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McGreevy and Shibata, Annals of Environmental Science / 2010, Vol 4, 11-22
the spread of disease within overly-mature tree While, this new revaluing of rural natural resources
plantations, declines in plant and animal biodiversity, could act as a much-needed opportunity for economic
and a countryside characterized by crops encircled revival, others see the further destruction of rural
with electric fences and surrounded by jungle-like communities, especially in developing countries, into
overgrowth [5]. monoculture biochar plantations competing on
In addition to the need to address these issues, another race-to-the-bottom global marketplace
there exists a much larger, interconnected climate [9,10]. Therefore, it is critically important that biochar
crisis that will affect not only rural areas but also the projects are implemented in a way that is sensitive and
entire world. Global warming poses a threat to the sustainable for both rural society and environment as
viability of virtually every critical industry and will well as promoting a shift to a low-carbon economy
permanently reduce the quality of life worldwide [6]. [11]. This requires biochar projects to be better
In order to mitigate climate change, potential incorporated into the larger socio-economic, regional
countermeasures are being explored, one of which is and structural framework in which they operate and
carbon sequestration in soils via biochar. Not only act as a driver for the whole society, both urban and
may biochar prove to be essential in the stabilization rural, toward a low carbon if not carbon-negative
of the climate, it may also be a multifunctional economy.
development tool for rural areas struggling to survive. This study looks at one such scheme in rural
Conservative estimates see biochar as having the Japan that focuses on rural revitalization through
potential to sequester carbon in soils at a rate of 1 carbon sequestration with biochar. An explanation of
Gt/yr near-indefinitely by 2050 [7]. What makes the project, its goals, details of its activities, and future
biochar so intriguing is that while sequestering carbon, plans are presented followed by a deeper look into the
it has the potential to address other economic and cultivation of COOL VEGE, an eco-brand used in
ecological problems that exist in the countryside. the sale of vegetables produced with biochar. An
First, in areas with ready access to waste biomass examination of the actors engaged in biochar and
from agriculture or the forestry industry, biochar can COOL VEGE production, sales, and consumption is
be produced and sold as a soil amendment. When used offered as well as an analysis of the potential
as a soil amendment, biochar can retain water in soils, economic, social and ecological impact of the project
increase soil nutrient retention, and enhance crop at large.
yields [8]. These types of activities support a
diversified, robust agriculture and forestry sector and
provide economic opportunities that are the first steps 2. CARBON MINUS PROJECT AND RURAL
in revitalizing marginalized rural communities. REVITALIZATION IN KAMEOKA CITY,
Further economic possibilities exist for biochar KYOTO PREFECTURE
activities with the creation of emission-offset credits
and the utilization of carbon markets. Conceivably, The Carbon Minus Project is a pilot project started
any amount of carbon sequestered in soil in the form in Kameoka City, Kyoto Prefecture, Japan (see Figure
of biochar can be measured, valued, and sold by rural 1) in 2008 through a partnership between Ritsumeikan
actors on carbon markets for profit. If a mandatory cap University, the Kameoka City government and the
and trade scheme were adopted worldwide, the price Hozu farming cooperative. A variety of other actor
of carbon is expected to stabilize and, most likely, groups are participating in the project, including local
increase. This could be the start of a new industry and and prefectural government officials, citizens,
an influx of income-making opportunities to rural corporations and places of business, farmers,
areas. environmental NPOs, and schools with the overall
On the other hand, with the growth of new global plan of reducing Kameoka Citys carbon emissions by
carbon markets, rural biomass resources and the promoting a low-carbon lifestyle. The goals of the
communities that maintain them will be retargeted as a Carbon Minus Project are to utilize unused local
source of capital to be utilized by urban centers. biomass as a source of biochar for carbon
sequestration and soil conditioning, while at the same
time promoting rural revitalization.
Biochar is defined simply as the carbon-rich product The movement to revitalize rural areas in Japan
obtained when biomass, such as wood, manure or leaves, is has been underway since the 1980s and rural
heated in a closed container with little or no available air
[8], but is commonly understood as charcoal that is used as
an agricultural soil amendment. For more information on NPO stands for non-profit organization, which in the
biochar see the International Biochar Initiatives homepage: Japanese context refers to something similar to a local non-
www.biochar-international.org governmental organization.
municipalities and their population bases have degree. Despite these geographic advantages, the
struggled to maintain a sense of social and economic agricultural industry in Kameoka City is in decline
coherence in the face of massive depopulation to and various countermeasures have been enacted.
urban areas [12]. One of the overall economic goals of One of the ways farmers in Kameoka City have
rural revitalization is the influx of capital from urban been able to remain economically viable is through the
to rural areas. Rural revitalization projects are formation of farming cooperatives, where small,
oftentimes supported and promoted by both local and individual agricultural plots are conglomerated and
national governments and have, until recent years, managed as a whole. This allows farmers to scale-
come in the form of efforts to increase tourism by up production, incorporate more labor-saving
revalorizing local natural and cultural assets such as machinery, form contracts with retailers, and takes
hot springs, abundant nature, traditional delicacies, away some of the labor demands for the vast elderly
and religious landmarks. A boom in environmental population still engaged in farming. The Kameoka
awareness and concern over food safety has led to a City government has supported the formation of
rise in rural revitalization focused on eco-friendly numerous cooperatives, one of which is the Hozu
lifestyles, renewable energy, organic agriculture, and farming cooperative.
local production of food for local consumption [13- The Hozu farming cooperative was established
15]. It is within this new ecologically-minded rural, in 2005 and comprises 150 ha of the 154 ha of
social and economic context that the Carbon Minus agricultural land that make up the Hozu municipality.
Project has been positioned. Currently, 338 of 352 farming households in the
hamlet are taking part in the cooperative (This equates
to 0.44 ha per household.). Agricultural products include
rice, wheat, soybeans, vegetables and cut flowers. A
single hectare of this cooperative is now engaged in
COOL VEGE research and cultivation, a com-
ponent of the larger Carbon Minus Project, and
utilizes biochar in the agricultural production process.
A schematic of the Carbon Minus Project is
presented in Figure 2. The scheme is envisioned in
two parts: a biochar and agricultural production
system and a consumption/transaction system. The
biochar and agricultural production system is simple:
local biomass (bamboo) is charred, applied to soils
and, in the process, carbon is sequestered in the
ground. These soils are then planted with vegetables
that are sold under a unique eco-brand, COOL
VEGE, as they help to mitigate global warming.
Two products are obtained and circulated in the
consumption/transaction system: agricultural produce
and emission-offset credits. The agricultural produce
is sold to food retailers, who in turn sell them to
consumers. CO2-capped corporations purchase the
Figure 1 Map of Japan, Kyoto Prefecture, and
emission-offset credits to comply with emission
Kameoka City
reduction commitments. Those corporations and
industries that are found to be in compliance with
Kameoka City has a relatively large land area
emission reduction commitments are then eligible to
(224.90 km2) much of which is forested, an extensive
participate in an eco-point system that rewards
flatland agricultural area (2100 ha), a stable
consumers for purchasing goods and services from
population (94,540 in 2008), and is located near major
eco-conscious companies and rewards industry for
metropolitan areas (Kyoto City, Osaka City, and Kobe
enacting green innovation and corporate respons-
City), making it an ideal initial trial site. In this way,
ibility.
Kameoka City has many advantages over upland rural
Ultimately, this scheme increases monetary flow
communities located deeper in the interior, where
from urban areas and urban consumers to rural areas
heavy depopulation, smaller agricultural land size,
through the added value of eco-branding and climate
lack of economic opportunity, and distance to markets
mitigation benefits of carbon sequestration through
has hollowed out farming communities to a greater
using biochar.
with the COOL VEGE brand, and sold to the secondary data (academic presentations, newspaper
public. Only cabbage and onions were cultivated articles and a marketing survey) were used in the
during the first year. Chinese cabbage, cucumber, a collection of these responses.
local variety of onion, carrot, potato, and wheat in
addition to cabbage and onion are planned on being 4.1 Farmers/Producers
planted this year.
At present, only a small core of Hozu cooperative
3.2 Future Plans for COOL VEGE farmers (~10 individuals) are involved in the
production of biochar and experimentation with crop
As COOL VEGE eco-branding effort has just cultivation. Among the core group, motivation is high
begun, there is little to report in the way of definitive and there is a sense of pride in their work as theyve
conclusions as to the efficacy of biochar production garnered attention from the media (newspapers) and
and plant growth effects associated with vegetable their farming peers. This core group is active in
cultivation. The short-term plans (one to two years) promoting biochar use among other cooperative
for the project include: members and has given away bags of biochar to those
increase the number of local varieties of vegetables interested in experimenting with it in their fields.
increase the area of COOL VEGE production (2.5 While the primary motivation for incorporating
ha in 2010) biochar production into crop cultivation is economic, a
expand sales of COOL VEGE products to other secondary motivation is to create a sense of identity
food retailers and supermarkets and community in Hozu and Kameoka City at large.
harvest bamboo from local forests directly by This identity stems less from a sentiment of
volunteers and local governmental employees, and environmental protection than from the re-embracing
of local resources and traditional practices. The
use household organic wastes as an additional
practice of treating fields with small pieces of charcoal
biochar feedstock
is not a new ideaJapanese farmers have customarily
amended soils with charred rice husks or wood scraps,
The long-term plans (three to six years) for the
called kuntan and barazumi respectively, for hundreds
project include:
of years and they are well aware of the beneficial
establish a local governmental body to regulate properties charcoal has on crop production and soil
biochar production and the soil amending protocol, health [16] (see Figure 4). Barazumi, for example, was
testing, and approval of COOL VEGE branding traditionally produced via the pit method. Farmers are
applications by local farmers and farming excited about revitalizing Kameoka City through
cooperatives COOL VEGE because the tools and means are
increase the area of COOL VEGE production to endogenous elements with which they are familiar:
include all Hozu farming cooperative land (150 ha) bamboo, charcoal making, and charcoal as a soil
spread COOL VEGE farming practices to other amendment.
areas of Kameoka City Unkempt and neglected stands of bamboo have
consider purchasing or renting bamboo harvesting become an eyesore in Hozu, as they have all over
machinery Japan, and to have a way to use them effectively is
begin COOL VEGE branding on other seen as a universal positive. Charcoal has been an
agricultural products grown in Kameoka City (rice, integral part of rural life in Japan for a very long time
wheat, beef, flowers, etc.) by integrating biochar and charcoal making is something many farmers do
into their production systems, and annually as a hobby. To think that a key to revitalizing
expand sales of COOL VEGE products to other their agricultural community could be found in what
supermarkets and food networks they already are doing without the need to introduce
some unfamiliar, external practice is thrilling for many
farmers and their families in Hozu.
4. COOL VEGE ACTORS: FARMERS/ Farmers are still uncertain about the economic
PRODUCERS, RETAILERS, AND benefits of eco-branding their produce, but many are
CONSUMERS optimistic. Global warming and what to do about it
has become a topic of interest in the national media
The three primary actor groups involved in the COOL and farmers feel positive about doing what they can to
VEGE eco-branding effort-- farmers/producers, counter climate change.
retailers, and consumers-- will be outlined below.
Participant observation, informal interviews, and
Table 2 Summary of plausible positive and negative buffer some of these income fluctuations through
economic, social, and environmental impacts of the increasing the relative scale of production. However,
Carbon Minus Project for Kameoka City even after scaling-up production through a
cooperative, many operations rely on government
subsidies to break even financially. The Hozu farming
Economic Social Environmental cooperative operated at a 12,224,219 yen ($122,242
Positive: Positive: Positive: US) loss in 2009, has operated at a loss every year
COOL Foster sense Agricultural since it was formed in 2005, and relies on national and
VEGE eco- of community lands retain prefectural agricultural subsidies to survive [19]. Any
branding may through bamboo water and economic improvement in agricultural livelihoods
decrease the harvesting and nutrients better through using biochar in production should be
amount of product biochar making Chemical measured in terms of whether or not the cooperative
loss and buffer can be profitable without government subsidies.
Unsightly fertilizer use
annual over-grown may decrease The COOL VEGE brand may give Kameoka
fluctuations City vegetable farmers the added value they need to
bamboo forests Overgrown
associated with sell more vegetables more quickly to both eliminate a
thinned forests are
growing percentage of loss and some of the instability
Foster sense thinnedcan
conditions associated with fluctuating growing conditions. A
of identity absorb more critical factor in how effective the branding of
COOL through eco- CO2 vegetables will be is how much consumers are willing
VEGE sell at a branding Habitat and
slight premium to pay. The marketing survey performed revealed that
Environmental food for wildlife the majority of consumers are not willing to pay high
price ly-friendly and is created in price premiums, but would pay for COOL VEGE
Emission-offset carbon- thinned forests products if prices were competitive with other
credits may be conscious (may reduce agricultural produce. The 3% to 5% price premium
sold for additional behavior and damage to COOL VEGE cabbages were sold for during the
income for lifestyle crops) period of December 2009 to January 2010 is most
farming promoted likely to remain consistent. This means that a strategy
households and that sells more vegetables at an average price is likely
regional economy to be more effective than selling fewer vegetables at a
Negative: Negative: Negative: higher price.
Cost to produce Some might If biochar Experiments are underway to determine to what
biochar high resent eco- sequestration extent biochar application will affect vegetable yields,
branding becomes but have yet to be finalized. Significant increases in
scheme profitable, there yield are not expected, however, since soils in
Confusion could be Kameoka and Japan in general are nutrient rich, dark
over biochar pressure to soils many of which have been maintained with
could lead to over-harvest organic and nutrient inputs for hundreds of years.
problems biomass or Even if significant yield increases were experienced,
over-apply the market for vegetables and produce is quite
biochar saturated, which would further support the need for an
eco-brand to distinguish ones produce from a
The price farmers receive for vegetables, for competitor.
example, is determined by the grade or quality of the
produce, which is tied to these same growing 5.1.2 Improving Charring and Economic Efficiency
conditions. Another factor influencing the economic
well-being of farming households is a certain Another element in determining the overall economic
percentage of loss on fresh produce that goes unsold impact of the Carbon Minus Project is in improving
because of limited shelf-life and over-production the charring efficiency and reducing the cost of
necessary to meet food retailers contractual
obligations. This loss typically ranges from 20 to 40%
of total annual production [18]. All currency conversion from Japanese yen to US dollars
Farming households that are able to conglom- is calculated at the exchange rate of 100 yen to the dollar for
erate into a cooperatively managed operation, as is the the sake of expediency. At the time of this writing, the
exchange rate was 83 yen to the dollar. In recent years, this
case in Kameokas Hozu municipality, are able to rate has ranged from 82 to 120 yen to the dollar.
biochar production. A summary of charring efficacy syngas and bio-oil as a fuel for generating electricity,
experiments conducted over a total of five days in in the refinement of bio-gasoline, or in other energy
2009 is presented in Table 3 [20]. The dry weight of services is another potential source of revenue in the
bamboo feedstock charred over that period was 1,798 biochar production process and usually involves
kg, producing 423.7 kg biochar dry weight. This increasing the scale of operation [21,22]. The decision
translates to an average carbonization ratio of 23.53% to capture or ignore these other co-products for use
dry weight. Obviously, a higher carbonization ratio is involves two economic trade-offs: facility costs
ideal and steps to increase the efficacy of the biochar associated with production and the costs related to a
production process are under consideration within the sustainably harvested, stable feedstock supply. In
current modified-pit, batch production method. many countries and rural areas, the economics of
An economic analysis of biochar production those trade-offs warrant a large scale-operation able to
experiments conducted over the same five-day period capture and utilize other pyrolysis co-products; in
in 2009 concluded that biochar was produced at 245 other circumstances this is not the case and a small-
yen ($2.45 US) per kg dry weight*** [20]. This price is scale, diffused production system unable to handle
less than the 443 yen ($4.43 US) per kg average cost these other co-products is warranted. The Carbon
estimate for biochar-like charcoal products sold on the Minus Project falls into this latter category.
market, but is considered high when an application of Within the envisioned scheme, farming house-
100 kg C per 0.1 ha would require 119 kg of 84% holds are both the consumers of biochar as well as the
carbon content biochar, which would cost 29,155 yen producers, which means that the production process
($291 US) to produce. After consulting with itself needs to be simple, low cost, and involve low
representatives from the Hozu farming cooperative, 84 labor inputs. The current modified-pit method of
yen ($0.84 US) per kg dry weight, which would make production meets all of those requirements. The
the same application rate near 10,000 yen ($100 US) charring of agricultural wastes is a customary practice
to produce, was deemed to be a financially accessible of rural Japanese farmers that suits biochar production
target price for Japanese farming households. via a simple method, which we believe lends to
greater diffusion and adoption of biochar use. Unused
Table 3 Summary of charring efficacy experiments bamboo feedstock is abundant, but is often located on
over a five-day period (adapted from [20]) sloping terrain or in remote areas that make extraction
difficult and costly. This highlights the importance of
(weight when highly-mobile, compact production systems that dont
Feedstock (bamboo) 3,391 kg allow for easy capture and utilization of syngas and
charred)
bio-oil.
(dry weight) 1,798 kg
(doused with 5.1.3 Emission Offset Credits
Biochar produced 1,318 kg
water)
(dry weight) 423.7 kg A third economic factor that could influence farming
household income as well as income on a regional
Average moisture content of doused level is through emission-offset credit sales. Three
67.84%
biochar uncertainties remain as to the practicality of this
Carbonized ratio (wet/wet) 38.86% stream of income: 1) the stability and viability of
carbon markets; 2) the price of emission-offset credits;
(dry/dry) 23.53% and 3) what percentage of emission-offset credit sale
monies will actually reach farming households
Average biochar carbon content 84%
assuming that some system of aggregation is at work.
Japan has yet to establish a national voluntary carbon
Biochar is only one of four co-products derived market, but it is in the planning and testing process to
through the pyrolysis process, the other three being achieve such a market. International markets exist, but
syngas, wood vinegar, and bio-oil. Utilization of standard protocol for carbon sequestration through
biochar soil amendments has yet to be completed, and
***
until that hurdle is overcome emission-offset credits
The cost of production included elements such as rental cannot be sold. Assuming that protocols exist and
of the carbonizer, employing two laborers, rental of a buyers are available, the price at which the credits will
chainsaw, and the purchase of fuel and equipment. These
be sold is unknown, as is the percentage of emission-
costs came to a total of 103,633 yen ($1,036 US) for the
five-day period. Feedstock was assumed to be free as offset credit sale monies that will be consumed in
feedstock extraction costs have not yet been determined. aggregation fees.
These calculations do not take into account recalcitrant areas through activities that shift Kameoka City to a
and labile carbon fractions. low-carbon economy. Agricultural production is re-
envisioned to incorporate new ecological services measure and value carbon monetarily, the situation
such as climate-mitigating carbon sequestration. may change at least for one ecological service: climate
Withering local communities are invigorated with a regulation. This active recognition of value is the
sense of identity and purpose, and neglected means by which the urban-rural relationship can be
environmental resources are once again managed in a better balanced and increase the viability of rural
way that benefits humans and nature. The critical society and livelihoods. The Carbon Minus Project,
material common to all of these is biochar. while far from fully realized, may mark the beginning
An area of particular interest to those engaged in of a new phase in rural development in which
biochar projects and research is biochar systems, ecological services provided by agriculture and the
encompassing the process of biochar production from countryside are recognized and compensated for by
feedstock to end use within varied social, economic, their urban users.
and ecological contexts [26]. The general tendency for
researchers and project managers is to focus more on
the component parts of biochar systems (feedstock, 7. REFERENCES
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