Dietmar Gross Wolfgang Ehlers

Peter Wriggers Jrg Schrder

Ralf Mller

Statics
Formulas and
Problems
Engineering Mechanics 1

123
Statics Formulas and Problems
Dietmar Gross Wolfgang Ehlers

Peter Wriggers Jrg Schrder

Ralf Mller

Statics Formulas
and Problems
Engineering Mechanics 1

123
Dietmar Gross Jrg Schrder
Division of Solid Mechanics Institute of Mechanics
TU Darmstadt Universitt Duisburg-Essen
Darmstadt Essen
Germany Germany

Wolfgang Ehlers Ralf Mller

Institute of Applied Mechanics Institute of Applied Mechanics
Universitt Stuttgart TU Kaiserslautern
Stuttgart Kaiserslautern
Germany Germany

Peter Wriggers
Institute of Continuum Mechanics
Leibniz Universitt Hannover
Hannover
Germany

ISBN 978-3-662-53853-1 ISBN 978-3-662-53854-8 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-53854-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016956635

Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2017

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Preface

This collection of problems results from the demand of students for sup-
plementary problems and support in the preparation for examinations.
With the present collection Engineering Mechanics 1 - Formulas and
Problems, Statics we provide more additional exercise material. The
subject Statics is commonly taught in the basic course of Engineering
Mechanics classes at universities.
The problems analyzed within these courses use equilibrium condi-
tions and the principle of virtual work to analyze static problems and
to compute reaction forces and stress resultants. These concepts are
the basic of many structural analyses of components used in civil and
mechanical engineering.
We would like to make the reader aware that pure reading and trying
to comprehend the presented solutions will not provide a deeper under-
standing of mechanics. Neither does it improve the problem solving
skills. Using this collection wisely, one has to try to solve the problems
independently. The proposed solution should only be considered when
experiencing major problems in solving an exercise.
Obviously this collection cannot substitute a full-scale textbook. If
not familiar with the formulae, explanations, or technical terms the rea-
der has to consider his or her course material or additional textbooks
on mechanics of materials. An incomplete list is provided on page IX.

Darmstadt, Stuttgart, Hannover, D. Gross

Essen and Kaiserslautern, Summer 2016 W. Ehlers
P. Wriggers
J. Schr
oder
R. Muller
Table of Contents

Bibliography, Nomenclature .................................... IX

1 Equilibrium ......................................................... 1

2 Center of Gravity, Center of Mass, Centroids............... 29

3 Support Reactions ................................................ 45

4 Trusses............................................................... 65

5 Beams, Frames, Arches .......................................... 97

6 Cables ................................................................ 157

7 Work and Potential Energy ..................................... 169

8 Static and Kinetic Friction ...................................... 193

9 Moments of Inertia ............................................... 217

Literature
Textbooks
Gross, D., Hauger, W., Schroder, J., Wall, W., Rajapakse, N., Enginee-
ring Mechanics 1: Statics, 2nd edition, Springer 2013
Hibbeler, R. C., Engineering Mechanics, Statics, Prentice Hall, 2012
Beer, F., Johnston, E.R., Mazurek, D., Vector Mechanics for Engineers:
Statics, 11th edition, McGraw-Hill Education 2015
Beer, F., Johnston, E.R., Eisenberg, E., Cornwell, P., Mazurek, D.,
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics, 11th edition,
McGraw-Hill Education 2015

Collection of Problems
Hibbeler, R. C., Engineering Mechanics, Statics, Prentice Hall, 2012
Schaums Outlines of Engineering Mechanics: Statics, 6th Edition, McGraw-
Hill Education 2010
Beer, F., Johnston, E.R., Mazurek, D., Vector Mechanics for Engineers:
Statics, 11th edition, McGraw-Hill Education 2015

Notation
For the solutions of the problems we used the following symbols:
: Short notation for sum of all forces in direction of the arrow
equal to zero.

A: Short notation for sum of all moments with respect to reference
point A (with predetermined direction of rotation) equal to zero.
; Short notation for from this follows that.
Chapter 1
Equilibrium
1
2 Equilibrium

Forces with a common point of application in a

plane
A system of forces with a common point
of application can be replaced by a
statically equivalent force
Fi 
R= Fi .

The system is in equilibrium, if

y 
Fi = 0

x F1 or in cartesian components
 
Fix = 0 , Fiy = 0 .

Fiy Here we used the notation

Fi
y i Fi = Fix ex + Fiy ey ,
Fix Fix = Fi cos i ,
x
Fiy = Fi sin i ,

2 2
|F i | = Fi = Fix + Fiy .

In a graphical solution, the equilibrium condition is expressed by a clo-

sed force polygon.
lines of action force polygon
fi

F1
Fi

f1

Forces with a common point of application in

space
 
Equilibrium exists, if the resultant R = Fi vanishes, i.e. if Fi = 0
or in cartesian components
  
Fix = 0 , Fiy = 0 , Fiz = 0 .
 Equilibrium 3

Here, the following notation is used

z Fi = Fix ex + Fiy ey + Fiz ez ,

Fix = Fi cos i ,
Fi Fiy = Fi cos i ,
Fiz
i Fiz = Fi cos i ,
i
i Fiy cos2 i + cos2 i + cos2 i = 1 ,
Fix y 
2 2 2
|F i | = Fi = Fix + Fiy + Fiz .
x

General systems of forces in a plane

A general system of forces can
 be re-
placed by a resultant R = Fi and A
(A)
a resulting moment MR with re- y
spect to an arbitrary reference point Fi
F1
A. Equilibrium exists, if
x
   (A)
Fix = 0 , Fiy = 0 , Mi = 0.

Instead of using the two force conditions, two alternative moment con-
ditions with dierent reference points (e.g. B and C) may be applied.
Here the points A, B and C must not lie on a straight line.
Graphical solutions for the resultant force are obtained with the help
of the link polygon and the force polygon.

link polygon in layout diagram force polygon

F1
S1
r
S2
f1 f4 F2 Pol
f2 f3 S3
s1 s4 II
s2 s3 s5
S4
F3 R
S5

F4
4 Equilibrium

The link lines si are parallel to the lines Si in the force polygon.

The line of action r of the resultant R (amplitude and direction

follow from the force polygon) goes through the intersection of the
outer link lines s1 and s5 of the link polygon.

Equilibrium exists, if the link polygon and the polygon of forces are
closed.

General systems of forces in space

Equilibrium exists, if the resultant of forces

R= Fi

and the resulting moment

(A)

MR = ri F i

with respect to an arbitrary reference point A vanish:

  (A)
Fi = 0 , Mi =0

or in component form
  
Fix = 0 , Fiy = 0 , Fiz = 0 ,

 (A)
 (A)
 (A)
Mix = 0 , Miy = 0 , Miz =0

with
(A) (A) (A)
Mix = yi Fiz zi Fiy , Miy = zi Fix xi Fiz , Miz = xi Fiy yi Fix .

Here, xi , yi and zi denote the components of the position vector ri ,

pointing from the reference point A to an arbitrary point on the action
line of the force Fi (e.g., pointing to the point of application).

Remark: As in the plane case, it is possible to replace the force

equilibrium conditions by additional moment equilibrium conditions
with respect to suitable axes.
 Forces with a Common Point of Application 5

Problem 1.1 A sphere with the weight P1.1

W is suspended by a wire at a smooth
wall. The wire is xed at the ball center. a
Determine the force S in the wire.
r
Given: a = 60 cm, r = 20 cm.
W

Solution a) analytical: All forces acting on the ball are made visible
in the free-body diagram. Therefore, we cut the wire and separate the
sphere from the wall. The force S in the wire is acting in the direction
of the wire, the contact force N is acting perpendicular to the smooth
wall, and the external force W points in vertical direction. The three
forces are concurrent forces. S
The equilibrium conditions are

N
: N S cos = 0 ,
W
: S sin G = 0 .
Solving for S and N yields
G a
S= ,
sin
N = S cos = G cot .
r
The angle follows from the system geometry:
  2
r 20 1 1 1
cos = = = and sin = 1 = 8.
a 60 3 3 3

This yields
3
S = G 1.06 G .
8

b) graphical: We draw a closed for-

ce polygon consisting of the known
force W (magnitude and action li-
ne are given) and the two forces S
W S
and N , with given action lines. We
obtain from the image

G
S= , N = G cot . N
sin
 6 Equilibrium

P1.2 Problem 1.2 A smooth circular

cylinder (weight W , radius r) tou-
ches an obstacle (height h), as de- r F
picted in the Figure.
W
Determine the magnitude of the re- h
quired force F to roll the cylinder
over the obstacle.

Solution a) analytical: We isolate the cylinder from the base and the
obstacle. In the free-body diagram, we see the four concurrent forces
F, W, N1 and N2 acting at the cylinder. The equilibrium conditions are

: N2 sin F = 0 ,
F
: N1 + N2 cos W = 0 W
N2
with the angle following from
the system geometry: N1
rh
cos = . rh r
r
The two equilibrium conditions contain h
the three unknowns

N1 , N2 and F.
The force that initiates the cylinder to roll over the obstacle, also cau-
ses the cylinder to lift-o from the base. Then, the contact force N1
vanishes:
W
N1 = 0 ; N2 = ; F = N2 sin = W tan .
cos

b) graphical: If N1 = 0, we can draw a

closed force polygon consisting of the F
known force W (magnitude and acti-
on line are given) and the two forces
N2 W
N2 and F with given action lines. We
read from the image
W
N2 = , F = W tan .
cos
 Forces with a Common Point of Application 7

Problem 1.3 A large cylinder P1.3

(weight 4W , radius 2r) lies on top
of two small cylinders, each having 4W 2r
weight W and radius r. The small
cylinders are connected by a wire S
(length 3r). All surfaces are smooth. r
W S W
Determine all contact forces and the
magnitude of force S in the wire.
3r

Solution We isolate the three cylinders and introduce the contact

forces in the free-body diagram. The forces acting at each cylinder are
concurrent forces. Due to the symme-
try of the problem we have only one
equilibrium condition at the large cy-
linder and two equilibrium conditions 4W
1
for one of the small cylinders. These
are three equations for the three un-
known forces N1 , N2 und S: N1 N1
2
1 : 2N1 cos 4W = 0 , W N1 N1 W

2 : S N1 sin = 0 , S S
N2 N2
: N2 N1 cos W = 0 .

The angle follows from the geome- 3r 3r

try of the problem:

3r/2 1
sin = = ; = 30 3r
3r 2

3 3
; cos = , tan = .
2 3

Solving for the forces yields

2W 4 3 2 3
N1 = = W , S = 2W tan = W, N2 = 2W +W = 3W .
cos 3 3

Remark: The contact force N2 could have been determined from the
equilibrium condition for the complete system:

: 2N2 2W 4W = 0 ; N2 = 3W .
 8 Equilibrium

P1.4 Problem 1.4 An excavator 1 B

has been converted to a demo-
lition machine.
2
Determine the forces in the
cables 1, 2 and 3 as well as in
the jib due to the weight W . A
3
Remark: The jib only trans-
fers a force in the direction of
its axis (strut). W

Solution We isolate the points A and B.

The equilibrium conditions for point A S2
yield

: S2 cos W = 0 , S2 = W , A
cos S3
W
: S2 sin S3 = 0 , S3 = W tan

and for point B (N is the force in the jib):

: S2 sin + N sin 2 S1 sin 3 = 0 ,

B
: S2 cos + N cos 2 S1 cos 3 = 0 . S1

S2
Alternatively, we obtain for point B with N
a clever choice of the coordinate directi-
ons

: N S2 cos S1 cos = 0 ,

: S1 sin S2 sin = 0 .

Thus, from the 22 = 4 equilibrium conditions, we obtain the following

results for the four unkowns S1 , S2 , S3 , N :
W
S1 = S2 = , S3 = W tan , N = 2S2 cos = 2W .
cos
 Forces with a Common Point of Application 9

Problem 1.5 A high-voltage P1.5

power line is attached to an
insulator which is held by
three bars. The tensile force 3
Z in the sagging power line at 2a
the insulator is to 1000 N. a
Determine the magnitude of a
2
A
the three forces in the three 1 3a 15
bars.
15
B Z
Z

Solution Equilibrium at the insulator yields (plane subproblem):

S
: S 2Z sin 15 = 0 ,
15
; S = 2Z sin 15 = 517 N . B
Z Z
With the now known force S, the 3 forces in the bars result from the 3
equilibrium conditions at point A:
 S3
Fx = 0 : S2 sin S1 sin = 0 , S z
y 2
 x
Fy = 0 : S1 cos + S2 cos + S3 cos = 0 , A S1

Fz = 0 : S3 sin S = 0 . S

The used auxiliary angles and follows from the geometry:

3a x
a
2a z
y l
y l
a 1 2a 2
sin = = ; = 19.5 , tan = = ; = 35.3 .
3a 3 l 3 12
2

Thus, we obtain the results

S
S3 = = 1.73 S = 895 N ,
sin
cos S
S1 = S2 = S3 = = 0, 75 S = 388 N .
2 cos 2 tan cos
Remark: Due to symmetry conditions (geometry and load), it holds
S2 = S1 .
 10 Equilibrium

P1.6 Problem 1.6 The system consists

4a
of bar 3 which is held by two horizontal 3a
wires 1 and 2 and which is loaded by a 2
force F . 1 A

Calculate the forces in the bar and the F

wires. 3
5a

Solution We isolate point A by passing imaginary sections through the

bar and the wires. The internal forces are visualized in the free-body
diagram, they are assumed to be tensile forces. A suitable coordinate
system, with the base vectors pointing into the direction of the wires
and the force F , facilitates the calculation. The resulting forces lead to

Fx = 0 : S1 + S3x = 0 , S2 y
S1
 x A
Fy = 0 : S2 + S3y = 0 ,
S3 F

Fz = 0 : S3z + F = 0 .
z
The components of S3 are related to the geometrical lengths (L =
length of bar 3)
S3x 4a S3y 3a S3z 5a
= , = , =
S3 L S3 L S3 L
or

S3x : S3y : S3z = 4 : 3 : 5 .

Substitution into the equilibrium conditions yields

3 3
S3z = F , S2 = S3y = S3z = F ,
5 5

4 4
S1 = S3x = S3z = F ,
5 5

   2
4
2
3
S3 = S3z + + 12 = 2 F .
5 5

Remark: The negative sign of S3 indicate a pressure force in bar 3.

 Forces with a Common Point of Application 11

Alternative approach: We can also solve the problem by directly starting

from the equilibrium conditions in vectorial form:

S1 + S2 + S3 + F = 0 .

Each force is expressed by its directional vector (unit vector) and its
magnitude. For example, the directional vector for S3 is given by

4 4
1 1
e3 = 3 = 3 .
42 + 32 + 52 5 2
5 5

Thus, we obtain for the forces

1 0

S1 = S1 e1 = S1 0 , S2 = S2 e2 = S2 1 ,
0 0

4 0
1
S3 = S3 e3 = S3 3 , F = F eF = F 0 ,
5 2
5 1

and the equilibrium conditions now read

1 0 4 0
1
S1 0 + S2 1 + S3 3 + F 0 = 0 .
5 2
0 0 5 1

Hence, we obtain for the components

4
S1 + S3 = 0 ,
5 2
3
S2 + S 3 = 0 ,
5 2
5
S3 + F = 0 ,
5 2
which from the forces in the bar and wires result as
3 4
S3 = 2 F , S2 = F , S1 = F .
5 5
 12 Equilibrium
P
P1.7 Problem 1.7 An isosceles triangluar body 45
is loaded by the forces F , P and the weight
W.
W
The forces acting on the body shall rst 2a/3
be replaced by a resultant force and a re-
sultant moment at point A (reduction to F
C
referencepoint A). a/3
Determine the magnitude of the force F , A
that the resultant moment around point A
vanishes, such that the body
cannot tilt.
Given: W = 6 kN, P = 2 kN, a = 1 m. 2a/3 a/3

Solution We solve the problem in vectorial form and introduce a coor-

dinate system with its origin point A. The resultant force R is obtained
from the sum of the individual forces:
y
2
W = W ey , F = F ex , P = P (ex ey ) ,
2 A
2 2
R = W + F + P = (F + P ) ex (W + P ) ey . x
2 2
The resultant moment MA is calculated with the lever arms
a a 2a a
rAW = ex + ey , rAF = ex + ey , rAP = a ey
3 3 3 3
of each force with respect to A as

Wa Fa 2Pa
MA = rAW W + rAF F + rAP P = ez ez ez .
3 3 2
With the given values for G, P and a, the magnitude of the force F
can be chosen such that the moment MA vanishes. It follows from the
!
condition MA = 0:

Wa Fa 2Pa 3 2P
=0 ; F =W = 6 kN 3 kN = 3 kN.
3 3 2 2

Remark: In the two-dimensional case, the resultant moment only has

a z-component. This component can be more easily calculated from
the sum of the individual moments with respect to A (pay attention
to positive sense of rotation!)than by evaluating the cross product:
(A)
Mz = (a/3)G (a/3)F a( 2/2)P .
 Forces with a Common Point of Application 13

Problem 1.8 A uniform beam P1.8

(weight W, length 4a) rests upon
the corner A and the smooth wall
at B. W

Calculate the angle for which the

beam is in equilibrium.
A
B
a
Solution We isolate the beam
and sketch the free-body diagram.
From the condition smooth , it

follows that the unkown forces N1
and N2 are perpendicular to the re- W
spective contact plane. Thus, the
equilibrium conditions read

: N1 sin N2 = 0 , N1 N2
B
: N1 cos W = 0 ,
a
 a
B: N1 2a cos W = 0 .
cos

They can be used to determine the three unknowns N1 , N2 and . The

solution for is obtained by substitution equation 2 into equation 3:
aW 1
2a cos W = 0 ; cos3 = .
cos2 2

The solution can be found more ea-

sily with the aid of the statement:
Three forces are in equilibrium if
W
their lines of action pass through
one point and the according force
2a
polygon is closed. Thus, it follows
from the geometry:
N1 N2
a/ cos
2a cos = ,
cos
a

1
; cos3 = .
2
 14 Equilibrium

P1.9 Problem 1.9 A beam of length l l

and negligible weight is placed hori- x
zontally between two smooth inclined
planes. A block with the weight W W
rests upon the beam.
A B
At what distance x the block must be
placed in order to obtain equilibrium?
Determine the reaction forces?

Solution a) analytical: We sketch a free-body diagram and formulate

the equilibrium conditions:

: A cos + B cos W = 0 , W
: A sin B sin = 0 ,
A B
 x
A: x W l B cos = 0 .

It follows therefrom
sin sin
A=W , B=W ,
sin( + ) sin( + )

sin cos l
x=l = .
sin( + ) 1 + (tan / tan )

b) graphical: Three forces are in equilibrium if their lines of action pass

through one point and their force polygon is closed. Thus, the line of
action w of W follows directly from the intersection of the lines of action
a and b of the reaction forces A and B. We can see from the sketch:

h tan + h tan = l
h tan = x
l
; x= . h
1 + tan / tan x

The reaction forces (e.g. force A) follow g b

from the force triangle (sine rule): a

A W B
= ,
sin sin [ ( + )] W
sin
; A=W . A
sin( + )
 Forces with a Common Point of Application 15

Problem 1.10 A homogeneous P1.10

cylinder (weight W , radius r) is held 2
by three struts and loaded by an ex- r 45
ternal moment M . W
3
Determine the forces in the struts.
For what magnitude of M the force M
in strut 1 is zero?
1

Solution We isolate the cylinder and sketch the free-body diagram.

The equilibrium conditions lead to

2
: S2 + S 3 S1 = 0 ,
2 S2
45
2 M A
: S2 W = 0 , B
2 W S3

 2
A: r S2 r S1 + M = 0 . S1
2

Therefrom we obtain
M M
S1 = +W , S2 = 2W, S3 = .
r r

The required moment follows from setting S1 to zero:

S1 = 0 ; M = rW .

Remarks:
Instead of point A, it is more convenient to use point B as the
reference point for the moment equilibrium condition. In this we
have only one unknown:

 M
B: rW rS1 + M = 0 ; S1 = +W .
r

All forces in the bars are tensile forces.

The force S2 in bar 2 is independent of M .
The moment M is in equilibrium due to the forces S1 and S3 in
the bars 1 and 3.
 16 Equilibrium

P1.11 Problem 1.11 A vehicle of weight a

W = 10 kN and known mass center a
C, stands on an inclined, smooth sur- a
face ( = 30 ) and is held by a hori-
zontal rope. C
W
Calculate the compressive forces on B
the wheels.
a A

Solution We cut the rope, isolate

the vehicle from the plane and sketch

the free-body diagram.
We use the equilibrium condition of D
forces in the direction of the tilted
plane and two moment equilibrium B
conditions with inclined to points A
and B. For the latter ones, we decom- W
A
pose the forces G and D into their
components in direction of the plane
and perpendicular to it. It follows

: D cos W sin = 0 ,

A: 2aB + aW sin aW cos aD cos 3aD sin = 0 ,


B: 2aA + aW sin + aW cos aD cos aD sin = 0 .
Thus, we obtain
W
D = W tan = = 5, 77 kN ,
3

W D 3
B= (cos sin ) + (cos + 3 sin ) = W = 8.66 kN ,
2 2 2
W D W
A= (sin + cos ) (cos + sin ) = = 2.89 kN .
2 2 2 3
We check the result with an additional equilibrium condition:

: A + B W cos D sin = 0

W 3 3 W
; +W W = 0.
2 3 2 2 2 3
 Forces with a Common Point of Application 17

Problem 1.12 A frame A to E is P1.12

pin supported in A and held by a ro-
pe at B and C, which is passed over F
two pulleys without friction. A B
E
Determine the force in the rope for 4 3/4 a
a given load F . The dead load of the 3
frame can be neglected. C D
a a

Solution We separate the system and consider, that the forces in the
rope at both sides of the pulleys are equal (hence, the radius of the
pulley does not enter the solution!):

S F
AH
S
AV

So that the frame is in equilibrium, the equations

: AV + S + S sin F = 0 ,

: AH + S cos = 0 ,
 3
A: 2aF aS a(S sin ) a(S cos ) = 0
4

must hold. Together with

3 3 4
cos = = , sin =
32 + 42 5 5
it follows
8 8 3
S= F, AH = F, AV = F .
9 15 5

We calculate the moment equilibrium with respect to C to check the

result:
 3 3 3 8
C : aAV + aAH + aF = 0 ; aF a F + aF = 0 .
4 5 4 15
 18 Equilibrium
R
P1.13 Problem 1.13 Two smooth spheres
(each of weight W and radius r) are Q
stacked inside a narrow circular tu- W
be (weight Q, radius R), which stands
perpendicular to the ground (r = 34 R).
Determine the required weight W such r
W
that the tube does not tilt.

Solution We separate the spheres and the tube and sketch the free-
body diagrams for the limiting case in which tilting just occurs. Then,
the tube is only supported in point C by force N5 . (If the tube does not
tilt, the contact force is distributed along the complete circumference
of the tube.)

1 3
N1 N1
W N2
2 Q
2 r sin
N4
N2 W
N4
C

N3 N5
The equilibrium conditions for the spheres and the tube yield:

1 : N2 sin W = 0 , 2 : N3 N2 sin W = 0 ,
: N1 N2 cos = 0 , : N2 cos N4 = 0 ,

3 : N4 N1 = 0 , : N5 Q = 0 ,

C : (r + 2r sin )N1 rN4 R Q = 0 .
It follows therefrom
W W 3
N1 = N4 = , N2 = , N3 = 2W, Q = N5 = W cos .
tan sin 2
With the geometric relationship

cos = (R r)/r = 1/3,

we obtain the limit weight for which tilting occurs:

Qtilting = W/2 .

Such that the tube does not tilt, the condition

Q > Qtilting = W/2

must be fulllled.
 General Systems of Forces 19

Problem 1.14 Two smooth drums P1.14

(weight W , radius r) are connec-
ted by a sti rope of length a. The
force F is applied using a lever of F l
length l.
Determine the forces between the
drums and the ground. W W

a
Solution We isolate the drums and the lever:

D2 F
1 3
2
S S
W D1 x
W
D1 D2
H
N1 N2 a cos O
N3
For the three separate systems, 2 2 + 1 3 = 7 equations are available
for the determination of the 7 unknowns (D1 , D2 , N1 , N2 , N3 , H, S):

1 : S D1 sin = 0 , : N1 W + D1 cos = 0 ,
2 : D2 sin S = 0 , : N2 W D2 cos = 0 ,
3 : H + D1 sin D2 sin = 0 ,
: N3 D1 cos + D2 cos F = 0 ,

O: l cos F (a cos + x)D2 + xD1 = 0 .

The angle is obtained from the geometry:

a/2
r r
sin = ,
a/2

cos = 1 4(r/a)2 . r
a/2
Summation of equations 1 and 3 yields D1 = D2 . Thus, we obtain
H = 0 and N3 = F and from equation 7, the unknown distance x
drops out. Solving the equations yields
 
l r l r
N1 = W F 1 4( )2 , N2 = W + F 1 4( )2 .
a a a a
 20 Equilibrium

P1.15 Problem 1.15 The sketch shows

the principle of a material testing b/2 b/2
machine.
Q
Determine the tensile force T in
b/6
the specimen for a given load F
and weight Q. F b/3

specimen

2b

b/4 b/4

Solution We separate the system

where we take into account that Q
2
the forces at the ends of each bar
are equal with opposite direction:
S3 S1 A S2
S1 S2
1

F S3
3 T

1 S1 = S2 , (symmetry or moment equilibrium)
: S1 + S2 = T ,
 
 b b b b b

2 A: Q+ S2 S1 S3 = 0 ; S1 = 3S3 3Q ,
2 2 6 6 2
 b

3 C: S3 2 b F = 0 ; S3 = 6F .
3

Thus, we obtain

T = S1 + S2 = 6S3 6Q = 36F 6Q .

Remarks:
By choosing suitable reference points for the moments, the support
reactions A and C do not enter the equations.
The load Q is used as counterweight to the weight of the levers and
bars, which are neglected here.
The magnitude of the force transferred to the specimen by the lever
mechanicsm is 36 times the magnitude of the load F .
 General Systems of Forces 21

Problem 1.16 A hydraulic P1.16

excavator arm shall be
designed such that it exerts b
a force R at the cutting
Z2
edge.
a
Determine the lever arm b Z1
of the cylinder Z2 such that a
it operates with the same a
pressure force as cylinder
Z1. a

2a
R

Solution We isolate the system and sketch a free-body diagram. Therein,

we a priori presume the same pressure force P in both cylinders.

D D C
P N P
AH B BH
N
AH
R AV AV BV P
Then, the equilibrium equations read for the shovel

A : 2aR aD = 0 ; D = 2R ,

: AH D = 0 ; AH = 2R ,
: R AV = 0 ; AV = R
and for point C

: D P cos 45 = 0 ; P = D 2 = 2 2R ,
: P sin 45 N = 0 ; N = 2R
as well as the moment equilibrium for the excavator arm

B: 3 aAV + 2 aN a P cos 45 b P = 0 .

Solving the equations leads to the length of the lever arm:

5
b= 2 a.
4
Remark: The support reactions BV and BH can be determined from
the equilibrium of forces at the excavator arm.
 22 Equilibrium

P1.17 Problem 1.17 A rectangular plate

of negligible weight is suspended
by three vertical wires. a
a) Assume that the plate is subjec-
ted to a concentrated vertical force
Q. Determine the location of the 2a
point of application of Q so that 2a
the forces in the wires are equal.
4a
b) Calculate the forces in the wires
if the plate is subjected to a verti- 4a
cal constant area load p.

Solution a) We introduce a coor-

dinate system. The unknown coordina-
tes of the point of application of the for-
ce Q are denoted by xQ and yQ . If the S
0 S
forces in the wires are equal, the equili-
y
brium conditions (parallel forces) are Q
S xQ
 yQ
Fz = 0 : 3S Q = 0 ,
 (0)
Mx =0 : 4 aS yQ Q = 0 ,
x
 (0)
My =0 : 4 aS a S 2aS + xQ Q = 0 .

This yields
Q 4 7
S= , yQ = a, xQ = a.
3 3 3

b) Now the plate is subjected to a con-

stant area load p which can be repla- S3
ced by a constant resultant force F = S1
4 6 a2 p = 24 pa2 . The forces in the wi- 0
res are denoted by S1 , S2 and S3 . The S2 y
equilibrium conditions p

Fz = 0 : S1 + S2 + S3 24 pa2 = 0 ,
 (0)
Mx =0 : 2 a 24 pa2 4 aS3 = 0 , x
 (0) 2
My =0 : 3 a 24 pa 4 aS2 aS1 2 aS3 = 0

now lead to

S3 = 12 pa2 , S1 = 0 , S2 = 12 pa2 .
 General Systems of Forces 23
1.6
Problem 1.18 A rectangular trac 1.6 P1.18
sign of weight W is attached to a A
wall via two wires in A and B. It is
held perpendicular to the wall by a B
joint in point C and a bar in D. All
lengths are given in meters (m). 2
D 2
Determine the forces at the joint, in
the wires and the bar.
C 1
W
1
4

Solution We isolate the trac sign and sketch a free-body diagram

with the components of all forces. Thus, the six spatial equilibrium
conditions yield:

Fx = 0 : Ax Bx Cx = 0 , z
 Bz Bx
0 D
Fy = 0 : Ay + By + Cy + D = 0 , y
Az Cz
 Cx
Fz = 0 : Az + Bz + Cz W = 0 , Ay Ax By
Cy
 (0)
x W
Mx =0 : 1 Cy = 0 ,
 (0)
My =0 : 4Az 2Bz + 2 W + 1 Cx = 0 ,
 (0)
Mz =0 : 4 Ay + 2 By = 0 .
This provides six equations for 10 unknowns. Another 2 2 = 4 equa-
tions follow from the decomposition of the wire forces A and B in-
to components (the components are related to eachother according to
their respective lengths!):
Ax 4 Ax 4 Bx 2 Bx 2
= , = , = , = .
Ay 1.6 Az 2 By 1.6 Bz 2
by solving for the forces, we obtain:
W 2 2 4
Ax = Bx = , Cx = W , Ay = W, By = W,
3 3 15 15
W W W 2
Cy = 0 , Az = , Bz = , Cz = , D= W.
6 3 2 15
With the components of A and B, the forces in the ropes result as:
SA = 0.4 W , SB = 0.34 W .
 24 Equilibrium a
Q
a
P1.19 Problem 1.19 A right-
angled triangle (weight F
negligible) is supported 4 5
P
by six bars. It is subjec- 6
ted to the forces F , Q and
a 1
P. 2 3
Calculate the forces in
the bars.
a/2
a/2

Solution First, we sketch the free-body diagram and choose a coordi-

nate system:
y
Q
F S5
z S4
0
P
S1 S6 x
S2
S3
45

Then we write down the equilibrium conditions (since the geometry of

the problem is very simple, we do not resort to the vector formalism):

 2 2
Fx = 0 : S2 + S5 + F = 0 ,
2 2

Fy = 0 : S6 cos = 0 ,

 2 2
Fz = 0 : S1 S2 S3 S6 sin S4 S5 Q P = 0 ,
2 2
 (0) 2
Mx = 0 : 2aS4 2a S5 a Q = 0 ,
2
 (0) a a
My = 0 : a S3 + Q + P = 0 ,
2 2
 (0) 2
Mz = 0 : 2a S5 aF = 0 .
2
Solving this system of equations for the forces in the bars yields

F P 2 1
S1 = , S2 = F, S3 = (Q + P ) ,
2 2 2

1 2
S4 = (F Q) , S5 = F, S6 = 0 .
2 2
 General Systems of Forces 25

Problem 1.20 On the platform of a P1.20

television tower, the shown external P
forces act due to the attached constructi- 2P
ez P
ons and wind loads. qw r A ey
ex
First, the external forces shall be replaced
by a resultant force and a resultant mo-
ment with respect to the support point A
of the platform. h
Subsequently, the moment at the bottom B
B of the tower shall be determined with
the aid of an oset moment.
Given: = 45 .

Solution In order to determine the resultant force and resultant mo-

ment with respect to point A, we need the forces and the respective
lever arms. For the vertical single forces F 1 , F 2 and F 3 , it follows with
the shown basis system:

forces: F 1 = 2 P ez , F 2 = P ez , F 3 = P ez ,

2
lever arms: rAF 1 = r ey , rAF 2 = r ex , rAF 3 = r (ex + ey ) .
2
Since the wind load qw acts in radial direction at each position, it does
not induce a moment with respect to point A. For the resultant wind
load it follows

2
Fw = r qw (ex + ey ) , rAFw = 0 .
2 2
The overall resultant is given by

2
R = F1 + F2 + F3 + Fw = r qw (ex + ey ) 4 P ez ,
2 2
and the resultant moment with respect to A is obtained as

 3
2 2
M (A) = rAFi F i = P r (2 ) ex + P r ( 1) ey .
i=1
2 2
Now, in order to determine the moment with respect to point B, the
oset moment MV = rBA R needs to be added to M (A) . It is calcu-
lated with the lever arm rBA = h ez as

2
MV = rBA R = r qw h (ex ey ) .
2 2
Hence, the moment at the bottom of the tower is given by

M (B) = M (A) + MV .
 26 Equilibrium
2a 3a 2a
P1.21 Problem 1.21 A system of
three pin connected bars
takes the depicted equilibri-
um position under the given 3a 1 3
loading with the forces F1 F1 4a
and F2 .
F2
G1
a) Determine the required 2
ratio of F1 /F2 for this case. G2
b) Calculate the forces
S1 , S2 and S3 in the bars?

Solution We isolate the joints G1 and G2 and obtain two central sys-
tems of forces, for which we have two equilibrium conditions each. From
the free-body diagram of G1 we obtain

: S1 cos + S2 cos = 0 ,
F1
: S1 sin S2 sin F1 = 0 . S1

This results in the relations
cos G1 S2
S1 = S2 ,
cos
sin F1
S2 cos S2 sin F1 = 0 ; S2 = .
cos cos tan sin

From the equilibrium conditions at G2

: S2 cos + S3 cos = 0 ,
F2 S3
: S2 sin + S3 sin F2 = 0 ,
S2

it follows
cos G2
S3 = S2 ,
cos
sin F2
S2 sin + S2 cos F2 = 0 ; S2 = .
cos sin + cos tan
Thus, we have two solutions for S2 , one given as a function of the force
F1 and one as a function of F2 . The ratio of the forces F1 /F2 results
 General Systems of Forces 27

from equating the two solutions:

F1 F2
= ,
cos tan sin sin + cos tan
F1 cos tan sin tan tan
; = = .
F2 sin + cos tan tan + tan

From the geometry of the equilibrium position, we obtain for the angles:
3a 3 3 2
tan = = , sin = , cos = ,
2a 2 13 13
a 1 1 3
tan = = , sin = , cos = ,
3a 3 10 10
4a 2 1
tan = = 2, sin = , cos = .
2a 5 5
This results in
3
F1 2
13 92 1
= 1 = = .
F2 3
2 2 + 12 2

For the forces in the bars, it follows

F1 2 10
S2 = 3 3 = F1 = 0.903 F1 ,

10 2
110 7

3 13 3 5
S1 = S2 = 1.545 F1 , S3 = S2 = 1.916 F1 .
10 2 10 1

The solution of the problem can also be obtained graphically. First we

sketch the closed triangle of forces with F1 ,
S1 and S2 for G1 with the given angles. Then
we sketch the according triangle of forces for
G2 with the same force scaling (the magni- F1 S1
tude of S2 has to be equal and the direction
of rotation must be opposite). From both tri- S2
angles of forces we obtain by inspection the
ratio of the magnitudes of the forces F1 and S2
F2 :
F1 F2 S3
0.5 .
F2
 28 Equilibrium
F
P1.22 Problem 1.22 The given g
y
trapezoidal plate (weight 2a A
is negligible) is loaded by
a weight W and a force F
x B
such that it is in equilibri-
um. W
Calculate the coordinates 3a 2a 3a
of the loading point A at
the edge of the plate.
Given: W, F = 34 W, = 30
Solution We decompose the force F into its components
3
Fx = F sin = W sin 30 F
4
3 1 3 Fy
= W = W, y
4 2 8 A
3 Fx
Fy = F cos = W cos 30 xA yA
4
3 3 3 3 x B W
= W = W.
4 2 8
Thus, the moment equilibrium condition with respect to B reads:

B: yA Fx + (5a xA )Fy 3aW = 0.

With
yA 2a 2
= ; yA = xA ,
xA 3a 3
and the components of the force it follows

2 3 3 3
xA G + (5a xA ) G 3aW = 0.
3 8 8
After solving the equations, we obtain

1 3 3 15 3
( )xA = (3 )a
4 8 8
24 15 3
; xA = a = 0.619a.
23 3
Hence, the y-coordinate is calculated as
2
yA = xA = 0.413a.
3
Chapter 2
Center of Gravity, Center of Mass,
2
Centroids
30 Center of Gravity, Center of Mass, Centroids

Centroid of a Volume
The coordinates of the Centroid of
Volume of a body with volume V are
given by
 z
x dV
xc =  ,
dV
C

y dV
yc =  ,
dV
 zc y
z dV
zc =  . xc
dV x yc

Centroid of an Area

x dA
xc =  ,
dA
 y
y dA
yc =  .
dA yc C
 
Here, x dA = Cy and y dA = Cx
denote the rst moments of the area
with respect to the y- and x-axis, re- xc x
spectively.
For composite areas, where the
coordinates (xi , yi ) of the centroids
Ci of the individual subareas Ai are
known, we have
 y
xi Ai
xS =  ,
Ai yi Ci A
i

yi A i
yS =  .
Ai

xi x
Remarks:
When analyzing areas (volumes) with holes, it can be expedient to
work with negative subareas (subvolumes).
If the area (volume) has an axis of symmetry, the centroid of the
area (volume) lies on this axis.
 Center of Gravity, Center of Mass, Centroids 31

Centroid of a Line

x ds
xc =  , y
ds
 yc
y ds C
yc =  .
ds

If a line is composed of several sublines xc x

of length li with the associated coordi-
nates xi , yi of its centroids, the location
of the centroid follows from y
li

x i li yi Ci
xc =  ,
li

y i li
yc =  .
li
xi x

Center of Mass
The coordinates of the center of mass of a body with density (x, y, z)
are given by
  
xdV ydV zdV
xc =  , yc =  , zc =  .
dV dV dV

Consists a body of several subbodies Vi with (constant) densities i

and associated known coordinates xi , yi , zi , of the centroids of the
subvolumes then it holds
  
x i i Vi yi i V i zi i Vi
xc =  , yc =  , zc =  .
i Vi i Vi i Vi

Remark:
For a homogeneous body ( = const), the center of mass and the cen-
troid of the volume coincide.
32 Location of Centroids

Location of Centroids
Areas y
y x3 , y3
triangle
h
x2 , y2
x1 , y1
a x x
2
xc = 3
a xc = 13 (x1 + x2 + x3 )
1
yc = 3
h yc = 13 (y1 + y2 + y3 )
 
 
1 1 x2 x1 y2 y1 
A= ah A= 2 
2  x 3 x 1 y3 y1 

semicircle quater circle quadr. parabola quater ellipse

y y y
y
r
r r h b

x x b x a x

xc = 0 = 34 r =0 = 34 a

yc = 34 r = 34 r = 3
5
h = 34 b

A = 2 r 2 = 4 r 2 = 4
3
bh = 4 ab

Volumes Line
cone hemisphere circular arc
y
y
y
h
x
r r r
x x

xc = 0 xc = 0 xc = sin
r
1 3
yc = 4
h yc = 8
r yc = 0

V = 1
3
r 2 h V = 2
3
r 3 l = 2r
 Centroid of an Area 33

Problem 2.1 The depicted area is y P2.1

bounded by the coordinate axes and 3a
2
the quadratic parabola with its apex
at x = 0.
Determine the coordinates of the a
2
centroid.
b x

Solution The equation of the parabola is given by

y = x2 + .

The constants and follow with the aid of the points x0 = 0, y0 =

3a/2 and x1 = b, y1 = a/2 as = 3a/2 and = a/b2 . Thus, the
equation of the can be written as
 x 2 3a
y = a + .
b 2
With the innitesimal area dA = y dx, it follows
 
x dA x y dx y
xC =  = 
dA y dx
  x 2 3a 
b
x a + dx 1 2
b 2 ab 3 dA
0
= b    = 2 = b.
 x 2 3a 7 7
a + dx ab x
b 2 6 dx
0

In order to determine the y-coordinate, we choose for simplicity again

the innitesimal area element dA = y dx instead of dA = x dy,
y y dA =
dA =
xdy ydx

dy

y/2

x x x
dx
because we have already used it above. Now, we have to take into
account that its centroid is located at the height y/2. Hence, we obtain
 y
y dx b  
6 x4 3a2 9a2 87
yC = 2 = a2 4 + 2 x 2 + dx = a.
7 14 ab b b 4 140
ab 0
6
 34 Centroid

P2.2 Problem 2.2 Locate the centroid y r

of the depicted circular sector with
the opening angle 2. 2
x

Solution Due to symmetry reasons, we obtain yC = 0. In order to

determine xC we use the innitesimal sector of the circle (= triangle)
and integrate over the angle
 
 2 1
r cos r r d 1
3 2 r 3 2 sin 2 dA = r r d
xC =  1 = r 2

3 r2 3
r r d d
2
C
2 sin
= r.
3

In the limit case of a semicircular area ( = /2), the centroid is located

4
xC = r.
3

Remark: Alternatively, the determination

of the centroid may be done by the decom-
position of the area into circular rings and
integration over x. In this case the centroid C
C of the circular rings has to be known or
determined a priori.
We may determine the centroid of a circular segment with the aid of
the above calculations and by subtraction:

r
C s AI CI AII CII
A

xC xCI xCII

2 sin 2 1 2
xCI AI xCII AII r r s r cos r cos s3
xC = = 3 2 3 = .
AI AII 1 12A
r 2 s r cos
2
 Centroid of an Area 35

Problem 2.3 Locate the centroids of the depicted proles. The measu- P2.3
rements are given in mm.
a) b)

20 20
6 6

20 5 30 5

4 4
45 45

Solution a) The coordinate system is placed, such that the y-axis

coincides with the symmetry axis of the system. Therefore, we know
xC = 0. In order to determine yC , the system is decomposed into three
rectangles with known centroids and it follows

yi A i
yC =  y
Ai
2 (4 45) + 14(5 20) + 27 (6 20)
=
4 45 + 5 20 + 6 20
5000
= = 12.5 mm .
400 x

b) The origin of the coordinate system is placed in the lower left corner.
Decomposition of the system into rectangles leads to
22.5 (4 45) + 2.5 (5 20) + 10 (6 20)
xC =
4 45 + 5 20 + 6 20 y
5500
= = 13.75 mm ,
400

2 (4 45) + 14 (5 20) + 27 (6 20)

yC = x
400
= 12.5 mm .

Remark: Note that a displacement of the system in the x-direction does

not change the y-coordinate of the centroid.
 36 Centroid of an Area
y
P2.4 Problem 2.4 Locate the
centroid of the depicted 4
area with a rectangu-
lar cutout. The measure-
ments are given in cm. 2
2 2
1
x
3 1 1 2

Solution First we decompose the system into two triangles (I,II) and
one rectangle (III), from which we subtract the rectangular cutout (IV).
The centroids are known for each subsystem.

IV

I II

III

The calculation is conveniently done by using a table.

Sub- Ai xi xi Ai yi yi A i
system
i [cm2 ] [cm] [cm3] [cm] [cm3 ]

10 100 10 100
I 10
3 3 3 3
17 68 10 40
II 4
3 3 3 3
7
III 14 49 1 14
2
7
IV -2 -7 2 -4
2

   170
A= Ai = 26 xi Ai = 98 yi A i =
3
Thus, we obtain
 
xi Ai 98 49 yi A i 170/3 85
xC = = = cm , yC = = = cm .
A 26 13 A 26 39
 Centroid of a Line 37

Problem 2.5 A wire with constant P2.5

thickness is deformed into the depic-
ted gure. The measurements are gi- 40
ven in mm. 80
Locate the centroid. 30

Solution We choose coordinate axes, such that y is the symmetry

axis. Then, due to symmetry reasons, we can identify xC = 0. The
y-coordinate of the centroid follows generally by decomposition as


y i li
yC =  .
li
Three alternative solutions will be shown. The total length of the wire
is

l= li = 2 30 + 2 80 + 40 = 260 mm .

a)
I
1
yC = (80 40 + 2 40 80)
260      
I II II II
9600 y
III III
= = 36.92 mm .
260 x

b) I
1 y 40
yC = (40 40 2 40 30)
260       II x
I III
= 3.08 mm .
III III

c) We choose a specic subsystem IV

such that its centroid coincides with the IV y 40
origin of the coordinate system: x
V V
1 
yC = 2 (40) 10 = 3.08 mm .
260    10 10
V

The advantage of alternative c) is, that only the rst moment of sub-
system V has to be taken into account.
 38 Centroid of a Line
y
y = a cosh x
a + 2a
P2.6 Problem 2.6 A thin wire is bent
to a hyperbolic function.
a C
Locate the centroid.
a a x

Solution The centroid is located on the y-axis due to the symmetry

of the system (xC = 0). We obtain the innitesimal arc length ds with
aid of the derivative y  = sinh x
a as
  
x x
ds = (dx)2 + (dy)2 = 1 + (y  )2 dx = 1 + sinh2 dx = cosh dx .
a a
The total arc length follows by integration:
  +a
x
s = ds = cosh dx = 2 a sinh 1 .
a a
The rst moment of the line with respect to the x-axis is given by
  
2 1
Sx = y ds = a 4 sinh 1 sinh 2 1 .
2
Hence, the centroid is located at

y ds 4 a2 sinh 1 12 a2 sinh 2 a
yC =  = = 0.803 a .
ds 2 a sinh 1

P2.7 Problem 2.7 From the

triangular-shaped metal sheet A
ABC, the triangle CDE has II I
been cut out. The system is 3
a
pin supported in A. 2
x D
Determine x such that BC ad-
justs horizontal. B a E 3 C
a
2 2

Solution The system is in the required position, if the centroid is

located vertically below A. Consequently, the rst moments of the
triangular-shaped subsystems ADC and ABE have to be equal with
respect to the point A:
 
1 3 3 1 3 1 a 3 1 a 4
ax a a = a ; x= 3 a.
2 2 2 3 
2  2 2 2  
3 2 9
  
area ADC distance area ABE distance
 Center of Gravity 39

Problem 2.8 A piece of a pipe of P2.8

weight W is xed by three spring scales as
depicted. The spring scales are equally dis-
tributed along the edge of the pipe. They
measure the following forces: 1 2
F1 = 0.334 W , F2 = 0.331 W ,
F3 = 0.335 W .
Now an additional weight shall be attached 3
to the pipe in order to shift the centroid of
the total system into the center of the pipe
(=static balancing). Determine the location
and the magnitude of the additional weight.

Solution We know, due to the dierent

measured forces, that the system is not ba-
lanced. Thus, the gravity center C (=locati- y
1 2
on of the resulting weight) is not located in
the middle of the ring, but coincides with
30
the location of the resultant of the spring x
forces. Therefore, in a rst step, we determi-
ne the location of the center of these forces.
This can be done by the equilibrium of mo-
ments about the x- and y-axis: 3

yC W = r sin 30 (0.334 W + 0.331 W ) r 0.335 W ,

; yC = 0.0025 r ,

xC W = r cos 30 (0.331 W 0.334 W ) ,

; xC = 0.0026 r .
I Z
y
In order to recalibrate the gravity center
into the center M of the ring, the additional M
required weight Z has to be applied on the x
intersection point of the ring and the line C
CM . The weight of Z can be determined
from the equilibrium of the moments about I
the perpendicular axis I:

r Z = CM W ; r Z = x2C + yC 2
W

; Z= (0.0025)2 + (0.0026)2 W = 0.0036 W .
 40 Center of Mass

P2.9 Problem 2.9 A thin sheet

with constant thickness and z 2
density, consisting of a square
and two triangles, is bent to the 3
depicted gure (measurements II
in cm). 3 III y
I
Locate the center of gravity. 4
x 4

Solution The body is composed by three parts with already known

location of centers of mass. The location of the center of mass of the
complete system can be determined from
  
i x i Vi i yi Vi i zi Vi
xC =  , yC =  , zC =  .
i Vi i Vi i Vi
Since the thickness and the density of the sheet is constant, these terms
cancel out and we obtain
  
xi Ai yi A i zi Vi
xC =  , yC =  , zC =  .
Ai Ai Ai
The total area is
 1 1
A= Ai = 4 4 + 4 3 + 4 3 = 28 cm2 .
2 2
Calculating the rst area moments of the total system about each axis,
in each case one rst moment of a subsystem drops out because of zero
distance: xII = 0, yIII = 0, zI = 0. Thus, we obtain
2
xI AI + xIII AIII 2 16 + ( 4) 6
xC = = 3 = 1.71 cm ,
A 28

yI AI + yII AII 2 16 + 2 6
yC = = = 1.57 cm ,
A 28

1 1
zII AII + zIII AIII ( 3) 6 + ( 3) 6
zC = = 3 3 = 0.43 cm .
A 28
 Center of Mass 41

Problem 2.10 A semi-circular P2.10

t
bucket is produced from a steel sheet
with the thickness t and density S . b

a) Determine the required distance of

the bearing pivots to the upper edge, r
such that it is easy to turn the empty
bucket around the pivots.
b) Consider a steel bucket which is lled with material of the density
M . How does this change the required distance of the pivots?
Given: b = r, t = r/100, M = S /3
Solution The bucket tilts easiest by positioning the pivots in the axis
of the center of mass.
a) In case of an empty bucket (=homogeneous body), the center of
mass coincides with the center of volume. Since the sheet thickness is
constant, it cancels out. With the centroids of the subareas
4r
semi circle z1 =
3
2r zC z
semi circular arc z2 =

we obtain
4r r 2 2r
z1 A 1 + z2 A 2 2 + rb 4r +6b
z CE = = 3 2 = r.
2
A1 + A2 r 3 (r + b)
2 + rb
2
b) In case of the
! lled" bucket, we obtain with the mass of the steel
bucket mS = r 2 + rb tS and the mass of the lling mM = 12 r 2 b M
the location of the mass center as

4r
z CE m S + mM 4 (2r + 3b) t S + 4 rb M
z CF = 3 =  r.
mS + mM 3 2 (r + b) t S + r b M

Using the given data b = r, t = r/100, M = S /3 , it follows

1 1
10 45 +4
z CE = r = 0.53 r , z CF =  100 3 r = 0.44 r .
3 2 1 1
3 4 +
100 3
Remark: Since the mass of the lling is much bigger than the mass of
the bucket, we nd the common center of mass close to the center of
mass of the lling: zCM = 4r/(3) = 0.424 r.
 42 Center of Mass

P2.11 Problem 2.11 The depicted stirrer

consists of a homogenous wire that rotates
about the sketched vertical axis.
a/2
Determine the length l, such that the cen-
a
ter of mass C is located on the rotation
axis.
a
C
Solution Using the given coordinate
system and decomposing the stirrer in-
to four subparts, we obtain the center of l
mass from

x i li
xC =  .
li

For convenience, we use a table.

i li xi x i li
1 a 0 0
a a a2
2
2 4 8
a a2 1
3 a
2 2
a l al l2 y 2
4 l C
3
2 2 2 2 x
 5a 5a2 al l2
+l + 4
2 8 2 2
The centroid shall lie on the rotation axis. Therefore, from the condition
xC = 0, follows the quadratic equation
 5a2 al l2 5a2
x i li = + =0 ; l2 al = 0.
8 2 2 4
It has two solutions

a a2 5a2 a 6
l1,2 = + = a,
2 4 4 2 2
from which only the positive one is physically reasonable:
a
l = (1 + 6) .
2
 Center of Mass 43

Problem 2.12 Determine the y P2.12

location of the centroid for the
depicted surface of a hemisphere
with the radius r.
r

Solution We choose the

coordinate system, such that the
y-axis coincides with the symme- x
try axis. Therefore, we know: z
xC = 0 , zC = 0 .

T he remaining coordinate yC , fol-

lows from y

y dA
yC =  . dA R
dA

As innitesimal area element, we r

choose the circular ring with the y

width r d and the circumference
2 R as our innitesimal area ele-
ment: x
z
dA = 2 R r d .

Using R = r cos and y = r sin , it follows

dA = 2 r 2 cos d.

Now, we can determine the surface area as

  /2 /2

A= dA = 2 r 2 cos d = 2 r 2 sin  = 2 r 2
=0 0

and the rst moment of the area as

  /2 /2
1 
y dA = 2 r 3 d = 2 r 3 sin2 
sin cos  = r3 .
=0 2 0
d sin
Thus, the location of the centroid results as

1 r
yC = y dA = .
A 2
 44 Center of Mass
y
P2.13 Problem 2.13 Determine the center
of the volume for the depicted he-
misphere of radius r.
r
Solution Due to the axisymmetric
geometry, we know
x
xc = 0 , zc = 0 .
z
The remaining coordinate is deter- y
mined from

y dV dy
yC =  . R
dV

As innitesimal volume element r y

we select the circular disk with ra-

dius R and thickness dy:
x
dV = R2 dy . z
By parametrization of the radius R and coordinate y

R = r cos , y = r sin ; dy = r cos d ,

the volume of the hemisphere follows as

  /2  /2
V= dV = r 3 cos3 d = r 3 (1 sin2 ) cos 
d
=0 =0
  /2 d sin
sin3  2
=r 3
sin  = r3 .
3  3
0

With the the rst moment of the area as

  /2 /2
r4  r4
y dV = r 4 3
cos sin d = cos4
 = ,
   4  4
=0 0
d cos
the center of the volume is determined as

1 r 4 3 3
yC = y dV = = r.
V 4 2 r 3 8
Chapter 3
Support Reactions
3
46 Support Reactions

Plane Structures
In coplanar systems, we have 3 equilibrium conditions. Thus, we have
maximum 3 support reactions in a statically and kinematically deter-
minate structure. We distinguish the following supports:

Technical term Symbol Support Reactions

simple support
AV

hinged support
AH AV

clamped support ME
AH
AV
Note: At a free end , no force and no moment are acting.
Between 2 parts of a structure, the following connecting members can
be present:

Technical term Symbol Transfered Re-

actions
N
hinge
Q Q

N
parallel motion
MM
M
sliding sleeve
Q Q

hinged support N

With the degrees of freedom f , the number of support reactions r, the

number of joint reactions v, and the number parts n, the following re-
lation holds:

f = 3 n (r + v) .

Note:
> 0 : f -times movable,
f =0: statically determinate (necessary condition),


<0: f -times statically indeterminate.
 Support Reactions 47

Spatial Structures
In spatial systems, we have 6 equilibrium conditions. Thus, we have 6
support reactions in a statically and kinematically determinate struc-
ture. We distinguish the following supports:
x
Technical term Symbol Support Reactions y
z

simple support
Az

hinged support Ax Az
Ay
Ax Mx
clamped support
Ay
Az My Mz

Between 2 parts of a structure, the following connecting members can

be present:
x
Technical term Symbol Transfered Re- y
actions z
Qz
hinge Nx
Qy
Qz
Cardan joint (U-joint)
Qy Nx Mx

Qz Mz
(door) hinge
Nx Mx
Qy
With the degrees of freedom f , the number of support reactions r, the
number of joint reactions v, and the number parts n, the following re-
lation holds:

f = 6 n (r + v) .

Note:

> 0 : f -times movable,
f =0: statically determinate (only necessary condition),


<0: f -times statically indeterminate.
 48 Support Reactions

P3.1 Problem 3.1 Verify if the following structures are statically determina-
te and serviceable (=kinematically determinate). Note that kinematic
determinacy is independent from static determinacy. For movable sys-
tems (f > 0), kinematic determinacy may be excluded a priori, but
in case of static determinacy (f = 0) or indeterminacy (f < 0), the
kinematic determinacy has to be investigated separately.

a) Solution We have n = 3 (bodies), r = 4

support reactions and v = 2 2 + 3 = 7 (2
hinges and 3 bars), we obtain
a
f = 3 3 (4 + 7) = 2 .
b
a Therefore, the system is statically indetermi-
nate. That it is also kinematically indeter-
minate can be recognized by considering the
a a middle beam between the 2 hinges together
b b
with the 3 bars as a single rigid body. The
we obtain with n = 3, r = 4 and v = 2 2
f = 1. Therefore, the system obtains 1 kine-
matic degree of freedom and is movable, i.e.
not serviceable.

b) Solution With n = 3 (bodies), r = 3 support

reactions and v = 6 (3 joints), it follows
b
f = 3 3 (3 + 6) = 0 .

This system is statically determined and ser-

a a a viceable. Here an immobile three-hinged is at-
tached on an also immobile beam.

c) Solution The system consists of n = 3 be-

ams/frames, contains r = 4 support reactions
and v = 4 joint reactions (2 hinges). Thus we
b
obtain
a
f = 3 3 (4 + 4) = 1 .

a a The system is movable and therefore not ser-

b b
viceable.
 Statical Determinacy 49

d) Solution With n = 2 frame parts, r = 3

support reactions and v = 4 joint reactions (2
joints), we obtain
a

f = 3 2 (3 + 4) = 1 .
a a a
The parts of the frame are joined immovable,
such that the system can be considered as a
single rigid, immovable body. This system is
statically determinate supported. These kinds
of systems are externally statically determina-
te and internally statically indeterminate.

e) Solution Here we have n = 9, r = 7 and

v = 20 (note: each additional beam connected
a at a joint grings 2 additional joint reaction).
We obtain
a
f = 3 9 (7 + 20) = 0 .
a a This system is statically determinate and ser-
b
viceable. The lower right vertical beam is
xed, by its supports. To the left side of that
beam, two immobile three-hinged frames are
attached. This system is extended by two ad-
ditional three-hinged frames on the top.

f) b Solution In this case we have

a f = 3 10 (4 + 26) = 0 .
A
a Although the depicted system is statically de-
termined, it is not serviceable, because an in-
nitesimal movement is possible. Note that
a a
b b both supports and the joint A, which connects
both subsystems, are on a straight line. This
results in a very soft construction which is
not serviceable.
 50 Support Reactions

P3.2 Problem 3.2 Determine the

support reactions for the depicted F1 q0 F2 M0
system.
Given: F1 = 2 kN, F2 = 3 kN, B
A
a = 1 m, M0 = 4 kNm,
q0 = 5 kN/m, = 45 . a a a

Solution The beam is statically and kinematically determinate. We

free the beam from its supports and make the reaction forces visible in
the free-body diagram:

F1 q0 F2
M0

BH
A BV

We write down the equilibrium conditions

 3
A: 3a BV M0 2a F2 a (q0 a) a F1 sin = 0 ,
2

B: 3a A + 2a F1 sin + 32 a (q0 a) + a F2 M0 = 0 ,

: F1 cos BH = 0 .
They lead to
3 1
4+6+ 5+2 2
BV = 2 2 = 6.30 kN ,
3
1 3
22 2+ 5+34
A = 2 2 = 3.11 kN ,
3
1
BH = 2 2 = 1.41 kN .
2
As a check, we use the force equilibrium in the vertical direction:

: A + BV F1 sin q0 a F2 = 0 ,
; 3.11 + 6.30 2 0.71 5 3 = 0 .

Remark: Note that the support reactions are given with an accuracy of
only two digits after the decimal point. Therefore, this equation is not
satised exactly.
 Support Reactions 51

Problem 3.3 Determine the support reactions for the depicted systems P3.3
a) b) F
F
a
c
F
a
C
A B B
a b a 2a a

Solution The free-body diagrams are used to formulate the equilibri-

um conditions from which the support reactions are determined. Ad-
ditionally, we check the obtained results by an additional equilibrium
condition.
a)
 c
A: aB cF = 0 ; B= F, F
a
 c
B: a AV c F = 0 ; AV = F , AH
a
: AH + F = 0 ; AH = F . AV B

Check:

C: (a + b) AV b B c F = 0
b c
; (c + c) F b F c F = 0 .
a a

b)

I: 2a B + a F 3a F = 0 ; B=F, F
I F

: F S1 cos 45 = 0 ; S1 = 2F ,
S1 S2
: B F S2 S1 sin 45 = 0 ; S2 = F . B

Check:

B: 2a S2 + a S1 cos 45 + 2a S1 sin 45 + 2a F a F = 0

; 2a F a F 2a F + 2a F a F = 0 .
 52 Support Reactions
B R
P3.4 Problem 3.4 Determine C
the support reactions of the R
depicted system. Neglect the D
friction of the pulley. 2R F
A

2R 3R

Solution First, we verify that the structure is statically determinate.

The system consists of
r = 4 support reactions (2 force components at A
and 2 components at B),
n = 3 bodies,
v = 5 transferred joint reactions (2 reactions at C,
2 reactions at D and the force in the rope).
Thus, the condition

3 3 (4 + 5) = 0
f = 
 
3n r v
is satised. We isolate the three bodies and obtain the sketched free-
body diagrams.
S 2

Cx Bx Cx Dx

1 Cy By Cy Dy

Ax S
y
Ay
Dx
x
Dy

3 F

The, the equilibrium equations read for the pulley 3


D: RS = RF ; S=F,
: Dy = F ,
: Dx = F ,
 Support Reactions 53

for the angled beam 1


A: 2R Cx 2R Cy 3R S = 0 ,
: A y = Cy ,
A x = Cx S

and for the beam 2 (using the results from the pulley)

D: 5R By 3R Cy = 0 ,
: By + Cy F = 0 ,
: Bx + Cx F = 0 .
The four support reactions and the two joint reactions at C can be
calculated from the last six equations:
3 5
By = F , Cy = A y = F,
2 2

Cx = 4 F , Bx = 3 F , Ax = 3 F .

Note that the support reactions in the horizontal direction can also be
determined from the equilibrium condition for the complete system:

Bx

By F
Ax

Ay


A: 6R F + 2R Bx = 0 ; Bx = 3F ,
: Ax + Bx = 0 ; Ax = 3F .
In order to nd Ay and By , we have to cut through the structure
anyway.
 54 Support Reactions

P3.5 Problem 3.5 A homogenous

triangular-shaped plate (specic
weight per unit thickness g) is
hold in the depicted position. h
A
Determine the force in the rope
and the support reactions. Ne-
glect the the friction of the pul- a
leys.

Solution Isolating the triangular plate

S1
and sketching the free-body, we re- 2
cognize the four unknown forces 3
a
Ax , Ay , S1 , S2 . Using the equilibrium
of the rolls, we obtain Ax W

S2
S3 = S1 Ay
; S1 = S2 .
S3 = S2

With that the number of unknowns is S3 S3

reduced to 3, since S1 = S2 = S. The
resulting weight S1

1 S2
W = ahg
2
acts in the centroid at distance 23 a from
support A. Thus, we obtain the equili-
brium equations S

 2
A: aW aS = 0, Ax W
3
S
: Ay W + S = 0 , Ay

: Ax + S = 0
and the demanded forces result as
2 1 1 1 1
S= W = ahg , Ay = W = ahg , Ax = ahg .
3 3 3 6 3
 Support Reactions 55

Problem 3.6 Determine the 2a P3.6
support reactions for the depicted F2
frame. F1

Given: F1 = 2000N,
F2 = 3000 2 N, 2a
= 45 ,
a = 5 m.
A
a

Solution The free-body diagram F2
shows that the line of action of F1
F2 passes through the support A.
Thus, the equilibrium condition of
the moments with respect to A
yields
Ax
Ay

A: 2a B 2a F1 = 0 ; B = F1 .
B
Additionally, we obtain from the equilibrium of forces
: Ay + B F2 cos = 0 ; Ay = F2 cos F1 ,

: Ax + F1 F2 sin = 0 ; Ax = F2 sin F1 .
Inserting the numerical values, yields
1
Ax = 3000 2 2 2000 = 1000 N ,
2
1
Ay = 3000 2 2 2000 = 1000 N ,
2
B = 2000 N .

Check:

B: 3a F2 sin 3a F1 a Ax 2a Ay = 0

1
; 15 3000 2 2 15 2000 5 1000 10 1000 = 0 .
2
 56 Support Reactions

P3.7 Problem 3.7 Determine the

support reactions for the de- A F
l/2
picted frame.
Given: = 30
l/2 l/2 l

B C

AH F
Solution The sketch of the free-body
diagram shows the 5 unknown sup-
port reactions: 2 force components AV I II
each in A and in C, and the force B
CH
in the bar (here assumed to be a com- B
pressive force).
First, we write down the equilibrium
CV
conditions for the complete system
(the hinges are assumed to be frozen):

 1 l 1 3 1 1 3
A: lB 2+ B 2 l F l F
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3
l CH + 2l CV = 0 ,
2
1 1
: B 2 + CV + A V F = 0 ,
2 2
1 3
: AH + B 2 CH F = 0,
2 2
Then, we use moment equilibrium conditions for the part to the left of
hinge I and the part to the right of hinge II, respectively:

 l  l
I: l AV AH = 0 , II : CV l CH = 0 .
2 2

Solving these 5 equations for the 5 unknowns, yields

AH = 0.7440 F , AV = 0.372 F , B = 0.5261 F ,

F F
CH = , CV = .
4 2
 Support Reactions 57
F
Problem 3.8 The sketched system a/2 P3.8
can be used to determine the force a
F in the rope, if a suitable measu- A
ring device is attached to the verti- C a
cal bar BC. a/2
3a
Determine under the assumption of F
a frictionless rope B
a) the support reaction in A and B, 3a a
b) the support reaction of the rolls.

Solution a) The part BC is a hinged column. The 3 support reactions

follow from the equilibrium equations

: AH = 0 , F

: AV + B = 0 , AH

A: 3aB + 3aF = 0, AV B
F
as

B = F , AV = F , AH = 0 .

b) We isolate on of the rolls and introduce the support reactions Rx

and Ry . From the given geometry follows the auxiliary angle :
a/2 1 F
sin = = ; = 30 .
a 2 Rx M
Thus, the equilibrium equations yield nally:
Ry
 a a S
M: F S=0 ; S=F,
2 2
1
: Ry S cos = 0 ; Ry = 3F,
2
3
: Rx S sin F = 0 ; Rx = F .
2
 58 Support Reactions q0

P3.9 Problem 3.9 Determine all

D E
support reactions for the de-
picted structure. q0

2a
B C
a a a

A F

Solution The subsystems ABC and DEF are connected by the hinged
column CD. With n = 2, v = 1
and r = 3 1 + 1 2 = 5 we obtain
f = 3 2 (5 + 1) = 0. Thus the
q0
necessary condition for statical
determinacy is fullled.
E
We separate the system and sketch S
the free-body diagram. Therewith q0
the equilibrium conditions can be 2
B
formulated:

1 FH
Equilibrium for subsystem 1 : A

: A+B =0
q0 a

B= , FV

2
: S = q0 a
;

q0 a
 q0 a2 A= .
A: aS aB = 0

2
2

Equilibrium for subsystem 2 :

 q0 a2

FV = 2q0 a ,
F: aS + 2aE = 0

2 3
; E = q0 a ,
: FV S q0 a = 0 4



FH
3
= q0 a .
: E FH = 0 4

Test: Equilibrium of the moments for the complete system

 q0 a2 q0 a2
D: 2aA + aB + 2aFH + aFV = 0
2 2
q0 a2 3
; q0 a2 + q0 a2 + 2q0 a2 = 0 .
2 2
 Support Reactions 59

Problem 3.10 Determine the 3a a P3.10

support reaction forces and
moment for the sketched sys- D
tem.

3a

P
A B
C

q0

Solution The free-body diagram

shows all forces acting on the sys-
tem (the bar CD acts like a hinged D P
column). AV
Thus the equilibrium conditions AH
for the complete system and the q0
MA
subsystem 2 , respectively, can be 1 2
formulated
Complete system:

: D sin AV + P + q0 4a = 0 ,

: AH + D cos = 0 ,


A: MA + 4 aD sin 2 aq0 4 a 4aP = 0 ,

Subsystem 2 :

 1
B: a D sin P a aq0 a = 0 .
2

Solving the 4 equations for the 4 unknown forces yields with sin =
3/5 and cos = 4/5 the support reactions
5 5 7 4 2
D= P + q0 a, AV = q0 a, AH = P q0 a, MA = 6q0 a2 .
3 6 2 3 3
 60 Support Reactions a/2 a/2 A

P3.11 Problem 3.11 A triangular-

a/2
The part BC of the struc- M0
ture is loaded by a triangular- B
shaped line force. In addition
a single moment M0 is exer-
ted to the part AB.
a
Determine the support reacti-
on in A and C.
q0
C

Solution The free-body dia- MA

gram shows all forces and mo- M0
ments acting on the complete AH
system. Here the line force has
been replaced by its resultant 2
R. Thus, the equilibrium con-
ditions for the complete sys-
tem and subsystem 2 are gi- 1
ven as follows: R

Complete system: a/3

CH
: CV = 0 ,
CV
: AH + CH + R = 0 ,

 3 1
C: MA M0 + aAH aR = 0 ,
2 3

Part 2 :

 2
B: a CH aR = 0 .
3
1
Therefrom, with R = 2
q0 a the reactions forces as
1 1 1
CH = q0 a , CV = 0 , AH = q0 a , MA = M0 q0 a2 .
3 6 12
 Spatial Structures 61

Problem 3.12 The shown x P3.12

structure is loaded at points y
B, C and D by the single P2
z
forces P1 , P2 and P3 . Each li- A
ne of action is parallel to one P3
of the coordinate axes. B
a
Determine the support reacti- D
on at point A. P1
C
c
b

Solution We recognize from

the free-body diagram three P2
components of the force and MAx Ax
three components of the mo- P3
ment acting at point A. Thus, Ay
Az
the equilibrium conditions for
the forces and the moments MAy
yield: MAz P1


Fx = 0 : Ax = P1 ,


Fy = 0 : Ay = P2 ,


Fz = 0 : Az = P3 ,


Mx(A) = 0 : MAx = c P3 ,


My(A) = 0 : MAy = a P1 b P3 ,


Mz(A) = 0 : MAz = b P2 .
 62 Support Reactions
W FW 2a
P3.13 Problem 3.13 A signpoast is
xed by bars as depicted. It
is loaded by its weight W and 2a
the resulting wind load FW . E
A C
D
Determine the support. y x 4a
2a B
z

Solution We obtain from the

geometry the following angles
1 1
cos 1 = , cos 2 = ,
5 5 W FW
1 2
cos 3 = , cos 5 = .
2 5
S1 S2
S5 2 S6
1 S3 S5
3 S4 Dx 5
The equilibrium equations Dz
are given by: Ax Cy Cz
Az
Bz

Fy = 0 : S5 cos 5 = 0 ; S5 = 0 ,
 (B)
Mz = 0 : S2 cos 2 4a FW 2a = 0 ; S2 = 12 5 FW ,
 (E)
Mx = 0 : W 2a S6 4a S2 sin 2 4a = 0
; S6 = 12 W + FW ,
 (E)
My = 0 : +S1 cos 1 2a + S2 cos 2 2a + FW a = 0 ; S1 = 0 ,

Fx = 0 : S1 cos 1 S3 cos 3 S2 cos 2 FW = 0

; S3 = 12 2 FW ,

Fz = 0 : +W + S4 + S6 + S2 sin 2 + S5 sin 5
+S1 sin 1 + S3 sin 3 = 0 ; S4 = 21 W + 12 FW .
Thus, the reaction forces result as

Ax = 12 FW , Dx = 12 FW ,
1 1 1 1
Az = 2
FW Bz = 2
W 2
FW , Cz = 2
W FW , Dz = FW ,

All other components of the support forces are zero.

 Spatial Structures 63

Problem 3.14 Determine the P3.14

support reactions forces for the
q0
depicted three-dimensional
structure. C
A

D q0

a B 2a
y
x
z

Solution We isolate the system and make visible all reaction forces
and acting external forces in the free-body diagram. Since the supports
at B, C and D are hinged columns, their resulting forces point into the
direction of the hinged column.

q0
Cy
Ax

Ay q0
Dz
Az
Bz

From the the 3 equilibrium conditions for the forces and 3 for the
moments, we obtain the following results for the 6 unknown support
reactions. Here it is advantageous to pay attention to a suitable choice
of the reference points for the moments.

Fx = 0 : Ax 2q0 a = 0 ; Ax = 2q0 a ,

 (A) 1 q0 a
Mx =0 : +Dz 2a q0 1
a 2a = 0 ; Dz = ,
2
 (A) a 2a q0 a
My =0 : +Bz a q0 =0 ; Bz = ,
2 3 3
 (A)
Mz =0 : Cy a 2q0 a a = 0 ; Cy = 2q0 a ,


Fy = 0 : Ay + Cy = 0 ; Ay = 2q0 a ,

 1 a
Fz = 0 : Az Bz Dz + q0 a=0 ; Az = q0 .
2 3
 64 Support Reactions

P3.15 Problem 3.15 A semicircular arc with the A

radius a is loaded by a radial line load q0 q0
and a vertical force F .

Determine the support reactions.

a

Solution We replace the radial line load

q0 by its resultant R. For this purpose, we F
introduce a coordinate system and determi-
ne the force on an innitesimal piece of the
arc with an opening angle d. The innite-
simal resultant in radial direction is

y
dR sin dR
dR = q0 a d .
dR cos
The components of the resultant (positive d
in positive coordinate direction) are

x
dRx = dR cos , dRy = dR sin .

Integration over the semicircular arc yields

 /2 /2

Rx = q0 a cos d= q0 a sin  = 2 q0 a ,
/2 /2
 /2
/2 
Ry = q0 a sin d= q0 a cos  = 0.
/2 /2

The three support reactions follow from the

equilibrium conditions MA
AH
: AH + Rx = 0 , AV

: AV F = 0 , Rx


A: MA + Rx a = 0
as

AH = 2 q0 a , AV = F , MA = 2 q0 a2 . F
Chapter 4
Trusses
4
66 Trusses

Assumptions for an ideal truss:

All slender members of the truss are straight.
The slender members are connected by frictionless pins.
External forces are applied at the pins only.

Plane truss: All truss members and forces are in the same plane.
Rule of sign:

tension member compression member

Computation of statical determinacy:

f = 2j (m + r) plane truss,

f = 3j (m + r) spatial truss,

with
f = number of degrees of freedom, j = number of joints,
m = number of members, r = number of support reactions.
Note:


> 0 f -times movable ,
f =0 statically determinate (only necessary condition) ,


<0 f -times statically indeterminate. .

Zero-force members are members with vanishing internal forces. For

plane trusses the following applies:
S1
= 0 S1 = S2 = 0
S2
S1
S2
= 0 S3 = 0
S3
S1
F
S2 = 0
S2
 Trusses 67

Methods for the determination of internal forces:

Method of Joints
is usefull, when all internal forces have to be determined.

a) Analytical approach
Applying the equilibrium conditions to the free-body diagram of
each joint of the truss. Solution of the system of equations yields
the internal forces and the support reactions.
A large number of joints yields a large system of equations.

b) Graphical approach for plane trusses: CREMONA diagram

1. Determination of the support reactions.
2. Dene direction of calculation: counter-clockwise  or clockwise .
3. Draw a closed force polygon consisting of the external forces and the
support reactions in your dened direction of calculation. (Choose
proper scale for the forces!).
4. Enumerate trusses and identify zero-force members.
5. Starting at a joint with only two unknown internal forces, draw for
every joint a force polygon. The hierarchy to be maintained for the
internal forces is the one dened by the direction of calculation.
6. The direction of the forces at the joint have to be transfered in the
free-body diagram in order to detect if we have a tension or a com-
pression member.
7. The last force polygon is used for the verication of the calculation.
8. Summarize internal forces (including its sign) in a table.

Method of Sections
according to Ritter, can be applied to plane (spatial) trusses, if sever-
al internal forces only are of interest.
1. Determination of the support reactions.
2. The truss is divided by a cut into two parts. The cut has to be made
in such a way that it goes through three members that do not built
a system of coplanar (concurrent) forces.
3. The equilibrium conditions applied to the individual parts of the
truss yield the internal forces of the members divided by cutting.
 68 Trusses
F
P4.1 Problem 4.1 For the given
truss, the forces in the bars a
shall be determined.
A B
2F
2a 2a 2a

Solution We sketch a free-body diagram and number the nodes and

the bars. The support reactions result from the equilibrium conditions
of the entire system:
II 4 IV F
1
3 7 8
I 5 VI
2 III 6 V 9
AH B
AV 2F

 5
A: 4aF + aF 6aB = 0 ; B= F,
6
 7
B : 6a AV 4a 2F + a F = 0 ; AV = F ,
6
: AH + F = 0 ; AH = F .

The forces in the bars can be determined from the nodal equilibrium
conditions. Using
1 2
sin = , cos = ,
5 5
it follows

1 S1
I : A V + S1 = 0 ,
5 I
S2
2
: S2 + S 1 A H = 0 , AH
5 AV

7 5 10
; S1 = F , S2 = F,
6 3

III : S6 S 2 = 0 , S3
III
S2 S6
: S3 2F = 0 ,
10 2F
; S6 = F, S3 = 2F .
3
 Method of Joints 69

1 1
II : S1 + S 5 + S3 = 0 ,
5 5 II
2 2 S4
: S1 + S5 + S4 = 0 , S1 S5
5 5 S3

5 5 2
; S5 = F , S4 = F .
6 3

2
IV : S4 + F + S8 = 0 , IV F
5 S4
1 S8
: S7 + S 8 = 0 , S7
5

5 5 5
; S8 = F , S7 = F .
6 6
S8
2 VI
VI : S9 + S 8 = 0 , S9
5
5 B
; S9 = F .
3

We check the second equilibrium condition at node VI as well as both

nodal equilibrium conditions at node V :
1 5 5
VI : S8 + B = F + F = 0 ,
5 6 6
2 5 5 10
V : S9 S 5 S 6 = F + F F = 0,
5 3 3 3 S7
S5
1 5 5
: S7 + S 5 = F F = 0 . S6 S9
5 6 6
V

The results of the forces in the bars are summarized in the following
table:

i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Si /F -2.61 3.33 2 -0.67 -1.86 3.33 0.83 -1.86 1.67

The largest forces occur in bar 2 and 6.

 70 Trusses

P4.2 Problem 4.2 For the given II 4 IV 8

truss, all bar forces have to
be determined. 1 3 5 7
60 60
I
2 III 6 V

F = 20 kN

Solution Here, it is not necessary to determine the support reactions

rst. The forces in the bars can be obtained by formulating the equili-
brium conditions for all nodes, starting with the loaded node I:

S1
60
I : S1 sin 60 F = 0 ,
I S2

: S2 + S1 cos 60 = 0 , F

2 1
; S1 = F = 23.1 kN , S2 = S1 = 11.6 kN .
3 2

II
II : S1 sin 60 + S3 sin 60 = 0 , S4

: S4 S1 cos 60 + S3 cos 60 = 0 , S1 S3

; S3 = S1 = 23.1 kN , S4 = S1 = 23.1 kN .

III : (S3 + S5 ) sin 60 = 0 , S3 S5

: S2 + (S5 S3 ) cos 60 + S6 = 0 , S2 S6
III
; S5 = S3 = 23.1 kN , S6 = 34.7 kN .
 Method of Joints 71

IV : S5 sin 60 + S7 sin 60 = 0 , IV
S4 S8

: S4 + (S7 S5 ) cos 60 + S8 = 0 , S5 S7

; S7 = S5 = 23.1 kN , S8 = 46.2 kN .

Table of bar forces:

i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Si /kN 23.1 -11.6 -23.1 23.1 23.1 -34.7 -23.1 46.2

To check the results, we determine the forces in the bars 6, 7 and 8

using a Ritter-cut:

 3
IV : aF + a sin 60 S6 = 0 ,
2

; S6 = 34.7 kN ,

IV S8

V : 2a F a sin 60 S8 = 0 ,
S7 a sin 60
; S8 = 46.2 kN , S6
V
F
a a/2
: F + S7 cos 30 = 0 ,
a/2

; S7 = 23.1 kN .

Remark: For cantilever trusses, the forces in the bars can be determined
without previous calculation of the support reactions.
 72 Trusses

P4.3 Problem 4.3 For the given truss, the a 2F

bar forces have to be determined with
the Method of Joints. 45
A
F
a B
Solution The reaction forces result
from the equilibrium conditions for the
I
entire system 2F
1 4
: AH + 2F = 0 , IV 2
AH II
: AV + B F = 0 , F
AV 3 5
 2 2
A: 2 aF + a2F aB = 0 III
2 2 B
to
AV = 3F , AH = 2F , B = 4F .

Equilibrium at nodes I, III and II yields:

2 I
I  : S1 2F = 0 ; S1 = 2 F , 2F
2
2 S1 S4
 : S4 + 2F = 0 ; S4 = 2 F ,
2
2 S3 S5
III  : S3 + B =0 ; S3 = 2 2 F ,
2 III
2
 : S5 + B =0 ; S5 = 2 2 F , B
2 S4

2 2 II
II : S2 + S4 + S5 = 0 , S2
2 2
S5 F
S2 = 3F .

To check, we make sure that the equilibrium conditions at node IV are

fullled:

2 2
IV : AH + S1 + S2 + S3 = 2F + F + 3F 2F = 0 ,
2 2
2 2
: AV + S1 S3 = 3F + F + 2F = 0 .
2 2
Table:
i 1 2 3 4 5

Si 2F 3F 2 2F 2F 2 2F
 Method of Sections 73

Problem 4.4 For the given F P4.4

1 F
truss, the reaction forces
and the bar forces S1 , S2
2
and S3 have to be determi-

a
ned. 3
B

a
A
a a a a

Solution The reaction forces result from the equilibrium conditions of

the complete system:
F
: F AH = 0 , F

: AV + B F = 0 ,
 AH B
A : 2aF + 2aF 4aB = 0 .
AV
Therefrom, we obtain

AV = 0 , B=F, AH = F .

The bar forces of interest follow from the equilibrium conditions of the
sub system. For simplication purposes, we use the right part of the
system:

2
: S2 + B = 0 ,
2
2
; S2 = F , S1 F
2

I : a F a S1 a B = 0 , S2
I
; S1 = 0 , S3
B

2
: S3 + S 1 + S2 F = 0 ,
2
; S3 = 2F .

We check the equilibrium conditions in vertical directions for the left

sub system:

2
: AV F S2 = 0 F + F = 0 .
2
 74 Trusses

P4.5 Problem 4.5 How large are F2 = 2F

1
the bar forces S1 , S2 and S3 a/3 I F1 = F
for the given system? 2 II
a 2
How do they change, when 3
the load F2 is applied on no- 3
a/3
de II? a a a

S1 F2
Solution The equilibrium conditions I F1
for the separated system follow with II
S2
the help of angle and :


A
: S1 cos + S2 cos + S3 cos = 0 ,
S3
: S1 sin + S2 sin S3 sin F1 F2 = 0 ,
 2
A: 2aF1 aS1 cos = 0 .
3

With

1 3 2
sin = , cos = , sin = cos = ,
10 10 2
it follows

3 2
S1 = 10F = 3.16 F , S2 = F = 1.06 F ,
4

5 10
S3 = F = 3.95 F .
4

If load F2 is moved to node II, only the moment equilibrium condition

changes:
 2
A: 2aF1 + aF2 aS1 cos = 0 .
3
Thus, the bar forces result as

3 2
S1 = 2 10F = 6.32 F , S2 = F = 1.06 F ,
4

7 10
S3 = F = 5.53 F .
4

Remark: With the larger moment, S1 and S3 become larger and the
tension bar changes into a compression bar.
 Method of Sections 75

Problem 4.6 For the given 1 4 P4.6

truss, the forces in the bars 7
5

a
2
1 through 7 shall be deter-
mined. A 3 D 6 B
2F F
a a a a a

Solution The reaction

AH
forces follow from the equi-
librium conditions of the
complete system: AV 2F B F

 1
A: 2a 2F 4a B 5a F = 0 ; B= F,
4
5
: AV + B 2F + F = 0 ; AV = F,
4
: AH = 0 .

The bar forces 1 to 3 can be calculated from the sub system:

 C
C : a A V a A H a S3 = 0 , S1
S2
2
: AV S2 = 0 , AH
2 S3

2
: A H + S1 + S3 + S2 = 0 , AV
2

5 5 2 5
; S3 = F , S 2 = F, S1 = F .
4 4 2
Bar 7 is an unloaded bar: S7 = 0. Furthermore, S4 = S1 holds. Equili-
brium at node D nally yields

2 2
: S2 + S5 2F = 0 , S2 S5
2 2

2 2 S3 S6
: S5 S2 + S6 S3 = 0 , D
2 2
2F
3 2 7
; S5 = F , S6 = F .
4 4
 76 Trusses
F2
P4.7 Problem 4.7 How large are 5/4 a F1
the reaction forces and bar 5/4 a
forces in the given jib?
1/2 a
2a
Given: F1 = 20 kN ,
F2 = 10 kN , B
A
a =1m. 4a 2a a a

Solution From the equilibrium C

F2
conditions for the complete system, 1
D 2 F1
6 3
: AH = 0 , E 5 4
14 10
7
9
: A V + B F 2 F1 = 0 , 15 13 8
AH 11
 12
A: 6a F2 + 8a F1 4a B = 0 ,
AV B
the reaction forces follow as

AH = 0 , AV = 25 kN , B = 55 kN .

The bars 3, 11, 14 and 15 are unloaded bars. Therefore, it holds

S2 = S4 and S10 = S13 .

Equilibrium at node C,
C
: S1 cos + S2 cos = 0 ,
S1 F1
: F1 + S1 sin + S2 sin = 0 , S2
yields with
5 8
sin = , cos = ,
89 89
5 4
sin = , cos =
41 41
the bar forces

89 2
S1 = F1 = 37.7 kN , S2 = 41 F1 = 51.2 kN .
5 5
 Trusses 77

Equilibrium at node D:
F2 S1
: S1 cos S6 cos = 0 ,
D
: S1 sin S6 sin F2 S5 = 0 , S6 S5

; S6 = S1 , S5 = F2 = 10 kN .

Equilibrium at node A:
S13
: AV + S13 sin = 0 , A

S12

: S12 + S13 cos = 0 , AV

; S13 = 5 89 kN = 47.2 kN , S12 = 40 kN .
S6
Cutting through bars 6, 7 and 8: E
S7
 5
E : 4a AV a S8 cos = 0 , S8
2
: S7 + S6 cos + S8 cos = 0 , AV B

; S8 = 10 41 = 64 kN , S7 = 8 kN .

Finally equilibrium in vertical

direction at node E yields S6
: S6 sin S10 sin S9 = 0 , E
S7
S10
; S9 = 5 kN . S9

Equilibrium in horizontal direction at node E can be used for checking

89 8 8
: S7 + S6 cos S10 cos = 8 + 20 5 89
5 89 89
= 8 + 32 40 = 0 .
Table of bar forces:
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Si /kN 37.7 -51.2 0 -51.2 -10 37.7 8 -64 -5

i 10 11 12 13 14 15
Si /kN 47.2 0 -40 47.2 0 0
 78 Trusses
2F
P4.8 Problem 4.8 For the given truss,
the reaction forces and bar forces
have to be determined. F a
a
a
A B
2a 2a 2a

Solution The truss has j = 6 joints, m = 8 bars and r = 4 reaction

forces. The condition for statical determinism, f = 2j (m + r) =
12 (8 + 4) = 0, is therefore fullled.
2F
The four reaction forces cannot S4 IV
be determined from the equilibri- F II S
um conditions of the complete sys- 4
3 S5 6 7
tem solely. We therefore separate 1 2 8
the system with a cut through two I III S5 V VI
bars. Then 2 3 = 6 equilibri- BH
AH
um conditions are available for de- AV BV
termining the four reaction forces
and two bar forces S4 and S5 .
From the equilibrium conditions of the complete system,

: AV + BV 2F = 0 ,

: AH BH + F = 0 ,

A: 2aF + 4a 2F 6aBV = 0 ,
and for the right sub system,

: BV 2F S4 sin = 0 ,

: S4 cos + S5 + BH = 0 ,

2aS5 + 3aBH 2aBV = 0 ,
IV :

we obtain with sin = 1/ 5 and cos = 2/ 5 the results
1 5
AV = F , BV = F , AH = F , BH = 2 F ,
3 3

5 4
S4 = F , S5 = F .
3 3
 Trusses 79

The remaining bar forces can be obtained from the Method of Joints.
With use of

sin = cos = 1/ 2 , sin = 3/ 13 , cos = 2/ 13 ,

one obtains S1
S2
I: AH + S2 cos + S1 cos = 0 , AH I

: AV + S2 sin + S1 sin = 0 , AV

2 2
; S1 = F = 0.47 F , S2 = 5 F = 1.49 F .
3 3

S7

VI : BH + S8 cos + S7 cos = 0 , S8
VI BH
: BV + S8 sin + S7 sin = 0 ,
V B

13 2
; S7 = F = 1.20 F , S8 = 5 F = 1.49 F .
3 3

III : S3 S2 sin = 0 , S3

2
; S3 = F = 0.67 F . III S5
3
S2
S6
V : S6 S8 sin = 0 , S5
2 V
; S6 = F = 0.67 F .
3 S8

The Ritter Method of Sections can only be used in this exercise, if

the reaction forces are already known. Exemplarily, one obtains with a
cut through the bars 5, 6 and 7:

: S5 + S7 cos + 2F = 0 , S6
S7
5
: S6 + F + S7 sin = 0 , S5
3 2F
 B
B : 2a S6 a S5 = 0 ,
5/3 F

4 2 13
; S5 = F , S6 = F , S7 = F.
3 3 3
 80 Trusses
5 1
P4.9 Problem 4.9 For the given truss,
6
the bar forces S1 through S7 shall

a
7 2
be determined.
8 3

a
4
F F
a a a a

Solution At rst, the bar forces S1 and S5 are calculated with the help
of suitable cuts. Therefore, by exception, we cut through four bars
such that three forces pass through the sa-
me point. The fourth force then follows
from the moment balance at this point (for
a cut through 1, 4, 7 and 8, this is point S1
B): S 7 2
 S8 3
B : 2aF + aF 2aS1 = 0 ,
3 B
; S1 = F . S4
2 F F

Analogously, from momentum in C follows S5 A 1

 7
2
C : 3aF + 2aF 2aS5 = 0 , 6

5 8 3
; S5 = F .
2 C 4
S4
The cut through 1, 2, 3 and 4 yields F F

 S1
D: 2a F + a F a S1 + a S4 = 0 ,
S2
2 2
: S3 S2 2F = 0 , D
2 2
S3
2 2
: S1 + S 4 + S2 + S3 = 0 , S4
2 2 F F
3
; S4 = F , S3 = 2 F , S2 = 2 F .
2
From equilibrium at node A, S6 and S7 can be calculated:

2 A
: S1 S 5 S6 = 0 , S5 S1
2
S6
2 S7
: S7 + S6 = 0 ,
2

; S6 = 2F , S7 = F .
 Trusses 81

Problem 4.10 Determine the 4 III P4.10

8 a/2
bar forces for the given truss. I
7
1 5 9 12
11
a
II 3
A 2 6 10 13 B
F F F
a a a a

Solution The truss is symmetrically constructed and loaded. Thus, it

holds that S4 = S8 , S5 = S9 , S1 = S12 etc. The vertical reaction forces
in A and B follow as A = B = 3F/2.
Equilibrium at the cut system,
 S4
I : aA aS6 = 0 , I
1
: A F + S4 sin S5 sin = 0 , 3 S5
2
: S6 + S4 cos + S5 cos = 0 , A F S6

yields with sin = 1/ 5 , cos = 2/ 5 , sin = cos = 1/ 2 the
forces in the bars:

3 2 2
S6 = A = F , S4 = 5 F , S5 = F.
2 3 6

The remaining bar forces can be calculated with the Method of Joints:

III : S7 + 2S4 sin = 0 ,

III
4
; S7 = F , S4
3 S7 S 8 = S4
3
II : S2 = S6 = F, S3
2
: S3 = F , S2 II S6
F
A : A + S1 sin = 0 , S1

3
; S1 = 2F . S2
2
A
Table of bar forces:
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Si /F 3 2/2 3/2 1 2 5/3 2/6 3/2 4/3

Remark: The largest cut force according to its volume occurs at bar 1.
 82 Trusses
F
P4.11 Problem 4.11 Determine the
bar forces in the shown roof
girder with the help of a Cre- 2a
mona diagram.
Given: F = 10 kN.
a
A B
3a 3a

Solution Only vertical reaction forces occur in A and B:

1
A=B= F = 5 kN . F
2
We sketch the known forces into the
free body diagram and add the sense
of direction of each bar force at the in- 3
dividual nodes according to the Cre- 1 4
mona diagram.
2 5

A B

Cremona diagram

2 kN
scale: 1
5 A
sense of rotation:
3

2 F
B
4

Table of bar forces:

i 1 2 3 4 5
Si /kN -10.6 7.9 5.0 -10.6 7.9

Remark: Because of symmetry, it holds that S1 = S4 and S2 = S5 .

 Cremona-Plan 83

Problem 4.12 All bar P4.12

forces have to be deter- F F F
mined graphically.
a
A B
a a a a a a

Solution From the equilibrium conditions for the complete system, the
vertical reaction forces result as

A = 2F , B=F.

free body sketch:

F F F
1 4 9 12 16 20
8 11 17 19
3
A 2 5 7 13 15 21 B
6 10 14 18

The bars 7, 15 and 19 are found to be unloaded bars. From the Cre-
mona diagram we additionally obtain bar 8 as an unloaded bar.

Cremona diagram 1
F
scale: 3 2 F

4
sense of rotation: A
5
F
6, 9, 10
14, 18
11 13 17 21 F B
16, 20
12
bar forces:
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Si /F -2 2 2 -1 -2 - 2 3 0 0 -3 3 -1

i 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Si /F -3 2 2 0 -1 - 2 2 0 -1 2
 84 Trusses
2a 2a 2a 2a 2a
P4.13 Problem 4.13 Deter-
mine the bar forces for
5 3a
the given truss. 3 2
a
2
a
How do the forces
change, if the load 2F is I II
2F F
moved from node I to
node II?

8 12
Solution In the shown
3 16
truss, the reaction forces 9 11 13
5
result from the equilibri- 2 7 15 17 19
4
um conditions as
1 I 6 10 14 18
A = 2F , B=F. A 2F F B

The bar forces can be determined with the help of the Cremona dia-
gram.

scale:
F sense of rotation:

i Si /F
14 1 1.33
15 18 2 -2.39
13 17
19
3 -2.22
F B 4 1.21
12 16
5 1.07
11
6
6 1.58
10 7 -0.38
9
7 8 -1.48
8
9 0.37
5
3 10 1.33
11 0.38
12 -1.48
2
13 0.69
2F A
14 1.19
4 15 -0.54
16 -1.10
1 17 0.59
18 0.67
19 -1.17
 Cremona-Plan 85

If the force 2F acts on 8 12

node II, the reaction 3 16
forces result as 5 9 11 13
7 15 17 19
2 4
A = 1.6F , B = 1.4F . 14
1 6 II 10 18
With the same scale and A 2F F B
sense of rotation, we ob-
tain the following Cre-
mona diagram:
i Si /F
14 1 1.06
18 2 -1.92
15 3 -1.78
17
13 19 F B 4 0.96
5 -0.86
16 6 1.91
11 10
7 1.09
12 8 -2.38
9 1.04
9
8 10 2.00
11 0.12
3 12 -2.08
13 0.94
2F A
2
14 1.67
7 5 4
15 -0.72
16 -1.57
1 17 0.83
6 18 0.93
19 -1.67

To check the result, the bar forces can be determined with the Method
of Sections analytically. One obtains for S10
 C
C : 3a S10 + a F 5a B = 0 S8

6
; S10 = F = 2F . S9
3
S10
F B
 86 Trusses

P4.14 Problem 4.14 Determine the unloaded bars, all reaction forces and the
bar forces S1 , S2 , S3 and S4 for the shown truss.
P
1 a
2
3 a
P C

4 a

a
A B

2a a a a a 2a

Solution The unloaded bars can be determined by examining each

node.
VII
P
1 8
GV VI 2 VIII
3
P III IV X XI C
GH
IV
4
5 7 10 11
GV
V IX
AH I 6 XIl
II
BH 9 XIII
AV BV

Considering the equilibrium at nodes II, III, VII and XI shows that
bars 6, 7, 5, 1, 8 and 11 are unloaded: S6 = S7 = S5 = S1 = S8 = S11 =
0. Since S11 = 0, bars 9 and 10 can be identied as unloaded bars by
examining node XIII, hence S9 = S10 = 0. It follows that BH = 0.
For the determination of reaction forces, we form the moment equi-
librium at the left part of the system at node IV and for the complete
system at node X:
left part of the system:

IV : 2a AV 2a AH = 0 ; AV = AH ,
 Method of Sections 87

complete system:
 P
X : a P + 6a AV 2a AH = 0 ; AV = AH = .
4

The remaining reaction forces can be computed by considering the equi-

librium of forces in horizontal and vertical direction at the complete
system:
5
: P + AH C = 0 ; C= P,
4
3
: A V P BV = 0 ; BV = P.
4

Using the Method of Sections, the remaining bar forces S2 , S3 and S4

can be computed:
VI
S2
P III IV S3
S4

V
P/4 I

P/4

 P P 2
VI : a P 3a + 3a 2a S4 = 0 ,
4 4 2

2P
; S4 = ,
2

P 2 2
: + S4 S3 = 0 ,
4 2 2

2P
; S3 = ,
4

P 2 2
: P+ + S2 + S3 + S4 = 0 ,
4 2 2
P
; S2 = .
2
 88 Trusses
P
P4.15 Problem 4.15 Determine the
number of degrees of freedom P 8
and the unloaded bars for the
a 5 7 9 10
given truss. Then, compute the B
remaining forces in the bars.
6 C
a 3 4
1 2
a P

A
a a a a

Solution The truss consists of j = 7 joints, m = 10 bars and r = 4

reaction forces. The number of degrees of freedom is consequently f =
2 j (m + r) = 2 7 (10 + 4) = 0. Thus, the system is statically
determined.

By applying the rules for nding unloaded bars, we see that the bar
forces S1 and S4 are zero. With S1 = 0, S6 also has to be equal to zero.

With the Method of Sections, (cutting through bars 2, 7 and 8) we

divide the complete system into a left and a right subsystem. The re-
spective free body sketches have the following form:

P II P
S8
5 S8 V
II S7 S7
9 10
IV VII
B
3 C
S2 S2
VI
I P
A

Considering equilibrium of forces of the complete system the reaction

forces in point C follows as

2 2
: C+P P P = 0 ; C = ( 2 1) P .
2 2
 Method of Sections 89

The equilibrium conditions at the right sub system yield


IV : a S8 + a P 2aC = 0 ; S8 = ( 2 1) P ,


V : 2 a S7 + 2aP = 0 ; S7 = P ,

2 2
: S2 S8 P =0 ; S2 = P .
2 2
The remaining forces in the bars can be determined with the Method
of Joints:
P III
2 2 S8
III  : S5 + P+ S8 = 0 ,
2 2 S S 5 7

; S5 = P , P

S8 V

2 2
V : S9 P S8 = 0 , S9 S10
2 2
S3
; S9 = P ,
VI
P

VI  : S3 + P = 0 , S10
VII
; S3 = P ,
C

S7 S9
VII  : S10 + C = 0 ,
IV

; S10 = (1 2) P .
S2 S3

We check the results by considering the equilibrium conditions at node

IV :

IV  : S7 S3 = P + P = 0 ,

: S9 S2 = P + P = 0 .
 90 Spatial
z F
F a
P4.16 Problem 4.16 Determine the
C
reaction forces and bar forces
for the given spatial truss.
B a

y
a a
A

x
F
F 3
Solution The truss consists of I IV
j = 4 joints, m = 6 bars and r = 2
6
6 reaction forces. Subsequently, 1
the necessary condition for stati- 4 Cz III
cal determination is fullled: By
5
f = 3j (m + r) II Bz
Ay
= 12 (6 + 6) = 0 . Ax
Az

From the equilibrium conditions at the complete system,


Fx = 0 : A x + F = 0 ,

Fy = 0 : Ay + By + F = 0 ,

Fz = 0 : Az + Bz + Cz = 0 ,

Mx = 0 : a F a Bz = 0 ,

My = 0 : a F + a Cz a A z = 0 ,

Mz = 0 : a Ay = 0 ,
the reaction forces follow as

Ax = F , Ay = 0 , Az = 0 ,

By = F , Bz = F , Cz = F .

The forces in the bars can be obtained using the equilibrium conditions
 Trusses 91

at the nodes. Under consideration that all bars except of bar 4 are til-
ted at 45o to the respective coordinate axes, we obtain at node I and II:
 1 1
I Fx = 0 : S1 S 3 + F = 0 ,
2 2
 1
Fy = 0 : S2 + F = 0 ,
2
 1 1 1
Fz = 0 : S 1 S 2 S3 = 0 ,
2 2 2

; S1 = 0 , S2 = 2 F , S3 = 2F .

 1 1
II Fx = 0 : A x S1 S4 S5 = 0 ,
2 2
 1
Fy = 0 : A y + S5 = 0 ,
2

; S4 = F , S5 = 0 .

 1 1 1
III Fy = 0 : By S6 S2 S5 = 0 ,
2 2 2

; S6 = 0 .

We check our results using the equilibrium at node IV :

 1 1
Fx = 0 : S6 + S4 + S3 = 0 ; 0 F + F = 0,
2 2
 1
Fy = 0 : S6 = 0 ,
2
 1
Fz = 0 : C z + S3 = 0 ; F + F = 0 .
2
 92 Spatial

P4.17 Problem 4.17 Determine the forces in the bars for the given spatial
truss.
C
11 G
10 5
E
B 9 2 a
6 4 3 a
D
8
x
A 12 a
1 y z
7
F
3a a P

Solution The truss contains j = 7 joints, m = 12 bars and r = 9

reaction forces. Therefore it is statically determined:

f = 3j (m + r) ; f = 21 (9 + 12) = 0 .

We calculate the forces in the bars using the Method of Joints with the
spatial equilibrium at the nodes:

node D


Fx = 0 : S1 cos 45 S2 cos 45 S3 cos 45 = 0 ,
S3

Fy = 0 : S1 sin 45 S2 sin 45 = 0 , S2
45
 45
Fz = 0 : P S3 sin 45 = 0
D
45
1 S1
; S3 = 2P , S1 = S2 = 2P . P
2

node E
S5

Fx = 0 : S9 + S2 sin 45 = 0 ,
45

Fy = 0 : S4 + S5 cos 45 + S2 cos 45 = 0 , S9 E

 S2
Fz = 0 : S5 sin 45 = 0 S4

1 1
; S9 = P , S5 = 0 , S4 = P.
2 2
 Trusses 93
S6
node F S8 S4

 S1
Fz = 0 : S6 sin 45 = 0 ,
S7 F

Fx = 0 : S1 sin 45 S7 S8 cos = 0 ,

Fy = 0 : S1 cos 45 S6 cos 45 S8 sin S4 = 0

1
; S6 = 0 , S7 = P , S8 = 0 .
2

(Considering the symmetry of the loading, it can be found that S6 =

S5 , S7 = S9 , S8 = 0 .)

node G
S11 G
We introduce the angle (between bar 12 S10 S3
and a vertical line through G) and (bet-
ween the projection of bar 12 onto the x-y- S 12

plane and the x-axis). From this, it follows

1 10 3
cos = , sin = , cos = .
11 11 10

The equilibrium condition Fy = 0 yields with S6 = S5 = 0 another
conclusion about symmetry: S10 = S12 . The remaining conditions yield


Fz = 0 : S3 cos 45 + 2 S12 cos = 0 ,

Fx = 0 : S11 2 S12 sin cos + S3 sin 45 = 0

11
; S10 = S12 = P, S11 = 4 P .
2

We compute S11 from the equilibrium of the complete system in order

to check our results. Therefore, we formulate the moment equilibrium
condition with respect to a parallel to the y-axis through point A and B:


My = 0 : 4a P a S11 = 0 ; S11 = 4P .
 94 Spatial

P4.18 Problem 4.18 The spatial

truss is loaded by a force 2a z
F.
Determine the forces in
the bars. a C y
F
a a
x
a B
a A 4a
2a

Solution We consider z e II
the force acting in bar III 5 5 e3
9 (hinged column) as a e8
8 e6 3
6 2
reaction force. Now, the IV I
9 7 4 e2
truss consists of j = 5 y
joints, m = 8 bars and e9 e1 F
e4
r = 1 + 2 3 = 7 re- B x 1
action forces. Thus, the e7
necessary condition for V
statical determination is
fullled:
f = 3j (m + r)
= 15 (8 + 7) = 0 .
We introduce the unit vectors e1 to e9 in order to express the direc-
tions of the bars and their respective components:

1 1 1
1 1
e1 = 4 , e2 = 4 , e3 = 0 ,
18 18
1 1 0

3 1 1
1 1 1
e4 = 4 , e5 = 4 , e6 = 4 ,
26 18 18
1 1 1

1 1 0
1 1 1
e7 = 0 , e8 = 0 , e9 = 1 .
2 2 2
1 1 1
 Trusses 95

With the denition of all tensile forces to be positive, the equilibrium

conditions at nodes I, II and III in vectorial (component) form read:

node I:

S1 e 1 + S2 e 2 S3 e 3 F e z = 0 ,
1 1
; S1 S2 S3 = 0 ,
18 18
4 4
S1 S2 = 0 ,
18 18
1 1
S1 + S2 F = 0 ,
18 18
3 3
; S1 = 2F , S2 = 2F , S3 = F .
2 2

node II:

S4 e4 + S5 e5 + S6 e6 + S3 e3 = 0 ,
3 1 1
; S4 + S5 S6 F = 0 ,
26 18 18
4 4 4
S4 S5 S6 = 0 ,
26 18 18
1 1 1
S4 + S5 S6 = 0 ,
26 18 18
1 3
; S4 = 26F , S5 = 0 , S6 = 2F .
4 4

node III:

S7 e7 S8 e8 S9 e9 S2 e2 S5 e5 = 0 ,
1 1 1 3
; S 7 S8 + 2F = 0,
2 2 18 2
1 4 3
S9 + 2F = 0,
2 18 2
1 1 1 1 3
S7 S8 S9 2F = 0,
2 2 2 18 2
96 Trusses

3
; S7 = 2F , S8 = 2 F , S9 = 2 2 F .
2

The equilibrium condition at nodes IV and V as well as at bearing

B can be used to determine the Cartesian components of the reaction
forces:
node IV :

Cx e x + C y e y + C z e z + S8 e 8 S6 e 6 = 0 ,
1 1 3
; Cx 2 F 2F = 0,
2 18 4
4 3
Cy 2F = 0,
18 4
1 1 3
Cz 2F 2F = 0,
2 18 4
5 5
; Cx = F, Cy = F , Cz = F.
4 4

node V :

A x e x + A y e y + A z e z S1 e 1 + S4 e 4 + S7 e 7 = 0 ,
1 3 3 1 1 3
; Ax + 2F 26 F + 2F = 0,
18 2 26 4 2 2
4 3 4 1
Ay 2F + 26 F = 0 ,
18 2 26 4
1 3 1 1 1 3
Az 2F + 26 F 2F = 0,
18 2 26 4 2 2
5 7
; Ax = F , Ay = F , Az = F.
4 4

bearing B:
1
Bx = 0 , By = Bz = 2 S9 = 2 F .
2

Remark:
The largest force acts in bar 9.

The magnitude
of the reaction forcesis A = 90F/4 = 2.37 F ,
B = S9 = 2 2 F = 2.83 F and C = 66 F/4 = 2.03 F .
C lies in the plane which also contains S6 and S8 .
Chapter 5
Beams, Frames, Arches
5
98 Stress Resultants

Stress Resultants
The stress resultants (normal force, shear force, bending moment) re-
place the internal stresses (forces per unit area) distributed across the
cross-sectional area.

Plane systems
M M

cut V N N V

M M
stress resultants: y x
normal force N, V V
N N
shear force V, z
bending moment M.

Sign convention:
Positive stress resultants at a
positive face point in the positi-
ve directions of the coordinates. V
Coordinate system: M
x = axis of the beam (points N
right in case of a horizontal
N
beam), z downwards for a M
horizontal beam.
V
For frames, arches and complex x
z
structures we dene the coordi-
nate systems using dashed lines
(lower side): x in direction of
the dashed line, z away from the
dashed line.

For straight beams and straight portions of a frame, the follo-

wing dierential relations between loading and stress resultants hold:

dV dM d2 M
= q , =V or = q .
dx dx dx2
If we integrate the dierential relations, the constants of integration
have to be determined using the boundary conditions.
 Beams, Frames, Arches 99

Boundary conditions:

hinged support (V = 0), M =0

free end V = 0, M =0

clampend support (V = 0), (M = 0)

parallel motion V = 0, (M = 0)

sliding sleeve (V = 0), (M = 0)

Relation of V and M and loading:

loading V diagram M diagram

q=0 const. linear

q = const. linear parabola

q = linear parabola cubic parabola

jump of q kink continuous

concentrated force jump kink

external couple continuous,

jump
(moment) no kink
100 Stress Resultants

Spatial structures
y

qz x z
Stress Resultants:
normal force N,

Vy qy shear forces Vy , Vz ,
My bending moments My , Mz ,

N Vz torque Mx = MT .
MT
Mz

For straight beams the following dierential relations between the

loadings qz , qy and the shear forces Vy , Vz and the bending moments
My , Mz hold:

dVz dMy
= qz , = Vz ,
dx dx
dVy dMz
= qy , = Vy .
dx dx
If we integrate the dierential relations, the constants of integration
have to be determined by using the boundary conditions.
The dependency of the shear forces and bending moment diagrams
due to the characteristics of the loading are conferrable from the plane
systems.
 Beams 101

Problem 5.1 Determine the shear x P5.1

force and bending moment diagrams q0
once for the depicted simply suppor-
ted beam, carrying a linearly varying
line load and additionally for a clam-
ped support on the right and left side. l

Solution 1. Simply supported beam.

The linearly varying load, which can be described by
x
q(x) = q0 ,
l
yields by integration

x2
V (x) = q(x)dx = q0 + C1 ,
2l

x3
M (x) = V (x)dx = q0 + C1 x + C 2 .
6l
The constants follow from the support conditions:
M (0) = 0 ; C2 = 0 ,
q0 l
M (l) = 0 ; C1 = .
6
The shear force is obtained by
 
q0 l x2 V
V (x) = 13 2 .
6 l
q0 l
The values of q0 l/6 and q0 l/3 corre- 6
spond to the support reactions. Due q0 l
to the sign convention, a negative 3
shear force indicates a force into the
upwars direction. The bending mo-
ment diagram results in
 
q0 lx x2
M (x) = 1 2 .
6 l

The maximum Mmax appears at the M

root of the shear force: V = 0 for Mmax

3 l/3 = 0.577 l. It follows:

3 2 1! 1" 3
Mmax = q0 l 1 = q0 l2 .
3 6 3 27
102 Determination of V and M diagrams

2. Beam, clamped on the right side x q0

x
q(x) = q0
,
l
x2 B
V (x) = q0 + C1 , l
2l
3
x
M (x) = q0 + C1 x + C2 . V
6l
q0 l
Due to the left boundary conditions 2

V (0) = 0 ; C1 = 0, M (0) = 0 ; C2 = 0

we obtain q0 l2
2 3 6
q0 x q0 x
V (x) = , M (x) = .
2l 6l M

The result can be checked by determination of the moment at the right

edge by the equilibrium conditions for the complete beam as
1  l q0 l
: B q0 l = 0 , B : MB + = 0.
2 3 2

3. Beam, clamped on the left side

x
q(x) = q0, x q0
l
q0 x2
V (x) = + C1 ,
2l
q0 x 3 A
M (x) = + C1 x + C2 . l
6l
V
Due to the right boundary conditions q0 l
2
q0 l
V (l) = 0 ; C1 = ,
2 q0 l2
2
q0 l q0 l2 3
M (l) = 0 ; C2 = C1 l = ,
6 3 M
we obtain
   
q0 l x2 q0 l2 x x3
V (x) = 1 2 , M (x) = 23 + 3 .
2 l 6 l l

To check the result, the clamping moment is obtained as

 2 l q0 l q0 l2
A: MA =0 ; MA = .
3 2 3
 by integration 103
x
Problem 5.2 A simply supported P5.2
beam is loaded by a trapezoidal sha-
ped load. Determine the location and q0
the maximum of the bending mo- q1
ment for q0 = 2q1 .

Solution The function of load is linear: l

q(x) = a b x .

We obtain due to the boundary conditions

q(0) = q0 ; a = q0 ,
q0 q1
q(l) = q1 ; q1 = a b l ; b= .
l
It follows
q0 q1
q(x) = q0 x.
l
This leads by integration to
q0 q1 x2
V (x) = q0 x + + C1 ,
l 2
x2 q0 q1 x3
M (x) = q0 + + C1 x + C2 .
2 l 6
Due to the boundary conditions the constants follow as

M (0) = 0 ; C2 = 0 ,
q0 l q0 q1 l2
M (l) = 0 ; C1 = .
2 l 6
The shearing force and the moment are obtained for q1 = 12 q0 as:
q0 2 5 l q0
V (x) = x q0 x +
4l 12
q0 3 q0 2 5 l q0
M (x) = x x + x.
12 l 2 12
Since M  = V , the maximal moment is found at the root of V :

5
V = 0 ; x = 2 l 4 l2 l2 = 0.47 l .
3
Inserting x into M (x) yields

Mmax = M (x ) = 0.09 q0 l2 .
 104 Determination of V and M diagrams

P5.3 Problem 5.3 The depicted

beam is partially loaded by q0 . x
Determine the shear force and q0
bending moment diagrams.
a
l

Solution Due to the discontinuity of the loading we separate the inte-

gration into two parts:

0xa: axl:
q = 0, q = q0 ,

V = C1 , V = q0 x + C3 ,
1
M = C1 x + C 2 , M = q0 x2 + C3 x + C4 .
2
The 4 integration constants follow from the boundary conditions and
the transition condition at x = a:
1
M (0) = 0 ; C2 = 0 , M (l) = 0 ; q0 l2 + C3 l + C4 = 0.
2
Here V and M have to be continuous (no jumps, since no concentrated
force and no single moment occur)

V (a ) = V (a+ ) ; C1 = q0 a + C3 ,
1
M (a ) = M (a+ ) ; C1 a = q0 a2 + C3 a + C4 .
2
It follows
q0 l (l a)2 q0 l l2 + a2 q0 a2
C1 = , C2 = 0 , C3 = , C4 = .
2 l2 2 l2 2
We obtain for the rst part 0 x a

q0 l (l a)2 q0 l2 (l a)2
V = , M= x
2 l2 2 l3

and for the second part a x l

   
q0 (l a)2 q0 (l a)2 2
V = 2 (x a) , M= x (x a) .
2 l 2 l
 for discontinuous loadings 105

For a = l/2, the shear-force and bending moment diagrams follow as

V 5
1 l
q0 l 8
8
l/2

l/2 3
q0 l
5 8 M
l Mmax
8

Remark:
Instead of considering the parameter x for the complete length of
the beam, we may also introduce separated parameters x1 , x2
For the special case of a = 0, the rst part vanishes, such that we
obtain for the shear force and the bending moment
1 1
V = q0 (l 2x) , M= q0 (l x x2 ) .
2 2

Alternative: The diagrams can be determined by use of the Foppl sym-

bol. Therefore we represent the discontinuous loading for the complete
beam as

q = q0 < x a >0 f
ur 0 x l.

With application of the integration rules for the F

oppl symbol, we
obtain

V = q0 < x a >1 +C1 ,

q0
M = < x a >2 +C1 x + C2 .
2
Due to the boundary conditions, this leads to (the transition conditions
are directly fullled)

M (0) = 0 ; C2 = 0
q0 q0 (l a)2
M (l) = 0 ; 0 = (l a)2 + C1 l ; C1 = .
2 2 l
We obtain the solution for the entire beam as
 
q0 (l a)2
V = 2 < x a >1 ,
2 l
 
q0 (l a)2 x
M = < x a >2 .
2 l
 106 Determination of V and M diagrams

P5.4 Problem 5.4 Determine the q0

shear force and bending moment
diagrams for the depicted beam.
A x B
l
l
2

Solution In a rst step, the support reaction are determined (with A

and B positive in the upwars direction):

11 19
A= q0 l , B= q0 l .
24 24
For the left subsection (between A and B) we obtain by the equilibrium
conditions q0 x
: A q0 x V = 0 , M

 x S V
S : x A + (q0 x) + M = 0 , A x/2
2
q0 2 x
; V = A q0 x , M = Ax x
2

and for the right subsection, using an additional

coordinate x
starting at the free edge, x

q0 1 x
l/2 q0 x

1! x " 2 l/2
: q0 x
+ V = 0,
2 l/2
M
 1! x
x " V S
S : q0 M = 0,
x x/3
3 2 l/2
q0 2 q0 3 x x
; V = , M = x
x .
l 3l
11
Remarks: V q0 l
24
6
q0 l
The value of the shear force reduces 24
linearly from A to B. At B, it jumps
by the magnitude of the reaction
force. On the right section, it decays 11/24l 13
q0 l
quadratically. At the free edge, the 24
shear force is zero.
1
q0 l2
24
At the free edge, we obtain q = 0.
Due to dV /dx = q, the slope of V
is zero (horizontal tangent!) at this
point. M
Mmax
Due to the concentrated force, we
obtain a kink in the moment dia-
gram.
 for discontinuous loadings 107

Mmax is located at x = 11 l (since V = 0) and has a value of

! "2 2 24
2
Mmax = 12 11
24
q0 l = 0.105 q 0l .

The slope of M at A is positive due to the positive V and dM/dx =

V . At the free edge, the slope of M is zero, since V = 0.
The bending moment at the support B is
q0 1
MB = (l/2)3 = q0 l2 .
3l 24

In an alternative approach the V and M diagrams are determined with

help of the F oppl symbols. In this approach the supporting forces
have not to be calculated a-priori. In a rst step, the loading has to be
constituted for the complete beam as the dierence of the constant and
linear line loadings:
2q0
q = q0 < x l >1
l
(the factor 2 is necessary, since q has to be reduced to zero over the
length l/2). We obtain by integration
q0
V = q0 x + < x l >2 +B < x l >0 +C1
l
(the jump of the shear force due to the unknown supporting force B
has to be considered by an additional F
oppl bracket!)

x2 q0
M = q0 + < x l >3 +B < x l >1 +C1 x + C2 .
2 3l
The three unknowns C1 , C2 and B can be solved, taking into account
the three equations from the boundary conditions:

M (0) = 0 ; C2 = 0 ,
3 1
V ( 32 l) = 0 ; q0 l + q0 l + B + C1 = 0 ,
2 4
9 1 l 3
M ( 32 l) = 0 ; q0 l2 + q0 l2 + B + C1 l = 0 .
8 24 2 2
We obtain
19 11
B= q0 l , C1 = q0 l ,
24 24
Remark: The constant C1 is equal to the shear force at the support A
and thus, the resulting reaction force.
 108 Determination of V and M diagrams

P5.5 Problem 5.5 Determine the shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the depicted multi-section beam. Calculate additionally the values
at the intersections.
Use: q0 = F/a.
x F 2F
q0
A B
2a a 3a 2a 2a

Solution In a rst step, we compute the support reactions (positive in

the upwards direction):

A: 2a F 4, 5a (3q0 a) 8a 2F + 10a B = 0 ; B = 3.15 F ,
: A + B F 3q0 a 2F = 0 ; A = 2.85 F .
With help of the free body diagrams, we obtain for the subsections:
0 < x < 2a:

: V = A = 2.85 F ,
 M
S : M = x A = 2.85 F x , A S
x V
2a < x < 3a:
F
: V = A F = 1.85 F , M
 A S
S : M = x A (x 2a)F , x V
q0 (x 3a)
3a < x < 6a:
F
M
: V = 1.85 F q0 (x 3a) ,
A S
 x V
S : M = x A (x 2a)F 21 q0 (x 3a)2 ,

6a < x < 8a:

2F
M
: V = B + 2F = 1.15 F ,
S
 V B
S : M = (10a x) B (8a x) 2F , 10ax

8a < x < 10a: M

S
: V = B = 3.15 F , V B
10ax

S : M = (10a x) B .
 for discontinuous loadings 109

The maximal value of M can be found by the root of V (M  = V ) in

the 3rd subsection (3a < x < 6a):

V = 1.85 F q0 (x 3a) = 0 ; x = 1.85 F/q0 + 3a = 4.85 a .

Thus we obtain
1
Mmax = M (x ) = 4.85 a 2.85 F 2.85 a F q0 (1.85 a)2 = 9.26 F a .
2

V /F 2.85
3 1.85
2
1 x 6a 8a 10a
x 2a 3a
-1.15
-3.15

2
6.3
4
5.7 8.6
6 7.55 Mmax
8
M/F a

The V and M diagrams can also be determined using the F oppl

symbol. Therefore, the discontinuities of q(x) and V (x) have to be taken
into account:

q = q0 < x 3a >0 q0 < x 6a >0 ,

V = q0 < x 3a >1 +q0 < x 6a >1 F < x 2a >0
2F < x 8a >0 +C1 ,
1 1
M = q0 < x 3a >2 + q0 < x 6a >2 F < x 2a >1
2 2
2F < x 8a >1 +C1 x + C2 .

It follows from the boundary conditions

M (0) = 0 ; C2 = 0 , M (10a) = 0 ; C1 = 2.85 F .

 110 Determination of V and M diagrams

P5.6 Problem 5.6 Determine the shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the depicted system.

x q0 = 5F/b
2F 3bF 4F

2b 2b b 2b 2b

Solution In a rst step the support reactions are determined.

q0 = 5F/b
2F 3bF 4F
MA

1 2 3 4
R L
A
F
: A=5 2b + 2 F + 4 F = 16 F ,
b
 ! F "
A: MA = 3b 5 2b + 5b 2 F 3b F + 9b 4F = 73 b F .
b
For the calculation of V and M , we cut the beam at every discontinuity
of the loading with respect to the internal forces and moments. With
the equilibrium conditions, we can determine V and M with respect to
the external loads and the internal forces and moments.

V1 = 16 F ,
73bF
M1 = 2b 16 F 73 bF = 41 bF , M1
1
16F V1
F
V2 = 16 F 5 2b = 6F , q0
b
! F " 73bF
M2 = 4b 16F 73 bF b 5 2b M2
b
= 19 bF , 16F 2
V2

V3R = 4F , V3R 3bF 4F

M3
M3 = 3b F 4b 4F = 13 bF ,
3

V4 = 4F ,
V4 3bF 4F
M4L = 3b F 2b 4F = 5 bF .
M4L
4
 for discontinuous loadings 111

These results and the general relations between the external loadings
and V and M (e.g. if q = 0, then V = constant and M = linear, see
table at page 97) yield to shear force and bending moment diagrams:

V
F

16

1 2 3 4

50

10

M 1 2 3 4
bF

In the section between 1 and 2 of the bending moment diagram, the

quadratic parabola has to pass tangentially into the straight line, since
there is no concentrated force (concentrated forces lead to kinks in the
bending moment diagram!).
 112 Determination of the loading

P5.7 Problem 5.7 In this problem, the bending moment diagram of the sys-
tem is known.
Determine the related loadings.
A
2m 2m 2m B 2m 2m

6
10
12 18 + 10

M [kNm]

Solution We consider the highlighted points at the beam and the M -

diagram in between them:

A B

1 2 3 4 5

Due to the linear behavior, starting at point A with M1 = 12 kNm =

2 m A, we obtain the reaction force as

A = 6 kN .

This is followed by a jump at the M diagram at point 1 , such that we

can identify a single moment at this point

M = 6 kNm

We can check the results, computing the M at 2 with A and M :

M2 = 4 m 6 kN 6 kNm = 18 kNm .

At point 2 , we can identify the single force F due to the kink at the
M -diagram. It can be calculated by

M3 = 6 m 6 kN 6 kNm 2 m F = 10 kNm ; F = 10 kN .

At the right edge, a concentrated force has to act into upwards direction,
since a linear M diagram is considered. It is obtained by

M4 = 2 m P = 10 kNm ; P = 5 kN .
 by the bending moment diagram 113

The quadratic parabola between point 3 and 4 is caused by a con-

stant line load q0 . We obtain q0 by the equilibrium of the right sub
system as:

M3 = 4 m 5 kN 1 m (q0 2 m) = 10 kNm ; q0 = 5 kN/m .

Now all external loadings have been determined and can be sketched
as follows:
5 kN/m
6 kNm 10 kN

A = 6 kN B 5 kN

The omitted support reaction B follows from:

: B = 10 + 2 5 5 6 = 9 kN .

Finally, we are able to construct the shear-force diagram:

V [kN]

7m

The (local) maximal bending moment can be found at the root of the
shear-force diagram with x = 7 m.
 114 Determination of the internal forces

P5.8 Problem 5.8 The depicted beam q0

is loaded by a sinusoidal li-
ne load. Determine the bending
moment diagram.
l

Solution We select the left edge of the beam as the origin of the coor-
dinate system, since the shear force and the bending moment are zero
at this point:
x
q(x) = q0 sin .
l
x
Integration leads to z


x l x
V (x) = q0 sin dx = q0 cos + C1 ,
l l
 2
l x
M (x) = q0 sin + C1 x + C2 .
l
Using the boundary conditions, we obtain
q0 l
V (0) = 0 ; C1 = ,

M (0) = 0 ; C2 = 0 .
Therefore, the function of the shear force and the bending moment are

q0 l  x  q0 l2  x x 
V (x) = cos 1 , M (x) = 2
sin .
l l l
The maximal values of V and M are found at the clamped edge x = l:
2 1
V (l) = q0 l , M (l) = q0 l2 .

The sketch of the diagrams yield

Q
l2
q0

l
2q0
M
 and moments 115

Problem 5.9 A gantry crane of weight W moves across a bridge with P5.9
the length l. The front axle of the crane carries 34 W , whereas the rear
axle carries 14 W . The distance of the axles is b = l/20.
Determine the maximum value of the bending moment and the corre-
sponding position of the crane.
b
x

A
B
l

Solution In a rst step, the support reaction A (positive into the up-
wards direction) is calculated for an arbitrary distance x of the front
axle:
 
 3 W 81 x
B : l A = (l x) W + (l x + b) ; A= W.
4 4 80 l
The maximal bending moment may occur at the rear (R) or at the
front (F) axle. We obtain
  
l 81 x
MR = (x b)A = x W,
20 80 l
 
W 81 x l
MF = x A b =x W W.
4 80 l 80
The extreme values of the bending moment are obtained at the roots
of the derivatives. Thus, for the front axle,
dMF 81 x 81
= W 2 W =0 yields x1 = l
dx 80 l 160

and therefore
6241
MF max = W l.
25600

For the rear axle,

dMR 81 x 1 85
= W 2 W + W =0 yields x2 = l
dx 80 l 20 160

and therefore
5929
MRmax = W l.
25600

The highest value of the bending moment is obtained at x1 .

 116 Internal forces and moments

P5.10 Problem 5.10 Determine the shear force, bending moment and axial
force diagrams of the depicted hinged girder system.

q0 F
30
A B G C
a a b b

Solution The free-body sketch is used to determine the support reac-

tions:
F
1 q0 GH GH 2
AH

B D
AV GV GV C

From the equilibrium equations, we obtain

1
2

: AH + GH = 0 , : GH + F cos 30 = 0 ,
: AV + B q0 a GV = 0 , : GV + C F sin 30 = 0 ,
 a 
G: 2a AV + a B q0 a = 0 , G: b F sin 30 2b C = 0
2

Applying sin 30 = 1/2 and cos 30 = 3/2 yields

3 q0 a F 3 F
AH = F, AV = , B = q0 a + ,
2 2 4 2 2

F F 3
C= , GV = , GH = F.
4 4 2
The internal forces and moments are determined for the indicated
points. At the points A, G and C, we have hinges, therefore the mo-
ment is zero. At the points B and D the shear force has a jump of the
magnitude of the support forces, respectively, the vertical component
of F (F sin 30 = F/2). At D, the axial force jumps
with the magnitude
of the horizontal component of F (F cos 30 = 3F/2). We obtain

NB = AH ,
a MB
VBL = AV ,
AH VBL NB
MB = a AV , AV
 of hinged girder systems. 117

NDR = 0 , MD V DR
VDR = C ,
NDR
C
F
MD = bC = b . b
4
Therefore, the diagrams can be sketched as

N

3
F
+ 2

V
F
qa + F
4
4
+

1 F
qa F
2 4
4
MB

quadr. parabola

+
M MD

Remark:
In the area BG, the function of the bending moment is a quadratic
parabola. From the V -function, it follows that the magnitude of the
slope at B is higher than at point G.
The quadratic parabola has to merge into the linear function bet-
ween G and D without a kink, since no additional load is located
at the hinge.
 118 Internal forces and moments

P5.11 Problem 5.11 Determine the shear force, bending moment and axial
force diagrams of the depicted hinged girder system.
Calculate the distance a of the hinge G, such that the maximal bending
moment is as small as possible.
q0

C
A B a G
l l

Solution The support reactions and hinge forces are determined with
the help of the free body sketch
q0 q0

1 G 2 C
A B G

and the equilibrium equations

1 : A + B G q0 (l + a) = 0 ,
 q0 (l + a)2
G: (l + a) A + a B = 0,
2

2 : G + C q0 (l a) = 0 ,
 q0 (l a)2
G: (l a) C = 0.
2
Therefore, we obtain
q0 (l a)
A=G=C = , B = q0 (l + a) .
2
The bending moment in B can be expressed as
q0
q0 l2 1
MB = l A = q0 l a .
2 2 MB
This leads to the depicted she-
ar force and bending moment A VB
diagrams l
 of hinged girder systems. 119

V
1
q0 (l + a)
+
1
2
q0 (l a) + 2

1
q0 (l a)
1 2
q0 (l + a)
2
b b
1
q0 la
2

+ +
1
M q0 (l a)2
8

Remark:
The shear-force diagram is antisymmetric regarding B.
The shear force in the midpoint between G and C, b=(l-a)/2, has to
be zero. This is a consequence of the symmetric loading regarding
the free-body sketch.
The shear-force diagram indicates that the magnitude of the slope
of M at A has to be smaller than at B
The bending-moment diagram is symmetric regarding B.

The relative extreme values of M are located at the roots of V . They

have a distance b = (l a)/2 from A and from C. We obtain

q0 b2 q0 q0
M = b A = (l a)2 . M
2 8
In order to minimize the extremum, A
we use b

|MB | = |M | .

Insertion yields the distance

1 1
q0 l a = q0 (l a)2 ; a = (3 8)l = 0.172 l .
2 8
 120 Shear-force and

P5.12 Problem 5.12 A beam, overlapping at both ends, is loaded by a uni-

form line load.
Find the overlapping length a for a given total length l, which minimi-
zes the extreme value of the moment.

q0

A B
a a
l

Solution The local extremal values of the moments are found at the
supports and in the midpoint of the beam:

1 +

They can be determined as (with the support reactions, due to the

symmetry, as A = B = q0 l/2)

a2
M1 = q0 ,
2
 
(l/2)2 q0 l l
M2 = q0 + a .
2 2 2
The extreme value is minimal for the case |M1 | = |M2 |:
 
a2 l l l2
q0 = q0 a q0 .
2 2 2 8
Thus, we obtain the overlapping length as
1  
a= 2 1 l = 0.207 l
2

with the corresponding moment as

32 2
|Mmax | = q0 l2 = 0.0214 q0 l2 .
8

Note that the magnitude of the maximal moment is only 17 % compared

to the case with supports at the edge of the beams (|Mmax | = q0 l2 /8).
 bending-moment diagrams 121

Problem 5.13 Determine the P5.13

shear force and bending mo- x
ment diagrams for the depic- q0
ted system by integration. A
G B
a
l

Solution We obtain by integration of q(x) = q0 x/l

x2 x3
V (x) = q0 + C1 , M (x) = q0 + C1 x + C2 .
2l 6l
The constants C1 and C2 are determined by the boundary and transi-
tion conditions. We know that the moment is zero in G and B:
a3
M (x = a) = 0 : q0 + C1 a + C2 = 0 ,
6l
l2
M (x = l) = 0 : q0 + C1 l + C2 = 0 .
6
Introducing the abbreviation = a/l leads to

q0 l ! " q0 l2
C1 = 1 + + 2 , C2 = (1 + ).
6 6
Thus, we obtain
  x 2 
q0 l
V (x) = (1 + + 2 ) 3 ,
6 l

  x   x 3 
q0 l2 2
M (x) = (1 + ) (1 + + ) + .
6 l l

V
1
q0 l(1 + + 2 )
6
1
q0 l(2 + + 2 )
6
1 2
q0 l (1 + )
6

M
 122 Shear-force and

P5.14 Problem 5.14 The depicted x q0

hinged girder system is loaded by
a uniform line load q0 and a con-
A
centrated force F . B F
Determine the shear force and a a a
bending moment diagrams.

Solution The line load can be depicted by use of the F

oppl symbol as

q(x) = q0 < x a >0 .

We obtain by integration

V (x) = q0 < x a >1 +B < x 2a >0 +C1 ,

1
M (x) = q0 < x a >2 +B < x 2a >1 +C1 x + C2 .
2
The unknown supporting reaction B causes a jump in the shear force
diagram. This has to be considered in V (x)! The support reaction B and
the constants C1 and C2 can be determined by the following conditions:

V (x = 3a) = F ; 2q0 a + B + C1 = F ,
M (x = a) = 0 ; C1 a + C 2 = 0 ,
M (x = 3a) = 0 ; 2 q0 a2 + B a + 3a C1 + C2 = 0

This leads to
C1 = F , C2 = a F , B = 2 q0 a + 2F .

Thus, we obtain for example in the points A and B

MA = M (0) = C2 = a F ,
1 1
MB = M (2a) = q0 a2 + C1 2a + C2 = q0 a2 aF .
2 2
The diagrams are given as

1
aF q0 a2
V F + q0 a 2

F aF
(F + q0 a) M
 bending-moment diagrams 123

Problem 5.15 Determine the shear force and bending moment dia- P5.15
grams for the depicted hinged girder system.

F F

a a a a a a

Solution In a rst step, the support and hinge reactions are calculated.
From the equilibrium equations
F G1 G2 F

E 1 2 3
A B G1 C G2 D


1 :
A + B F G1 = 0 , A: a F 2a B + 3a G1 = 0 ,

2 :
G1 + C G2 = 0 , C : a G1 + a G2 = 0 ,

3 :
G2 + D F = 0 , D: a G2 a F = 0 ,

the support and hinge reactions are computed

A=F , B = F , C = 2F , D=0, G1 = F , G2 = F .

We obtain the bending moment at B, C and E as

ME = a F , MB = 2 a F a F = a F , MC = a F .

Thus, the diagrams are as follows:

V F F

aF

M aF
 124 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams

P5.16 Problem 5.16 The depicted frame is

F q0
loaded by a force F and a uniform li-
ne load q0 = F/a.
Determine the shear force and ben- b
ding moment diagrams. a

A
a
B
Solution The equilibrium equations
F q0
: A + BV q0 a = 0 , C D
: F BH = 0 ,

B : a A + 1
2
q0 a2 a F = 0
BH
A
yield the support reactions
BV
q0 a F q0 a 3
A= F = , BV = +F = F , BH = F .
2 2 2 2
We cut at the corners of the frame, directly right of C and directly left
of D. The internal forces follow as

C MC MD V DL
NCR = F , D NDL = F ,
F NCR NDL
VCR VCR = F/2 , VDL = 3F/2,

A MC = 0 , BHMD = a F .
BV

Due to the general coherences of the loadings and the internal forces,
we obtain the depicted diagrams (Remark: the bending moments do
not change at unloaded 90 -corners but the normal and shear forces
are interchanged!):

F 3
F F aF
2
2

F
2 3
N F V F M
2
 for frames 125
q0
Problem 5.17 Determine the P5.17
normal force, shear force and b
bending moment diagrams for
the depicted frame.
b

F
a a

Solution We obtain the support q0

reactions with help of the equilibri-
um equations as D C
BH
A = 2F +2q0 a, BV = F, BH = 0.
E BV
We obtain the bending moments at
C, D and E as
F A

MC = 0 , MD = ME = a A = 2a(F + q0 a) .

Due to the relations between q, V and M together with N -V or V -N

at the corners, we obtain following diagrams:

N diagram V diagram
F + 2q0 a
(F + 2q0 a) F
F

2(F + q0 a)

2a(F + q0 a)

M diagram

2a(F + q0 a)
 126 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams

P5.18 Problem 5.18 Determine the a a

normal force, shear force and F
bending moment diagrams for
the depicted frame.
2a

a
Solution We obtain the support
reactions with the help of the equi-
librium equations as
F
F F C
AV = F , AH = , B= .
3 3 B
We obtain the bending moments at
the cornes C, D and E as

MC = a F , E
D
5
MD = 2a B a F = a F , AH
3
1
ME = a F . AV
3
Thus, the diagrams follow as:
N diagram V diagram

1 F
F
3

F 1
F
3
1
F
3

1
F F F
3
aF

M diagram

1
aF
3

5
aF
3
 for frames 127

Problem 5.19 Determine the q0 P5.19

normal force, shear force and a
bending moment diagrams for
the depicted hinged frame.
2a a a

Solution With the free-body sketch C

q0 q0
2
AH GH GH
D
1
AV B GV GV
the equilibrium equations for the sub systems are obtained as

1 : AV + B GV 3q0 a = 0 ,
2 : GV q0 a = 0 ,
: AH + GH = 0 , : GH C = 0 ,
 9  1
A: 2a B + 3a GV + q0 a2 = 0 , G: a C + q0 a2 = 0 .
2 2
Thus, the support and hinge reactions follow by
q0 a q0 a 15 q0 a
AV = , AH = , B= q0 a , C= ,
4 2 4 2
q0 a
GH = , GV = q0 a .
2
The bending moments result at B and D in
1 3 1
MB = 2a AV (q0 2a)2 = q0 a2 , MD = aC = q0 a2 .
2 2 2
The diagrams can be sketched as

1
q0 a
N diagram 2

8
q0 a
4
1
V diagram q0 a
4 1
7 q0 a
q0 a 2
4
3
q0 a2
2

M diagram
1
Mextr. q0 a2
2
 128 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams

P5.20 Problem 5.20 The depicted frame

is loaded by a single force F and a F
45
uniform line load q0 = F/a. 2a
Determine the normal force, shear for-
ce and bending moment diagrams. q0
a

a a 2a
Solution We obtain by the equili-
brium equations for the system F
A
2 1
: A + BH = 0 , C
2
2
D q0
2
: A + BV F 2q0 a = 0 , 3
2 E
 BH
2
A : a F 3a BH 2a BV + 6q0 a = 0 4
BV
the support reactions as

2 16 1
A= F, BV = F, BH = F.
5 5 5
Considering the equilibrium in the sub systems, we obtain the normal
1 up to
and shear forces for 3 as

2
N1 = 0 , V1 = A = F,
5

2 2 7
N2 = F , V2 = A F = 2F ,
2 2 10

2 6 2 F
N3 = AF = F , V3 = A= .
2 5 2 5
The bending moments result in the cutting points B, C and D in

MB = a 2q0 a = 2aF ,
2
MC = a 2 A = aF ,
5
9
MD = 2a 2 A aF = aF .
5
 for frames 129

For subsection
4 , we obtain

N4 = 0 , q0
M4
x E
V4 = q0 x = F ,
a N4
V4
1 1 x2
M4 = q0 x2 = a F 2 . x
2 2 a
Remark: Since x runs from the right to the left, V4 is positive down-
wards.
Thus, the diagrams follow as depicted. Jumps are obtained in N and V
at the corners of the frame and at the point of attack of the single-forces;
bending moments are constant over the angles.

N diagram V diagram

2
F
5
1 7
F 2F
2 10

1
6
F F
5 5

2F

M diagram

2
aF
5

9
aF
5

2aF

2aF
 130 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams

P5.21 Problem 5.21 The composed structure is connected by a hinge. The

diagrams of the normal force N , shear force V and bending moment M
are also depicted.
Determine the corresponding loading.
N diagram
2
a
1 3

a
4

12 qa 5P
a a
P Pa
V diagram M diagram
4P a
12 qa 2P a
1
2
qa
4P
2P a
1
8
qa2

2P

Solution The external loadings of the individual part can be recon-

structed starting at the outer boundaries as follows. A subsequent con-
sideration of the equilibrium equations at the middle point provides the
potentially external loadings in this point.

We start the derivation with the left beam 1 . We can conclude, due
to the linear development of the shear-force with the boundary values
q a/2 and the parabola-shaped bending moment with the maximum
of qa2 /8, that the subsystem has to be loaded by a uniform line load.

V diagram M diagram Line load

12 qa
1
qa q
2
;
1
8
qa2
 for frames 131

The additional sub systems exhibit a constant normal force as well as a

constant shear force diagram. The bending moment diagrams are line-
ar. Therefore, we can conclude that no external loadings occur within
the subsystems 2 , 3 and 4 . Thus, additional external loadings can
only appear at the free edge of subsystem 2 and in the middle point.
Consideration of the boundary values of the shear-force and the ben-
ding moment leads to following loading:

V diagram Single force M diagram Single moment

P M = Pa
P Pa
; ;

The equilibrium condition at the cut middle point yields the missing
loading:

K : MM K = M2 + M3 M4
M2
= 2 P a 4 P a (2 P a) = 0
V2
; no single moment, V1 K
M3
: HM K = V2 V4 = P (2 P ) = P V4
V3
; horizontal single force, M4
N4
: VM K = V1 V3 N4
= 12 qa 4 P + 12 qa + 5 P = P
; vertical single force.
Thus, we obtain the external loading for the structure:
M = Pa
P

2P
q
 132 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams

P5.22 Problem 5.22 The simplied depicted D E

crane supports a weight W with a ro-
pe. The rope is clamped in B and is
C a
guided by the frictionless pulleys D
and E. The crane is additionally loa- B W
ded by its self-weight q0 (per length a
unit a). A
Determine the N , V , and M diagrams a 3a
for W = q0 a

Solution The force in the rope is S = W . Thus, we obtain the

free-body sketch and the equilibrium conditions as follows
q0
: W + AV 4 q0 a 2q0 a = 0 , W W
: AH = 0 , W W
 2 W q0
A: MA + 3a W + 4 q0 a = 0.

The support reactions are AH MA

AV = 7 W , AH = 0 , MA = 7a W . AV
Due to the general coherences of the loadings and the internal forces we
obtain the depicted diagrams (Remark: Jumps in N and V are obtained,
because of concentrated forces; at point C the sum of all moments has
to vanish (Note direction of contributions!)):

2
(1 + )W N diagram V diagram
2 4W

W 2 W
2 W
(5 + )W 2
2
2
2 W
(1 + )W 2
2 2
(6 + )W
2
15
aW
7W 2

1 2
( + )aW
2 2

2
(7 )aW
2
M diagram
7aW
 for frames and arches 133

Problem 5.23 Determine the q0 P5.23

diagrams of the internal forces
and moments for the symmetric 2
frame.
2a
1

A B
a 2a a

Solution We obtain the support reactions, due to the symmetry, as

A = B = q0 a .

The internal forces and moments in the sections

1 and
2 are calculated
by the equilibriumequations of the sub systems. They yield with the
help of cos = 1/ 5 and sin = 2/ 5

1  :
N1 = A sin = 25 q0 a , M1 N1

1
S
: V1 = A cos = 5
q0 a ,
V1

S : M1 = x1 A = x1 q0 a , x1
A q0
M2

2 : N2 = 0 ,
S N2
: V2 = A q0 x2 = q0 (a x2 ) , V2

S : M2 = (a + x2 )A 12 q0 x22
a x2
= q0 (a2 + ax2 12 x22 ) . A

Thus, the diagrams can be sketched.

q0 a

2 1
q0 a q0 a
5 5

N diagram V diagram

3
q0 a 2
2
q0 a2

M diagram
 134 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams

P5.24 Problem 5.24 Determine the normal-

force, shear force and bending mo-
ment diagrams for the depicted arch. r

F l
A

Solution In this problem, it is not necessary to determine the support

reaction a priori. The equilibrium equations yield:

: N () = F cos ,
M
: V () = F sin , S N

 V
S : M () = r F (1 cos ) .

We obtain for the vertical part
F r(1 cos )
N = F , V = 0, M = 2rF .

These values are related to the support reactions in A. Thus, the dia-
grams follow

N diagram V diagram M diagram

F rF

F 2rF

Remark: The internal forces and moments as well as the support reac-
tions are independet of l.
 for frames and arches 135

Problem 5.25 The depicted arc P5.25

is loaded by a constant line load. q0
Determine the diagrams of the in-
ternal forces and the extreme values
of N and M . r

Solution We obtain the reaction forces by q0

B
the equilibrium equations as

q0 r
AV = q0 r , AH = B = . AH
2
The internal forces of the arc are determined as AV

: N () = [AV q0 r(1 cos )] cos AH sin N

M
= 12 q0 r(2 cos2 + sin ) , q0
S
Q
: V () = [AV q0 r(1 cos )] sin AH cos
= 1
q r(2 cos sin cos ) , AH
2 0 AV

S : M () = AV r(1 cos ) AH r sin 12 q0 r 2 (1 cos )2

= 12 q0 r 2 (1 sin cos2 ) ,

with extreme values of the bending moment and normal force as

dM
= 0 : (1 + 2 sin ) cos = 0 ,
d
cos 1 = 0 ; 1 = /2 ; M (1 ) = 0 ,

q0 r 2
sin 2 = 1/2 ; 2 = /6 ; M (2 ) = ,
8
dN
= 0 : (4 sin + 1) cos = 0 ,
d
q0 r
cos 3 = 0 ; 3 = /2 ; N (3 ) = ,
2
15 17
sin 4 = 1/4 ; cos2 4 = ; N (4 ) = q0 r .
16 16
 136 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams
F
P5.26 Problem 5.26 Determine the internal
force diagrams for the depicted sys-
tem. a a a

F
Solution With the equilibrium equations 1 2

A C
: BV F = 0 , a
a a
3
: BH A = 0 , 4
 E
B : 3a A + a F = 0 5
D
BH
the reactions forces follow
BV
F F
A= , BV = F , BH = .
3 3
1 ,
Therefore, the normal and shear forces in the subsystems 2 ,
4 and

5 are obtained as

N1 = A = F/3 , V1 = 0 ,
N2 = A = F/3 , V2 = F ,
N4 = BH = F/3 , V4 = BV = F ,

N5 = BV = F , V5 = BH = F/3 .
The bending moments are calculated at the loading points C, D and
E to be
5 aF
MF = 0 , MC = a F , MD = a F , ME = .
3 3
Now, we obtain for the arc in
3

F
: V3 = (sin + 3 cos ) , F a(1 cos )
3
F S
: N3 = (cos 3 sin ) , 1
F
3 3 M
 aF V
N
S : M3 = (4 + 3 sin cos ) .
3
a sin
 for frames and arches 137

Some values of V3 , N3 and M3 are summarized in the following table.

0 /4 /2 3/4

2 2 1 2
V3 F F F F F
3 3 3

1 2 2 2 1
N3 F F F F F
3 3 3 3

1 7 1 5
M3 aF (4 + 2)aF aF (4 + 2 2) aF aF
3 3 3 3

N diagram
1
F
3 F
1
F
3
F

F
V diagram

1
F F
3

1
F
3

aF
M diagram

7
aF
3
1
aF
3

5
aF
3
 138 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams

P5.27 Problem 5.27 Determine the F

internal force diagrams for the de-
picted system. r r

Solution The equilibrium conditions

C
for the complete system lead to fol-
lowing reaction forces: F
F F
A= , BV = , BH = F . BH
2 2
We obtain the bending moment at C A BV
considering equilibrium for the depic-
ted sub system

MC = rBH = r F .
M N
In the curved part the forces are S
F V
: N () = cos ,
2 1 r cos
F F
: V () = sin , 2
2
 rF
S : M () = (1 cos ) .
2
Therefore, the diagrams can be depicted as

N diagram V diagram 1
F
2

1
F
1
F F
2 2
M diagram
1
rF rF
2
 for frames and arches 139

Problem 5.28 Determine the q0 P5.28

F
normal force, shear force and
bending moment diagrams for the
depicted three-hinged frame. 2a

a
2a a

q0 GH GV
Solution The equilibrium equations
C GH D F
1 :
AV GV 2q0 a = 0 , GV
: AH + GH = 0 , 2
 1 BH
G: 2aAV 2q0 a2 3aAH = 0 ,
AH BV
2 :
BV + GV = 0 ,
: GH + BH + F = 0 , AV

G: aBV 2aBH = 0
yield the reaction forces as
24 18 2 9
AV = F, BV = GV = F, AH = GH = F, BH = F.
7 7 7 7
The bending moments are calculated as
6 18
MC = 3aAH = aF , MD = 2aBH = aF,
7 7
which leads to the following diagrams:

24
F
N diagram 2 F 24 V diagram
7 7 F
7

18 9
F 18 F
7 F 7
2 7
F
7
18
6 aF
aF 7
7

M diagram
 140 Internal forces

P5.29 Problem 5.29 Determine the l

position of the hinge G, such that F a
the value of the maximal bending
moment is minimal. G

Depict the bending moment dia-

gram for that case. l

Solution We obtain from the equilibrium equations for the complete

system and the right sub system
F C GH GV D
: AV + BV = 0 ,
GH
: F AH BH = 0 , GV

A: F l l BV = 0 ,
 BH
G: l BH (l a)BV = 0 AH
yielding the reaction forces as AV BV
a a
BV = AV = F , BH = F (1 ), AH = F .
l l
At the points C and D the bending moment is obtained as

MC = l AH = F a , MD = l BH = F a F l .

In the entire system the bending moment is linear, therefore we nd

the minimum of the magnitude moment by equating

|MC | = |MD | : a = l/2.

For that case the moments MC , MD and the bending moment diagram
appear as

MC = MD = F l/2 . F l/2 F l/2

M-Verlauf
 at a three-hinged arc 141

Problem 5.30 Consider the F F P5.30

symmetrical loaded three hinged G
semi-circular arc. Determine the in-
ternal forces as a function of . r
60
A B

Solution From the symmetry con-

ditions, we obtain 2 GH
F F
GH
AV = BV , AH = BH , GV = 0 . 1 GV GV

The equilibrium equations for the

left and the right sub systems yield AH BH
AV BV
F
AV = BV = F , AH = BH = GH = .
2
The internal forces are obtained by the equilibrium conditions in the
free-body sketches. They lead for sub system 1 between support A
and the point of the loading (0 < 60 ) to
M1
: N1 = F cos 12 F sin N1
S
1
= F (cos + 2
sin ) , V1
1
: V1 = F sin 12 F cos r sin
1
1
= F (sin cos ) , F
2 2
 r cos
S : M1 = r F (1 cos ) 12 r F sin F
1
= r F (1 cos 2
sin ) .

In sub system 2 between the point of loading and the hinge G, we

obtain
G
2 1
 : N2 = 12 F cos(90 ) F
V2 2
= 12 F sin , S
M2
90
1
 : V2 = 2 F sin(90 )
N2 r cos(90 )
= 12 F cos ,

S : M2 = 12 F r(1 sin ) .
142 Internal forces

Some values of N , V and M are given in the following table.

0 30 45 60 90
N1 F 1.12 F 1.06 F 0.93 F
N2 0.43 F F/2
V1 F/2 0.07 F +0.35 F +0.62 F
V2 0.25 F 0
M1 0 0.12 rF 0.06 rF +0.07 rF
M2 +0.07 rF 0

The internal force diagrams are depicted below. At the point of loading,
we obtain a jump in the normal force of the magnitude F cos 60 = F/2
and in the shear force of F sin 60 = 0.87 F . The bending moment
experiences a kink at that point. Due to the symmetry of the structure
and the loading, N and M are symmetric and V is antisymmetric.

N diagram V diagram
1
F
0.93F 2
0.62F

1 1
F F + F
2 2

M diagram 0.07rF
 at a three-hinged arc 143
q0
Problem 5.31 The three-hinged P5.31
G
arc is loaded by a force F and a con-
stant line load q0 a = 2F . A
Determine the internal force dia- F a
grams.
a B

Solution Considering the equilibrium equations of the complete sys-

tem, the sub systems of the arc
2 and the beam
1

: AV + BV F q0 a = 0 , A
H

: AH BH = 0 , 1 2
 AV F

2 G : a BV a BH = 0 ,
BH


1 G : a AV + 1
q a2
2 0
= 0,
BV
yield the reaction forces as

AV = F , BV = BH = AH = 2F .

The internal forces at the arc are obtained by N M

V
: N () = 2F (cos + sin ) ,
a S
a sin
: V () = 2F (cos sin ) , BH = 2F

 a cos
S : M () = 2F a (1 cos sin ) .
BV = 2F
The diagrams are obtained as follows. Note that N and M are maximal
in the middle of the arc.

N diagram V diagram
2F
F
2F
F

1
aF 2aF ( 2 1)
4
2F 2F

M diagram
 144 Internal forces
F 2F
P5.32 Problem 5.32 Determine the
internal forces for the depicted sys-
a
tem.
a a a a

Solution The reaction forces are obtained by the equilibrium equations

of the complete system as
5 F GH GV 2F
AV = F, AH
4 GH
E H
7 2 GV 4
B
B= F, 1 5
4 AV S3 S3
AH = 0 . C D

Consideration of the right sub system yields the joint-forces and S3 :

: GV + B 2F = 0 ; GV = F/4 ,
 3
G: a S3 + 2a F 2a B = 0 ; S3 = F,
2
3
: GH S3 = 0 ; GH = F.
2
The remaining forces in the bars are obtained by the equilibrium con-
dition at point C. Note that the situation is mirror-inverted at C and
D (S1 = S5 , S2 = S4 ):
S2
2 3
: S 1 + S 3 = 0 ; S1 = S 5 = 2F , 45
2 2 S1

2 3 S3
: S2 + S1 = 0 ; S2 = S4 = F . C
2 2

We obtain the bending moment at the point of loading E as

aF
ME = a GV = . VE
4 GH
ME
Analogously, the bending moment at H is
GV
aF a
MH = . 1
4 aF
4
This yields the depicted bending
moment diagram.
1
M aF
4
 in beam-bar-systems 145
F 2F
Problem 5.33 Determine the P5.33
internal force diagrams for the
beam and also the internal a
forces in the bars.
F
q0 = a
2a

a a a a

Solution The free-body F

sketch depicts the sepa- GV 2F
D GH GH
rated system. First of all
the reaction forces are E H
determined. Considering S1 S2 GV S3 B
the equilibrium equati- q0
45
ons of the complete sys- S2
AH
tem
S1 S3
: AH + 2q0 a = 0 ,
AV
C
: AV F 2F + B = 0 ,

A: 2q0 a2 + a F + 6a F 4a B = 0

leads with q0 = F/2a to

AV = F , AH = F , B = 2F .

The joint forces and the forces S3 in the bar are determined
in the right
sub system. Equilibrium yields with sin 45 = cos 45 = 2/2

2
: GV 2F S3 + B = 0 ,
2

2
: GH S3 = 0 ,
2

 2
G : 2a F + a S3 2a B = 0 .
2
Therefore, we obtain

S3 = 2 2 F , GH = 2F , GV = 2F .
146 Internal forces

The bar forces of S1 and S2 are obtained considering node C as

2 2
: S1 + S3 = 0 ; S1 = S3 ,
2 2

2 2
: S1 + S3 + S2 = 0 ; S2 = 2 S3 = 4 F .
2 2
Finally, the bending moment diagram is obtained with help of the point
values at D, E and H

MD = 2a AH a (q0 2a) = a F ,
ME = a (GV + S2 ) = 2a F ,
MH = a B = 2a F .

2F
N diagram
S2
S1 S3
F

2F
F

V diagram

2F 2F

F
2aF 2aF

aF
M diagram

quadr. parabola
 in beam-bar-systems 147

Problem 5.34 Determine the reaction P P5.34

q
forces in A and B and all internal force
diagrams (normal, shear, and bending A
moment). Specify also all extreme va- a
lues in the A C (angular frame).
C
Given: P = q a/4
a
B

Solution In order to determine the

a a
reactions forces, we will simplify the
structure. At rst, the hinged column q
between B and C is replaced by a sli-
ding support which is tilted by 45 . A S2
Additionally, the normal forces of the a
bars, where the load P acts, can be
C S1
computed by equilibrium conditions
at the hinge.
a
The internal bar forces are obtained by the equilibrium equations at
the hinge as

2
: S1 P = 0 ,
2
2
: S2 S1 = 0 , P
2
which leads to S2

S1 = 2 , S2 = P . S1 45

The equilibrium equations for the simplied structure

 q a2
A : 2 a B + 2 a S1 = 0,
2

2 2
: AV + B+ S1 q a = 0 ,
2 2 q

2 2 AH
: A H + S2 + B+ S1 = 0 S2
2 2
AV
S1
B
148 Internal forces

yield the reactions forces

2 3 qa
B= qa, AV = q a , AH = .
2 4 2

In order to sketch the internal force diagrams, it makes sense to dis-

assemble the forces B and S1 into its parts vertical and parallel to the
angular frame. Then an easy assignment to the normal and shear forces
is possible. In addition, MK at the kink of the frame has to be deter-
mined:

2 qa 2 qa
BH = B= , BV = B= , q
2 2 2 2
AH S2
2 qa 2 qa
S1H = S1 = , S1V = S1 = ,. AV
2 4 2 4 S1H
BH

BV S1V

NK
MK

q a2 VK
MK = a (BH + S1H ) = .
4 a
S1H
BH

BV S1V
The internal force diagrams are obtained as

N diagram V diagram M diagram

1
1 4
qa 1
2
qa 4
qa2

1
4
qa2
3
4
qa

1 1
4
qa 4
qa
 in beam-bar-systems 149

Problem 5.35 Determine for the q P5.35

given structure all reaction forces A
F B
as well as all extreme values of a
the internal forces (normal, she-
ar force, and bending moments)
and the sketch of the internal for- a
W
ce diagrams for the beam A B. C D E

a a a a

Solution With the help of the free-body sketch, we can determine the
reaction forces as follows.
Consideration of the
equilibrium of sub R1 = 2qa
system 5 yields BV

1 BH
CH = 0 .
S1 BH R2 = 2 2 qa
BV
Therefore, the hori- W 
4 S2
S1
zontal reaction force S2 
2
S3 S4
EH vanishes, since the S4
system does not have CH S3 
3 EH
any horizontal loading. 
5
S5 S5
CV DV EV

In order to calculate the remaining vertical reaction forces CV , DV ,

and EV , we determine the internal forces of the sub system 1 . A han-
dy choice of the equilibrium equations leads directly to the respective
forces:

 2
B : 2 a W a R1 S1 a = 0 ; S1 = 2 2 (q a + W ) ,
2

F : BV a W a = 0 ; BV = W ,

2
: S1 + BH = 0 ; BH = 2 (q a + W ) .
2
Equilibrium in vertical direction of sub system
2 leads to

: EV + BV R2 = 0 .
Thus, the reaction force EV follow as

EV = 2 2 q a W .
150 Internal forces

The remaining reaction forces CV and DV can be determined by


D : a EV + a CV 3 a W 2 a R2 = 0 ; CV = qa (4 + 2 2) 2 W ,

: DV + EV + CV W R1 R2 = 0 ; DV = q a (2 2 + 2).

The substructure A B can be idealized as a beam with two supports.

The support reactions BV , BH and S1 have already been determined.
The bending moment in point F can be computed by
q a2
MF = W a .
2
Thus, the internal force diagrams can be sketched as

N diagram

2(qa + W )

V diagram
W qa

W
W

W + qa

M diagram W a 12 qa2
1 1
8
qa2 8
qa2
 in spatial structures 151

Problem 5.36 Determine the int- P5.36

ernal forces for the depicted til- q0 A
ted beam.

b
a B

Solution We introduce coordinate systems in both sub systems

to determine the sign of the
internal forces. We obtain for
sub system 1 by double in- q0
tegration of q0 and with re- Mx
MB
gard of the boundary conditi- y1 x1
ons Vz (0) = 0, My (0) = 0 z1 My
1 1
VB
Vz = q0 x1 , My = q0 x21 . Vz
2 VB 2
x2
Thus, at the angle B, it follows MB y2
z
1 22
VB = Vz (a) = q0 a , MB = My (a) = q0 a .
2
For the sub system
2 the equilibrium conditions yield


Fz = 0 : Vz = VB = q0 a ,
 1
Mx = 0 : Mx = MB = q0 a2 ,
2

My = 0 : My = x2 VB = q0 ax2 .

Remark:
The remaining internal forces are zero.
The reaction forces at the clamping follow from the internal forces
of sub system 2 by

q0 a2
A = Vz (b) = q0 a, MAx = Mx (b) = , MAy = My (b) = q0 ab.
2
The bending moment My in sub system 1 changes at the angle B
into the torsion moment Mx in sub system 2 .
 152 Internal forces

P5.37 Problem 5.37 The clamped semi-

circular beam with radius r is loa-
ded by its body force (q0 = const).
r
Determine the internal forces.

Solution The beam is cut at a arbitrary angle , and a

coordinate system is introduced, in
order to determine the sign of the in- Mx x
ternal forces. Using the arc length r, V z

the body force of the subsystem is C My

equal to q0 r. This can be idealized as y
z
a unied load in the centroid, which q0 r
is located at
sin /2 b
rC = 2r
2 x
rC a
(compare chapter 2). The lever arm is z y
C
computed by
a = rC sin (/2) = (2r/) sin2 (/2) = (r/)(1 cos ) ,
b = r rC cos (/2) = (r/)[ 2 sin (/2) cos (/2)]
= (r/)( sin ) ,

which yields for the equilibrium equations


Fz = 0 : Vz () = q0 r ,

Mx = 0 : Mx () = b(q0 r) = q0 r 2 ( sin ) ,

My = 0 : My () = a(q0 r) = q0 r 2 (1 cos ) .

The remaining internal forces

are zero. The reactions forces
can be determined by the in-
ternal forces at = .
The diagrams of the ben- Mx /q0 r 2
ding moment My and the tor-
que Mx are depicted.
/2
My /q0 r 2
-2
 in spatial structures 153
a C q0 = 2F/a
Problem 5.38 Determine the P5.38
internal force diagrams for the de- a
picted structure. F a
D
B
2a
A

Solution The equilibrium conditions yield

Cy
 Cx
Fx = 0 : Cx F = 0 , z
 By x y F
Fy = 0 : By + Cy = 0 , Cz

Fz = 0 : A + Bz + Cz q0 2a = 0 ,
 (D) Bz
Mx = 0 : 2aA a (q0 2a) = 0 , q0 2a A
 (D)
My = 0 : aBz + a Cz aF = 0 ,
 (D)
Mz = 0 : aBy a Cy + 2aF = 0.

Thus, the reaction forces are determined with q0 = 2F/a, as

F 3
A = 2F , Bz = , By = Cy = F , Cx = F , Cz = F.
2 2
For the following calculations, we
subdivide the system into 4 parts 2 y4 z4
and introduce individual coordinate x2
systems. We obtain from the equili- x1 y2
4
brium equations: 1 z 3 x4
2

Vy = By = F , y1 x3 y3

1 z1
z3
Vz = Bz = F/2 , Mz
Vy
My = Bz x1 = 12 F x1 , My
By
Mz = By x1 = F x1 , 1 Vz
Bz

2 N = Cx = F , x1
Cy
Vy = +Cy = +F , Vz Cx
2
Vz = Cz = 3F/2 , My
Vy Cz
My = +Cz (a x2 ) = + 32 F (a x2 ) , N
Mz
a x2
154 Internal forces

Mz = Cy (a x2 ) = F (a x2 ) ,
x3
Vy = F , Mx

3
q0 F
Vz = A q0 x3 = 2F (1 x3 /a) , Vy
Vz
Mx = F a , 3
My
My = A x3 12 q0 x23 = F (2x3 x23 /a) , Mz A

Mz = F x3 , F x4
4

4 Vz = F ,
My
My = F x4 . Vz

The sketches of the internal forces are depicted below.

Remark:
The bending moment at sub system 4 changes into the torque at
sub system 3 . The latter causes in the beam BC at point D a jump
of the bending moment My .
Analogously, the bending moment Mz of sub system
3 causes a
jump of Mz of the beam BC.

normal force torque

F a

3
Fa
2 bending moment
1
Fa My
2
My
+F a Fa
2F a My
F a
Mz
Mz
F a
 in spatial structures 155

Problem 5.39 The depicted semi- A P5.39

circular arc of radius r is loaded by q0
a constant radial line load q0 .
Determine normal force, shear force
and bending moment.
r

Solution A cut of the arc for an

arbitrary frees internal forces.
Considering an arc element of the
length rd, we obtain an innitesi-

mal loading q0 rd in radial directi-
on. Decomposition of the force in N M()
and V direction and integration over N()
the arc element leads to d
 h V ()

N () = q0 r sin( ) d
0
q0 rd
= q0 r (1 cos ) ,
rd

V () = q0 r cos( ) d = q0 r sin .
0

The innitesimal moment q0 rd with respect to the cut yields h q0 rd.

We obtain from the equilibrium equation for the moments using the
lever h = r sin( ):

M () = q0 r 2 sin( ) d = q0 r 2 (1 cos ) .
0

Thus, the internal force diagrams are obtained as

2q0 r 2 q0 2r

M() N() V () q0 r
Chapter 6
Cables
6
158 Cables

1. Cables subjected to vertical loads

Loading q(x) is a function of x.

q(x)
x
x
tan = z 
z(x)
h
(x) z H
z
V
S
l

The horizontal force H and the tension of the cable S are


H = const , S = H 1 + (z  )2 .

Integration of the dierential equation

1
z  = q(x)
H

leads to the curve of the cable z(x) and the sag (x):
 x  x
1 h
z(x) = q(
x) d
x d
x + C1 x + C2 , (x) = z(x) x.
H 0 0 l

For a given H, the integration constants C1 , C2 are determined by the

geometrical boundary conditions (z(0), z(l)). For an unknown H, an
additional constraint is needed. Possible constraints are:
1. maximum sag max = given,
2. maximum tension Smax = S given,
3. length of cable L = L given.

In the special case of a constant vertical loading q(x) = q0 = const,

we obtain for the curve of the cable and the sag
 
h q0 l q0 2 q0
z(x) = + x x , (x) = (l x x2 ) .
l 2H 2H 2H
 Cables 159

The horizontal force H is determined by

q0 l2
1. given: H= ,
8
  2
|h| q0 l
2. S given: S = H 1+ + ,
l 2H
H '  (z2
3. L given: L = z 1 + z  2 + arsinhz  
2 q0 z1
 h q0 l  h q0 l
with z1 = + , z2 = .
l 2H l 2H
(in cases 2. and 3., H has to be determined using an implicit equation)

2. Cables subjected to self-weight

Loading q(s) is a function of the arclength s (weight per unit length
of the cable). Here the relation ds = 1 + z  2 dx holds.
The horizontal force H and the tension of the cable S are

H = const , S = H 1 + (z  )2 .

The curve of the cable follows from (x) h

q 
z  = 1 + (z  )2 . x
H
z
l/2 l/2
For the special case
weight is distributed constantly over cable length: q = q0 = const
both cable supports are at the same height
follows
H  q0 x 
cable curve: z(x) = 1 cosh , (catenary)
q0 H
!l"
sag: (x) = z(x) + h , ; h = max = z 2

q0 x
cable tension: S(x) = H cosh ,
H
2H q0 l
cable length: L= sinh .
q0 2H
For given , S or L , the horizontal force H has to be determined
from a transcendental equation.
 160 Cables

P6.1 Problem 6.1 A supporting rope is

loaded with a line load q(x) = q0
between points A and B. The ro- B h
A
pe shall be stretched such that the
slope of the rope at point A is zero.
Determine the horizontal tensile q0
force and the maximum force in the
rope. l

Solution We place the coordinate system in point A. Integrating the

dierential equation of the rope curve twice yields
q0
z  (x) = ,
H B
A
 q0 x
z (x) = x + C1 ,
H
q0 2 z
z(x) = x + C1 x + C2 .
2H
The integration constants C1 , C2 and the horizontal tensile force H
follow from the boundary conditions:

z(0) = 0 ; C2 = 0 ,

z  (0) = 0 ; C1 = 0 ,

q0 2 q0 l2
z(l) = h ; h= l ; H= .
2H 2h

The force in the rope can be calculated by


S = H 1 + (z  )2
  2
q0 l2 2hx
= 1+ .
2h l2

It obtains its largest value at x = l (support point B):

  2
q0 l2 2h
Smax = 1+ .
2h l
 Cables 161

Problem 6.2 A washing line is xed l P6.2

A
at the end points A and B at the x
heights hA > hB above the ground. B
The clothes on the line resemble
approximately a constant line load z
q(x) = q0 . hA
hB
Compute the maximal force in the li-
ne for a minimal distance of the line to
the ground given by h .
Given: hA = 5 a, hB = 4 a, h = 3 a, l = 10 a .

Solution With the boundary condition z(0) = 0 and z(l) = hA hB = a

we obtain the curve of the line, (comp. Exercise 6.1)
1 10 q0 a  q0 2
z(x) = + x x .
10 2H 2H
The yet unknown horizontal tensile force H can be determined from
the minimal distance h . It occurs at the position x with z  = 0:
1 5 q0 a q0
z  (x) = + x = 0.
10 H H
It follows
1 H (H + 50 q0 a)2
x = + 5a and zmax = z(x ) = .
10 q0 200 q0 H
Inserting into h = hA zmax together with the given values yields the
quadratic equation

H 2 300 q0 a H + 2500 (q0 a)2 = 0

with the solution

H = (150 100 2 )q0 a .

In case of the plus sign, the value of x is not between A and B. Thus,
the solution for the minus sign holds

H = (150 100 2 )q0 a 8.579 q0 a .

The maximal force in the line occurs at the position with the largest
value of z  , thus at the higher support of the line:

Smax = S(0) = H 1 + z 2 (0) = 10.388 q0 a .
 162 Cables

P6.3 Problem 6.3 A rope is stretched by a

2q0
weight and loaded with a line load q(x). q0
The pulley at the right bearing is fric-
tionless and its dimensions are negligi-
ble.
Determine the position and value of the l/3
maximal sag. x

Given: q0 = 12 2 W/l
G
z
l
Solution With the line load given by
 x 
q(x) = q0 + 2
l
integrating the dierential equation of the curve of the rope twice yields
q0  x 
z  (x) = +2 ,
H l
q0 l ' 1  x 2 x(
z  (x) = +2 + C1 ,
H 2 l l

q0 l2 ' 1  x 3  x 2 (
z(x) = + + C1 x + C2 .
H 6 l l
It follows from the geometric boundary conditions

z(0) = 0 ; C2 = 0 ,
l 1 5 q0 l
z(l) = ; C1 = + .
3 3 6 H
Thus, the curve of the rope is given by
q0 l2 ' 1  x 3  x 2 5  x ( 1
z(x) = + x.
H 6 l l 6 l 3
The yet unknown horizontal tensile force H can be obtained from the
given force in the rope at the position x = l. The condition

S(l) = W bzw. H 1 + z  (l)2 = W

yields together with S

2 q l 1 1  W 
0
z  (l) = + = 2 +1 G
3 H 3 3 H
 Cables 163

the quadratic equation

 2  
W 2 2 W 10
=0
H 7 H 7
with the solution
5
2 <0 (not feasible) ,
W 7
=
H
2.
The horizontal tensile force follows as
1
H= 2 W = q0 l ,
2
with the curve of the rope nally calculated as
   
1 x 3  x 2 5  x  1
z(x) = l + x.
6 l l 6 l 3
The curve of sagging yields with h = l/3
h
(x) = z(x) x
l
   
1 x 3  x 2 5  x 
=l + .
6 l l 6 l
The maximum amount of sagging max follows from the condition
 x 2 x 5
 = 0 ; 4 + = 0,
l l 3
which leads to the solutions
x 
= 2 7/3.
l

The rst solution x = (2 + 7/3 ) l > l is geometrically not feasible,
thus max occurs at the position

x = (2 7/3 ) l.

Inserting x yields the value of the maximal sag

)  *
7 7
max = (x ) = 1 l 0.188 l .
9 3
 164 Ropes

P6.4 Problem 6.4 A rope is stretched

across a street between two poles
of the same height and loaded by
its dead weight q0 . At the footing q0
of the poles a maximum momen- x hM
tum Mmax can be absorbed.
z
Determine the maximal clearance
height in the middle of the rope
l
and the maximal force in the ro-
pe.
Given: hM = 20 m, l = 50 m, q0 = 10 N/m, Mmax = 10 kNm.

Solution From the absorbable momentum at the footing of a pole, we

can rst compute the feasible maximal horizontal tensile force:

Mmax
H= = 500 N .
hM
The curve of the rope in the given coordinate system reads
H  q0 x 
z(x) = 1 cosh .
q0 H
Thus the maximal sag is
 
H q0 l
max = z(l/2) = 1 cosh = 6.381 m .
q0 2H
The clearance height is obtained as

hD = hM max = 13.618 m .

The maximum force in the rope occurs at the xing points (x = l/2):
q0 l
Smax = H cosh = 500 N cosh 0.5 = 563.8 N .
2H

Remark: The length of the rope at the total weight follows as

2H q0 l
L= sinh = 52.11 m , G = L q0 = 521.1 N .
q0 2H
 Ropes 165

Problem 6.5 A measuring tape A B P6.5

(dead weight q0 ) is used to de- q0
x P
termine the distance between
the points A and B. The actual z
distance is given by l.
Determine the force P which is ne- l
cessary to stretch the measuring tape such that the measuring error is
0.5%. Determine the maximal sag of the tape.

Solution With the known measuring error of 0.5 %, the length L of

the tape is calculated as
2H q0 l
L = 1.005 l = sinh .
q0 2H
Reformulation reveals the transcendental equation for the horizontal
tension H,
0.0004
q0 l q0 l 0.0002
f ()
1.005 = sinh ,
2H 2H
0.0000
q0 l 0.0002
or by substituting =
2H
0.0004
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
f () = 1.005 sinh = 0 .

The solution is obtained from a graphical determination of f = 0, or,

more precisely, through iteration using the Newton method:
f (n ) df ()
n+1 = n with f  () = = 1.005 cosh .
f  (n ) d

Step 0 (starting value) 1 2 3 4

0.2000 0.1777 0.1733 0.1731 0.1731
It follows
q0 l
= 0.1731 ; H= = 2.889 q0 l .
2
The stretching force P and the maximal value of sag are calculated by
q0 l
P = S(l/2) = H cosh = H cosh = 2.932 q0 l . P
2H S
H q0 l 
max = z(l/2) = 1 cosh = 0.0434 l .
q0 2H
 166 Ropes q

P6.6 Problem 6.6 A rope is laid across x

a frictionless pulley (dead weight A
negligible) and has a total length
L = 7 a. It is loaded with a line z max C
B
load q and a single load P .
P
Determine P for a maximal sag
max = a/10 between the points A 4a
and B. a a

Solution We rst determine the length of the rope in the region A B

and B C. It follows for region A B
H '  (z2
LAB = z 1 + z  2 + arsinh z  
2q z1

with the horizontal tension H and the limits z1 , z2 given by
q l2 q (4 a)2 ql 1 ql 1
H= = = 20 qa, z1 = = , z2 = = .
8 a
8 10 2H 10 2H 10
 1  101  1 
Inserting yields LAB
= 20 a + arsinh 4.01 a .
10 100 10
From the geometry, it follows for the length of the rope in region B C:

1
LBC = 2 wp2 + a2 or wp2 = (LBC )2 a2 .
4
With L = LAB + LBC = 7 a and the known length LAB , the maxi-
 in region B C yields wp BC
mal sag 1.11 a. For the angle , sin =
(wp / wp2 + a2 ) holds. Consequently, SB can be determined from equi-
librium in vertical direction at point P :

P
: 2 SBBC
sin P = 0 ; SB BC
= wp2 + a2 .
2 wp
AB BC
With SB = SB and
  q l 2
0 SBAB wp
AB
SB =H 1+ 20.10 q a , SBBC SBBC
2H
the magnitude of the force P yields
P
40.20 q a 1.11 a
P = 29.87 q a .
1.112 a2 + a2
 Ropes q2167
q1
Problem 6.7 A rope is loaded by two P6.7
piecewise constant line loads q1 and q2 .
I II
Determine the curve of the rope in the b
areas I and II for the known maximal x
rope force Smax .
Given: q1 = 1 kN/m, a = 20 m, z
q2 = 2 kN/m, b = 4 m, Smax = 100 kN. a/2 a/2

Solution Due to the jump in the load function at the position x = a/2,
the rope is divided into two regions. By integrating the dierential equa-
tion of the rope z  = H1
q(x) twice, it follows for the rope curve in
the regions:
1 1
zI (x) = q1 x2 + C1 x + C2 , zII (x) = q2 x2 + C3 x + C4 .
2H 2H

The 4 constants can be determined with the help of boundary and

transition conditions:
boundary cond.: zI (0) = 0 , zII (a) = b ,
transition cond.: zI (a/2) = zII (a/2) , zI  (a/2) = zII  (a/2) .
One obtains
a b
C1 = (3 q1 + q2 ) , C2 = 0 ,
8H a
a b a2
C3 = (q1 + 5 q2 ) , C4 = (q1 q2 ) .
8H a 8H

In order to completely describe the rope curve, the unknown horizontal

tension force H must be computed:
 35 1
Smax = H 1 + (zII  (a))2 = 100 kN with zII  (a) = .
2H 5
The quadratic equation
26 2 38775
H + 7H =0
25 4
has the solution (H2 is negative and thus physically not admissible!)

7 40375
H1,2 = ; H = H1 93.24 kN .
52
25
 168 Ropes

P6.8 Problem 6.8 A rope hangs

between two bearings at the sa-
me height and is loaded by a
triangular line load with the
maximal amplitude q0 in the h
middle of the rope.
q0
Determine the force in the ro-
pe at the lowest point of the
rope and the shape of the rope 2a
curve.

Solution Choosing the coordinate system in the middle between the

bearings, the load is given by
x
q(x) = q0 (1 ), 0xa.
a
Integrating the dierential equation of the rope curve twice yields
H  x
z = 1,
q0 a
x
H  x2
z = x + C1 , z
q0 2a
3 2
H x x
z= + C1 x + C2 .
q0 6a 2
We obtain the integration constants from the boundary conditions:
a2
z  (0) = 0 ; C1 = 0 , z(a) = 0 ; C2 = .
3
The curve of the rope then reads (symmetry!)
 
q0 x3 x2 a2
z= + , 0 x a.
H 6a 2 3

The horizontal force H is calculated from the boundary condition

q0 a2 q0 a2
z(0) = h ; h= ; H= .
H 3 3h
Then the force in the rope at the lowest point follows as
 q0 a2
S=H 1 + (z  )2 mit z  (0) = 0 ; S=H= .
3h
Chapter 7
Work and Potential Energy
7
170 Principle of Virtual Work

Work
A force F acting along an innitesimally displacement dr accomplishes
the work
F
dU = F dr = F dr cos . dr

Analogously, the work of a moment M along

a rotation d is

dU = M d .

In case that force and displacement vectors or moment and rotation

vectors, respectively, are parallel to each other, the relations simplify
to scalar expressions

dU = F dr bzw. dU = M d .

Principle of Virtual Work

Instead of the displacement dr, one introduces in statics a virtual
displacement r. As a result, the Principle of Virtual Work can be
formulated: A system of forces, which is in equilibrium, does not ac-
complish virtual work along a virtual displacement r:

U = 0 .

Virtual Displacements are:

1. imagined
2. innitesimally small
3. compatible with the kinematic constraints of the system.

Remarks:
In case that support reactions or internal forces have to be deter-
mined, it is necessary to use a free-body diagram and to introduce
the support reactions or the internal forces as external loads.
The symbol indicates the relation to the variational calculus.
The work of a force along a nite path is given by
 r2
U= F dr .
r1
 Stability 171

Stability of an Equilibrium Position

Conservative forces (weights, spring forces) can be derived from a po-
tential V = U via

V = U .

The equilibrium condition reads

V = 0 .

The stability of the equilibrium position results from the sign of 2 V :

+
2 > 0 stable,
V
< 0 unstable.
If V is given as a function of one spatial coordinate z, then
dV 1 d2 V
V = z , 2 V = (z)2
dz 2 dz 2
apply. Therewith and given z = 0, the following statements hold:

dV
equilibrium condition = 0,
dz
+
d2 V >0 stable position,
stability
dz 2 <0 labile position.

Remarks:
2
In case of d V2 = V  = 0, it is necessary to investigate higher deri-
dz
vatives.
The equilibrium position is indierent, if in addition to V  = 0 also
all higher derivatives are zero.
The potential of a weight W is V = W z, if z is counted vertically
upwards from the zero level.
The potential of a spring tensioned by x (spring constant k)
is V = 12 k x2 .
The potential of a torsion spring tensioned by (torsion spring
constant kT ) is V = 12 kT 2 .
 172 Principle of Virtual Work

P7.1 Problem 7.1 A ladder (weight W , length

W, l
l) leans on a smooth wall.
What is the magnitude of F to obtain an
equilibrium state for the angle ?
F

Solution For the determination of equilibrium positions using

the principle of virtual displacements, it
is suitable to dene the coordinates of y
the acting points of the forces. In the
chosen coordinate system, they are gi-
ven by xF and yW . Then, xF and yW
are oriented against F and W , respec-
tively. Therefore, the equilibrium posi- yW W
tion is found as F
U = F xF W yW = 0 . x
xF
With
l
xF = l sin , yW = cos ,
2
l
xF = l cos , yW = sin ,
2
it follows that
1
U = F l cos + W l sin = 0
2
1
; F = W tan .
2

This result can be easily veried by for- N2

mulating the equilibrium conditions for the
acting forces:

: N1 W = 0 ,
N1 = W ,
W


A
F
: N2 F = 0 , N2 = F ,

N1

F = 1 W tan .
l
A : N2 l cos W sin = 0 , 2
2
 Stability 173

Problem 7.2 A crank AC is hinged in F P7.2

A and loosely bolted in C with the rod
BC. At the rods end, the piston in B B
is subjected to the force F . Moreover,
a moment M is acting on the crank.
Determine M () for equilibrium. Ne-
glect the weight of the crank, the rod l
and the piston.

M
r
A

Solution The displacement f of the piston is introduced. Since F is

acting in the opposite direction of f just as M acts against the virtual
rotation , the equilibrium equation (principle of virtual work) reads

U = M F f = 0 .

From the sketch, one obtains

f = r cos + l cos l
f
; f = r sin l sin .
a
The angle needs to be eliminated. Based on
the sketch, it is r
r
a = l sin = r sin ; sin = sin .
l
Dierentiation yields
r r cos
cos ; =
cos = .
l l cos
 
With cos = 1 sin2 = 1 (r/l)2 sin2 , one obtains
 r r cos 
M + F r sin + l sin  2
= 0
l l 1 (r/l) sin
2

or
 r cos 
M = F r sin 1 +  .
l2 r 2 sin2
 174 Principle of Virtual Work

P7.3 Problem 7.3 Determine the ratio

of the load Q and the pulling
force F at the example of a
power pulley
a) in the sketched case F
(3 free pulleys)
b) in the general case
(n free pulleys)?

Solution The load Q is xed at C1 . Under a virtual displacement q

of Q, C1 also rises with q.
The pulley I rotates around A1 , sin-
ce the point A1 is xed by a rope at the
top. Therefore, B1 and, thus, C2 move
II
by 2 q.
C2
Analogous considerations for the A2 B2
2
pulley II (A2 is xed) yield 4 q = 2 q
I F
for the virtual displacement of B2 .
C1 q
The pulley, xed at the top, rotates A1 B1 f
around its center point. Therefore, the
displacement f of the pulling force F
Q
corresponds to the displacement of the
point Bn at the nal pulley.
Following the equilibrium condition

U = Q q + F f = 0 ,

it is found that
a) for 3 free pulleys with f = 23 q = 8 q
Q
= 23 = 8 .
F

b) For n free pulleys one obtains with f = 2n q

Q
= 2n .
F

Remark: This result explains the notion power pulley!

 Stability 175
c
Problem 7.4 The depicted P7.4
a b
balance is constructed such
that the amplitude of Q is in-
F
dependent of the position of d
the weight W on the load arm
AB. W
Q f
Determine the ratio of the di-
mensions b, c, d and f for a A B
given length a as well as the E
relation between Q and W .

Solution In order to full the requirement, the load arm AB must stay
horizontally. Thus,

A = B .
A
According to the sketch, a ro- F
tation of the upper beam with
yields

A = b , B = f .

Both angles are coupled via A B

the displacement of the bar E

EF :
c
F = c = d = E ; = .
d
Therefore, one obtains
c b f
A = b = f = B ; = .
d c d

Q results from the principle of virtual work via

Q q W A = 0

with
q = a

to
b
Q= W.
a
 176 Principle of Virtual Work

P7.5 Problem 7.5 Determine the support reactions in A, B and D for the
illustrated girder with two hinges by using the principle of virtual work.
q1 = 1 kN/m F = 5 kN q2 = 2 kN/m

A B C D
3m 1 1 1 2 4

Solution To obtain the reaction force in B, this support reaction is

introduced as external force and the system is subjected to a kinema-
tically admissible displacement.
I q1 II q2
F

G
qI B

A consideration of both parts of q1 yields

3 1
U = q1 qI dI + q1 qII dII B B = 0 .
0 0

With

B = 1 , qI = I , qII = (1 + II ) ,

it follows that
32  12 
B = q1 + q1 1 + .
2 2
Including the geometrical relation at the hinge,
2
G = 3 = 2 ; = ,
3
leads to
32 2  1
B = q1 + q1 1 + = 4.5 q1
2 3 2
or

B = 4.5 kN .
 Support Reactions 177

2) Using the free-body diagram, the support reaction in A results

q1

A

from the virtual-work equation
 3
U = A A + q1 q1 d = 0
0

and the geometrical relations

q1 = , A = 3

leading to
32 3
3 A + q1 = 0 ; A= q1 = 1.5 kN .
2 2

3) The free-body diagram for the support reaction D yields

3 kN 1 kN 5 kN 8 kN


D

3 1 1 3 4
The following geometrical relations hold:

3 = 1 = ,
;
3 = 1 = 3 .

For the application of the principle of virtual work, the distributed loads
are replaced by their resultant forces. Then, one obtains

3 1.5 + 1 0.5 5 2 + 8 2 D 4 = 0 ,

from which the support reaction yields

1
D= (4.5 + 1.5 10 + 16) = 3 kN .
4

4) The support reaction in C is nally obtained by equilibrium in ver-

tical direction:

C = F + q1 4 + q2 4 A B D = 8 kN .
 178 Principle of Virtual Work

P7.6 Problem 7.6 For the illustrated system, composed of beams and rods,
the force S1 in the rod
1 has to be determined.

q0

1 2q0

a a a a

Solution The resultant forces of the distributed loads are placed in

the respective area centroids, and the system is subjected to a virtual
displacement after rod 1 is cut free.

q0 a

S1
2q0 a 2q0 a
S1

The following geometric relation holds:

2a = a ; = 2 .

The principle of virtual work yields

3 a
U = q0 a a S1 a + S1 2 a 2 q0 a = 0
2 2
or
3
q0 a2 S1 a + 2 a S1 2 q0 a2 2 = 0
2
7 7
; 3 S1 = q0 a ; S1 = q0 a .
2 6

Remark: The vertical distributed load at the lower beam can not be
replaced by one resultant load in the hinge.
 Stress Resultants 179

Problem 7.7 Determine for the depicted beam the function of the in- P7.7
ternal moment between the pins by using the principle of virtual work.

q0
F
A

l a

Solution In order to determine the internal moment M at an arbitrary

position x by means of the prin-
ciple of virtual work, one needs
to introduce a hinge at x and x M F
has to let M acting as an exter-
nal load on the adjacent parts of
the beam. For a virtual displa-
cement, it follows that
x 
lx

U = M M F a + q0 ( ) d + q0 ( ) d = 0.
0 0

With the geometric relation

lx
x = (l x) ; = ,
x
one obtains
   
lx x2 l x (l x)2
M + 1 = F a + q0 + q0 .
x 2 x 2
After some rearrangements, the requested function for the internal mo-
ment is found as
 
x q0 l2  x
M (x) = F a + 1 .
l 2 l

1 a
Obviously, proceeding from the support reaction A = q0 l F and
2 l
1
the equilibrium equation M = A x q0 x2 , the same result for M (x)
2
is found.
 180 Principle of Virtual Work
q
P7.8 Problem 7.8 A frame is sub-
M
jected to a distributed load q C
and a moment M .
Determine the horizontal sup- I II b
port reaction in B by using the
principle of virtual work.
A B

a a

Solution For the determination of the horizontal support reaction BH ,

the horizontal support of the hinge B is released and BH is applied
as an external load. Then, the (now movable) system is subjected to a
virtual displacement.
To obtain the correct displacement gure, the centers of rotation of the
frame components I and II have to be found. For part I, the hinge
in A acts as the center of rotation DPI . For part II, one needs to
nd two possible motion directions of two points at II. The center
of rotation can then be found at the intersection of two lines, which
can be constructed perpendicular to the motion directions of these two
points. In the present case, the motion possibilities of points C (linked
to part I) and B (in horizontal direction) are known. This determines
the center of rotation DPII .
The virtual-work equation reads

U = 2 q a uq M BH uB . DPII

With the geometrical relations

a b
uq = , uB = 2 b , qa qa
2
it follows that M uq
! "
U = q a2 M 2 b BH = 0 .

This yields the horizontal support
reaction BH :

q a2 M DPI BH
BH = .
2b
uB
 Virtual Displacements 181
P1
Problem 7.9 The illustrated system B P7.9
P3
is loaded by the forces P1 , P2 , P3
and the moment M . M II III D
a
Using the principle of virtual work, I
C P2
the value of the force P1 should be A
determined such that the moment a a a
in A vanishes.

Solution In order to obtain the moment in A, the clamped support

is replaced by a hinge and the couple moment MA is introduced as an
external quantity. The now moveable system can be subjected to a vir-
tual displacement. To evaluate the geometrical relations, the displaced
system is constructed.
a
DPII

a 2
P1 2a
P3 DPIII
2
M

MA

DPI P2

a 2a
For the determination of the particular centers of rotation, one pro-
ceeds from beam I. Its center of rotation DPI can be found at point
A. Due to the obtained movement abilities of points B (endpoint of
beam I), C (in horizontal direction) and D (in vertical direction), the
centers of rotation of the beams II and III can be obtained according
to the above sketch. Hence, all virtual displacements can be expressed
in terms of . The equilibrium condition is then given as

U = MA + M + P3 a + P2 2 a P1 2 a = 0 .

Using the constraint MA = 0, one obtains the required force P1 :

M 1
P1 = + P3 + P 2 .
2a 2
 182 Equilibrium

P7.10 Problem 7.10 A homogeneous bar

with weight Q is connected with a
triangular disc (weight W ). Further-
more, the system is hinged in A. a
Q
Calculate all possible equilibrium A
positions and investigate the stabi-
lity of theses equilibrium positions. a W
2
a a
2 2

Solution First, the system is deected by an arbitrary angle , see

sketch.
a
6
a
6 A
C
Q a
2
cos

a
2
sin

W

In consideration of the position of the center of gravity, the potential

energy of the system comparing the non-deected ( = 0) with the
deected system yields
a a   a a 
V =Q sin + cos + W sin cos .
2 2 6 6
Thus, one obtains the equilibrium equation
dV a a
= Q (cos sin ) W (cos sin )
d 2 6
 
a W
= Q (cos sin ) = 0 .
2 3
Following this, the possible equilibrium positions can be calculated:
W W
1) Q =0 ; Q= ,
3 3
1
2) cos sin = 0 ; tan = 1 ; 1 = ,
4
5
2 = .
4
 and Stability 183

For the investigation of the stability, the second derivative and, if ne-
cessary, higher derivatives of V are determined.
In the rst case, the second and all higher derivatives of V are equal
to zero. Following this, the equilibrium for this special weight ratio is
neutral and thus equilibrium is possible in any position (see examples):

In the second case, one obtains

 
d2 V a W
V  = = Q (sin + cos ) .
d2 2 3
Thus, the sign of this term depends on and on the weight ratio.
Finally, one obtains

a) 1 = :
4
W
Q> ; V  (1 ) < 0 ; unstable ,
3
W
Q< ; V  (1 ) > 0 ; stable ,
3
5
b) 2 = :
4
W
Q> ; V  (2 ) > 0 ; stable ,
3
W
Q< ; V  (2 ) < 0 ; unstable .
3

1 2
 184 Equilibrium a z
P7.11 Problem 7.11 For the illus-
trated system, the equilibri-
um position = 0 and
the corresponding limit ca-
ses should be discussed.
Assume that the rolling ra-
dii are negligibly small and W2
that the length l of the rope
b
is given.
W1

Solution Weight forces are conservative forces and accordingly have

a potential character. Using the coordinate z (directed vertically up-
wards), the position of the weights can be determined by the geometry:
a
z1 = b tan ,
2
 a 1   a 
z2 = l 2 = l .
2 cos cos
Thus, the potential energy of the system can be formulated as
 a   a 
V = W1 z1 + W2 z2 = W1 b + tan W2 l = V () .
2 cos
The equilibrium position can be determined by the condition
dV a 1 a sin
=0 ; W1 + W2 =0
d 2 cos2 cos2
yielding
1 W1
sin 0 = .
2 W2

Limit cases:
W1 > 2 W2 ; no possible equilibrium
(because of sin 0 1),
W1 = 2W2 ; 0 = /2, i.e. a = 0 for a
nite length of the rope,
W1 = 0 ; 0 = 0.

Note: The length l of the rope and the distance b have no eect on the
solution.
 and Stability 185

Problem 7.12 A disc (radius r) P7.12

is hinged in its center and is
connected to two weights via a
two rods (length a). A weight Q W
is attached to a rope which is
wrapped around the disc. a r
Calculate all equilibrium positi-
ons and investigate the stability
of these equilibrium positions.
2W Q

Solution Since all active forces are weight forces, the system is conser-
vative. Assuming an unwounded rope length l and specifying the zero
level for = 0, the potential energy of the system for a deection rela-
ted to a certain angle can be computed as follows

V = 2 W a sin + W a sin Q (l r)

or

V = W a sin Q (l r) = V () .

The equilibrium positions result from

dV Qr
=0 : W a cos + Q r = 0 ; cos = .
d Wa

Due to the ambiguity of circular functions, two solutions exist:

Qr
1 = arccos , 2 = 1 .
Wa
The second derivative
d2 V
V  = = W a sin
d2
species the stability at the equilibrium positions. One obtains

V  (1 ) = W a sin 1 > 0 ,

V  (2 ) = W a sin 1 < 0 ,

i.e. the state 1 is stable and the state 2 = 1 is unstable.

Note: Because of cos 1, these solutions only exist for Q r < W a.

In the limit case Q r = W a one obtains cos = 1, i.e. the system is in
equilibrium if the rods are horizontal.
 186 Equilibrium
a

P7.13 Problem 7.13 A straw (weight W ,
length 2a) lies in a hemispherical r
glass with ideally smooth walls. W
Calculate the equilibrium position
= 0 and investigate its stability.

Solution Specifying the zero level to lie on the edge of the glass and
using the coordinate z (directed vertically downward), the distance to
the center of gravity of the straw can be determined as follows:

z = r sin 2 a sin .

Thus, the potential energy of the system can

be calculated as
M
C
V (z) = W z = W (r sin 2 a sin ) . z

Using the equilibrium condition, one obtains
dV
V = = W (2r cos 2 + a cos ) = 0 .
d
Furthermore, using cos 2 = 2 cos2 1, the equilibrium state follows

4 r cos2 a cos 2 r = 0

or

a+ a2 + 32 r 2
cos 0 = ,
8r

where only angles > 0 are useful. With the second derivative

V  = W (4 r sin 2 a sin ) = W (8 r cos a) sin

of the potential energy of the system and by inserting 0 , one obtains


V  (0 ) = W a2 + 32 r 2 sin 0 .

The equilibrium is stable since this expression is positive for 0 < 0 <
/2.
 and Stability 187

Problem 7.14 A disc (radius a) is hinged P7.14

in its center and has two circular holes (ra-
dii r1 and r2 ) each at a distance of b from
b
the hinge.
Calculate the equilibrium positions and
120 r
investigate the stability
at these equilibri- r1 2
um positions for r1 = 2 r2 .

Solution Since the disc without the holes is in equilibrium in any posi-
tion, only the inuence of the two holes needs to be taken into account.
Therefore, the holes are considered as negative weights which must
be added to the disc. Specifying the hinge as zero level, the potential
energy of the system can be formulated as

V = W1 b sin + W2 sin(180o 120o ) = V () .

The states of equilibrium result from

V  = W1 b cos W2 b cos(60o ) = 0 .

With the weights

W1 = r12 g = 2r22 g , W2 = r22 g

one obtains
V  = r22 g[2 cos cos(60o )] = 0

and thus

1 3
2 cos cos sin = 0 ; tan = 3
2 2
; 1 = 60o , 2 = 240o .

The second derivative

V  = W1 b sin W2 b sin(60o )

species the stability at the equilibrium position yielding

3
V  (1 ) = W1 b < 0 ; unstable ,
2
3
V  (2 ) = +W1 b > 0 ; stable .
2

Note: Since the center of gravity of the perforated disc is located above
the support for 1 and below the support for 2 , the statement about
the stability is well illustrated.
 188 Equilibrium

P7.15 Problem 7.15 A rod with weight W

is leaned against a vertical, smooth
wall. The lower end of the rod rests
on the smooth ground and is suppor-
ted by a rope (length L), which is
loaded with a weight Q. l
How heavy does the weight Q have W
to be for a given angle to ensure
that the system remains in position?
Is this equilibrium position stable?

Solution Compared to the ground, the potential energy of the system

is obtained by

l
V =W sin Q (L l cos ) .
2
The equilibrium equation
dV l
= W cos Ql sin = 0
d 2
yields the required weight Q:
cot
Q=W .
2

From the second derivative

d2 V l
= W sin Q l cos ,
d2 2
it follows by inserting the required weight Q:
d2 V l l Wl
= W sin W cot cos = .
d2 2 2 2 sin
Thus, the equilibrium position is unstable for an angle

0 .
2
Note: The length L of the rope has no eect on the solution.
 and Stability 189
F
Problem 7.16 A system consis- P7.16
ting of rigid, weightless beams, a
spring (stiness k) and a torsion k
spring (stiness kT ) is in equili-
brium in the depicted position. l
Calculate the critical load Fcrit
for which the system becomes kT
unstable.
l l

Solution Deecting the system

y
to a certain angle , the potential F
energy of the system consists of
the potentials VF of the load,
Vk of the spring and VkT of the
torsion spring: h
V = VF + Vk + Vk
T x
1 1
= F h + k x2F + kT (2)2
2 2
1 xF
= F l cos + k (l sin )2
2
1 1
+ kT (2 ) = F l cos + k l2 sin2 + 2 kT 2 .
2
2 2
The equilibrium positions result from
dV
= F l sin + k l2 sin cos + 4 kT = 0 .
d
Besides the equilibrium position = 0, further equilibrium positions
can be determined numerically from the transcendental equation, if re-
quired. Using the second derivative
d2 V
= F l cos + k l2 cos 2 + 4 kT
d2
of the potential energy, one obtains for the position = 0

d2 V 
= F l + k l2 + 4 kT .
d2 =0

If the second derivative is negative, this position becomes unstable. Fol-

lowing this, the critical load can be determined from V  = 0 such that
kT
Fcrit = k l + 4 .
l
 190 Equilibrium

P7.17 Problem 7.17 A homogeneous trian-

gular plate with weight W hangs
k
on two rope drums (radius r). The A B
drums are connected with each other r r
by gearwheels (radius R). A spring
(stiness k), unstretched for = 0, R R
is connected in A and B.
Calculate the angle for which the
system is in equilibrium assuming W
W r/k R2 = 1. Increasing W r/k R2 ,
what ratio limits the domain of equi-
librium?

Solution Deecting the system to a certain angle , the spring is stret-

ched by xk = 2R sin and the triangular disc is moved downwards by
xW = r. Following this, the potential energy of the system can be
determined as follows:
1 1
V = k x2k W xW = k (2R)2 sin2 W r .
2 2
Using the equilibrium equation
dV 1
= k (2R)2 2 sin cos W r = 0 ,
d 2
one obtains
Wr
sin 2 = .
2 k R2
The equilibrium positions can be determined inserting the given nume-
rical values yielding
1
sin 2 = ; 1 = 15 , 2 = 75 , 3 = 195 , 4 = 255 .
2
From the second derivative
d2 V
V  = = 4 k R2 cos 2 ,
d2
for stability at the equilibrium positions follows

V  (1 ) > 0 stable , V  (2 ) < 0 unstable ,

V  (3 ) > 0 stable , V  (4 ) < 0 unstable .

Because of sin 2 1, equilibrium is only possible if W r/k R2 2.

 and Stability 191

Problem 7.18 An isosceles triangle P7.18

with constant thickness t made of
aluminium (density al ) is attached al
g
to a semicircular disc with the same
thickness made of copper (density h
co ).

Determine the maximum height h of r

co
the triangle to ensure that the system
returns to its initial position after a
deection of || 90 .

Solution Introducing a distance a between the overall center of gravity

C and the center of the semicircle, the potential energy of the system
for an arbitrary position (90 90 ) yields

V = (Wco + Wal ) a (1 cos ) ,

where the weight of the semicircular plate can be calculated as

r2
Wco = g mco , mco = co t .
2 W
The weight of the triangular disc is C
a
Wal = g mal , mal = al g t r h . z
The equilibrium positions result from
dV
=0 ; (Wco + Wal ) a sin = 0 .
d
Following this, only = 0 provides an equilibrium position. This
equilibrium state is stable for

d2 V 
> 0 ; (Wco + Wal ) a > 0 .
d2 

This condition is fullled, when a < 0, i.e. the overall center of gravity
must be below the center of the semicircle:
mco zco + mal zal
zC = >0 ; mco zco > mal zal .
mco + mal
4 h
Using the centers of gravity zco = r and zal = , one obtains
3 3

r2 4 h co
co t r > al t r h ; h<r 2 .
2 3 3 al
Chapter 8
Static and Kinetic Friction
8
194 Static and Kinetic

Static Friction
F
Based on the surface roughness, a W
body remains in equilibrium until
the static friction force H is smaller
than the limit force H0 . H0 is pro- W
portional to the normal force N . F

H
|H| < H0 , H0 = 0 N
N

0 = coecient of static friction.

The static friction force is a reaction force. In a statically determinate
system, it can be determined from the equilibrium conditions.
Static friction angle: For the direction of the resultant of N and H0
(limiting friction), it follows that
H0
tan 0 = 0 = , 0 = static friction angle .
N

Kinetic Friction
As a result of surface roughness, a direction of motion
moving body is aected by the ki- F
netic friction force R. The kinetic W
friction force is an active force. It
is proportional to the normal force W
N (Coulombs friction law): F

R = N R
N

= coecient of kinetic friction.

Kinetic friction angle: For the direction of the resultant of N and
R, it follows that
R
tan  = = ,  = kinetic friction angle .
N
 Friction 195

Problem Types:
1. Static friction: H < 0 N

2. Limiting friction: H = 0 N

3. Kinetic friction: R = N

Remarks:

The static friction force applies in the contact area of the bodies.
The direction of the static friction force is opposite to the direction
of relative motion (that would occur if it would not be hindered by
static friction).
The magnitude of the static friction force is independent of the con-
tact area.
In case of static friction, the resultant of N and H is located inside
of the static friction cone with the opening angle 0 ( < 0 ).
The coecient of static friction is generally larger than the coe-
cient of kinetic friction.
Coecients of static and kinetic friction (approximate values) for
dry materials:

material 0
steel on steel 0.15 - 0.5 0.1 - 0.4
steel on teon 0.04 0.04
wood on wood 0.5 0.3
leather on metal 0.4 0.3
car tyres on streets 0.7 - 0.9 0.5 - 0.8

Static and Kinetic Belt Friction: S2

static belt friction: S1 S2 e0

kinetic belt friction: S1 = S2 e S1 > S2

S1
 196 Static Friction

P8.1 Problem 8.1 A block with weight W F

W
is resting on a rough inclined plane. 0

Specify the range of the external force
F for which the block stays at rest.

Solution From the equilibrium conditions W

F H
: F cos W sin H = 0 ,

: F sin W cos + N = 0 , N

the static friction force and the normal force can be determined:

H = F cos W sin , N = F sin + W cos .

An upward movement is prevented if

H < 0 N .

This condition is fullled, when

sin + 0 cos
F <W .
cos 0 sin
Using the addition theorems and inserting 0 = tan 0 , one obtains

F < W tan( + 0 ) .

To prevent a downward movement, the direction of H has to be reversed.

Following this, the static friction condition can be formulated as

H < 0 N

yielding
sin 0 cos
F >W ; F > W tan( 0 ) .
cos + 0 sin
Thus, one obtains
F
tan( 0 ) < < tan( + 0 ) .
W

Note: The two static friction conditions can be summarized as

follows: |H| < 0 N .
 Static Friction 197

Problem 8.2 A cylindrical roller with P8.2

weight W is resting on an inclined pla-
ne (slope angle ).
W
Specify the external force F and the
coecient of static friction 0 such 0
that the roller stays at rest.
F

Solution Using the equilibrium conditions

: N (W + F ) cos = 0 ,
W r
: H (W + F ) sin = 0 , A

A: F r Hr = 0 H F

and the static friction condition N
H < 0 N ,

one obtains
sin
F =W , 0 > tan .
1 sin

Problem 8.3 How large does the force F have P8.3

to be in order to ensure that the cylindrical F
roller with weight W is set in motion, assuming
that the coecient of static friction 0 is the 0 W
same at both contact points?
0
Solution Using the equilibrium conditions
: N2 H1 = 0 , F
N2 W
: N1 + H2 + F W = 0 , A
r

A: H1 r + H2 r F r = 0
H2 H1
and the static friction conditions N1
H1 = 0 N1 , H2 = 0 N2

one obtains
0 (1 + 0 )
F =W .
1 + 0 + 220

Remarks: - The system is statically indeterminate.

- The forces H1 and H2 are oriented in the opposite
direction of the incipient motion.
 198 Static Friction

P8.4 Problem 8.4 An eccentric device

with dimensions l and r is incli-
ned by an angle and is loaded F
with an applied force F . l

Determine the required value of
the eccentricity e such that the r
normal force N acts at the con- e 0
tact point B for a given coecient
of static friction 0 . B

Solution The free-body diagram of the system results in:

AV
AH C
C e
A
B
A
H
N
Using the equilibrium conditions

: AH + H + F sin = 0 ,

: AV + N F cos = 0 ,

C : F (l e) AH e sin AV e cos Hr = 0
and eliminating AH and AV , one obtains
F l N e cos
H= .
r e sin
Furthermore, using the static friction condition

|H| < 0 N ,

it follows that

F l N e cos < 0 N (r e sin ) .

This yields the eccentricity e:

F
0 r
l
e> N .
cos 0 sin
 Static Friction 199

Problem 8.5 A wedge with weight P8.5

W1 and inclination angle is res- S
ting on a horizontal plane. A cylin-
drical roller with weight W2 lies on
the wedge and is held by a rope S. W2

Determine the required values of 02

W1
the coecients of static friction 01
(between the wedge and the plane)
and 02 (between the roller and the 01
wedge) in order to prevent slipping.

Solution From the equilibrium conditions for the roller

: S + H2 cos N2 sin = 0 , S
r
: W2 + H2 sin + N2 cos = 0 , A W
2
H2

A: S r H2 r = 0 N2
and the wedge H2
N2
: W1 + N1 H2 sin N2 cos = 0 , W1

: H1 H2 cos + N2 sin = 0 ,
H1
N1
the forces at the contact points are determined as
sin
N2 = W2 , H2 = W2 ,
1 + cos
sin
N1 = W1 + W2 , H1 = W2 .
1 + cos
Using the static friction conditions

H1 < 01 N1 , H2 < 02 N2 ,

one obtains the required values of the coecients of static friction

W2 sin sin
01 > , 02 > .
(W1 + W2 )(1 + cos ) 1 + cos
 200 Static Friction

P8.6 Problem 8.6 A block with weight W2

is resting on a smooth inclined plane
and is held by a rope. A rough wedge
is pushed between the block and the
plane (coecient of static friction 0 ).
a) Calculate the required rope force S 0
and the normal force N1 between the W2
W1
plane and the wedge.
b) Determine the necessary value of smooth
the coecient of static friction 0 such
that the system stays at rest.

Solution a) The equilibrium conditions for the overall system yield

: S = (W1 + W2 ) sin ,
S

: N1 = (W1 + W2 ) cos . W2

b) Using the equilibrium conditions for W1

the wedge N1
N2
: H2 W1 sin 2 + N1 sin = 0 ,
H2
: N2 W1 cos 2 + N1 cos = 0
W1
and inserting the normal force N1 , one obtains N1
1
H2 = W1 sin 2 (W1 + W2 ) sin cos = (W1 W2 ) sin 2 ,
2
1 1
N2 = (W1 + W2 ) cos2 W1 cos 2 = (W1 + W2 ) (W1 W2 ) cos 2.
2 2
Furthermore, using the static friction condition

|H2 | < 0 N2 ,

the necessary value of the coecient of static friction follows as

|W1 W2 | sin 2
0 > .
W1 + W2 (W1 W2 ) cos 2

Note: Depending on the values of W1 , W2 and , the wedge moves

downwards or upwards in case of a violation of this condition.
 Static Friction 201

Problem 8.7 A block (weight W2 ) P8.7

is clamped between two cylinders 0
0
with the weight W1 resting on incli-
ned planes (slope angle ). All sur- W1 W1
faces are rough (coecient of static
friction 0 ).
W2
Find the required value of W2 in
order to prevent slipping.

Solution Using the equilibrium conditions for the block

: 2H2 W2 = 0
W2
and for one cylinder N2 N2

: N1 cos H2 H1 sin W1 = 0 , H2 H2

: N1 sin + H1 cos N2 = 0 ,
 W1
A : H2 r H1 r = 0 , H2
H1
one obtains r N2
W2 N1
H1 = H2 = ,
2
W2 (1 + sin ) + 2W1
N1 = ,
2 cos
W2 (1 + sin ) + 2W1 sin
N2 = .
2 cos
Furthermore, using the static friction conditions

H1 < 0 N1 , H2 < 0 N2 ,

it follows that
20 20 sin
W2 < W1 , W2 < W1 .
cos 0 (1 + sin ) cos 0 (1 + sin )
With sin 1, one obtains
20 sin
W2 < W1 .
cos 0 (1 + sin )

Note: If 0 = cos /(1 + sin ), the right term is tending to innity.

Thus for 0 > cos /(1 + sin ), the system is self-locking.
 202 Static Friction

P8.8 Problem 8.8 A rod (length l, weight

Q) is supported in A and is leaned
against a cylindrical roller (weight
W , radius r) at an angle of . l 02
Determine the required values of the r
coecients of static friction 01 and Q W
02 in order to keep the system in 01
equilibrium.
A

Solution Using the equilibrium conditions for the roller

: H1 + N2 sin H2 cos = 0 ,
: N1 W N2 cos H2 sin = 0 ,
cot
2
 r
r
B : H1 r H2 r = 0
r
and for the rod
/2
 l
A : Q cos N2 r cot = 0 ,
2 2 H2
one obtains N2
l cos Q
N1 = W + Q , H2
2r cot (/2) A N2
AH
l cos
N2 = Q , AV B
2r cot (/2)
W
l sin cos
H1 = H2 = Q .
2r cot (/2) (1 + cos ) H1
N1
Furthermore, using the static friction conditions

H1 < 01 N1 , H2 < 02 N2 ,

it follows with
1 + cos
cot =
2 sin
that
1
01 > , 02 > tan(/2) .
W 2r cot2 (/2)
+ cot (/2)
Q l cos
 Static Friction 203

Problem 8.9 A block is clamped P8.9

between a rod with weight WH and a
wall. Block and wann have rough sur-
faces. The coecients of static friction W
01 and 02 at the two points of con- l
01
tact are given. 02
WH
Determine the weight W of the block
in order to prevent slipping.

Solution Using the equilibrium conditions for the rod and for the block
 l
A: N1 l sin H1 l cos WH cos = 0 ,
2 N1 W N2
: H1 + H2 W = 0 , N1
: N1 N2 = 0 , H1 H1 H2
A
the static friction conditions WH

H1 < 01 N1 , H2 < 02 N2

and the assumption that 01 < tan , one determines after eliminating
H1 , H2 and N2 the two inequalities
WH 2W + WH
N1 < , < N1 .
2(tan 01 ) 2(tan + 02 )
Thus, it follows that
2W + WH WH
<
2(tan + 02 ) 2(tan 01 )
or
WH 01 + 02
W < .
2 tan 01

Remarks:
If 01 = tan , the denominator becomes zero. Following this, W
can be increased as required. Generally, the system is self-locking
for 01 tan independently from WH .
The system is statically indeterminate. Thus, the forces Hi and Ni
can not be determined.
Assuming the limiting friction case with H1 = 01 N1 and H2 =
02 N2 , the <-sign needs to be replaced by the =-sign in the
nal result.
 204 Static Friction

P8.10 Problem 8.10 A homogeneous cu- a

boid with weight W is resting on a
rough inclined plane.
Determine the required values of F b
the applied force F and the coe- W
cient of static friction 0 such that
the cuboid moves in form of slip-
ping or tilting. 0

Solution From the equilibrium conditions

1
2
(a cos b sin )
: H F W sin = 0 , F

W
: N W cos = 0 ,
 W A
A: (a cos b sin ) F b N c = 0 , Hc N
2
the forces in the contact surface and the position of N can be determi-
ned:
1 Fb
H = F + W sin , N = W cos , c= (a b tan ) .
2 W cos
In order to cause slipping, the following must apply:

H = H0 = 0 N , c > 0.

This yields
1 a
F = W (0 cos sin ) , 0 < ( + tan ) .
2 b

In order to cause tilting around the point A, the following must hold:

c = 0, H < 0 N .

Thus, one obtains

a cos b sin 1 a
F =W , 0 > ( + tan ) .
2b 2 b

Hence tilting is only caused in case of a suciently rough plane.

 Static Friction 205

Problem 8.11 Two cubes and a cylindri- P8.11

cal roller each with weight W are resting
between two inclined planes. The coe- 2a
cient of static friction is 0 on all contact
surfaces. W W
Determine the required force F needed to W F
pull the roller upwards. What is the ma-
gnitude of 0 to prevent the cubes from = 45 = 45
tilting?

Solution Considering the symmetry

and using sin = cos = 2/2, the H1
equilibrium conditions can be deter- B W 2
mined as N1
N2 A N1
2 2
1 : F W 2 N1 2 H1 = 0 , b H2 F
2 2 H W
H1
2 2 2 2 1
2 : N2 + H2 + H1 N1 = 0 , 1
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
: N2 H2 + H1 + N1 W = 0 ,
2 2 2 2

A : N2 b N1 a = 0 .
In order to overcome the friction, the following must hold:

H1 = 0 N1 , H2 = 0 N2 .

Thus, one obtains from the rst three equilibrium conditions

1 + 0 + 20
F = 2W .
1 + 20

From the fourth equilibrium condition, it follows that

1 + 0
b=a .
1 0
In order to prevent tilting around point B, the following must hold:
b < 2a .

This leads to
1 + 0 1
<2 ; 0 < .
1 0 3

Note: Pulling the roller upwards, the contact forces between the roller
and the inclined planes disappear. The orientation of the static fric-
tion forces must be plotted correctly (in the opposite direction of the
beginning motion).
 206 Static Friction

P8.12 Problem 8.12 Determine the re-

quired value of the coecient of a
static friction 0 such that the load F
W can be held by the stone pin- b
cers.
c

W
e 0
f
Solution Using the equilibrium
conditions for the overall system

: F W = 0, SH FS
S
for the point A SV SV SV

: F 2SV = 0 , 2 SH A S H
K
for the body
1 C
H H
: 2H W = 0 N
1 W
N N
and for the body
2 H


C : N d + H(f e) SV (f a) SH (b + c) = 0 ,

one obtains with

SH a
=
SV b
for the forces H and N :
W W ac + be
H= , N= .
2 2 bd
Furthermore, using the static friction condition

H < 0 N ,

it follows that
bd
0 > .
ac + be
 Static Friction 207

Problem 8.13 A climbing iron c a P8.13

is clamped onto a pole and is
0
subjected to the force F .
F
Determine the required value of
b
0 in order to prevent the clim-
bing iron from slipping.
0

Solution Using the equilibrium conditions

: N2 N1 = 0 , H1
N1
: H1 + H2 F = 0 , F
 A
N2
A: F a + H1 c N1 b = 0 ,
yields H2

b a a b
N2 = N1 , H1 = N1 F , H2 = F (1 + ) N1 .
c c c c
From the static friction conditions

H1 < 0 N1 , H2 < 0 N2 ,

one derives
b c0 b + c0
N1 <F and F < N1
a c+a
or
b c0 b + c0
< .
a c+a
Solving the equation for 0 , the required value of the coecient of static
friction follows
b
0 > .
c + 2a

Remarks:
As the system is statically indeterminate, the forces N1 , N2 , H1 and
H2 cannot be determined.
Alternatively, one can also solve the problem by discussing the li-
miting friction case. Then, the inequality is replaced by an equation
and the determined value 0 corresponds to the lower limit of the
coecient of static friction.
 208 Static Friction

P8.14 Problem 8.14 A rod, length l and

weight W , is leaned against a
rough wall at an angle of . The
lower end of the rod is supported l 01
by a rope which is wrapped around W
a rough pin.
Specify the range of the applied 02
force F such that the system is in
equilibrium. F

Solution Using the equilibrium conditions

A
N2
: S N2 = 0 , W
H2
: N1 + H2 W = 0 ,

l
2
 l
A: N1 l cos Sl sin W cos = 0 , S
2
yields S
N1
F
W
H2 = S tan , N2 = S .
2
Furthermore, using the static friction condition

|H2 | < 01 N2 ,

it follows that
W W
S tan < 01 S or + S tan < 01 S
2 2
depending on the orientation of H2 . Therefore, one obtains
W W
< S < .
2 (tan + 01 ) 2 (tan 01 )
Belt friction at the pin may occur if

S e02 /2 < F < S e+02 /2 .

Inserting the lower (upper) bound of S in the left (right) term, it follows
that
e02 /2 F e+02 /2
< < .
2 (tan + 01 ) W 2 (tan 01 )
 Static Friction 209

Problem 8.15 A block with weight W is P8.15

supported by a rope. The coecient of W 0
F
static friction 0 between the surface
and the block or the rope is given.
Specify the limits of the force F such
that the block stays at rest.

Solution The equilibrium conditions

: N W cos = 0 ,
F
0
: H + S W sin = 0 , W
S
lead to S

N = W cos , H = W sin S . N
H
Furthermore, using the static friction condition

|H| < 0 N ,

yields
W (sin 0 cos ) < S < W (sin + 0 cos ) .

With the static friction condition for the rope

Se0 < F < Se0 ,

one obtains
F
e0 (sin 0 cos ) < < e0 (sin + 0 cos ) .
W

Problem 8.16 Determine the maximum over- P8.16

hang x of the heavy rope with total length l 0
x
in order to prevent slipping.

Solution The equilibrium conditions lead to

lx x W lx
N =W , H=S=W . l
l l
H S S
Inserting these relations in the static friction
N
condition H < 0 N , it follows that
x 0
< .
l 1 + 0
Wx
l
 210 Static and Kinetic

P8.17 Problem 8.17 A block with weight W can a

move vertically between two smooth walls.
It is held by a rope which passes around
three xed rough pins. 45

Determine the minimum for the force F , b 0

such that the block does not slide. Fur- G
thermore, nd the forces which are exerted 45
from the walls onto the block.
F c
Solution Using the equilibrium conditions
S3
: S3 W F = 0 ,
N2
: N1 N2 = 0 , S2
 G
A: W 12 a + F c S3 c N2 b = 0 S1
A
and the static friction conditions
N1
F
S1 < F e0 /4 , S2 < S1 e0 /2 , S3 < S2 e0 /4 ,

one obtains
W a 2c
F > , N1 = N2 = W .
e0 1 2b

2
P8.18 Problem 8.18 Determine the required
value of the force F such that the block W
with weight W can be raised with uni-
1
form velocity assuming that the plane F
and the curved surface are rough.

Solution Using the equilibrium conditions

: N W cos = 0 ,

S + 2
: S R W sin = 0 W

and the static friction conditions S F

2 (+/2)
R = 1 N , F = Se , N
R
one obtains

F = W e2 (+/2) (sin + 1 cos ) .

 Friction 211

Problem 8.19 A braking torque MB P8.19

is applied to a rotating shaft by a
band break. Determine the magnitu- r
de of the applied force F for a given
coecient of kinetic friction , when F
the shaft is rotating
a) clockwise or A
b) counterclockwise. l

Solution Using the equilibrium

condition for the lever

A : S2 2r + F l = 0 ,
yields
l S1 S2
S2 = F .
2r S1 S2 F
For a clockwise rotation, the kinetic
friction condition results in
S1 = S2 e , A

and the breaking moment can be calculated as

MB = S1 r S2 r = S2 r (e 1) .

Further using the result of S2 , one obtains

2MB
FR = .
l (e 1)

For a counterclockwise rotation, the kinetic friction condition results in

S2 = S1 e

and the breaking moment can be calculated as

MB = S2 r S1 r = S2 r (1 e ) .

Inserting the result of S2 , one obtains

2MB e
FL = .
l (e 1)

Note: Due to e > 1, FL > FR holds for the same value of MB .

 212 Kinetic

P8.20 Problem 8.20 A block with weight

W should be raised with uniform ve- W
locity by pushing a weightless wedge
forward.
2
Determine the required value of the 2 l
force F assuming a coecient of ki-
netic friction 1 in the contact are- F 1 a
as of the wedge and a coecient
of kinetic friction 2 at the contact
points of the rod. 1

Solution Using the equilibrium conditions for the wedge and the rod

1 :
F R1 R2 cos N2 sin = 0 ,
W
N4
: N1 N2 cos + R2 sin = 0 ,
2
R4
2 : N2 sin + R2 cos N3 + N4 = 0 , R3

N3
: N2 cos R2 sin R3 R4 W = 0 , A
N2 R2
R2
 F
A: N3 a + N4 (l + a) = 0 1 N2

and the kinetic friction conditions R1 N1

R1 = 1 N1 , R2 = 1 N2 , R3 = 2 N3 , R4 = 2 N4 ,

one obtains the required force by solving the system of equations for
F , such that
1 (cos 1 sin ) + (sin + 1 cos )
F =W .
l + 2a
(cos 1 sin ) 2 (sin + 1 cos )
l

Remarks:
The kinetic friction forces are oriented in the opposite direction of
the motion.
If the denominator tends towards zero (F ), the system is
self-locking.
 Friction 213

Problem 8.21 A body with weight P8.21

W is resting on a rough inclined pla-
ne. A force F is applied to the body W
through a rope at an angle (paral-
lel to the inclined plane).

Specify the required value of the co- 0

ecient of static friction 0 such F
that the system stays at rest.

Solution At rst, a suitable coordi-

nate system is introduced. The free Hy
body diagram shows the acting
forces, which have to full the equi- F
librium conditions Hx
 z
Fx = 0 : Hx F cos = 0 , y
x

 W
Fy = 0 : Hy + F sin W sin = 0 , N

Fz = 0 : N W cos = 0 .

Therein, Hx and Hy characterize

the static friction force H. One nds
for H and N
 
|H| = Hx2 + Hy2 = F 2 2F W sin sin + W 2 sin2 ,

N = W cos .

Inserting into the static friction condition

|H|
|H| < 0 N resp. 0 >
N
yields the required value of 0 :

F 2 2F W sin sin + W 2 sin2
0 > .
W cos
 214 Kinetic

P8.22 Problem 8.22 A rigid body (weight

W ) rests eccentrically on two rails
a
and is subjected to forces at one
end. The body can slide in B in x- z y a
l/4
direction.
x Fz
Determine the maximum force for Fy
that the body stays at rest. 0
A W
Given: Fx = Fy = Fz = F , a = l, 0 Fx
0 = 2/3. l B

Solution The reaction forces at the supports can be determined by

using the equilibrium conditions
Ax = F ,
W
3 7 Ax F
Ay = F , By = F , F
4 4 Az
Ay
W 3 3 7 F
Az = + F, Bz = W F. By Bz
4 4 4 4
The normal forces and the static friction forces at A and B read

W 3 5
NA = Az = + F, HA = A2x + A2y = F ,
4 4 4
3 7 7
NB = Bz = W F, HB = |By | = F.
4 4 4
When a motion is considered at A, the limiting friction condition yields
0 2
HA = 0 NA ; F1 = W = W.
5 30 9
In case of a motion at B, one obtains
30 6
HB = 0 NB ; F2 = W = W.
7(1 + 0 ) 35

Since F1 > F2 , the motion initiated at B in case F exceeds the critical

force F2 .
 Friction 215

Problem 8.23 A rope is clamped by P8.23

two clamping jaws, which are xed 0
by two hinged supports in A and B.
A force of magnitude F is applied to
the rope. h
Determine A B
r r
a) the reaction forces in A and B, and
b) the coecient of static friction 0 ,
such that there is no slipping. F

Solution a) Draw the free-body diagram:

H H
N N
AH BH
H H
AV BV

F
The reaction forces can be determined by evaluating the equilibrium
conditions for the subsystems.

F
Rope : 2H F = 0 ; H=
2

The equilibrium conditions at the left clamping jaw yield

 r r
A : N h Hr = 0 ; N= H= F,
h 2h
1
: AV H = 0 ; AV = F ,
2
r
: AH N = 0 ; AH = F.
2h

Since the overall system is symmetric, one nds BH = AH and BV =

AV .
b) As long as the condition |H| < 0 |N | is fullled, slipping does not
occur:
F r h
< 0 F ; 0 > .
2 2h r

This result is valid for any F . Hence, the system is self-locking.

Chapter 9
Moments of Inertia
9
218 Moments of Inertia

Moments of Inertia are used in beam theories (cf. Volume 2). Mo-
ments of second order of an area A, as for example of a cross sectional
area of a beam, are dened as follows:


Iy = z 2 dA

A
A
Iz = y 2 dA y
z r
A

Iyz = Izy = yzdA dA y
A

Ip = Iy + Iz = r 2 dA z
A

Iy , Iz : rectangular moments of inertia with respect to the y- or z-axis, respe

Iyz : products of inertia (centrifugal moments),
Ip : polar moment of inertia.

Note: Moments of inertia depend on the position of the coordinate ori-

gin and the orientation of its axes

Radii of gyration: = distance rg of the area A, from which by

multiplication with A one recovers the moment of inertia:

2 2 2
Iy = rgy A, Iz = rgz A, Ip = rgp A.

Parallel-Axis Theorem (Steiners Theorem)

y
2
Iy = Iy + zC A,
zC
2
Iz = Iz + yC A, y C
yC
Iyz = Iyz yC zC A .
z
C = area centroid,
y, z = centroidal axes. z
 Moments of Inertia 219

Rotation of the Coordinate System (transformation equations)

Iy + Iz Iy Iz
I = + cos 2 + Iyz sin 2 ,
2 2 C
y
Iy + Iz Iy Iz
I = cos 2 Iyz sin 2 ,
2 2
Iy Iz
I = sin 2 + Iyz cos 2 .
2 z

Principal Moments of Inertia: For each area, there exists a system

of axes perpendicular to each other (principal axes), for which I and
I assume extreme values (principal moments of inertia) and the pro-
ducts of inertia I vanish.

Principal Moments of Inertia:

 2
Iy + Iz Iy Iz
I1,2 = 2 .
+ Iyz
2 2

Directions of Principal Axes:

2Iyz
tan 2 = .
Iy Iz

Remarks:
In case of symmetric areas, the axis of symmetry and the axis per-
pendicular to the axis of symmetry are principal axes.
Moments of inertia are coecients of a tensor (moment of inertia
tensor).
Plotting the pairs (I , I ) or (I , I ), respectively, for all possi-
ble angles in a coordinate system (abscissa = rectangular moment
of inertia, ordinate = product of inertia), one obtains the circle of
inertia. The construction of the circle of inertia is performed ana-
logously to Mohrs stress circle (cf. Volume 2).
2
The quantities I + I = Ip and I I I are invariants,
meaning that they are independent of the angle .
220 Moments of Inertia

Rectangle

b b h3 3
Iy = , rgy = h,
12 6
3
C hb 3
h Iz = , rgz = b,
y 12 6
Iyz = 0 ,
bh 2
z Ip = Iy + Iz = (h + b2 ) .
12

Square

a4 3
Iy = Iz = , rgy = rgz = a,
a 12 6
y a4
Ip = .
z 6

Circle
r4 d4 r
r Iy = Iz = = , rgy = rgz = ,
d 4 64 2
y
r4 d4 2
Ip = = , rgp = r.
2 32 2
z

(Thin-walled)
Circular Ring

4 1
Iy = Iz = (ra ri4 ) , rgy = rgz = ra2 + ri2 ,
4  2
ra
2
t Ip = 2 Iy , rgp = ra2 + ri2 ,
y rm ri 2
with t = ra ri and rm = (ra + ri )/2 follows
z for the thin-walled prole (t  rm )
3 2
Iy = Iz rm t , rgy = rgz rm .
2

Isosceles
Triangle
b h3 h
h Iy = , rgy = ,
C 36 3 2
3
y hb b
Iz = , rgz = .
b 48 2 6
z
 Moments of Inertia 221

Problem 9.1 Determine for a quadrant P9.1

with radius a: y

a) Iy, Iz, Iyz C

y a
b) Iy , Iz , Iyz ({y,z}: centroidal axes)
c) the direction of the principal axes,
d) the principal moments of inertia.

z z

Solution a) It is convenient to use polar coordinates. With the die-

rential area element in polar coordinates

dA = rdrd , y r cos

the solution reads r sin
 
/2a
dA r
2
Iz = y dA = (r 2 cos2 )rdrd
A
0 0
a rd
r 4   1 /2 a4 dr
=  + sin 2  = , z
4 0 2 4 0 16
Iy = Iz (symmetry !) ,

/2a
a4 1 a4
Iyz = (r cos )(r sin ) r dr d = = .
4 2 8
0 0

b) Applying the parallel-axis theorem with yC = zC = 4a/3 (cf. Cen-

ter of Gravity, pp. 32), one nds
2 a 4  4 a 2 a 2  4  4
Iy = Iz = Iy zC A= = a ,
16 3 4 16 9
 1 4 
Iyz = Iyz + yC zC A = + a4 .
8 9 y C
c) Symmetry leads to

1 = /4 ; 2 = 1 + /2 = 3 /4
z
d) With Iy = Iz one can nd the principal moments of inertia
 1 4
I1 = Iy + Iyz = a ,
16 8
 8 1 4
I2 = Iy Iyz = + a .
16 9 8
 222 Moments of Inertia
b
P9.2 Problem 9.2 Determine for a right-
angled triangle the moments of in-
y
ertia Iy , Iz , Iyz .
h

Solution The crucial step is the choice of a convenient area element.

Three dierent possibilities are examined for Iy .
1st approach: Area element dA (width y, height dz) with distance z to
the y-axis.
 z y
dA = y dz , y =b 1 ,
h y dz
  h  dA
z
Iy = z 2 dA = z 2 (y dz) = z 2 b 1 dz
h
0
 z3 
z 4  b h3
h
= b  = . z
3 4h 0 12

2nd approach: Summation (= Integration) of the moment of

inertia of innitesimal rectangles
(height z, width dy).

b dA
dA = z dy , dy = dz .
h z/2
Since the centroidal axis of the area
element dA does not coincide with
the y-axis, the parallel-axis theorem
dy
needs to be applied. With
dy z 3  z 2 1
dIy = + z dy = z 3 dy ,
12 2 3
one obtains by integration
b 0 0
b b z 4  b h3
Iy = dIy = z 3 dz = =
3h 3 h 4 h 12
0 h

(as y is integrated from 0 to b, z needs to be integrated from h to 0!).

 Moments of Inertia 223

3rd approach: Consider the area ele-

ment dA (width dy, height dz) with
the distance z from the y-axis:
dy
dA = dy dz . y
dz
Integration yields dA
 
Iy = z 2 dy dz

b 
z(y)
z
= z 2 dz dy



0 0

b + h h y  b , -
z 3  b 1 3 h3 h3 2 h3 3
= dy = h 3 y + 3 y y dy
3 0 3 b b2 b3
0 0
 
1 3 3 1 1 3
= h b h3 b + h3 b h3 b = bh .
3 2 4 12

Clearly, the 1st approach is the simplest alternative, since the area ele-
ment has a constant distance to the reference axis.
The moment of inertia Iz can be calculated according to the procedure
for Iy by interchanging the sides h and b of the triangle:

hb3
Iz = .
12

The product of inertia is computed with the area element from the
1st approach. Since the product of
inertia vanishes with respect to the
centroidal axes, the remaining part y/2
results from the parallel-axis theo-
rem: y dz z

  C
y
Iyz = z(y dz)
2
h  
1 2 z z2 z
= zb 1 2 + 2 dz
2 h h
0
 2 
1 h 2h2 h2 b2 h2
= b2 + = .
2 2 3 4 24
 224 Moments of Inertia

P9.3 Problem 9.3 Determine the direction

of the principal axes and the princi- a
pal moments of inertia for the dis-
played prole with constant thick-
ness t. t
Given: a = 10 cm, t = 1 cm. a

y
a
z

Solution First, the moments of inertia are determined with respect to

the y- and z-axis. Therefore, the pro-
le is divided into three rectangles. a/2 t/2
According to the parallel-axis theo- II
rem, the moment of inertia for each
rectangle is composed of the moment
of inertia with respect to the respecti-
ve centroidal axes and by considering a + t/2
the perpendicular distance of the rec- I
tangular area to the reference axes: y

+  2 
t(2a)3 at3 t z
Iy = +2 + a+ at
12 12 2
II
= 2873 cm4 ,
+  2 
(2a)t3 ta3 a t
Iz = +2 + at
12 12 2 2

= 573 cm4 .

The product of inertia for the partial areas vanishes with respect to
their centroidal axes. Therfore, Iyz can be calculated by considering
the parallel-axis theorem for partial areas II.
   
t a t
Iyz = 2 a + at = 945 cm4 .
2 2 2
 Moments of Inertia 225

The direction of the principal axes can be determined with

2Iyz 2 945
tan 2 = = = 0.822
Iy Iz 2873 573
and results in
2 = 39.4 ; 1 = 19.7 ,

2 = 1 + 90 = 70.3 .

The principal moments of inertia follows as

 2
2873 + 573 2873 573
I1,2 = + 9452 = 1723 1488
2 2
; I1 = 3211 cm4 , I2 = 235 cm4 .

The allocation of the principal

axes to their respective principal
moments of inertia can be derived
by the transformation equations.
In the present case, it is clear that
the maximum principal moment of 1
inertia I1 belongs to the direction 2
represented by 1 , since the distan-
ce of the areas in that case is larger I1 = 3211
compared to the direction 2 .

I2 = 235
Remarks:
The invariants can be veried for the numerical example:
a) Iy + Iz = I1 + I2 = 3446 cm4 ,
2
b) Iy Iz Iyz = I1 I2 = 7.5 105 cm8 .
Terms of higher order can be neglected for a thin-walled prole
(t  a), such that
8 3 2 3
Iy  ta = 2667 cm4 , Iz  ta = 667 cm4 ,
3 3
Iyz  ta3 = 1000 cm4 ,  22.5 ,
I1  3080 cm4 , I2  252 cm4 .
However, these approximations lead to inaccurate results for the
present numerical example, since the condition t  a is not su-
ciently fullled.
 226 Moments of Inertia

P9.4 Problem 9.4 Determine for the thin- y 3a

walled cross section (t  a) the direction
of the principal axes and the principal
moments of inertia with respect to the y C
4a
centroidal axes. 5a

z
t
z

Solution Initially, the center of gravity is determined:

3
2
a 5at 3 2a 5at + 52 a 5at 9
yC = = a, zC = = a.
2 5at 4 2 5at 4
The moment of inertia for the oblique
partial area with respect to its centro-
idal axes can be derived by introducing
the coordinate s, whereby the following y
holds: s,
ds
dA = t ds and s2 = y2 + z2 .

With the slope m of the corresponding t

z
part of the cross section, z can be ex-
pressed by z = m y, such that y and z
can be expressed by s:
1 m2
y2 = s2 , z2 = s2 .
1 + m2 1 + m2
The moments of inertia result in
  2.5a
m2 m2 125
Iy = z2 dA = 2
s 2
t ds = a3 t ,
2.5a 1 + m 1 + m2 12
  2.5a
1 1 125
Iz = y2 dA = 2
s2 t ds = 2 12
a3 t ,
2.5a 1 + m 1 + m
  2.5a
m m 125 3
Iyz = yz dA = 2
s2 t ds = a t.
2.5a 1 + m 1 + m2 12

For the given cross section, the slope is m = 43 , such that

20 3 15 3
Iy = a t, Iz = a t, Iyz = 5 a3 t .
3 4
 Moments of Inertia 227

Another way to derive this result is to apply the transformation equa-

tions. For the given geometry, Iy can be determined with the moments
of inertia in the rotated conguration: I = (5a)3 t / 12, I = I = 0
and the corresponding angle = arctan 34 = 36.87 . Thus,
I + I I I
Iy = + cos 2 + I sin 2
2 2
1 (5a)3 t 20 3
= [1 + cos(73.74 )] = a t.
2 12 3
For the calculation of the moments of inertia for the complete cross
section with respect to the centroidal axes, the parallel-axis theorem
needs to be applied for each part of the cross section, such that

20 3 9 (5a)3 t 5 9 425 3
Iy = a t + 5at ( a 2a)2 + + 5at ( a a)2 = a t,
3 4 12 2 4 24
15 3 3 3 3 225 3
Iz = a t + 5at ( a a)2 + 0 + 5at ( a)2 = a t,
4 2 4 4 24
3 3 9 3 5 9
Iyz = 5 a3 t 5at ( a a)(2 a a) 5at ( a)( a a)
2 4 4 4 2 4
25 3
= a t.
8
With these results, the directions of the principal axes are
25
2 Iyz a3 t 3 1 = 18.43 ,
tan 2 =
= 4 = ;
Iy Iz 425 225 3 4 2 = 71.57 .
a t
24
One can derive the result also by consi- 2
dering the symmetry of the cross section
with respect to the axis 22. The slope of 1
the axis 22 is
1
1
m22 = 3 , y C

which leads to 2 = 71.57o .

2
The principal moments of inertia are z
.  /
425 + 225 425 225 2  25 2
I1,2 = + a3 t
48 48 8
 
325 125
= a3 t
24 24
75 3 25 3
; I1 = a t, I2 = a t.
4 3
 228 Moments of Inertia
2b
P9.5 Problem 9.5 Determine for the non-
symmetric and thin-walled Z-prole t
(t = const, t  h, b) the rectangular
moments of inertia Iy , Iz and the pro- h/2
duct of inertia Iyz .
y

z h/2
Solution The area is decomposed into three
rectangles. The parallel-axis theorem is applied:
I
b
  
 t  t3  t  h 2
Iy = 2 b + + t 2b +
2 12 2 2
II
   I
t(h t)3
+
12
III
   II
  t  t3
t  h 2
+ b+ +t b+ .
2 12 2 2 y
When t  h, b, the expression can be simplied to
z
I II III
        
III
h2 h3 h2 3 1 h
Iy = 2b t +t +bt = b th2 + .
4 12 4 4 12 b

When terms of higher order are also neglected for Iz and Iyz , the fol-
lowing expressions can be derived
I III
    

t(2b)3 tb3  b 2 
2
Iz = + (2bt)b + +bt = 3 t b3 ,
12 12 2
I III

     
 h b h 5
Izy = b 2bt + b t = t b2 h .
2 2 2 4

Remarks:
The origin of the {y,z}-coordinate system does not coincide with
the center of gravity.
The product of inertia Iyz vanishes for the partial areas with respect
to their centroidal axes. The above results can be derived by using
the parallel-axis theorem only.
 Moments of Inertia 229
a
Problem 9.6 The ratio of the P9.6
moments of inertia for the sha-
ded area with respect to the
axes y and z is 1:5.
Determine the length b of the z
small square. a
b

Solution The moments of inertia of a square (length a) with respect

to the centroidal axes are
a4
Iy = Iz = , Iyz = 0
12 C
and for rotated axes , after applying y
the transformation equations

a4 z
I = I =
12
(the centroidal and principal axes coincide for a square!). Therefore,
one nds for the given area
a4 b4 1
Iy = = (a2 + b2 )(a2 b2 ) .
12 12 12
With the parallel-axis theorem, it follows
 2
1 2
Iz = (a4 b4 ) + a (a2 b2 ) .
12 2
When the requirement
Iz
=5
Iy
is taken into account, length b follows:
1 4 a2 2
(a b4 ) + (a b2 ) 6
5 = 12 2 =1+  b 2
1 4 4
(a b ) 1+
12 a
 2  2
b 6 b 1 1
; 1+ = ; = ; b= 2 a.
a 4 a 2 2
 230 Moments of Inertia
a a a a
P9.7 Problem 9.7 Determine for the y
shaded area a/2
a) the location yC , zC of the cen- C
ter of gravity, y 3/2a
b) the moments of inertia with re-
spect to the centroidal axes y, z. a
a 2a

z
z a/2
II
Solution a) The calculation of the A
center of gravity is carried out by consi-
dering the center of gravity of the partial I
areas:
!4 " 2
3
a 8 a (2 a) a2 (2 a 4
1

2
a)a2 III
yC = 1.14 a ,
!4 " 2 !1 8 a2
" a2 a2
3
a 8 a 4 a a2 (2 a 4
1

2
a) a2
zC = 1.43 a .
6 a2

b) The moments of inertia of the partial area III

with respect to the local coordinate system { y, y
z} has already been derived in previous examp-
les. These can be transformed into the { z }-
y ,
coordiante system by a 45 rotation: y z
! "3 z
(2a)3 12 a a4
1
a 2a a4
Iy = = , Iz = 2 = , Iyz = 0 .
12 3 12 48
1 17 4 1 5 4
; Iy = Iz = (Iy + Iz) = a , Iyz = (Iy Iz) = a .
2 96 2 32

As a next step, the moments of inertia are calculated with respect to

the {
y , z}-coordinate system in A by considering II and III as negative
partial areas:

(4 a)4 a4 a4 17 a
Iy = ( + ) ( a4 + (2 a )2 a2 ) 17.75 a4 ,
12 48 16 96 4 2
(4 a)4 a4 17 a
Iz = ( + 4 a4 ) ( a4 + (2 a )2 a2 ) 13.50 a4 ,
12 3 96 4 2
(4 a)4 a4 5 a
Iyz = (0 ) ( a4 (2 a )2 a2 ) 7.00 a4 .
24 2 32 4 2
 Moments of Inertia 231

Applying the parallel-axis thereom yields the moments of inertia with

respect to the centroidal axes:
2
Iy = Iy zC A 17.75 a4 (1.43 a)2 6 a2 5, 48 a4 ,

2
Iz = Iz yC A 13.50 a4 (1.14 a)2 6 a2 5.70 a4 ,

Iyz = Iy C yC A 7.00 a4 + (1.43 a) (1.14 a) 6 a2 2.78 a4 .

z + z
 232 Moments of Inertia

P9.8 Problem 9.8 Determine for the

shaded area:
a
a) Iy , Iz , Iyz ,
b) the direction of the principal y C a
axes,
c) the principal moments of iner-
a
tia. z

2a
a a a a

Solution a) The area is devided into ve partial areas. Since the

area is point-symmetric with re-
spect to C, the values of the mo-
ments of inertia of the partial are-
as I and I are the same as is for II
and II.
I
I and I II III
    II
a 4  a 2 I
2
Iy = 2 + 2a +
3 2
II and II III
    
a 4  a  2 a 2
2 a4 23 4
+2 + + = a ,
36 6 2 12 12

I and I II and II III

     .

 
 2 2 /   
a4 2 2 a4 4a a a (2 a)3
Iz = 2 + (2 a) 2 a + 2 + +
3 36 3 2 12
115 4
= a ,
6
 Moments of Inertia 233

I and I II and II III

 
a    4     2
 
a 4a a a
Iyz = 2 0 (2 a) 2 a2 + 2 + 0
2 72 3 6 2
15
= a4 .
4

b) With these results, the directions of the principal axes can be found
as
2 Iyz 90
tan 2 = = ; 1 = 11.75 , 2 = 101.75 .
Iy Iz 207

c) One obtains for the principal moments of inertia


2  2
23 + 230 23 230 15
I1, 2 = + a4
24 24 4
.  /
253 5661
= a4
24 64

; I1 19.95 a4 , I2 1.14 a4 .

Remark: The match of the principal axes to their respective principal

moments of inertia can be derived by the transformation equations. In
the present case, it is clear that the smaller principal moment of inertia
I2 corresponds to the direction with angle 1 . The areas have in average
a much smaller distance to the axis with direction 1 than to the axis
with direction 2 .
 234 Moments of Inertia

P9.9 Problem 9.9 Determine for the three cross sections the moments of
inertia about the y-axis.

b b/2 b/2 b

H h
y y y

z z z
B B B

Solution The respective cross sections are decomposed into a shaded

area and a white area. The moment of inertia of the cross sections can
be derived by considering the moment of inertia for the rectangle B H
and subtracting the moment of inertia for the white area b h. Since
the z-coordinate of the center of gravity is the same for all of these
white areas, the solution is identical for all cross sections:
B H3 b h3
Iy = .
12 12
 Moments of Inertia 235

Problem 9.10 Determine the moments b/2 b/2 P9.10

of inertia with respect to the
{y,z}-coordinate system.
b

y
a/2 a/2
z

Solution Since the cross section is symmetric with respect to the z-

axis, the product of inertia vanishes: Iyz = 0.
There are two possibilities to calculate the remaining moments of inertia
Iy and Iz . The rst alternative is shown for Iy : The cross section is
devided into three rectangles. According to the parallel-axis theorem,
the moment of inertia Iy for the cross section reads
  2 
(a b) a3 (a b) a
Iy = 2 + a
2 12 2 2
3
 2
b(a b) ab
+ + b(a b) ,
12 2 I II III

a3 (a b)3
Iy = (a b) +b .
3 3

The other possibility to determine the

moments of inertia is shown for Iz : the
cross section is devided into two areas, II
the shaded area and the white area. Ap-
plying this procedure yields

a a3 b b3 a 4 b4 I
Iz = = .
12 12 12
 236 Moments of Inertia
P9.11 Problem 9.11 Determine the moments
of inertia of the cross section with h
respect to the {
y , z}-coordinate sys-
y
tem.
z b

h
a a a a
Solution It is convenient to start with
the calculation of the moments of inertia
with respect to the principal axes y and
z. Therefore, the cross section is devided
into four isosceles triangles and one rec-
tangle. For each triangle, the moment of
y
inertia about the y-axis reads
y
 2
2a h3 h b z
+ ah + . z
36 3 2

The principal moment of inertia Iy is the sum of the moments of inertia

of the triangles and the rectangle:

)  2 *
2a h3 h b 4a b3
Iy = 4 + ah + + .
36 3 2 12

With the cross sectional area A = 4a(h + b) and the parallel-axis theo-
rem Iy = Iy + (b/2)2 A , one obtains
)  2 *  2
2a h3 h b 4a b3 b
Iy = 4 + + ah + + 4a(h + b) .
36 3 2 12 2

Analogously, one obtains

 
h (2a)3 2 b (4a)3
Iz = 4 + ah a + .
48 12
Considering the parallel-axis theorem again yields
14 16 3
Iz = Iz + (2a)2 A = a h3 + b a + 4a(h + b) (2a)2 .
3 3

For Iyz, one nds with Iyz = 0

b
Iyz = Iyz 2aA = 4a2 b (h + b) .
2