GlobalConsumerCulture,inEncyclopediaofInternationalMarketing,JagdishShethand

NareshMaholtra,eds.,EricJ.Arnould

ConsumerCulture

Consumerculturecanbedefinedasasocialarrangementinwhichtherelations
betweenthe[livedculturalexperienceofeverydaylife]andsocialresources,between
meaningful[valued]waysoflifeandthesymbolicandmaterialresourcesonwhichthey
depend,ismediatedthroughmarkets.Consumercultureisasysteminwhichconsumption,a
setofbehaviorsfoundinalltimesandplaces,isdominatedbytheconsumptionofcommercial
products.Itisalsoasysteminwhichthetransmissionofexistingculturalvalues,normsand
customarywaysofdoingthingsfromgenerationtogenerationislargelyunderstoodtobe
carriedoutthroughtheexerciseoffreepersonalchoiceintheprivatesphereofeverydaylife.
Furthermore,consumercultureisalsoboundupwiththeideaofmodernity,thatis,aworldno
longergovernedbytraditionbutratherbyflux,andinwhichsocialactorswhoaredeemedto
beindividuallyfreeandrationalholdssway(Slater2000,89).Andfinally,consumerculture
denoteaneconomyinwhichvaluehasbeendivorcedfromthematerialsatisfactionofwants
andthesignvalueofgoodstakesprecedence(Baudrillard1996/1968;1998/1970).
Inconsumerculturepredispositionstowardsocialemulation,matching,andimitation
expressedthroughmarketplacechoicesareaccompaniedbyapenchantfordifferentiation,
individuality,anddistinctionalsoexpressedthroughmarketplacechoices.Togetherthese
motivesdrivethecharacteristicallyrapidturnoveringoodsandservices.Thesedynamicsare
oftenthoughttohavebeentriggeredbythepurposefulsocialengineeringofmarketers,
advertisersandretailers(Packard1957;Ewen1976;Williams1982),andtohavespreadfrom
rootsinthefashionindustryintoallpartsofsociallife(Simmel1997/1904;Featherstone1991,
115).
Fourmorecrucialaspectsofconsumercultureinclude:
1. Thepervasiveandrapidcirculationofcommercialproducts,thatis,thingsproducedfor
exchangewithinacapitalistmarket,takespriorityoverandabovethingsredistributed
bygovernmentalthroughthewelfarestateorexchangedamongsocialgroupsthrough
giftgiving.
2. Therelativeindependenceofconsumptionactivitiesfromthoserelatedtoproduction
andthegrowingpowerandauthoritythisgivestosomeconsumersovermarket
dynamics.
3. Changesintherelationshipsbetweendifferentsystemsofproductionandvaluationin
societysuchthattheseareallincreasinglyinterlinkedandmediatedbymarketvalues;
i.e.,Howmuchdoesitcost?Howmuchwillsomeonepay?
4. Thespecialimportancegiventotheuseofconsumergoodsintheallocationof
individualstatus,prestige,perceivedwellbeingandqualityoflife(Lury1996,4).
Consumercultureisproducedbyagentswhoworkdirectlyinthemarketeconomyas
managers,marketers,andadvertisingcreatives;byindependentbrokerswhoanalyzeand
criticizeconsumerproducts;byculturalintermediariessuchasmediafigures(e.g.,movieand
televisionstars,celebritychefs,religiousbroadcasters,publicintellectuals,politicians,etc)who
modelanddisseminateattractivemodelsforconsumptionbehavior;andbydissidentswho
initiatealternativeresponsestothemassconsumptionsystem,responsesthataretypicallyre
appropriatedintothemarketsystemasdifferentiated,nicheproducts().
Thisbroaddefinitionalframeworkallowsustoconsiderconsumptionasaninstitutional
field,i.e.,asetofinterconnectedeconomicandculturalinstitutionscomplicitintheglobal
productionofcommoditiesforindividualdemandwithenormousscopeforlocalelaboration
anddifferentiation(ZukinandMcGuire2004,175).

GlobalConsumers

Theconsolidationofscientificeconomicandofmodernmarketinstitutionstookplaceinthe
eighteenthcentury,whenalsothesocialroleoftheconsumer,combiningtraitsofhedonism
andrationalitywasdistinguishedfromthewastefulirrationalelitesoftheancientregime
(Campbell1987;Sassatelli2007,37).Whereastheearly20thcenturyconsumerwasamass
marketconsumer,todaysconsumerischaracterizedbyageneralemphasisonindividualstyle,
parallelingthecustomizationandnichemarketingthathasovertakentheeconomy(Sassatelli
2007,48).Thetendencywithinconsumerculturetodayistoviewlifestylesasnolonger
requiringinnercoherence;marketersandculturalintermediaries(fashion;entertainment)cater
forandexpandtherangeofstylesandlifestylesavailabletoglobalaudiencesandconsumers
withlittleregardtoauthenticityortradition(Featherstone1991,26).
Andjustastheconsumerwastheorizedintoexistencebytheeconomicphilosophersof
the18 century,andturnedintothelinchpinof20thcenturyeconomiesbyeconomicpolicy
th

makers(Garon2007;Kroen2007)andMadisonAvenueadvertisers(Packard1957;Ewen1976),
sotheconsumercontinuestobecreatedontheglobalstage.
Forexample,researchbyLamontandMolnar(2001)showthatmarketingprofessionals
activelyshapethemeaningsofthecategoryoftheblackconsumer;promotenormative
modelsofcollectiveidentitythatequatesocialmembershipwithconspicuousconsumption;
believethatAfricanAmericansuseconsumptiontodefyracismandsharecollectiveidentities
valuedinAmericansociety(e.g.middleclassmembership);andsimultaneouslyenactapositive
visionoftheirculturaldistinctivenessthroughconsumption.
SimilarlyDvila(2001)carefullytracestheevolutionofSpanishlanguagemediainthe
UnitedStates,aswellasadvertisingspecificallydesignedforLatinos.Thedynamicsofthese
initiativespriortothe1980softeninvolvedpromotionsaimedatLatinAmericancountriesthat
werethenadaptedandtransplantedtotheUnitedStates.Cubanadvertisingentrepreneursand
culturalcapitalandnetworkinglinksgeneratedbytheCubanAmericanethniceconomyproved
werecentraltothedevelopmentofLatinomedia.Shedemonstratesthatanemphasison
stereotypicaltraditionalfamilyvaluesisatthecruxofHispanicmarketingstrategies,andthe
constitutionoftheHispanicconsumer,orLatinidad,moregenerallybythesemedia.Shenotes
howimportantunitingLatinosacrossdifferenceofnationality,class,colorandpoliticalideology
hasbeeninthebuildinganimageoftheLatinomarketforcorporateclients.
Further,CaylaandEckhardt(2008)investigatehowAsianbrandmanagersforgenew
websofinterconnectednessthroughtheconstructionofatransnational,imaginedAsianworld.
Somebrandmanagersarecreatingregionalbrandsthatemphasizeaputativelycommon
experienceofglobalization,evokeageneric,hyperurban,andmulticulturalAsianexperience,
andcontributetothecreationofanimaginedAsiaasurban,modern,andmulticultural.
Finally,Mazzarella(2003)hasdocumentedingreaterdetailhowIndianmarketing
professionalsmarshaledideasaboutIndianculturaldistinctivenessalongwithstereotypical
localnotionsoftraditionandmodernitytocreateadifferentiatedimageoftheIndian
consumertomarkettomultinationalcorporations.
Inothercontexts,asinCross(2006)discussionofJamaicaorHiwasakas(2000)
discussionoftheAinupopulationofHokkaida,Japan,marketingandpedagogicaltoolsareused
toshapelocalethnicgroupsasconsumabletouristicentitiesratherthanconsumingsegments.

GlobalConsumerCulture

Globalconsumercultureisdrivenbytheextensionofbusinessesorganizedaround
marketprinciplesintoeverycorneroftheplanet.Globalconsumercultureisatoneandthe
sametime,ideologyandsocialprocess,assomethingcontinuouslymadeandremadethrough
constantlyshiftingrelations,practices,andtechnologiesofmarketmediation(Mazzarella
2004,355).
Morespecificallythespreadofglobalconsumercultureisconditionedbytheglobalflow
ofdistinctiveculturalresourcesincludingwhatAppadurai(1990)referstoasfinancescapes,
technoscapes,ideoscapes,andmediascapes.Financescapesreferstoglobalflowsnotonlyof
capitalandcurrencybutofvariousfinancialinstrumentsthatmakemarketsrun.The
derivativesmarket,theremittancesbusiness,andthemicrofinancerevolutionareall
examples.Remittancebusinesseshavefacilitatedboththeglobalmovementofworkersand
alsothetransferofconsumptionresourcestotheglobalsouth.Themicrofinancerevolution
hasalsodrivenmarketmodelsoffinanceandconsumptionintothehandsoftheglobalpoor.
Technoscapesreferstoglobalflowsofinformationalandmechanicaltechnologiesof
bothsimpleandcomplexvarietiesacrossborders.Theglobalcellphonerevolutionisacasein
point.Globalconsumerculturealsodependsuponglobalmediatocreateasenseofglobal
identifyandmemorywithoutwhichanyculturalidentityisincomplete(Smith1991).Thus,
televisedglobalconsumptionspectaclessuchasthemillennialcelebrations,thequadrennial
WorldCup,orOlympicfestivalsareimplicatedinthespreadofconsumerculture.
Intheglobalmediascapeprivatizedcommercialmediaempires(e.g.,NewsCorp)now
coexistwithdecentralizedandfragmentedsmallmediadiverseineconomicandsocial
organizationsuchasthecassettemusicculturesthathavebecomeubiquitousintheglobal
south(Ginsburg,AbuLughodandLarkin2002,3;White2000).Mediaofmanyformsplay
crucialrolesbothinshapingnationalimaginariesincludingnationalconsumerprototypessuch
astheprototypicalIndian,Asian,orChineseconsumer(Dvila2002;CaylaandEckhart2008;
DongandTianforthcoming;Mazzarella2003;Yang2002)mentionedabove.
Ideoscapesrefertotheideologiesofstatesandothermovementsthatcontendfor
popularlegitimacyandauthority.Globalizationandstandardizationofmodernconsumer
culturearoundtheworldhaveinturnstimulatedlocalizationandheterogeneityofdemandas
wellascontestationandresistancetoglobalcompaniesandbrands(Featherstone1991).
Ideoscapesthenincludesuchthingsasmodelsofconsumerculturecarriedbyglobalmedia;
andvariousreactionssuchastheanticonsumerNoLogomovement(Klein2002),the
rejectioniststreamofIslamicfundamentalismthatviewsfilm,music,fashion,andother
trappingsofconsumercultureasanathema;and,morereformistmovementslikethelocalfood
andSlowFoodmovements.
Globalizationalsomeansthatculturalencountersproliferatethroughthese
earthcscapingprocesses,whichhasleadtoanincreasinginterestinidentityconstructive
processes,notleastthroughconsumption(Friedman1994;Askegaard,KjeldgaardandArnould
2009).Thus,globalconsumercultureinvolvestheglobalizationofdesires;oftheresponsibility
toseekanindividualsenseofselfthroughmaterialsymbols,theneedtoconform;the
attractionofamarketmediatedmaterialworld;ofhomogenizedimagesofthegoodlife;
(Clammer1997,14);andanexperienceoffragmentationofsociallifeonthereceivingendof
globalizationthatfuelsidealistandrejectionistreactions(Hetata2004).

StructuresofCommonDifference

Globalizationisaccompaniedbyaheightenedsenseofdisjunctureanddisorder(Beck
2006),asrapidearthscapinghasupsetanddisplacedrelationshipsbetweentheeconomic
centerandperipheryoftheglobaleconomy,andbetweenculturalformsandculturalcontents.
Theseearthscapingprocessesandthenoveltechnologies,media,ideologies,goods,and
relationscarriedintheirwakeneverthelessoftenremaincloselytiedtoprofessional,political,
andeconomicintereststhathaveimportantstakesinmobilizingandregulatingglobal
markets.Theseinterests,evenastheycapitalizeontheproliferationofculturaldifference,
alsodemandthatsuchculturaldifferenceberenderedmanageableascontentwithinglobally
reproducible(andthusmarketable)formsandgenres(Mazzarella2004,351).Thishasledto
theidentificationofwhathavebeencalledglobalstructuresofcommondifferenceinglobal
consumerculture.
Viewedfromanotherangle,thecreolizationofconsumptionpatternswithinglobal
consumercultureisubiquitous.Thisisthediffusionof"structuresofcommondifference"(Wilk
1995)referstoconsumptionpatternsthatcombineelementsoflocalandforeignconsumption
traditionsthroughglobalizedinsitutionalforms.Ritzer(2004)pointedoutthatglobalfastfood
chainsreproduceaninstitutionalformulaacrossculturallocations.McDonald'sispresentin
mostlocalmarkets,butoftenundergoessignificantalterationinwhatisofferedandhow
(Watson1997).ThankstolocalmodificationsoftheMcDonaldsformula,theJolibeefastfood
chainatonetimeenjoyeda59percentmarketshareinthePhilippinefastfoodmarket.
Similarly,traditionalTurkishfastfoodcalledkepab,orshishkepab,hasexperiencedarevivalas
WesternstylefastfoodoutletshavepenetratedtheTurkishmarket.AndTurkishentrepreneurs
inGermanyofferMcDonerKepabTurkishshishkepabinaMcDonaldslikesetting(Caglar
1995).ThesechoicesallowPhilippine,TurkishandTurkoGermanconsumerstoexpressvarying
degreesofculturalconformityandculturaldifferencethroughtheirfastfoodchoices.
Similarly,thebeautypageanthasbecomeapopularconsumerglobalcelebration.InBelize
inCentralAmerica,somepageantsjudgecontestantsaccordingtoEuroAmericanidealsof
beauty;otherscelebrateCaribbeanvaluesofrespectabilityandreputationandexpresstensions
betweendifferentethnicgroupsthatholddifferentvalueorientations(Cohen,WilkandStoeje
1995).Soapoperas,comicbooks,andmusicalformsprovideotherexamplesofglobal
structuresofcommondifference.TheHongKong,HollywoodandBollywoodindustriresprovide
threeintertwinedglobalinstitutionalizedforms(Stearns2006,150).Andscholarshavepointed
outthatChristmashasbecomethefirstglobalconsumerholiday,astructureofcommon
differencethataccommodatesdramaticdifferencesinculturalcontentwithinashared
seasonalandaestheticizedinstitutionalformat(Miller1993).

Brands

Brandshavebecomeaubiquitousstructureofcommondifferenceinglobalconsumer
culture:theCocaColalogoandNikeswoosharebrandsymbolsthattriggermyriadresponses;
theircognitivesalienceandabilitytoarousepassionareundeniable(Foster2008).When
peopledemonstrateagainsttheinequitiesofglobalization,theyusebrandssuchasCokeor
McDonaldsassymbolsofcorporatepower(seeHolt2002;Klein1999).Brandshavebecome
culturalforms;theyencapsulateideasaboutthewaypeopleshouldlive,look,andthink.
Brandingisaspecificformofcommunicationthattellsstoriesinthecontextofproductsand
services,addressespeopleasconsumers,andpromisestofulfillunmetdesiresandneeds.In
otherwords,brandingisaspecificsymbolicform,aparticularwayoftalkingaboutandseeing
theworld(Askegaard,KjeldgaardandArnould2009).
Theriseofaglobalculturedoesn'tmeanthatconsumerssharethesametastesor
values.Rather,peopleindifferentnations,oftenwithconflictingviewpoints,participateina
sharedconversation,drawinguponsharedsymbols.Oneofthekeysymbolsinthat
conversationistheglobalbrand(Holt,QuelchandTaylor2004,70).Globalbrandsaremost
oftenassociatedwithaqualitysignalthatisimportantformanyconsumersworldwide;global
brandssetastandard.Hence,globalcompaniesareadvisedtocompeteaggressivelyonquality
signalswhileaddressingconsumersskepticismaboutthem.Globalbrandscreateopeningsfor
localbrandsthatconveyenduringlocalmeanings(CaylaandArnould2008).Second,global
brandsalsoconveyamythofglobalcosmopolitanismtowhichmanyconsumersworldwide
aspire(Strizhacova,CoulterandPrice2008).Therefore,globalcompaniesareadvisedto
associateglobalmythsofindividualindependence,modernity,andselfactualizationwiththeir
brands.Finally,globalbrandsandglobalcompanieswieldextraordinaryinfluence,both
positiveandnegative,onsociety'swellbeing.Manyconsumersexpectfirmstoaddresssocial
problemslinkedtowhattheysellandhowtheyproduceanddistributetheirproductsand
services(Holt,QuelchandTaylor2004,7172).Thus,toimprovetheirglobalimage,firmsare
advisedtoinvestininitiativesthatclearlybenefitstakeholdercommunities.

RegionalManifestationsofGlobalConsumerCulture

TheOECDCountries
TheOECDcountriesrepresentthemostdevelopedmarketeconomiesintheworld,primarily
EuroAmericannations.Inthesecountriesthereisasteadymultiplicationofpurchase
opportunitiesandtheextensionofconsumerorientationsintoareasofactivitythatusedtobe
consideredoutsideoftheconsumerdomainsuchaspolitics,highereducation,art,place,and
evenrelationships.Thecenterofthecultureofconsumptionismarkedbyanoversupplyof
goodsofallsortsincludingsymbolicgoodsleadingtowardsatendencytowardculturaldisorder
anddeclassification(Featherstone1991,13),andtheemergenceofpostconsumersocial
categoriessuchastherejectionist,theprosumerandthecocreatorofvalue.Individualsare
encouragedtoadoptanonutilitarianattitudetowardscommercialgoodsandservicesandto
carefullychoose,arrange,adapt,anddisplaygoodstoamakestylisticstatementsthatexpresse
theindividual,presumablyauthenticidentityoftheowner(Featherstone1991,114).
Fourothertrendscanbenoted.First,OECDcountriesaremovingtowarda
dematerializedserviceeconomy.Ofthe1,000largestcorporationsintheworldtoday,almost
200ofthemareservicefirms,andmanyoftheseareinvolvedinextendingservicedeliveryinto
cyberspace.Second,theroleofshoppingandpurchasinghastakenondramaticnewmeaning
inthesecountries.Eversincetheinventionofthedepartmentstoreinnineteenthcentury
France(Williams1982),trendstowardrecreationalandluxuryshoppinghavegrown.Third,
whileeliteconsumersinothercultureshaveswelledtheranksofworldtourisminrecentyears;
NorthAmericaandEuropehavetraditionallyconstitutedlargetouristmarkets.Themotives
thatinspiretouristconsumptionarediverse,rangingfromnostalgicvisitstohistorictownsand
villages,toescapistentertainmentatMardiGras,toromanceataClubMedoracruise,to
extraordinaryadventuresthroughAfricansafaris,Himalayantrekking,orOutwardBoundtrips.
Fourth,historically,businesshasnotgivengreatthoughttowhereitsrawmaterials
comefrom,nortowhereitsproductsgoaftertheyhavebeenpurchased.Nowthischanging
withtheadventofsustainabilityconcernsinconsumerbehaviorthattakeintoaccount
environmentalconcerns,i.e.,wasteandresourcedepletion;socialconcerns,i.e.,ethical
consumption,buycottsandboycotts,progressivehumanresourcespolicies;andtheefficiency
andefficacyoffirmoperationsthemselves(Arnould,Price,andZinkhan2004).Negative
(resistance)andpositive(ethicalbuying)formsofpoliticalconsumerismnowseemtoconcerna
widesectorofthepopulation(Micheletti2003).RecentsurveydataonEuropeforexample,
showthatover30percentofthepopulationofDenmark,GreatBritain,Germany,Italy,Norway
andPortugalareboycottingproductsforpoliticalreasons,choosingspecificitemsbecauseof
theirethicalorenvironmentalqualities,orparticipatingintheactivitiesofconsumeroriented
associations(Sassatelli2006,221).Ethicalconsumerismisbeingreframedasapositive
consumerfreedomandduty.

ConsumercultureinJapan,theBRICcountries,inRussiaandtheformerSovietbloc,and
inAfricahasbeenheavilyforeign,aclearimport,evenasitappealedtobothnewand
traditionalinterests.Foreignness,inturngeneratesthreereactions.Thefirstinvolvesthe
appealofthestrangeandthemodernsecond,foreignnesspromptsresistance,inthename
ofcustomarybutalsonewernationalidentities...Thirdconsumerismisappropriated,
becomingasnaturalasitwasintheWest(Stearns2006,81).

JapanandtheAsianTigers

Asoneofthewealthiestnationsintheworld,Japanrepresentsahugemarket,changing
quicklytowardacultureofconsumption(Tobin1992).ThedirectionofJapanseconomic
progresssinceWorldWarIIforeshadowedthechangeswenowseeexpandinginother
countriesofthePacificRim,thetigers.JapansharesmanyhistoricalvalueswithotherEast
Asiancountries.Finance,media,technoandideoscapesoriginatinginJapanhavebeen
instrumentalinfuelingtheexpansionofconsumercultureinthisregion.
AcharacteristicofJapaneseconsumersisthattheyarehighlyinformedandaesthetically
sophisticated.Theyareactivelyengagedincreatingtheirsenseofidentityintermsofgender,
age,andlifestyle(Clammer1997,12).Further,thereislessPuritanism[i.e.,Protestant
asceticism)andnomoralcondemnationattachedtoacquiringmaterialgoodsinJapanese
culture(Clammer1997,14).TwointerestingfeaturesofconsumercultureinJapanarefirst,the
associationofhighqualityandprice,henceadesireforbrandnamegoods,andthefollowingof
expensivefads;andsecond,theveryhighrateofdiscardandreplacement.Thisreflectsthefact
thatvarietyororiginalityaredevaluedinJapaneseconsumerculturerelativetonewnessorup
todateness(Clammer1997,24).
Japanesehouseholdbudgetsshowinterestingcharacteristics.Proportionsspendon
necessities,furnitureandhouseholdgoodshavedeclined,whileamountsspendonleisureand
luxurieshaveincreasedalthoughthereisstillahighlevelofsavingsreflectingJapansparticular
adoptionofconsumerculturehistorically(Garon2007),andsuchthingsasthehighcostsof
housingandeducation.Genderdifferencesarealsosignificantwithrapidincreasesinwomens
discretionaryexpenditures.Deptodepartmentstoreswhichhavegonealongwayin
commercializingJapaneseculturalvalues,anddomesticatingforeignconsumertastes
(Creighton1992)arealsoamongthebiggestpromotersoftraditionalJapanesegiftgiving,a
large,distinctive,andsociallyimportantcategoryofconsumerexpendituresinJapan(Clammer
1997,18).Japanesegiftgivingisacommercializedformofmodernintimacy,aformthat
createsbondswithoutmuchmoralsubstance,bycontrastwithChinawherecommensalismis
animportantbasisofsocialbonding(Clammer1997,19).

BRICCountries
BRICliterallyreferstoBrazil,Russia,IndiaandChina,butmayincludeanumberof
countrieswithrapideconomicdevelopmentandgrowthinconsumerculture,thusincluding
countrieslikeTurkeyorSouthAfrica.Inallofthesecountriestheemergenceofpowerfullocal
brandssuchastheMurat,Mahindra,andTataautomobilebrandsinTurkeyandIndia,
respectively,andlargelocalconsumermarketsisabigpartofthestoryofglobalconsumer
cultureinthe21stcentury.Anotherimportantpartofthestoryisthepersistenceoflarge
numbersofconsumersatthebaseoftheeconomicpyramid,thatis,subsistenceconsumers
wholiveonatbestafewdollarsadayandwhoseneedsandaspirationshavefinallybegunto
registeronglobalmarketers.
 InChina,thespreadofconsumerculturehasbeenfosteredbytheexistenceofstrong
consumerinterestbeforethe19thcenturyaspartofanurbancultureandasecularoutlook
(Stearns2006).Theappealofanalmostfantasylikemodernitythatpromisessomerelease
fromcustomaryhierarchiesandconstraints(Stearns2006,109)hasalsofosteredthe
dramaticexpansionofconsumerculture.Finally,economicreformspost1979havediminished
statepowerdramaticallyandfreedmanyconsumersfrompoliticalstricturesonconsumption.

TheWorldBankestimatesthat250millionto300millionpeoplehaveclimbedoutof
povertysinceChinaadoptedeconomicreforms.Onebigstoryisthegrowthofaconsumer
middleclassinChina.In2005,atleast4.5millionhadadisposableincomeinexcessof
US$30,000(Latham2006,9).Characteristicoftheeffectsofconsumercultureeverywhere,
scholarsnotehowconsumercultureisfuellingtheemergenceofnewdisjuncturesand
differencesinChineseconsumptionpractices(Latham2006,3),newspaceforChinese
citizens,especiallywomen,toexpresstheirpersonaltaste,idealsandvaluesasagainstolder
collectiveforms(Gillette2000),aswellasthereemergenceofolderpopularritualpracticesin
newconsumerguise(Erbaugh2000;Yang2000).

Asinotherplaces,distinctivecharacteristicsofconsumercultureareemergentinChina.
Amongthesearetheideaofconsumptionasapalliativetocontinuedtightstatecontrolof
politicalfreedomandthemedia;thearticulationofvariouslocalunderstandingsofChinese
historyandcharacterinitsbrandingpractices,andtheroleofconsumergoodsinvitalizing
Chinasgifteconomyandinparticularthewebofinterpersonalrelationshipsoftenreferredto
asguanxi(DongandTianforthcoming;Latham2006).Othershavecommentedonthe
interactionbetweenChinasonechildpolicyandthespecialroleofchildrenincreatingthe
morehedonicallyorientedChineseconsumeroftoday.Thespeedofdevelopmentandthe
successofaonechildfamilypolicyhasplungedchildrenandparentsfromallsocialstratainto
aconsumerrevolution.Asaresult,theproportionalclaimsofChinesechildrenontheirfamilys
financialresourcesarebothlargerandmoreuniformacrosseconomicstratathanforchildren
inearliercasesofconsumerculture(DavisandSensenbrenner2000;56;Watson2006).

MuchcontinuitypersistsinChineseconsumerculture;oneexamplehastodowiththe
placeoffoodinsociety.AsMintz(2007)evocativelywrites,

Itisattablethatchildrenlearntobecomeadults;attablethatbabiesmeettheir
grandparents;attablethatpeopledisplaytheircivilizationandcommunicateit.To
watchthegiverofarestaurantbanquetsomepaterfamiliaswelcomingthefamilyof
ason'sfiance,celebratingagrandchild'sbirth,orjusttreatingfriendsistogeta
soberlessoninetiquette,selfdiscipline,andjoy.Theetiquetteisalsooftenself
discipline.
InIndia,thegrowthofamiddleclassestimatetorepresent30%ofthepopulation,or250
millionpeopleisthebigstoryoftheearly21stcentury.Still,itislikelythatnomorethan100
millionorsoofthismiddleclassrepresentsaconsumeristsegment.AsinChina,participationin
consumercultureisassociatedwithcosmopolitanvalueslikemodernity,democracy,andeven
liberation.Nonetheless,themajorityofthelargergroupremainscommittedtoasavings
orientation;Indianstendtosave25%oftheirincomesandplacetheirsavingsincashaccounts
ratherthanconsumefinancialinstruments.Acrossthepopulationabouthalfofalldiscretionary
expendituresareforimportantfamilyceremonialactivities(Srinivas2008)ratherthanforthe
satisfactionofindividualdesires,indicativeoftheenduringroleoffamilyinstructuring
consumptionpracticesinIndia.Ontheother,handthereisahugeaspiringclass,perhapsas
manyas260million,strivingtoattainmiddleclassstatus,withmaybe15millionjoiningthe
middleclasseseachyear(Srinivas2008,11)whomayengageinboutsofconspicuousspending.
TheIndianmiddleclassisalsodividedalongthefaultlinesofgeography,especiallythenorth
southdivide,education,profession,especiallydifferencesbetweentheprivateandpublic
sector,class,andcaste.

ResearchershavefoundthatthevastmassesatthebaseoftheIndianeconomic
pyramidarealsoaffectedbythespreadofconsumerculture.Increasingdesirestoconsume
brandedgoodsthatareadvertisedthroughtelevisionisaconsistentandrecurringtheme.
Moreover,intertwinedculturalprocessesofconspicuousconsumption,normativechange
[imposingalinkbetweenconsumergoodsandmorality],and[interpersonal]competition
marknarrativesoflowcasteIndianconsumers.Theyreflectanincreasinglyconsumerist
contentofIndianmediathatdepictsthemythiclifestylesoftherichandfamous(Varmanand
Belk2008,236;237).

RussiaandtheFormerSovietBloc
InRussiaandotherformerSovietbloccountries,theintroductionofconsumerculturehasbeen
inflectedbythedebateaboutwhetherWestshouldbemodelorpariah(Stearns2006,86).
HesitationsrootedintheSovietexperienceandEasternOrthodoxreligioustraditionspersist
(Stearns2006,91).Inallthesestatesthereisalegacyofanefforttobuildanalternativeto
Westernconsumerisminwhichworkersvacations,uniforms,NewYearsgiftgivingandworkers
rightsratherthanconsumerservicewereaccentuated.Further,therewasatraditionofelite
consumptionthatwasbothunacknowledgedandsecretive,atraditionthathasreemergedin
thespectacularnouveauxricheconsumptionbehaviorofthenewRussians,whoprofited
fromtheSovietunionstransitiontomarketcapitalism.

LatinAmerica
InLatinAmerica,awidespreadclassofwealthylandownersandafewmerchantsand
mineownersprovidedaspurtoconsumerisminthe19thcenturyandamodelofEuropeanand
secondarilyNorthAmericanimitationthatcontinuestocolorconsumptionparticularlyin
countrieslikeArgentina.AnothercharacteristicofLatinAmericaistheinfluenceofAmerican
chainstores,firstSearsRoebuckinthe1920sandlaterWalmartandsomeEuropeanchainsin
the1980sand1990sthatextendEuroAmericanmodelsofconsumptiontomiddleclassbuyers.
ThemiddleclassesthathaveaspiredtoEuroAmericanconsumptionstandardshavegrown
dramaticallyiferraticallyinBrazilandotherLatinAmericancountriessincetheSecondWorld
War.Ofcourse,LatinAmericaalsoencompassesdramaticculturaldiversitythatcolors
consumerpreferences;inindigenouscommunities,sometimesnewconsumeropportunities
fuelculturalidealsthatarealegacyofreciprocalsocialrelationsandnewstatushierarchies
simultaneously(ColloredoMansfeld1999).LatinAmericascenturieslonglegacyofeconomic
relianceonrawmaterialsexportshasproducedahugeunderclassofsubsistenceconsumers,
manyofindigenousbackgrounds,whostruggletoenjoybasicconsumergoods.These
consumersareincreasinglytargetedbymultinationalswithcustomtailoredproducts,creating
newsustainabilitychallenges.Finally,LatinAmericahasalsobecomeanimportantsourceof
exportedconsumerculturethroughsuchthingsasfood(especiallyMexicanandmorerecently
Argentineanculinarystyles),musicanddancestyles(Mambo,Tango,Meringue,Samba,etc),
andtraditionsofecstatic,sumptuaryseasonalconsumptionassociatedwithCarnivalandother
traditions(Stearns2006,112114).

Africa
Africahasalongtraditionofcommerceandconsumption,eveniftheconsumptionof
luxurieswasconfinedtoelitegroupsformanycenturies.InAfrica,commodification,aprocess
drivenbytheimperativesofcapitalandthecivilizingprojectsofstateandmission,..hasbeen
determinedbyconsumersdifferentialaccesstopowerandculturalresources(Burke1996,
167).DuringthepastfiftyyearsthreeintertwinedstoriesconcernAfricasengagementwith
consumerculture.First,Africanengagementwithconsumerculturehasintensified,withthe
useofexoticconsumergoodsfromthemetropolitancountriestoconveystatusandprestige
figuringprominentlyinthisregard.Cars(seethemamaBenzofTogoorthewaBenziofEast
Africa),clothingandbuildingshavebeenimportantindicatorsofstatusasthelatterhavebeen
traditionally(Allman2004;Friedman1994;Heath1992).Africanshaveevenenthusiastically
embracedthebeautypageant.Thisengagementhasbeenfuelledbythediffusionofmore
sophisticatedmarketapparatus,transportation,andcommunications,andtheflowofmigrants
betweenAfricaandEurope.

Second,longstandingprecolonialconsumptionpracticestypicallyremainstrongly
rootedinallwalksoflife,evenascontemporarypracticesassociatedwiththecolonialandpost
colonialexperiencesarelayeredoverthem(Burke1996,172).Acontinuingtensionbetween
modernconsumerismandolderloyalties,especiallythosetothekingroup,andtoreligionis
playedoutthroughconsumption(Arnould1989).Thus,formanythemotivationdriving
consumptionisachievingincreasedfamilysolidarity,notindividualconsumerutopia(Bonsu
andBelk2003).InimmediatesubSaharanAfrica,Islamicdresshasbecomederigueurformany
politicalandcommercialelites.Athirdissueisthecomplicatedrelationshipbetween
consumerismandwhiteracialattitudesandAfricanreactions,especiallyinEastandSouth
Africawheremarketingcampaignstendedtoincorporatewhiteracistattitudes.

Everywhere,consumerismandmodernismhavebeenconfoundedbyelitesinformer
coloniesoftentakingonelementsofmetropolitanconsumerbehavior.Takingchargeof
consumerismbecomesanimportantthemeinAfricanconsumerexperience,hencearecent
explosionofinterestinneotraditionalclothandclothing.

TheIslamicMiddleEast
TheinteractionbetweenIslamandconsumerculturerepresentsaninterplaybetween
powerful,ongoingspiritualandnationalistvaluesandthenewluresofpublicdisplaysof
materialism.ThisoccursagainstabackdropofpublicdebateoverWesternsecularism
representedbycountrieslikeTurkey,Lebanon,Morroco,andEgypt,andIslamicreligious
nationalismrepresentedbycountrieslikeSaudiArabiaandtheSudan.Astrongruralurban,
richpoordivide,andbetweenthosewhohavebenefitedfromoilrevenuesandthosewhohave
not,colorsattitudestowardsconsumption(Stearns2006).
Hugenumbersofinternalmigrantsfromruralvillagestourbanslumsalsofindtheir
consumptionchoicessuspendedbetweentheexpressionofsecularandreligiousvalues.Thus,
poorconsumersillustratethreemodesofacculturation:insomecase,migrantsreconstitute
theirvillagecultureinthecity,shuttingouttheconsumeristideoscape;ortheycollectively
pursuetheconsumeristideoscapeasamyththroughritualizedconsumption;ortheygiveupon
bothpursuits,resultinginanomicresultsforidentity(stnerandHolt2007).Meanwhile,elite
consumersintheIslamicMiddleEastareavidconsumersofWesternluxuriesandmiddleclass
consumersareoftenavidconsumersofWesternfashionandmedia.Amongmiddlecalss
Islamists,Islamicfashionsindress,gendersegregatedoptionsinshoppingandluxuryvacations
havegrowndramaticallyinthepast20years(SandikciandGer2001;2002).

Resistance

Critiqueofandresistancetothespreadofconsumercultureisasoldastheemergence
ofconsumercultureinthe18thcentury.Systematiccritiqueoftheinstitutionalbasesof
consumerculturehavebeenofferedbysocialtheoriststhathighlightthealienating
dehumanizingeffectsofmaterialism(HorkheimerandAdorno1998/1944),whileothershave
commentedontheenvy,possessivenessandnongenerositycommitmenttoconsumerculture
sometimesentails(Belk1985).Someclassicexpressionsofresistancetoconsumerismhave
declinedinrecentyearsintheOECDcountriesalthoughthecritiqueofirrationallowerclass
consumptionorwomensallegedfrivolitypersistinnewerconsumercultures.Globalconsumer
culturehasnonethelessfosteredavirulentbacklash.Religious,environmentalist,nationalist,
andanticorporatecritiqueshaveemergedwithconsiderablevigor.Manyoftheseformsof
resistanceappeartobemotivatedbyaglobalsenseofanxietyabouttherisktolifeand
happinessprovokedbytheglobalizationofconsumercultureitself(Beck2006;Spence2006).In
oneglobalstudyofglobalbrands,theauthorsfoundThirteenpercentofconsumersare
skepticalthattransnationalcompaniesdeliverhigherqualitygoods.Theydislikebrandsthat
preachAmericanvaluesanddon'ttrustglobalcompaniestobehaveresponsibly.Theirbrand
preferencesindicatethattheytrytoavoiddoingbusinesswithtransnationalfirms(Holt,Qulech
andTaylor2004,74).
Antiglobalizationactivismisadiversemovementwithsomegroupspromotingvarious
anticorporateoranticonsumptionpositions(Klein2002;Schor1998).Somecallforde
consumption;othersdisputespecificelementsofglobalvaluechainssuchastheuseofGMOs
andsweatshoplabor;stillotherspromotealternativefairtradebrands(seeWitkowski2005for
areviewofthesepositions);andstillotherspromotelocalorregionalbrandssuchasMecca
Cola(Egypt)andQiblaCola(Peru),ideologicallypositionedasexplicitcompetitorstotheir
multinationalcounterparts.Antiglobalizationtakesmanyforms,notallofwhicharetruly
resistanttoconsumerculture.
Onedifficultyofresistanceforantiglobalizationactivistsliesinthetendencyfor
oppositionalforceswhetherpoliticalorculturaltobecooptednotleastbytheglobal
mediascape,whichincreasinglymediatesbetweengrassrootspopularculturalmanifestations
andmainstreamcorporateconsumerculture.Forexample,Starbucks,thenationofEthiopia,
andtheNGOOXFAMwagedarecentbattleovertherighttotrademarkregionalcoffeevarietal
namessuchasYirgacheffe,HarrarandSidamo.Thestruggleconcernedtherighttoextracta
greatershareoftheretailvalueoftheseregionallybrandedcoffeeseitherforEthiopian
producersorforStarbucks.Aviciouscourtandpublicrelationsbattleeventuatedinavictory
forOXFAMactivistsandtheEthiopiancoffeeindustry,whichmaynowretainthebranding
rights(Arnould,PlastinaandBallforthcoming).Similarly,intheUnitedStates,localcoffee
housesandregionalchainsareabletopositiontheirbrandsasantiStarbucksbrands,and
incorporatevariouslocal,fairtrade,organic,bohemian,andotherassociationsintotheirbrand
imagesthatStarbuckscannotclaim.Stillthesedoppelgangerbrands(Thompson,Rindfleisch
andArsel2006)andarejustasmuchapartofglobalconsumercultureastheglobalbrands
theycritique.

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