Education 3-13

International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education

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Development of children's creative visual

imagination: a theoretical model and
enhancement programmes

Dorota Dziedziewicz & Maciej Karwowski

To cite this article: Dorota Dziedziewicz & Maciej Karwowski (2015) Development of children's
creative visual imagination: a theoretical model and enhancement programmes, Education
3-13, 43:4, 382-392, DOI: 10.1080/03004279.2015.1020646

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 Education 3-13, 2015
Vol. 43, No. 4, 382392, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2015.1020646

Development of childrens creative visual imagination: a theoretical

model and enhancement programmes
Dorota Dziedziewicz and Maciej Karwowski*

Academy of Special Education, Creative Education Lab, 40 Szczesliwicka St., 02-353 Warsaw, Poland
(Received 19 August 2014; accepted 25 November 2014)
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This paper presents a new theoretical model of creative imagination and its applications
in early education. The model sees creative imagination as composed of three inter-
related components: vividness of images, their originality, and the level of
transformation of imageries. We explore the theoretical and practical consequences of
this new model. At the theoretical level, we argue that it is important to analyse
creative visual imagination as both a process (understood as a cognitive mechanism)
and typologically (revealing different types of creative imagination). On a practical
level, we present preliminary applications and discuss several creativity training
programmes for developing childrens creative imagination understood as the
effective and coordinated cooperation between vividness, originality, and
transformative ability of images.
Keywords: creative imagery; creative imagination; imagery development

Introduction
Imagination is the engine of childrens creativity (Vygotsky [1930] 2004). Studies into chil-
drens creative imagination have a long history but many important questions remain unan-
swered. Scholars have yet to develop creative imagination theories to the same degree that
models of divergent thinking, insight, or remote associations have been developed.
This paper opens with a short discussion of the history of studies of imagination.
However, our main purpose is to present a new model of visual creative imagination,
which foregrounds the prole analysis of vividness, originality, and transformative
ability. This model has become the matrix, on the basis of which we describe programmes
that develop childrens creative imagination. Practitioners working with children may look
for additional inspiration in the presentation of the imagination training Eureka, in which
stimulation is based on the described model and on the three elements of creative imagin-
ation: vividness, originality, and transformative ability. These are shown to be key charac-
teristics that are indispensable for the effective functioning of imagination and thus deserve
attention in educational contexts.

*Corresponding author. Email: maciek.karwowski@gmail.com

2015 ASPE
 Education 3-13 383

Creative visual imagination and creativity

Visual imagination is responsible for creating, interpreting, and transforming what is seen
with the minds eye. The creation of visual images is associated with reproducing elements
from past observations (Thompson, Hsiao, and Kosslyn 2011). In this sense, scholars some-
times refer to imagination as a mental review of the past (Reber 1995, 359), although we
cannot reduce imagination to simply reproducing reality or reconstructing objects, events,
and situations seen before. The creative nature of visual imagination is expressed in the cre-
ation of new, unprecedented ideas that are signicantly different from the view of reality we
store in our minds (Finke 1999).
Aside from creative thinking, creative visual imagination is one of the most impor-
tant abilities that inuence the effective use of creative potential (Ren et al. 2012).
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According to Vygotsky ([1930] 2004, [1931] 1991), imagination and thinking

combine to help children understand the world that surrounds them. A rich creative
imagination in childhood may also signal later creative achievements (Runco, Nemiro,
and Walberg 1998). The literature has many examples showing that visual imagination
plays a role in the inventions and achievements of eminent scientists and artists such as,
for example, Friedrich A. Kekul, James Black, or Paul Klee (Ho, Wang, and Cheng
2013; Morrison and Wallace 2001; Root-Bornstein and Root-Bornstein 2004; Rothen-
berg 1995).
The early correlational studies exploring the relations between imagination and creativ-
ity appeared in the 1960s (see Vellera and Gavard-Perret 2012, for a discussion). This line
of research then developed in two directions: searching for the relation between imagination
and creative abilities, mainly divergent thinking (Morrison and Wallace 2001; Campos,
Lopez, Gonzalez, and Prez-Fabello 2000; Rhodes 1981; Shaw 1985; Shaw and DeMers
1986), and searching for the relation between imagination and personality (Barraca et al.
2010; Khatena 1975; Schmeidler 1965). Results of this body of research demonstrated a
moderate relationship between creative imagination and divergent thinking (see Dziedzie-
wicz, Oledzka, and Karwowski 2013). The relationship between imagination and elements
of the creative attitude such as openness to experience or nonconformity is weaker but
usually also statistically signicant (Karwowski 2008).

Theories of creative imagination

In 1906, Thodule A. Ribot, a key gure in associative psychology, presented the rst com-
prehensive theoretical concept of creative imagination within psychology (Lenoir 1920).
He dened imagination as an anthropocentric ability of the mind, whose functioning
depends on two mechanisms dissociation and association. Dissociation is the distribution
of ideas and representations that arise on the basis of observations and remembered experi-
ences. It is an introduction to the association that enables combining of elements of mental
images in accordance with Aristotelian laws of association: contact in time (linking mental
images that coexist with each other or are connected by time succession), contact in space
(linking mental images that coexist with each other in the same space), similarity (linking
mental images based on impartial similarity of imaged subjects), and contrast (linking
mental images as a consequence of contrast of presented contents). This is where incom-
plete images appear. They are of a creative character, because what characterises them is
low reconstructive accuracy of previous experience (Ribot 1906).
In the 1930s, Vygotsky ([1930] 2004, [1931] 1991) presented his own theory of creative
imagination, which he called combinatorial. According to Vygotsky, newness, which is the
 384 D. Dziedziewicz and M. Karwowski

main trait of creative imagination, is a result of combining and transforming fragments of

remembered reality. Similar to the higher order mental functions, imagination develops
under the inuence of language that orders experiences (Gajdamaschko 1999; Lindqvist
2003; Smolucha and Smolucha 1986). According to Vygotsky, development is an
effect of internalisation, that is, gradual assimilation and acceptance of cultural tools
(items and skills handed down from generation to generation), and the process of
externalisation (externalisation of assimilated values and norms). Thanks to creative
imagination, especially the transformation and reorganisation of mental images, this
process is not a simple transfer from the external (social) to the internal (private). It
might be of creative nature, which means that it can result in creative products (Moran
and John-Steiner 2003).
Almost 40 years after Vygotsky presented his concept, Rozet ([1977] 1982) put forth his
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own theory of fantasy a mental activity that results in the creation of something new, for
example, new images, original ideas, thoughts, compositions, new image combinations, a
new way of ordering them, and new interrelations. Accentuating the elements of newness
and value (subjective or objective), the author emphasised that creative imagination
(fantasy) rejects emulation, imitation, and copying. Moreover, he also characterised two
hypothetical mechanisms of creative imagination anaxiomatisation and hyperaxiomatisa-
tion. Anaxiomatisation is associated with the lack of determined direction, rejecting routine
ways of solving a task, diminishing the importance of commonplace views, and widening
existing categories of meanings. Hyperaxiomatisation carries out a stabilising function and
concerns evaluation of created imagery.
At the beginning of the 1990s, Ward (1994) presented the concept of structured imagin-
ation. In this concept, the operation of creative imagination comes down to generating new
fragments of knowledge within the frame of existing domains, for example, imagining an
animal living on a planet other than Earth, a person relies on the characteristics of a typical
dog. Conceptual expansion or providing new structure to notions (e.g. by adding new
characteristics) is responsible for this process.
The aforementioned theories emphasise the creative function of the imagination,
although they accentuate its different mechanisms. In the description of its operation, the
ability to generate vivid and complex imageries, the ability to manipulate the images,
and originality as the basic characteristics of creative imagination are often emphasised
(Ward 1994) (Table 1).

Table 1. Theories of creative imagination.

Author Mechanism Creative imagination components
Thodule A. Ribot Dissociation Vividness
Association Novelty
Transformative ability
Lew S. Vygotski Externalisation Vividness
Novelty
Transformative ability
Igor M. Rozet Anaxiomatisation Vividness
Hyperaxiomatisation Novelty
Value (subjective and objective)
Thomas B. Ward Concepts extension Generation of images
Novelty and originality
Transformativity
 Education 3-13 385
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Figure 1. The conjunctional model of creative imaging ability.

A new theoretical model of creative imagination

We dene creative imagination as the ability to create and transform representations that are
based on the material of past observations but signicantly transcending them the so-
called creative representations. The following are hypothetical dimensions that comprise
the creative imaging ability in this model: (1) vividness the ability to create lucid and
expressive images that are characterised by high complexity and level of detail; (2) orig-
inality the ability to produce creative imageries characterised by newness and uniqueness;
and (3) transformative abilities abilities to transform created imageries. In this model, the
creative imaging ability results from combining these three dimensions. Moreover, we
assume that these abilities co-depend on perception (Brtolo 2005), attention (Thompson,
Hsiao, and Kosslyn 2011), memory (Atwood 1971), language, thinking (Reichling 1990),
and emotional and motivational processes (Lang et al. 1993) (Figure 1).
Combining the three dimensions, that is, vividness, originality, and transformative
ability, leads to typological analyses of childrens abilities for creative imaging as well as
shows the complexity of such abilities. A typological approach results in at least four
main types. These are the following: (1) creative imaging ability (high vividness of
imagery, high originality, and high transformative ability), (2) pro-creative imaging
ability (high originality and high transformative ability), (3) passive imaging ability
(high vividness of imagery and high originality), and (4) vivid imaginative abilities (high
vividness and high transformative ability).
 386 D. Dziedziewicz and M. Karwowski

High and low levels of these three dimensions are of particular importance in edu-
cational assessment. Assessments of childrens creative imaging abilities enable edu-
cational activities to be designed so that they respond to their developmental abilities
and needs. We developed a new test, which provides us with the opportunity to assess crea-
tive imagination using this new model (Dziedziewicz and Karwowski under review).

Creative imagination development with the use of ctionalisation

Fictionalisation is the organisation of classes based on narrative, creating stories, and role
play. It is used, for example, in working with a puppet, educational drama, or the storyline
method. Fictionalised classes may relate to a particular subject, for example, travel. In the
programme Creativity Compass (Dziedziewicz, Gajda, and Karwowski 2014), the main
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theme of the ctionalisation is travelling with your minds eye to various countries,
cities, and regions. The programmes fundamental task is to stimulate the development
of a childs creativity (including creative imagination), as well as intercultural competences,
such as intercultural sensitivity and cultural self-awareness. Fictionalisation can also be
based on the presentation of a particular heros adventures. This can be a hero or a hand-
made puppet mascot, for example, Gacus the bat in the programme Upside down: the inven-
tive world of two- and three-year-olds (Dziedziewicz and Karwowska 2010). Not always,
however, must the hero be physically present in the classroom. Hero ctionalisation may
also be represented only in the book, such as Dragony Kai, hero of the programme Crea-
tive doodle: the adventures of dragony Kai (Dziedziewicz, Gajda, and Karwowska 2011a,
2011b; Dziedziewicz, Oldzka, and Karwowski 2013) or even in mind in role-play training
in creativity (Karwowski and Soszyski 2008).
In work with younger children, ctionalisation centred around the adventures of the
main heroes is usually very efcient in the development of creative imagination. Anthropo-
morphisation of the presented world and personication of the hero make it easier for chil-
dren to understand both described adventures and the hero (Piaget 1926). For example, the
creative doodles programme was demonstrated to be most effective among four-year-olds
(Dziedziewicz, Oldzka, and Karwowski 2013), although its effectiveness among ve- and
six-year-olds was also satisfactory. Stimulation of creative imagination for this type of
activity can be enhanced by the inclusion of pretend play. Because of this, children are
able to detach from what they perceive in the given moment (Duffy 2006). Also thanks
to such fun activities, young children naturally give new meanings to objects and hence
activate their creative imagining abilities; for example, pillows on the oor become an
obstacle course and a paper plate becomes a driving wheel.
During ctionalised classes with older children imagery techniques can be applied. The
purpose of these techniques is to activate and direct imagery processes. They are about
recreating or creating mental images, most frequently with the full involvement of the
senses (Gur and Reyher 1976; Scott, Leritz, and Mumford 2004) (Table 2).
Regardless of the type of ctionalisation, classes of this type should form a coherent
whole. All proposed plays and exercises should be bonded by the plot of a real or imaginary
story told by the teacher. Systematic organisation of this type of activity stimulates not just
cognitive, emotional, and social development, but is also conducive to developing a childs
imagination. In order for the world described during fun activities to actually take shape,
children must rst create it in their imagination. An evaluation study of the Creativity
Compass programme conrmed the effectiveness of ctionalisation in the stimulation of
creative imagination development (Dziedziewicz, Gajda, and Karwowski 2014). The
study, both in pre-test and in post-test, examined childrens creative imagination with the
 Education 3-13 387

Table 2. Creativity Compass example activities using the SCAMPER imaginary technique.
Modifying verbs and control question
Substitute (What can it be substituted
with?)
Combine (Can it be combined with
something else?)
Adapt (Can something be adapted from
somewhere?)
Modify, magnify, minify (Can colour,
movement, sound be changed?)
Put to other uses (Can it be used for
different purposes?)
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Example activity Road trafc in Delhi
Task: Children sitting at a long table in the middle of
which paper tape symbolising the streets in Delhi is
glued. Each child draws a picture of at least two means
of transport, then, using questions from the SCAMPER
technique, changes the selected features of the drawn
transport. On this basis, children draw a vehicle that
can handle the road trafc in Delhi, caused by a street
blocked by cow, which in the beliefs of Hindus is
regarded as sacred and inviolable. At the end, children
put their drawings on paper tape, creating a long trafc

Eliminate (Is everything necessary?) jam and talk about their projects. They can also create
Rearrange, reverse (Can proportions be prototypes of vehicles, for example, with aluminium
changed?) foil. The play ends with the awarding of patents,
conrming the novelty of created vehicles
Discovery: Understanding the specics of daily life in
Delhi (jammed streets) and worship of sacred cows,
which embody the Hindu goddess Prithvi, Mother
Earth

use of the Franck Drawing Completion Test (Anastasi and Schaefer 1971). Prior to the
experiment, the creative imagination level of children in the experimental group did not
differ signicantly from the results of the control group. After its completion, there was
a statistically signicant increase in the creative imagination in the group of children
who participated in the activities carried out under this programme.

Eureka imaginative training

The concept of the imaginative training programme called Eureka comes from the model
of the creative imaging abilities we presented earlier. Its most important goal is to activate
and stimulate development of creative imaging abilities as well as to release the passion to
create. The set of training activities also develop attention, memory, perceptivity, thinking
including creative thinking and creative self-beliefs (see Karwowski 2014) and linguistic
abilities, as well as motivation, which fosters creativity (Figure 2).
The programme is structured around activities that refer to inventing. Each meetings
main theme is the history of an everyday invention, such as a hairdryer, door lock,
clock, or computer. The inventions the programme describes were selected in such a way
that they present well-known objects and everyday things, thanks to which our lives
became simpler. The purpose of such an operation is to show that inventions are for every-
body and change everyday life for the better. Proles of inventors, whose great creations
frequently started with simple questions and deep observations, reinforce the belief in chil-
dren that each of them has a chance to change the world by coming up with something
brand new.
The Eureka programme was prepared for children aged 59, as, close to the end of
preschool education, the ability to ask questions undergoes intensive development. It is
the so-called age of asking questions (Piaget 1926). The questions children pose in this
period reveal their cognitive curiosity and foretell the development of research attitudes.
Reinforcing such behaviours and inspiring the search for answers to questions by means
 388 D. Dziedziewicz and M. Karwowski
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Figure 2 Theoretical model of the original imagination training, called Eureka.

of engaging creative imagination may fuel development of a childs creativity as well as

pro-innovative attitude. The activities that the programme includes may take place in pre-
school and elementary school and as part of extracurricular activities, interest circles and
creativity training sessions, educational picnics for children, and many other events
where the aim is to popularise inventions and discoveries.
All activities within the programme have a three-stage structure: (1) preparation, (2)
imaging, and (3) transforming. At each of the stages, the training activities take the form
of so-called banks of activities from which the teacher selects those that correspond to
the abilities and needs of the group. In order to encourage the trainers to modify proposed
activities and nd inspiration in them when creating original activities, the programme does
not include typical activity scenarios.
The preparation stage initiates the theme. It prepares the children to undertake creative
activity. Its purpose is to encourage children to act and make it easier to focus on future
activities. It also emphasises certain thematic content that refers to the specicity of a crea-
tive process and to gathering basic information about the invention. Children then use the
information at consecutive stages of the programme. The information is about the creators
proles, the circumstances that lead to the invention, as well as curious facts about them. At
this stage, children gather new information and order and structure it together with previous
experiences within the theme. Imagination is activated in all perceptive modalities, thanks
to simple visualisations of things, phenomena, activities, and processes that children know
 Education 3-13 389

from their everyday lives. Curious facts about the invention are included, for example, aty-
pical uses or functions of the invention, thematically connected records, amusing or surpris-
ing anecdotes about the creators, and how the invention came to be.
The purpose of the imagery phase is to stimulate creative imagining abilities. At this
stage, the activities are focused on developing creative ideations that take shape from the
material of past observation, but signicantly stray away from remembered reality. More-
over, children develop the ability to create symbols and metaphors within the frame of an
image code. Animating the representations and making them dynamic are possible, thanks
to the use of, for example, personication, but also by means of imaging movement and
imagining fantastic stories and tales.
The stage of transforming stimulates the ability to change and control imagery. At this
stage, the activities refer to basic operations of transforming the representations, such as
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reintegration, multiplication, perseverance, animation, colour, and spatial inversion (Mod-

kowski 1998). Transforming representations is most frequently about changing selected

Table 3. Example activities from the scenario that refers to the invention of a hairdryer.
Training stage Example activities
Preparation A new version of a hairdryer
Starting point: The rst hairdryers were used not just to dry hair, but also to cure
ailments, such as rheumatism
Activity: The children are to come up with an alternative use for a hairdryer so
that it could be used by representatives of other professions, such as a cook,
teacher, mail-person, etc. Then, children are to imagine the event they have
just invented where a hairdryer is used for the rst time in this unusual way,
and to describe or summarise it in the form of a story star (Buehl 2001):
Who? Where? When? What happened? How did it end? Listening to the
stories of their classmates they are to imagine these activities with their eyes
closed
Creative imaging Thoughts and words
Activity: The children are to imagine an extraordinary hairdryer that has human
features it thinks and talks and shows different emotions. Then, the children
are to select one emotion the hairdryer feels (e.g. curiosity, surprise, sadness,
pride, shame, anger, fear, surprise) and add the words it says and draw its
thoughts. The activity is preceded by a short visualisation that shows
situations where we experience various emotions. The children can draw
additional elements of the hairdryer that are unusual and that render the
character of the selected emotion. At the end, the children present their work
and imagined stories that refer to the cause of the described emotion
Creative An untypical photograph
transforming Activity: The children are to draw a representation of elements of an untypical
photograph on the basis of bits of a told story. At the end, they can also draw
other, optional elements that make it easier to tell the situation that the photo
proposes
Imagining instructions: Imagine that you are entering a room. You look up at
the ceiling and instead of a chandelier there is a hairdryer. Take a close
look at it. What colour is it? What shape? Is it on? [Draw it] There is
something green on the carpet and it smells. Come closer to it to look at it?
What is it? [Draw it] Something soft is next to it and it makes funny sounds.
Can you hear them? What might it be? Do you know? [Draw it] In the same
room, by an open window, there is someone standing in a very strange pose.
What do you think happened? What is this person doing? Who is it? Do you
know this person? [Draw it]
 390 D. Dziedziewicz and M. Karwowski

characteristics of an imagined object, for example, appearance, structure, function, or use.

The assumption is that these modications are to lead to the creation of new and original
solutions. This is why the activities encourage creative transformation or creation of far-
reaching transformations (the nal object is different in many respects from the starting
one) and original transformations (the nal object is surprising, inventive, and atypical,
but it still makes sense) (Table 3).

Discussion
The theoretical model of creative imagination presented in this paper places special empha-
sis on vividness, transformativeness, and originality key characteristics that are indispen-
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sable for the effective functioning of imagination. Previous research shows that vividness,
transformativeness, and originality may be effectively supported even among young chil-
dren (three- to four-year-olds) (Dziedziewicz, Gajda, and Karwowski 2014; Dziedziewicz,
Oldzka, and Karwowski 2013). Importantly, it is possible to support the development of
these elements of imagination in many ways and place different emphases in various inter-
ventional and educational programmes (Scott, Leritz, and Mumford 2004). Activities based
on artistic activity so typical for preschool classes mainly concentrate on vividness and
focus less on the transformativeness and originality of childrens creations. On the other
hand, typical activities that are based on the creativity training method strongly emphasise
originality, and leave the two remaining elements aside to some extent. This is why the most
fundamental aim of the programmes, which we briey discussed earlier, and also other
activities aimed at stimulating childrens creative imagination, should be to balance
imagery, originality, and transformativeness, maybe even focusing more on the latter. It
is perhaps justied to see a basic mechanism that is responsible for creative imagination
precisely in the ability to transform. This is why children should have effective support
in mastering the active transformation of their own representations.

Acknowledgements
The authors thank Vlad Petre Glaveanu for his helpful comments to the previous version of this paper.

Funding
The study was supported by a grant from National Science Centre, Poland for the rst author [grant
number UMO 2011/03/N/HS6/05153].

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