Biology Notes

Chapter 15

Topic : Human senses - sight

Detecting changes in the environment

I.

Structures involved in detecting changes and producing responses

Term

Definition

1. Stimulus ( stimuli )
()

Changes in environment ( can be external or internal )

e.g., changes in light intensity , air temperature, changes in [CO2] in blood

2. Receptors ()

Special cells for detecting stimuli and produce nerve impulses

3. Sense organs ()
4. Neurons / nerves
(/)
5. Coordination centre
( eg., the brain )
5. Effectors ()
6. Responses ()

An organ that contains receptors, e.g, eyes, ears, skin

For carrying impulses

Receives impulses from receptors, interprets impulses and provides

a particular sensation. Afterwards, it may coordinate suitable responses.
The parts of the body for producing responses, e.g., muscles and glands
Activities produced after a stimulus

detected by
Stimuli

Receptors in
sense organs

Nervous
System

Endocrine
System

Impulses

Hormones

Stimulus
Light
Sound & Movement of
the head
touch, pain, pressure,
heat and cold

Sensation
Sight
Hearing / body position
Touch, pain, pressure,
heat and cold

Chemicals in solution
Chemicals in solution

Taste
Smell

Effectors

Responses

Examples :
Sense organ
1. Eye
2. Ear

Receptors
Photoreceptors in retina
Sensory hair cells in inner ear

3. Skin

Touch, pain, pressure, heat

and cold receptors ( nerve
endings )

4. Tongue
5. Nose

Taste buds
Sensory hair cells

Biology Notes

Human senses -

sight

Page 1

The eye
The eyes detect light and form images of objects. They provide the sense of sight.

1.

Structure and functions of the eyeball

How can we see an object ?

A.

Process of image formation on the retina ()

Biology Notes

Human senses -

sight

Page 2

1.

Light rays from an object are refracted () through the cornea, aqueous humour, lens and vitreous humour.
They are focused () by the lens to form an image on the retina.

2.

The image formed is real, inverted and smaller than the object.
Examination tips :
1.
2.
3.
4.

The eye is not for seeing ! It detects light( by the retina ) and forms an image of an object.
Curvature of the cornea and the lens affect the degree of refraction.
Most refraction takes place at the air-cornea interface.
The lens refracts and focuses the light rays onto the retina. The absence of capillaries in the lens does NOT
increase the refractive ability of the lens. ( 2003 Q. 3a)
The aqueous humour and the choroid supply nutrients to the lens.

B.

Vision formation in the brain ()

1.

The image formed on the retina is detected by the photoreceptors ( rods and cones ) . They initiate nerve
impulses.

2.

The impulses are transmitted along the optic nerve () to the brain.

3.

There is an vision centre () in the cerebrum () which interprets the impulses and correct
the inverted image to give the vision of an upright object.
Image formed on retina stimulate photoreceptors to initiate impulses optic nerve transmits impulses
vision centre in cerebrum interprets impulses and corrects image vision of the object

How to control the amount of light entering the eye ?

light intensity

The pupil reflex ()

light intensity
photoreceptors in retina

1.
2.

Stimulus
Receptors

3.

Control centre

4.

Responses

Circular iris muscles contract,

radial muscles relax

Radial iris muscles contract,

circular muscles relax

5.

Size of pupil

Smaller ( constriction )

Larger ( dilation )

6.

Importance

Protects the retina from damage

by strong light

Allows more light to enter the eye so

that a brighter image can be formed.

Biology Notes

Medulla () of the brain

Human senses -

sight

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 Examination tips :
1.

Pupil is an opening , it cannot contract.

pupil constricts ).

Its size is regulated by the iris

2.

The choroids and the retina absorb all the light entering the eye and consequently no light is reflected out of the eye
through the pupil. ( thus the pupils always appear to be black 2000-2(b)(iv) ].

How the eyes focus on near and far objects ?

( when circular iris muscle contracts,

Accomodation ()

1.

In order to form a clear image of an object, light rays must be foucsed sharply onto the retina.

2.

Accomodation is the ability of the eye to focus objects at varying distances onto the retina. This is done by
changing the thickness of the elastic lens by the actions of the ciliary body () .

Biology Notes

Human senses -

sight

Page 4

Work example :

A graph showing an eye focus on object moving at varying distances

0 - 2 sec : A stationary object far away

2 - 4 sec : The object moves towards her
4 - 6 sec : The object moves away from her
6 - 8 sec : The object moves near to her suddenly
and becomes stationary

Examination tips :
1. After a period of closed work, the eyes feel tired because the ciliary muscles are over-contracted. This can be relieved
by looking at distant objects for a short while to relax the muscles. When the ciliary muscles contract, the lens
become more convex due to its own elasticity.
2. Accomodation is an involuntary action controlled by the medulla of the brain.
3. When the ciliary muscles ( NOT cilia muscles ) relax, the suspensory ligaments becomes taut ( tightened ) / increase
in tension ( NOT contract !!!!, it is not a muscle ), the lens becomes less curved/ less convex/ thinner , and

Photoreceptors ()
1.

The retina is the most sensitive part of the eye because it contains photoreceptors. These are light sensitive cells
which can detect/ receive light and initiate nerve impulses.

2.

There are two types of photoreceptors , rods and cones .

Biology Notes

Human senses -

sight

Page 5

Features

Rods ()

Cones ()

1. Distribution

Concentrated at the periphery of the

retina

Concentrated at the yellow spot

( centre of the retina )

2. Amount

More numerous

Less numerous

3. Type(s)

One

Three ( red, green and blue )

4. Light intensity required for

functioning

Can be stimulated by light of low

intensity
( Can work in dim light )

Can be stimulated by light of high

intensity only
( Can work in strong light only )

5. Detection of colour

No

Yes

6. Functions

(a)

For dim light vision

(a)

For bright light vision

(b)

For black and white vision

(b)

For colour vision

Biology Notes

Human senses -

sight

Page 6

Some phenomena related to the distribution and functioning of rods and cones
1.

In dim light, colours of objects cannot be detected because the cones responsible for detecting colour cannot be
stimulated under low light intensity. In addition, only a rough pattern about the form and shape of the object
can be detected but not the details.

2. In dim light, an object can be seen more clearly by looking at it from an angle rather than looking directly at it.
The image of the object falls on the periphery of the retina where rods are concentrated. Rods are responsible
for dim light vision.
* The rods can only detect a rough pattern about the form and shape of an object but not details ! So an object cannot be
seen very clearly in dim light.

3.

In strong light, an object can be seen more clearly by looking at it directly. The image falls on the yellow spot
where cones are concentrated. Cones are responsible for strong light and colour vision.

Yellow spot and blind spot

1.

Yellow spot ( fovea ) is a small area in the centre of the retina. This is the most sensitive part of the eye
because it has a high concentration of cones. When an image falls on this spot, the form and colour of

the object can be detected accurately. Impulses about the detailed pattern of the object can be sent to the brain
and a detailed impression can be produced.
2.

Blind spot () is the point in the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball. There is no
photoreceptor in this spot. If an image falls on this spot, it cannot be detected and no impulses can
be sent to the brain..

Important points to note :

i) Rods are more sensitive to light than cones.

ii) Only cones can detect colour and form of an object accurately.
iii) An image ( or part of it ) can be formed on the blind spot but it cannot be detected due to a lack of photoreceptors
The brain has no impression about this image or this part of the image.
We are not normally aware of this 'blank' in our vision because it is compensated by the other eye looking
at the same object.

Night-blindness ()
1.

Night-blindness is a deficiency disease caused by insufficient vitamin A in the diet. Vitamin A is

important for making visual purple () in the rods.

2.

When there is not sufficient visual purple , the rods cannot detect light efficiently. The sufferer cannot see clearly
in dim light.

3.

Night-blindness can be treated by taking in foods rich in vitamin A, e.g., carrot, fish-liver oil.
Colour-blindness ()

1.

Colour-blindness is a hereditary () defect . The sufferers do not have the genes for making one or all
kinds of cones. As a result, he cannot distinguish a few or all colours.

2.

This condition cannot be treated or corrected by wearing lens.

Biology Notes

Human senses -

sight

Page 7

Common eye defects

A.

Short sight and long sight

Short-sight

Long-sight

1. Causes

(a)
(b)

The eyeball is too long

The lens is too convex ( thick )

(a)
(b)

The eyeball is too short

The lens is too thin ( not convex
enough )

2. Effects

The sufferer can see near objects clearly

but not distant objects.

The sufferer can see distant objects

clearly but not near objects

3. Explanation

Light rays from near objects can be

focused on the retina but light rays from
distant objects are focused in front of
the retina.

Light rays from distant objects can be

focused on the retina but light rays from
near objects are focused behind the
retina.

4. Correction

Wear concave lens to diverge light rays

Wear convex lens to converge light rays

* Note : whenever light rays are not focused on the retina, a blurred image is formed and the object cannot be seen clearly.

Causes and correction of short sight

Biology Notes

Human senses -

sight

Page 8

Causes and correction of long short

Examination tips

1.

Short sight may be caused by long periods of closed work, this will cause ciliary muscles to remain contracted for a long
time. Short sight may also be inherited from the parents.

2.

Both the cornea and lens can refract light. In treating short sight, it is also possible to change the curvature of the cornea
( to flatten it ) so that it refracts less light. The operation is called LASIK.

3.

When drawing ray diagrams, note the following points :

(a)
(b)

Light rays from a distant object are parallel while that from a near object are diverging from one point.
For showing the condition of a short-sighted/ long-sighted eye, remember to show light rays for both near and distant
objects.
(c) The point of focus and the direction of light of light rays shown by arrows must be indicated clearly on the diagram.
(d) In drawing ray diagrams to show correction of defects by suitable lens, don't forget to draw the lens in the eyeball !
This is a convex lens , light rays converge after passing through it.

Biology Notes

Human senses -

sight

Page 9