised by the writer loa way tat spoken guage «annot. And forthe ener, wates language can be proceed est, With parts of itreread and others omitted wil, This characerc of ‘wuiten language promoted the developmen of ierature and intelectual development in general. Writen language makes posse the creation of literary works of art in ways comparable with the eestion of paintings ‘or selpture. I also promotes imtllactua! development by overcoming ‘the limitations of human memory and allowing the storage of sally scceuble knowedpe, ‘Speech, of cours, ets runeons wich writing wil aver be able to fll such as quick, direct comminiction with immediate feedback fom the addressee. Spech spatially important in inteprating an Indvdual into a social prop, and thove who cannot spe, even thovph they may be able to write (eg. dea people), often expience sree social bolton, Speech sued far noe than writing: speech i anevr)- day activity fo almost everyone, whereas writing may fot be. “Thus speech and waiting are complementary in function, and we cannot say that one is more importat than te other. Tealy we need {o be ale to use both approprataly as members ofan English-speaking (and writing) society. 8.4 The form of speech and writing ‘As wells being diferent in function, speech and weling die f form 86a 'reslt ofthe diffrence of medium. Features of speech which ae absent in writing lnludeshythm, intonation and or ingustie noises Such aig and lighter. Siae speech typically wed ine fave toface situation, it an aso be accompanied by nonverbal ommunicaionsich fs gestures and facial expression. None ofthese features cancel be ‘conveyed by conventional writing systems, and those wishing to rept. ‘ent them fave had to devs special transcription systems Waiting on ‘the other hand, has several features which speech lack, coding pune: ‘uation, paragraphing andthe capitalisation of letes, Wren lnpige can be spoken probably more eal thaa spoken language canbe writen, but features of speech such a intonation have tobe introduced bythe speaker. Intonation can fo some exteat be conveyed by punetation {Gspecnty commas, fl stops and question mars), but aot completely. ‘The intonation ofthe sentence IT ake a tax the sation wil ier secording to whether the means of wansport tai) ofthe destination (tation) is dhe mos important Sea. This wal be clear you te fad {ng the sentence aloud in differet ways The differnt mesings implied by differences of intonation would be dificult to convey in Waiting without changing the srueture of the sentence,16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR TODAY 18.5 Linguistic characteristics of speech and writing Having compared the functions nd forms of speech and writing Wt 8 Hing meth gusts characteris, For the sake of cay we ner rte the characteristics fea speech compare with tcl aoa hou (as we sal) ther is actualy some overlap betwee the ews "NEXTLICIINESS. As we ve tld, speech general used it feo fan iattion o that both the auditory and vstal media ae vase (eee mponch can be much Jess explicit than, weit, because (3) ‘automation s conveyed by "body lngusge’ (aca expen Hiway, (the immediate physical enronment canbe refered to, BT potting to objects or people; (2) shared knowdge of the SS dba na conversation makes enpltness unnecensay and (8) in alia here an opportunity for feedback from te here, TTR nemoge can be anid or repeated, Speech tends to make ffeguent we of pronouns sich, this and at all of which reflect feauen untae, Conder the flowing imaginary comverstion ({0- equstely represented in wating) How didi go? ‘otto bad I'm ust la over, ‘Wosieshetas one? Yeh for he time beng. tess we were partiipante inthis conversation, me coud ony gus SARE mht be about, gan examination or tooth extraction Thc OF CLEAR SENTENCE BOUNDARIES. Related to exphitest in Hoss the abwnc of cea defined units we can cll enters ‘a tercen language, a grammatical sentence as described in 22 i Ba to begin with a atl eer and end with ul stop, and ts ‘Ag ea norm for peopl to wit in sentences. Th same appl tas ged apace, Ike that of rao news bulletin, Bu n spontaneous eae antncts are often dificult to Gli: they may simply be ws vreshe because the Knowledge of the addreee makes completion acevary oF they may at be dlscerable aunts tall The fllow- ‘MS oer fiom an atl conversation (ashes epesent pss) and he was saying that erm ~ You can go to a nghtluh ia ‘eaten Zed watch Tooy Bennet for about thirty bob = Bling fis rngit wah Tony Rennet~ have sice meal {very shy soundings very nice warm east (voted in Crystal (19808), transition simplified) DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: SPEECH AND WRITING Even with information about intonation, tis dt to work out how {the above could be dived into entences. In paticua, what the tats rte last group of word, 07” ne warm pleasant? We cannot ge {afm aawer fo this question, but hasbeen sggesed (by Crystal in the above quoted arte that the cause may be amor appropsate unit for analysing speech than the sentence In context the absence of cles fentense boumdaties Goes not san that conversation i dificult tof. {ow It ost shows thatthe conversation is organised im a different way from wnting. 'SMPLE STRUCTURE. In geal, peschfmore simple in grammatical sergtute than wing, However, wien we use terms Uke np and ‘Complex, we mst be cael to explain what they me. Thar is n6| tone Meatave for complet of seucture, but the following measures, ‘ven combined, shuld be wel "@) Clue srmcture, How many clement do the clases contain, and how many evel of subordination sre there? A sentence withthe tus- ie [S PO}, lke (1), wl be lee complex than one with the tructre (U'sP0 04}, tke) (2) Hota read book) (3 TESS agit Sahn gave me book {when he came home ‘But the second sentence not ony has more clause lements, alo hat ‘mote subordination, since there i subordinate adverbial cause, when Iecame home, The following sentence has even more subordination: () {ast als John gave back the book (he had bortowed [when he ad lat seen mel Wihie the numberof elements n the clause can be seen as horizontal” Tompleity, subordination canbe sen "ertca complexity ") Noun phrase strctre, How many modifits do they contain (worivontal sompleity, and how iaany subordinate phrases (etal ‘Smplenity)" A noun pie such asa book i ery les complex than (mr eeesting book ebout grammar on the table in the kitchen. The SEeond noun phrase fe hotzontlly complex, consisting of two pre- ‘Bowie, a heed, and two poroders 1 also verily complex toca tie prepositional phim he Riche i contained in another fm the tble inthe htchen~ a this structure asa whole constitutes ‘ne of the postmodifes of B00 “Where vertical complesty located? a clauses, subordination tne Degnning Cleftbranching) some to make for more complexty {han cba ath wad CoestSranching), This ea be ile by drawing abbreviated tree diagrams of the fllowing two sentences (Figures 8.1 and 82):