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Gladkova Kutylovskaya Selected Questions and Problems in Physicso PDF
Gladkova Kutylovskaya Selected Questions and Problems in Physicso PDF
SELECTED
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
IN PHYSICS
P. A . fjjaflKOBa, H . II. KyTMJiOBCKaa
Selected
Questions and Problems
in Physics
Mir Publishers
Moscow
Translated from Russian by
N atalia W adhwa
Ha aHBAUUCKOM Jl3blKe
P r i n t e d in th e U n io n o f S o v i e t S o c i a l i s t R e p u b l i c s
Preface 7
General M ethodical Instructions 8
R . Gladkova
N . Kutylovskaya
General Methodical Instructions
Worked Problems
Problem 1. D eterm ine the am ount of substance (in moles)
contained in (a) 1 kg of mercury, and (b) 5.6 dm 3 of oxygen
under norm al conditions.
Given: m x = 1 kg is the mass of m ercury, V0 = 5.6 dm 3 =
5.6 X 103 m3 is the volume of oxygen under norm al condi
tions. From tables, we find the m olar mass of m ercury,
M x = 200.6 X 10~3 kg/mol, the m olar mass of oxygen,
M 2 = 32 X 10"3 kg/mol, and the density of oxygen under
normal conditions, p0 = 1.43 kg/m 3.
F ind : the am ount of substance v x in 1 kg of m ercury and
the am ount of substance, v2, in 5.6 dm 3 of oxygen under
normal conditions.
Solution. The am ount of substance in 1 kg of m ercury
can be determ ined as follows:
v41 = m Ji Ni I i%
i
= 200.6
onn ax 10-3 kg/m
,;ol
s- = 4.98 mol.
N 1i = QO0 -^ 53 kg ; 1
32 X 10-3 k g /m o l
X 6.022 < 1023 mol"* ~ 9.4 x 10 .
V = Vm y 1 . 8 x 1 0 5 m 3/m o l _ ^ q 3 x jQ -2 8 m 3
Na 6.022 x l O 23 m o l" 1 A
I t was stated in the problem th a t w ater m olecules are
spherical and closely packed (Fig. 1), i.e. the gaps between
the molecules are negligibly sm all. Hence we can assume
th a t the elem entary volume V taken from the m olar volume
V m w ill contain one molecule whose diam eter is approxi
m ately equal to the edge of the cube:
< 2=3/ F ,
d = V 0.3 x lO"28 m3 ~ 3 x 10"10 m.
In the general form, the solution is
d = y v = y v j N ~ A -.= j w W a -
Answer. The volume of a w ater molecule is approxim ately
3 X 1029 m 3, and the diam eter of a molecule is about
3 X 1010 m.
16 Ch. I. Fundam entals of Molecular Physics
* v t 453 m/s n a i _a
X==T ~ 7"55 x 10* s-1 = X m,
i - v , t = g-P453
* 10~8
, m = 1.3 x 10~10 s
m /s
2 IT 2 _
P '4 n0 ^ k o 0 9 1
where n0 is the num ber of molecules per m 3 (number densi
ty) and Ex is the m ean kinetic energy of a molecule.
In an isochoric process, the pressure of a gas is proportion
al to its therm odynam ic tem perature: p j p 2 = T XI T 2, and
This gives
p = w0&7\
where k = R / N A = 1.38 X 10~23 J/K is the B oltzm ann
constant.
The m ean values of the kinetic energy of translatory m o
tion of molecules of different gases at the same tem perature
2. V elocities of M olecules 21
( .nusequently,
Lrmsi __ 1 / mo2
VTmS2 V '""I
Worked Problems
Problem 8. Determ ine the mean value of the kinetic ener
gy and the root-m ean-square velocity of helium molecules
under norm al conditions.
Given: the pressure and tem perature of helium under nor
mal conditions are p 0 = 1.013 X 106 Pa and T 0 = 273 K
respectively. From tables, we find the m olar mass of h e li
um, M = 4 X 103 kg/mol, the Boltzm ann constant k =
1.38 x 10~23 J /K , the Avogadro constant N A = 6.02 X
I023 m ol1, and the density of helium under norm al condi
tions, p0 = 0.18 kg/in3.
Find: the m ean kinetic energy of a helium m olecule, E k,
and the root-m ean-square velocity of helium molecules, v Tm6.
Solution. We express the mean kinetic energy of a helium
molecule in term s of the tem perature: 2?k = (3/2) k T 0. For
monatomic gases like helium , this w ill be the to ta l kinetic
energy of molecules:
= |x 1.38 x 10~23 J/K x 273 K ~ 5.65 x 102 J.
,-y. 2E N A
M
- / ,x x^ x, S lgg I - m/8'
Answer. The mean kinetic energy of a molecule is 5.65 X
10-21 J, the root-m ean-square velocity is about 1300 m /s.
22 Ch. I. Fundam entals of Molecular P h ysics
PoVo/To = p V /T .
I t should be noted th a t p 0 and T 0 are known and equal to
1.013 X 105 Pa and 273 K. Therefore, in order to determ ine
F 0 it is sufficient to know the values of p, F, and T .
The equation of sta te of a gas is applicable to isotherm al,
isobaric, and isochoric processes. Indeed, by cancelling out
the param eter which is constant for a given process, we ob
tain :
3. Equation of State for an Ideal Gas 25
Worked Problems
Problem 10. A cylinder contains a gas at a tem perature
of 17C and a pressure of 1.0 M Pa. W hat w ill be the change
in the pressure if the tem perature is lowered to 23C?
26 Ch. I. Fundam entals of Molecular P hysics
We shall w rite the param eters for the first and second states
of the gas separately. The param eters of the first state are
p x = 1.0 X 106 Pa, T x = 290 K, and the param eters of the
second sta te are T 2 = 250 K, p 2 = ?
Let us determ ine the gas pressure p 2 after the tem perature
has been lowered and calculate the pressure difference Ap:
V), or
Pi
whence
TT = or TT = T 7 T ^ F (C harles ,aw)-
Let us solve th is equation for T x: VXT X + Vx A T =
VyTy^ + A V T X, whence
rp V i h. T rri ^ l X l K O Q fi If
1i~ AF 1 1~ 0.0035F!
Answer. The gas tem perature before heating was 286 K .
Problem 13. Two cylinders having volumes 3 1 and 7 1 are
filled respectively w ith oxygen at a pressure of 200 kPa
and nitrogen a t a pressure of 300 kPa a t the same tem pera
ture. The cylinders are connected and after a certain tim e
each w ill contain a gas m ixture at the same tem perature.
Determ ine the pressure of the gas m ixture in the cylinders.
Given: F 10x = 3 1 and p 10x = 200 kPa are the volume
and the pressure of the oxygen prior to the connection of
the cylinders, Fim t = 7 1 and Pm it = 300 kP a are the
volume and the pressure of the nitrogen prior to the con
nection of the cylinders.
Find: the pressure p of the gas m ixture.
28 Ch. I. Fundam entals of M olecular P h ysics
w hen ce
Pi Vi T2
T iP2
9.975 X 104 Pa x 2.5 X 10"3 m 3 X 278 K
= 1.2 X 10 3 m3.
293 K X 2 X 105 Pa
From V0 and p0, we can determ ine the mass of the oxygen:
m = p0F 0, m = 1.43 kg/m3 X 63.6 m3 = 91 kg.
Answer. The volume of the oxygen under norm al condi
tions is 63.6 m3, the mass is approxim ately 91 kg.
Remark. The problem can be solved by using the equation
PjF, = ^ R T X, from which we first determ ine the mass
ni = ^H 1 ! We can find the gas volume from the density
of the oxygen under normal conditions:
Vq = m /p 0 .
Problem 16. A cylinder contains acetylene a t 27C under
a pressure of 4.05 M Pa. W hat w ill the pressure in the c y lin
der be after half the mass of the gas has been used up if the
tem perature has fallen thereby to 12C?
Given: T x = 300 K and p x = 4.05 X 106 Pa are the in i
tial tem perature and pressure of the gas in the cylinder,
T2 = 285 K is the tem perature of the rem aining gas, m 2 =
0.5 m x is the mass of the consumed gas.
Find: the pressure p 2 of the gas rem aining in the cylinder.
Solution. In this problem, the tem perature, pressure, and
mass of the gas change. Therefore, it is best to use the equa
tions of state for the two cases in the form
p .V ^ ^ -R T , and R T 2.
P,MPq
Is o b a r
0.2
0.1
<5
-
___________ i____________
0.7 OA Vm*
Fig. 3 F ig. 4
F ig. 6 F ig. 7
Worked Problems
Problem 20. In order to determ ine the specific heat of
copper, a copper cylinder of mass 0.5 kg is heated to 100C
and then placed in an alum inium calorim eter of mass 40 g,
containing 300 g of w ater at a tem perature of 15C. As a
result of heat exchange, the calorim eter stabilizes at tem
perature 26C. W hat is the specific heat of copper in this
experim ent? Compare the obtained result w ith the ta b u la t
ed value and determ ine the absolute and the relative error.
Given: m c = 0.5 kg is the mass of the copper cylinder,
T = 373 K is the in itia l tem perature of the cylinder, ma =
0.04 kg is the mass of the calorim eter, m w = 0.3 kg is the
40____________Ch. I. F u n d a m e n tals of M olecular P h y sics
mc ( r - 0 )
S u b stitu tin g the num erical v a lu es of the know n q u a n ti
tie s, w e ca lc u la te th e specific h eat for copper:
(880 J/)k g - K) X 0.0 4k g -1-4187 J / (k g -K ) X 0.3 kg) X (290 K - 288K)
c 0.5 kg (373 K 299 K)
~ 3 8 4 J /( k g - K ) .
The ab so lu te error is
Ac = cc c lab,
Ac = 384 J /(k g -K ) 380 J /(k g -K ) ~ 4 J /(k g -K ).
T he re la tiv e error is
Ac 4 J/(kg-K)
4. T he C hange in the In te rn a l E n erg y 41
r crn./?tra|8 cca;mr.nTw-
A ll the term s co n ta in in g 8 can be transferred to the right-
hand sid e of the equation:
x -+J-kg^-K^-kg
r l ;K: I;kr K ^ 30 7 k, 0 = 34c.
5. PROPERTIES OF VAPOURS
Q = rm, r = Q/m.
5 = -^-1 0 0 % , or = 100%.
Ps Ps
Worked Problems
Problem 26. How much heat is required to raise the tem
perature of 200 g of w ater from 10C to the boiling point and
to vaporize 10% of it? Assume th a t there are no energy los
ses.
Given: m w = 0.2 kg is the mass of the cold w ater, t =
10C, or T = 283 K , is the tem perature of the cold w ater,
ttisteam = 0.1 m w is the mass of steam . From tables, we
find the specific heat of w ater, cw = 4187 J/(k g -K ) ~
4190 J/(k g -K ), the boiling point of w ater, t b = 100C, or
T h = 373 K , and the specific late n t heat of vaporization of
w ater, r = 2.26 x 106 J/k g .
F in d: the am ount of heat Q (spent energy).
Solution. Since the w ater tem perature is below the boiling
point, it m ust be heated from T to T b, for which the am ount
Qx = cwm w ( T h T) of heat is required. The am ount of
heat required to vaporize the w ater is Q2 = w steamr * or
Q2 = 0.1 /rcwr.
The process is known to occur w ithout energy losses.
Consequently, the to tal am ount of heat th a t m ust be spent is
Q = Qi + (?2>
Qx = 4190 J/(kg-K ) x 0.2 kg x 90 K = 75420 J
= 75.42 kJ,
5. Properties of Vapours 53
Whence ( r b - r ) + m steam _
or 0 = 49C.
Figure 10 shows the tem perature versus the am ount of
heat, t = f (iQ). The tem perature rem ains unchanged over
segment A B (the evolution of heat during condensation
occurs due to a decrease in the poten
tia l energy of interaction between
the m olecules). The tem perature of
condensate falls from ^steam to 1
over segment BC (cooling the con
densate liberates heat). The tem per- A
ature of the cold w ater increases
from T to 0 over segment CD (the <
process involves the absorption
of heat).
Answer. The final tem perature 0 Fi- 10
is approxim ately 49C.
Problem 29. 1.5 1 of w ater at 20C are poured into an a lu
m inium pot whose mass is 600 g and put on an electric hot
plate whose efficiency is 75% . In 35 m in the w ater boils and
20% of it is converted into steam . W hat is the power of the
hot plate?
Given: m a = 0.6 kg is the mass of the alum inium pot,
F = 1.5 1 = 1.5 x 103 m3 is the volume of the w ater,
t0 = 20C is the in itia l tem perature of the w ater and the
pot, t] = 75% = 0.75 is the efficiency of the hot plate,
t = 35 X 60 s is the duration of the process, and m stea m =
0.2m w is the mass of the steam formed. From tables, we
take the boiling point of w ater, = 100C, the specific
heat of alum inium , ca = 880 J/(k g -K ), the density of w ater,
p = 103 kg/m 3, the specific heat of w ater, cw ~ 4190
J/(kg-K ), and the specific late n t heat of vaporization for
water, r = 2.26 X 106 J/kg.
Find: the power P of the hot plate.
Solution. The am ount of heat required to heat the w ater in
the pot and to convert part of it into steam (which w ill be
5a Ch. I. Fundam entals of Molecular P hysics
lute hum idity of the air, pa . Using the form ula B 1 = pa/p Si
for relative hum idity, we obtain
!>a = BiPsi = 0.7 X 17.3 X 103 kg/m 3 = 12.1 X 10"3 kg/m 3.
Using Table 6, we find th a t a vapour having a density of
12.1 X 10"3 kg/m 3 is saturated a t 14C. Consequently, the
dew point is 14C.
In order to answer the second question, we m ust use the
same table. The saturated vapour density at 11C, i.e. the
m aximum density, is p S2 = 10 X 10-3 kg/m 3. Before the
dew precipitates, the mass of the air in the room is =
(>aF, and after th at, m 2 = pS2 ^* Consequently, the mass of
the vapour precipitated in the form of dew is
Am = m x m2, Am = paF p S2V = V (pa p s2),
Am = 60 m3 (12.1 X 103 kg/m 3 10 X 103 kg/m 3)
= 126 x 10-3 kg.
Since the absolute h um idity at 11C is the m axim um ad
m issible density a t this tem perature, the relative h u m id ity
is B 2 = 100%.
Answer. The dew point is 14C, the mass of the condensed
vapour is 126 g, and the relative hum id ity is 100% .
Problem 31. The relative hum idity of air a t a tem perature
of 16C is 54% . W hat is the reading of the w et-bulb therm o
m eter of a psychrom eter? W hat is the absolute h u m id ity of
the air?
Given: B = 54% = 0.54 is the relative hum idity of the
air and t = 16C is the air tem perature. From tables, we
take psl6 = 13.6 X 10~3 kg/m 3.
Find: the reading w of the w et-bulb therm om eter and the
absolute hum idity of the air, pa.
Solution. We shall use Table 20. In the first colum n, we
find 16C (the reading of the dry-bulb therm om eter). From
the same row, we take a relative hum idity of 54% . I t lies
in the column for which the tem perature difference between
the readings of the dry-bulb and the wet-bulb therm om eters
is 5C. Consequently, t t w = 5C, whence
fw = f - 5C, t w = 16C - 5C = 11C.
In order to find the absolute hum idity, we w rite B =
Pa/Psie from which
Pa = ^ P s i 6*
pa = 0.54 x 13.6 x 10~3 kg/m 3 = 7.3 X 10~3 kg/m 3.
58 Ch. I. Fundam entals of M olecular P h ysics
6. PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
Worked Problem*
Problem 33. A fram e in the form of equilateral triangle
w ith sides 4 cm long is carefully placed on the surface of
water. W hat force keeps the fram e on the surface? W hat
Ch. I. Fundam entals of Molecular P h ysics
1 Pir
i, _ 2 x 0 .0 7 2 N/m _ n q w *n-a
1 _ 103 kg/m3x 9.81 m/s* x 1 .5x 1 0 -3 m m.
M ercury is a liquid which does not wet glass. Therefore,
the Laplacian pressure is directed downwards, into the bulk
of the liquid. Hence the m ercury is forced down the c a p il
lary.
The height to which a nonw etting liquid is forced down is
determ ined by using the same form ula
2g 2
P2 gr
h = ________________2 x 0 . 4 7 N /m ________________ ^ 4 7 X 10~3 m
2 1 .3 6 X 1 0 4 k g /m 3 x 9.81 m /s2 X 1 .5 x 1 0 - 3 m 11K
Answer. The w ater rises in the capillary by about 9.8 m m,
w hile the m ercury is lowered by 4.7 mm.
P= - i r - = - l r ( A 0 2-
W hen a solid changes its sta te of aggregation (when i t
m elts), the separation between the particles in the crystal
lattic e increases, and the la ttic e is destroyed. The potential
energy of the in teractio n between molecules (particles)
increases.
To m elt 1 kg of a solid a t its m elting point, a certain
am ount of heat X is required, which is known as the specific
70 Ch. I. Fundam entals of Molecular P hysics
la te n t heat of fusion:
k = Qlm.
The specific late n t heat of fusion is measured in joules per
kilogram (J/kg).
In order to m elt a crystalline substance, heat m ust be spent
to heat it to its m elting point and to convert it into a liquid:
Q = cm (T m T) -f- km.
W orked Problems
Problem 36. D eterm ine the elongation of a copper rod hav
ing a length of 6 m and a cross-sectional area of 0.4 cm 2
under the action of a force of 2 kN.
Given: I = 6 m is the length of the rod, S = 0.4 x
10 4 m 2 is its cross-sectional area, and F = 2 X 103 N is
the applied force. From tables, we take Y oungs m odulus
for copper E = 130 x 109 Pa.
Find: the elongation A/ of the rod.
Solution. We shall solve the problem using H ookes
law -y - = a, or - y - = , whence
ai FI XJ 2 x 103 N X 6 m 9 Qv ia .
ES 130 X 109 Pa X 0 .4 X 104 m 2 X 0 m*
The received heat (?rec is the sum of the heat spent to m elt
the ice, and the heat spent to heat the cold w ater
and the w ater obtained from m elting ice: ()4 = c (m{ + m w) x
(0 *<,) Consequently, Qrec = Q 3 + QA.
According to the energy conservation law, Qglv = Qrec.
Let us w rite the heat balance equation and determ ine
the mass of the steam :
the m elting point for cast iron, t 2 = 1150C, and the specific
la te n t heat of fusion for cast iron, X = 9.7 X 104 J/kg.
Find: the mass of the m olten cast iron.
Solution. The am ount of heat (^useful required to heat the
cast iron and m elt it can be determ ined from the form ula
^useful = cmx(t 2 *1) + On the other hand, the
useful heat is ju st 2 0 % of the spent heat, i.e. 2 0 % of the
heat liberated by burning the coal: rj = ^ - ful , where
vspent
C?spent qmc. Hence $ usefUi =
W e w rite the heat balance equation and determ ine the
mass of the cast iron:
Since the value of a is very sm all, we can use the form ula
h = h (1 4
Worked Problems
Problem 42. A g uitar is tuned in a room at 293 K , the length
of its steel string being 0.7 m. W hat will be the change in
the length of the string outdoors where the tem perature is
263 K ? W hat w ill the additional m echanical stress be?
W hat are the elastic force and the po ten tial energy of the
elastically deformed string? The cross-sectional area of the
string is 0.85 mm2.
Given: lY = 0.7 m is the in itia l length of the strin g ,
T x = 293 K is the in itia l tem perature, T 2 = 263K
tem perature outdoors, and S = 8.5 X 10 -7 m 2 is the cross-
sectional area of the string. From tables, we take the coeffici
ent of linear expansion for steel a = 1.2 x 10 " 5 K _1, and
Y oungs m odulus for steel E = 2.2 x 1011 Pa.
Find: the absolute decrease AI in the length of the strin g ,
the additional m echanical stress a , the elastic force F , and
the p o tential energy E p of elastically deformed string.
Solution. As the tem perature decreases, the length of the
strin g decreases by A I. The value of AI can be determ ined
from the form ula
AI = ZjCtA 7\
where A T = T 2 7 \,
AI = 0.7 m x 1.2 x 10 - 5 K " 1 ( - 3 0 K)
= 2.52 x 10 ~4 m ~ 0.252 mm.
The m inus sign in front of AZ in this case indicates th a t
the string has become shorter.
The measure of the stressed state of a deformed body is the
m echanical stress a , which can be determ ined using Hookes
law:
a^ l L p= 2 2 X 1011 p>< 2.52 x l0 - m = 7 92 x 1 0 ? p a.
lx 0 .7 in
The elastic force F emerging during the compression
of the string is proportional to the absolute deform ation:
8. Thermal E xpansion of Bodies 81
Po
6-0530
82 Ch. I. Fundam entals of Molecular P h ysics
Fundamentals of Electrodynamics
9. ELECTRIC FIELD
W orked Problems
Problem 45. A conducting sphere bearing a charge of 1.8 x
10 -8 C is brought in contact w ith two sim ilar spheres, one of
which has a charge of 0.3 X 10 8 C and the other is neu
tra l. How w ill the charge be d istrib u ted among the spheres?
W hat w ill be the force of in teractio n between two such
spheres in vacuum at a distance of 5 cm from each other?
Given: ^ = 1.8 x 10 ~8 C, Q 2 = 0.3 x 10 -8 C, and
@3 = 0 are the charges of the spheres before they are
brought in contact, and r = 5 x 10 ~2 m is the distance at
which two spheres interact. From tables, we take the elec
tric constant e 0 = 8.85 X 10 " 12 F/m and the p e rm ittiv ity
of vacuum , e = 1 .
Find: the electric charges @', and @' of the spheres
after they have been brought in contact and the force F of
e lectrostatic in teraction between two spheres.
Solution. W hen the spheres are brought in contact, some of
the charges neutralize each other since they have opposite
signs. The rem aining charge w ill be equally d istributed
between the three spheres:
^ /v /v <?i + <?2+ <?3 1.8xl08 C0.3x10 8C
VI V2 V3 3 Yl 3
= 0.5 X 10 8 C.
90 Ch. II. Fundam entals of Electrodynam ics
F = _ L _ (QitL *= 9 x 10 m/F = 9 x 10 ^ 1 ,
4jie0 t* 4;ie0 O
F= 9 X 10* N m 2/C 2 = 9 X 1 0 -5 N-
QiQ2
= - Y :4jie 0e F *
S u b stitu tin g the num erical values, we obtain
r _ i / ~ 9 x l 0 9 m / F X 6 X 10~9x 6 x l 0 ~ 8 C2 _ ? 0 10. 2
X 2.5x2.5x10-4 N in.
and the tension F t in the thread (Fig. 156). Since the spheres
tb] 10
*5
*t\
,K
L/ C
Fig. 16
are at rest, the equation for the forces acting on the first
sphere has the form F t + F G = 0. Hence
Ft = G - P , .
E 2t = E da = E 4k = y4jie0
^ - -er2
^ ,
tp4= - 7 . 2 x 104V.
The potential at point O is
= <Pl + + ^3 ~ 94*
where (px and (p2 are the electric potentials of the points be
tween which charge Q 2 is moved:
w _ ffi _____ 2.64 x l 0~8 C y
411606^ 4ji8.85x10-12 K/mx0.6 m
(p = _____ 2.64xlQ~8 C 95Q y
4jie0er2 4^8.85 X10"12 F/mx 0.25 m #
We can now find the work:
A = 3.3 x 10-,J C (396 V - 950 V) ~ - 1.83 x 10"0 J.
The m inus sign indicates th a t the work is done against the
field forces.
Answer. The work done to bring the charges closer is
1.83 x 10-6 J.
Problem 50. A dust particle w ith mass 10"7 g is suspended
between the plates of a p arallel-plate air capacitor to which
a voltage of 500 V is applied (Fig. 17).
The separation between the plates is 5 cm.
D eterm ine the electric charge 011 the dust
I particle.
Given: m 10-10 kg is the mass of
~ the dust particle, U = 500 V is the
Fig. 17 voltage across the capacitor plates, and
d = 5 x 10"2 m is the distance between
the plates. From tables, we take the free fall acceleration
g = 9.8 m /s2.
Find: the charge Q of the dust particle.
Solution.The dust particle in the uniform field of the capac
ito r is acted upon by the force of g ravity G = mg directed
downwards and by the force F = QE exerted by the electric
field in the upw ard direction. The particle is in equilibrium
provided th a t these forces are equal: G = F, or mg = QE.
Hence
Q = mg/E.
Using the well-known relatio n E = U/d between the
electric field strength and voltage, we obtain
mgd 1010k g x 9 .8 m /s2X 5 X 10- 2 m ja -is r
U 5 500V
T his gives
w = 10-9Cx90V = 4 - x 10_8 J
-o-
F ig. 18
Cl c t ^ Ca ^ Ct
c = -e r& T 7 '
The energy stored in the bank can be determ ined from the
form ula
W.
cm , w
l x i c r 6 F x 2 5 x l0 4 V2
1.3 x 10"3 J.
2
Answer. The capacitance of the bank is 1 pF and the ener
gy is approxim ately 1.3 X 10"3 J.
Problem 53. An electron flies from point A to point fi, the
p otential difference between these points being 100 V.
9. Electric Field 97
have equal negative charges. They repel each other and move
ap art to 12 cm, form ing an angle of 22. D eterm ine the num
ber of electrons on each ball and the tension in the threads.
Show the forces acting on the balls on a diagram . W ill the
tension in the threads change if the charges in te rac t in
zero-gravity?
9.21. Two point charges of 5.0 x 10~9 and 1.5 x 10-8 C
are 4.0 cm ap art in vacuum . D eterm ine the force w ith
which these charges will act on a third charge of 1.0 X 109C,
located at the m idpoint of the line connecting the charges.
9.22. A charge of 1.57 x 1 0 '8 C is transferred to a m etal
sphere of radius 5 cm. W hat is the surface charge density on
the sphere?
9.23. The surface charge density of a conducting sphere
is 5 x 10"5 C/m 2. D eterm ine the m agnitude of the charge
on the sphere if its radius is 8 cm.
9 .2 4 . Two electric charges, one of which is tw ice the o th
er, in te rac t at a distance of 0.60 m in vacuum w ith a force
of 2.0 m N. C alculate the m agnitudes of charges. A t w hat
distance in kerosene will the in teractio n between the
charges be the same?
9.25. W hat is the ra tio of the electrostatic force of rep u l
sion between two electrons to th e ir g rav itatio n a l attrac tio n ?
9.26. D eterm ine the p e rm ittiv ity of kerosene if two equal
like charges in te rac t in vacuum w ith th e same force at a dis
tance of 0.283 m as in kerosene a t 0.20 m. Assum ing th a t
the force of in teractio n in kerosene is 3.0 X 102 N, deter
mine the m agnitudes of the charges.
60 60
& 0
F ig. 19
F ig . 22
where n is the num ber by which the scale of the instrum ent
is m ultiplied (Fig. 26).
To measure voltage, a voltm eter is connected in parallel
to the region of the circuit across which the voltage is being
-i|r *S W
F ig. 20 F ig. 27
fl + n r
where n is the num ber of identical current sources in the
battery.
For a parallel connection, all the positive term inals are
connected in one junction and the negative term inals form
110___________ Ch. II. Fundam entals of Electrodynam ics
R-{-r/n
W hile solving problem s in which Ohms law is applied
to branched circuits, it is necessary
(1) to choose a rb itra rily the directions of the currents
and the direction of circum vention of subcircuits and indi
cate them on a circuit diagram ;
(2) to w rite equations for the currents at the junctions,
the num ber of equations being one less than the num ber of
junctions, the algebraic sum of currents at a junction is
alw ays equal to zero if the currents flowing to a junction
and from it are taken w ith opposite signs; and
(3) to w rite the equations for all the closed subcircuits
considering th a t the algebraic sum of e m f s in any closed
subcircuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the voltage drops;
if the potential increases in the direction of circum vention
(we move from m inus to plus), the emf is assumed to be
positive, otherwise, the emf is assumed to be negative.
The voltage drop is assumed to be positive if the direction
of the current coincides w ith the chosen direction of circum
vention; otherwise, it is taken w ith the m inus sign. The
to tal num ber of equations m ust be equal to the num ber of
unknowns.
W orked Problems
Problem 54. A voltage of 3.6 V is applied to the ends of
a steel conductor 20 m long. D eterm ine the m ean velocity
of ordered m otion of the charge carriers in the conductor if
their num ber density is 4.0 X 1028 m~3.
Given: U = 3.6 V is the voltage drop across the conductor,
n = 4.0 x 1028 m 3 is the num ber density of m obile charge
carriers, and I = 20 m is the length of the conductor. From
tables, we find the electron charge e = 1.6 X 10~19 C and
the resistiv ity of steel, p = 1.2 X 10'7 Q -m .
Find: the mean velocity v of the charge carriers.
Solution. The m obile charge carriers in m etals are free, or
conduction, electrons. Consequently, we m ust find the mean
velocity v of the ordered m otion of free electrons.
10. Electric Current in M etals. Ohm's Law 111
V cnS
The current can be determ ined from the form ula I = U /R,
where R should be expressed in term s of the length and the
cross-sectional area: R = pUS. S u b stitu tin g the expression
for current into the form ula for velocity, we obtain
vs
p le n S p le n
3.6 V
V
1 .2 x l0 7 Q - m x 2 0 m X l.6 x l0 " 19 C x 4 .0 x l 0 28m~3
5
sectional area of the wire is 5.0 mm2. ~7
D eterm ine the voltage drop in the
wires and the voltage at the receiving
end (Fig. 28). 0---------
Given: I = 6.5 X 105 m is the dis
tance between Leningrad and Moscow, 28
/ = 1.7 x lO " 3 A is the current in the
wires, Ux = 150 V is the voltage at the beginning of the
transm ission line, and S = 5 X 10-6 m2 is the cross-sec
tional area of the wire. From tables, we find the resistiv ity
of steel, p = 1.2 x 107 2-m.
Find: the voltage drop U w in the wires and the voltage U 2
at the end of the line.
Solution. The length of the wire form ing the electric cir
c u it (which m ust be closed) is tw ice the distance between
the cities.
112____________Ch. II. Fundam entals of Electrodynam ics
/w W p f ,
U2 = Ux - /w, U 2 = 150 V - 53 V = 97 V.
AR = R 2 R i, \ R = p0-^-(i + a t 2 l a t i) ==p0
Since the absolute values of the tem peratures are equal
( |*i | = \ t 2 |), we can w rite
10. Electric Current in M etals. Ohms Law 113
A R = p0^ - 2a<j,
AR = 1.2 x x 2 x 0.004 K i x 30 K
~ 1.2 k2.
Answer. The resistance of the wire has increased by about
1.2 k2 as a result of the change from w inter to sum m er tem
peratures.
Problem 57. C alculate the resistance of the circuit in
Fig. 29a.
Given: the resistances R x = 62, R 2 = 52, R 3 = 4 Q ,
i?4 = 12 2, and R 5 = 8 2 of the resistors.
Find: the total (equivalent) resistance R of the circuit.
Solution. W hil^ solving problem s where loads are con
nected in series and in parallel, it is expedient to replace
R-
whence
I
The external resistance R can be determ ined from the for
m ula R (yl/S. Considering th a t S = ndVk, we obtain
n 4pZ 4 x 4 . 2 x l0 " 7 Q -m x l0 m _ r / n
nd*~" 3 .1 4 x l . 0 x l 0 - 6m2
Then
-5.4 2 = 1.6 2.
*sh = ^ , * sh = - ^ = 0 . 2 Q .
If a galvanom eter is used as a voltm eter (in th is case it is
connected in parallel to the subcircuit in which the voltage
drop U has to be m easured), a resistor R s is connected in
series to it as shown in Fig. 27.
The voltage drop U is d istrib u ted in proportion to the
resistances R g and R s:
U Uv Re U a Rs.
10. Electric Current in Metals. Ohms Law 117
1 v _ cn
n ~ 0.01 AX 19.8
B s = 49 x 19.8Q ~ 970Q.
Answer. In order to measure current, the galvanom eter
m ust be shunted by a resistor w ith R sh = 0.2 2. To m easure
voltage, a series resistor w ith re
sistance R s 970 2 should be
connected to the galvanom eter.
Problem 61. How should two g a l
vanic cells having an emf of 1.45 V
each and an in tern al resistance of
0.4 2 each be connected in order to
obtain the m axim um current when
the circu it is closed w ith an ex ter
nal resistance of 0.65 2?
Given: n = 2 is the num ber of
cells in the b attery , % = 1.45 V is
the emf of a cell, r = 0.4 2 is the
internal resistance of a cell, and R = 0.65 2 is the resist
ance of the external circuit.
F ind: /ser, the current for the series connection and the
current / par for the parallel connection of the cells.
Solution. In order to find out which is the best way to
connect the circuit, we determ ine the currents for the cells
in series and in parallel and com pare them :
, n% T _ 2x1.45 V OA
y ser R + nr ser 0.65 Q + 2 x ll.4 Q
/ _ / 145 V 1 7A
par R + r/n J Par 0.65 Q + 0.4 Q/2
I XR X + I 3R 3 = r2. (3)
We determ ine I x from E q .(l) and su b stitu te it into Eq.(2):
A = ^ 3 + ^ 2 (^3 + ^ 2) ^1 + ^ 2^2 = l-
This gives
r _ r _ 2 V 0.n5Axl(MQ _ a no a
2 1OOQ+ 50Q
Fig. 34 Fig. 35
wires and the currents are indicated in Fig. 37. The generator
voltage UBC is 575 V.
10.57. D eterm ine the voltage drop across a railw ay track
if an electric locom otive is 800 m from the cable connecting
500A
SOOA 1Q00A
800A
F ig . 38
r -r srx r x
R,=1.SSi f t'T J ?
2~
KS=2Q in t_ r tLj t j
Fig. 39 Fig. 40
-C=D
Fig. 42 Fig. 43
shown in Fig. 41. D eterm ine the to tal resistance of the lam ps
and the current and voltage in each lam p.
10.63. W hat w ill the change in the voltage and current in
the lam ps (see Problem 10.62) be if one of the lam ps fuses?
10.64. The arm ature w inding in a locom otive m otor con
sists of 924 copper rods 1 m long each. The rods are d istrib
uted equally among four parallel branches (Fig. 42). De
term ine the resistance of the arm ature w inding for a current
of 352 A, assum ing th a t the current density is 5 A/m m 2.
10.65. Figure 43 presents a circuit diagram . The voltage
UAB is 120 V. D eterm ine the resistance of the circuit, the
unbranched current, and the current in each resistor.
10. Electric Current in Metals. Ohms Law 127
F ig. 45
1.2 A. Determ ine the emf and the internal resistance of the
current source.
10.84. A d.c. generator w ith an emf of 150 V and an in te r
nal resistance of 0.3 2 supplies voltage to 20 incandescent
lam ps having a resistance of 240 2 each and connected in
parallel. The resistance of the leads is 2.7 Q. D eterm ine the
voltage across the generator term inals and
across the lam ps.
10.85. The emergency lam ps of a tram
car are fed by an accum ulator battery
having an emf of 48 V and an internal
resistance of 0.2 2. Ten lam ps having a
resistance of 39.5 2 each are connected as
shown in Fig. 47. Determ ine the current
in each lam p and in the leads.
10.86. A circuit contains 20 parallel- F ig. 47
connected bulbs. The current through a
bulb is 1 A. The resistance of the wires
connecting the load w ith a generator is 0.2 2. W hat m ust the
emf of the generator be for the voltage across the bulbs to
be 220 V? The internal resistance of the generator is 0.05 2.
10.87. Three electric m otors and ten parallel-connected
incandescent lam ps are connected to a generator w ith emf
+
o
each bulb 0.5 A. The distance I between the sta tio n and the
workshop is 0.5 km. The internal resistance of the generator
is 0.1 2 and the voltage across its term inals is 220 V. De
term ine the emf of the generator and the cross-sectional
area of the copper leads if the adm issible voltage drop in
them is 8% .
10.89. Determ ine the counter emf of a tractio n m otor if
the resistance of its windings is 0.1 2 and the voltage in the
circu it is 550 V a t a current of 150 A.
10.90. Determ ine the emf of a generator w ith an in tern al
resistance of 0.05 2 and the counter emf of a m otor if the
current in the circuit is 100 A, the voltage across the gen
erator term inals is 225 V, and the resistances of the m otor
w inding and the leads are 0.2 and 0.1 2 respec
tively.
10.91. The circuit diagram of a d.c. m otor is shown in
Fig. 49. The voltage in the circuit is U = 550 V, and the
current is / = 102 A. The resistance of the arm ature circuit
is R a = 0.1 2, th a t of the parallel excitation w inding
R ex = 150 2, and th a t of the rheostatic controller R r =
125 2. D eterm ine the current in the parallel excitation
w inding when the rheostatic controller is com pletely on, and
the counter emf if the electric m otor is started w ithout a
s ta rte r rheostat.
10.92. Four loads having a resistance of 10 2 each are con
nected to an accum ulator battery having an emf of 48 V
and an in ternal resistance of 0.25 2. Determ ine the current
through the b attery if the loads are connected (a) in series,
(b) in parallel, and (c) in two parallel branches containing
two series-connected loads each.
10.93. One of two cells has an emf of 1.45 V and an in ternal
resistance of 0.5 2 and supplies voltage to a circu it w ith an
efficiency of 90% , w hile the other cell has an emf of 2 V and
an in tern al resistance of 0.5 2 and operates w ith an effic
iency of 80% in an identical circuit. D eterm ine the current
in the two circuits.
10.94. An accum ulator w ith an emf of 1.45 V produces
a current of 0.5 A in a conductor whose resistance is 2.5 2.
D eterm ine the short-circuit current.
10.95. D uring a short circuit, the current from a source of
1.8 V is 6 A. W hat m ust the external resistance be for the
current to be 2 A?
10. Electric Current in Metals. Ohm's Law 131
0.004 2. D eterm ine the emf and the voltage across the te r
m inals of the b a tte ry if the current in the circu it is 20 A.
10.106. W hat is the reading of a voltm eter connected to
the term inals of a battery consisting of three series-connected
alk alin e accum ulators, each w ith an emf of 1.2 V and an
in te rn al resistance of 0.3 2? The external circu it consists
Fig. 50 F ig. 51
Worked Problems
Problem 63. An electric m otor operating for 5 h is driven
at the m ains voltage of 380 V and a current of 35 A. The
resistance of the m otor w inding is 0.5 2. D eterm ine the
am ount of energy consumed, the am ount of heat liberated
in the w inding during the operation, and the m echanical
work done by the m otor.
Given: U = 380 V is the voltage at the m otor term inals,
/ = 35 A is the current, R = 0.5 2 is the resistance of the
m otor w inding, and t = 5 h = 5 X 3600 s is the operation
tim e.
F ind: the energy A consumed by the m otor, the am ount
of heat Q liberated in the w inding, and the m echanical
work A mech-
Solution. The energy consumed or the to ta l work done by
the curren t can be determ ined from the form ula
A = IU t, A = 35 A x 380 V X 5 x 3600 s
~ 2.4 x 108 J .
134 Ch. II. Fundam entals of Electrodynam ics
*1 = ~jjj ioo% .
Hence we obtain the current:
/ = $ -1 0 0 % ,
T_ 4 . 9 x l 4 N x.55 m/sXl00% _ ACXA a
7<io/ox380V 1U1A.
Answer. The current is approxim ately 101 A.
Problem 65. Two resistors of 40 and 80 Q are connected in
parallel to a source of constant voltage. The am ount of h e a t
liberated in the first resistor is 3.0 X 10B J . How m uch
heat is liberated in the second resistor over the same tim e
and in both resistors if they are connected in series?
Given: R x = 40 Q is the resistance of the first resistor,
R 2 = 80 Q is the resistance of the second resistor, and Qx =
j 11. W ork, Power, and the Therm al Effect o f Current 135
U 'tT i
4 X 2.9 3 X 108 J X 1 .0 5 x 10Q-m x 10.2 m
220 V X 220 V x 24 X 3600 s x 3.14
= 9.5 x 10'* m.
Answer. The diam eter of the wire is approxim ately 1 m m.
Problem 67. How long w ill it take to boil 1 1 of w ater from
15C using an electric imm ersion heater whose resistance
is 25 Q and efficiency is 85% ? The applied voltage is 120 V.
Given: V = 103 m3 is the volume of the w ater, tx = 15C
is the in itia l tem perature of the w ater, t 2 = 100C is the
boiling point of w ater, R = 25 Q is the resistance of the coil,
U = 120 V is the applied voltage, and r\ = 0.85 is the ef
ficiency of the heater. From tables, we find the density of
w ater, p = 103 kg/m 3, and the specific heat of w ater, c =
4187 J/(k g -K ).
F ind: the tim e t required for boiling w ater.
Solution. Problem s involving a given efficiency should
be solved starting w ith the formula for efficiency r) =
q T~ i where QTtc = cm (t 2 t x), and Qgw = - ^ ' t. T his
gives t) = R- Hence we can find the tim e: t =
Considering th a t the mass of water can be
expressed in term s of density and volume, m = pF, we
obtain
cp V ( t 2 *i) B
1 T\U*
4i87 J/(k g-K ) X 103 Kg/m3 X 103 m3 X 85 K x 25 Q _ 70Q -
0 .8 5 x 1 2 0 V x 120 V
= 12 min.
Answer. I t takes 12 m in to boil the water.
1 1 . Work, Power, and the Thermal Effect of Current 137
fi,=2 S? c
Fig. 53
Worked Problems
Problem 68. A m etal article is electrolytically plated w ith
a silver layer 20 pm thick. How long did the electrolysis
require for a current density of 2.5 X 103 A/cm 2?
Given: h = 20 pm = 2 X 10~5 m is the thickness of the
silver layer, and / = 2.5 X 10~3 A/cm 2 = 25 A/m 2 is the
current density. From tables, we find the electrochem ical
equivalent of silver, k = 1.118 X 10' kg/C, the density of
silver, p = 10.5 X 10s kg/m 3, the valency of silver, n = 1,
the m olar mass of silver, M = 108 x 10~3 kg/m ol, and the
Faraday constant F = 9.65 X 104 C/mol.
F in d : the tim e t of the electrolysis.
Solution. 1st method. We solve the problem using F a ra
d a y s first law m = k i t . This gives t = m l k l . The mass and
the current can be determ ined from the form ulas m = pSh
and / = j S . S u b stitu tin g these qu an tities into the form ula
for tim e, we obtain
. _ ph 10.5 X 103 k g /m 3 X 20 X 10~fl m _
tu tin g this q u a n tity into the form ula for power, we obtain
p p (0.15 X 10~3 kg )2 0.4 Q ^ 07 w
(ft/)2 (1 -044 X 10- kg/C X 1500 s)* ~
Worked Problems
Problem 72. U nder norm al conditions, a spark discharge
in air occurs at a field strength of 3 x 106 V/m . D eterm ine
the energy required for an electron to ionize air m olecules if
the mean free p ath of an electron is 5 pm. W hat m ust the
m inim um velocity of an electron capable of ionizing air
molecules be?
Given: E = 3 X 106 V/m is the electric field stren g th and
X = 5 x 106 m is the mean free path of an electron. From
tables, we find the electron charge e = 1.6 X 1019 C and
the electron mass m = 9.11 x 1031 kg.
Find: the ionization energy W { and the m inim um ve
locity v required for the ionization.
Solution. The energy W x required to ionize air molecules
is received by an electron at the expense of the work done
by electric field forces: A = e (q^ <p2), where the poten tial
difference can be expressed in term s of the electric field
150 Ch. II. Fundam entals of Electrodynam ics
W 1 = A = eEh,
W< = 1.6 x 1 0 -19 C x 3 x 106 V/m x 5x 10"6 m
- 2.4 x 10-18J.
J en -j- S.
8 13. Electric Current in Gases and in Vacuum 151
Answer. The satu ratio n current is 0.2 pA, and the electric
field stren g th is 188 V/m.
Va
F ig. 56 F ig. 57
per cm3 of atm ospheric air near the E a rth s surface due to
rad io a ctiv ity of soil and cosmic rad iatio n . The separation
between two electrodes is 8 cm. D eterm ine the sa tu ra tio n
current density between the electrodes for singly charged
ions.
13.21. The work function of barium oxide electrons is
1.0 eV. W hat m ust the m ean free p ath of the electrons in
a p arallel-plate capacitor be for the electrons to ionize the
barium atom s? The field strength between the plates is
3 X 105 V/m . The field should be treated as uniform .
13.22. The satu ratio n current in an air-filled tu b e is
2 X 1010 A at an electric field strength of 30 V/m between
the electrodes. The overall m obility of m onovalent ions is
3.29 x 10~4 m2/(V -s), and the area of plane electrodes is
100 cm2. D eterm ine the num ber density of the ions.
13.23. D eterm ine the overall m obility of hydrogen ions
if the satu ratio n current density is 2.8 x 10"10 A/m 2 at a
field strength of 1.2 kV/m and a num ber density of ions of
104 cm -3.
15. ELECTROMAGNETISM
form ula
F= a /l/a *
rm 2:la '
l '
W orked Problems
Problem 74. A direct current passes in the same direction
thrpugh two parallel wires separated by a distance of 30 c m .
The distance between the supports to which the wires are
fixed is 50 m. The current in the wires is 150 A. D eterm ine
the m agnitude and direction of the force w ith which the
wires interact.
Given: I x = I 2 = I = 150 A is the current in each w ire,
a = 0.3 m is the separation between the wires, and I =
50 m is the distance between the supports. From tables,
we find the m agnetic constant p,0 = 4n X 10"7 H /m and
the perm eability of air, p, = 1.
Find: the force F between the wires (its m agnitude and
direction).
Solution. Let us consider the distance between the su pports
to be the active length of the wires. N oting th a t I a,
we can assume th a t the wires are infinitely long so th a t the
following form ula is applicable for the force of interaction:
p 4j i X lO"7 H /m X 1 (150 A )* 50 m _ n 7 r
F ~ 2 n x 0 .3 m
15. Electrom agnetism __________ 159
5 = -/f/ rsm
^a ! . B = 4/ vA -x T0 . ?5 mx lj- = 1.4 T.
Knowing the m agnetic induction, we can determ ine the
force exerted by the m agnetic field on the current-carrying
conductor when the angle between them is 30:
F 2 = B I l sin a 2, F a = 1.4 T x 4 A x 0.5 m x 0.5 = 1.4 N.
Answer. The force acting on the conductor in the second
case is 1.4 N.
Problem 76. A 0.8-m long stra ig h t conductor moves in a
m agnetic field of induction 5 X 10~2 T. The current in the
conductor is 15 A. The conductor is at an angle of 30 w ith
the m agnetic induction vector. Find the force acting on the
conductor and the work done by the m agnetic field to move
the conductor 1.8 m.
Given: B = 5 x 10~2 T is the m agnetic induction of the
field, I = 0.8 m is the length of the conductor, / = 15 A
160 Ch. II. Fundam entals of Electrodynam ics
BQ *
In order to find the proton velocity, we can use the energy
conservation law: the work done by the electric field U is
equal to the kinetic energy acquired by the proton: Q U =
m pv 2/2, whence
2 X 4 .6 X 10~19 C X 40 V
- v 4.67 X 40~27 kg
= 4.4 x 105 m/s.
W e can now determ ine the radius r of the circle:
4.67 x 40~27 kg x 4 .4 X 405 m /s _ n n9Q w
r = 0T t x i . 6 ' x i F * c u u " m -
'FT Fig. 63
Ld
0
n
F ig. 65 Fig. 66
M A/
/ V ----------------IT'.
B Cf
Iz
My '/V
F ig. 69 Fig. 70
the perm eability of iron if the m agnetic flux through the core
is 2 X 10-4 W b.
15.40. An electron flies into a uniform m agnetic field as
shown in Fig. 71. D eterm ine the direction of the force acting
on the electron at the in itia l m oment. W hat w ill its tr a
jectory be?
15.41. An electron moves in a uniform m agnetic field a t a
velocity of 1.0 X 104 km /s at rig h t angles to the m agnetic
induction vector. D eterm ine the force
+ + + + + acting on the electron for a mag-
+ + + + + netic field strength of 150 A/m.
g x V 3 15.42. An electron flies into a uni-
+ + + + + form m agnetic field w ith induction
+ + + + + 9.1 x 10-5 T. The electron velocity
is 1.9 X 107 m/s and at rig h t angles
F ig. 71 to the m agnetic induction vector. De
term ine the radius of the circle in
which the electron will move, the period, and frequency
of its revolution.
15.43. The Lorentz force exerted on an electron by crossed
electric and m agnetic fields is determ ined by the form ula
F l = eE + evB. W hat m ust the direction and m agnitude
of the electron velocity be for it to move uniform ly in a
straig h t line?
15.44. An electron flies into a uniform m agnetic field
w ith induction 2.5 X 10~3 T and moves in a circle of radius
40 cm. The electron velocity vector forms an angle of 90
w ith the direction of the m agnetic field. D eterm ine the k i
netic energy of the electron.
15.45. An electron having a velocity of 8.8 X 107 m /s
flies into a uniform m agnetic field of induction 6.28 X
102 T. The angle between the velocity and m agnetic induc
tion vectors is 30. D eterm ine the radius and the lead of the
helical trajectory of the electron. Use the charge-to-mass
ratio of the electron, to the th ird significant digit. K
15.46. Two identical, singly charged ions fly at different
velocities into a uniform m agnetic field. W hat w ill the
periods of their revolution be?
15.47. An electron and a singly charged ion fly at the
same velocity in to a uniform m agnetic field. W hat w ill the
periods of their revolution be?
16. E lectrom agnetic Induction 169
^ = 42_<i>/=42- i / 2= 21 4,1
L
W orked Problems
Problem 80. A conductor A B is 0.6 m long and has a re
sistance of 0.2 Q. I t can move along a copper busbars CD
connected to a current source w ith an emf of 0.96 V and an
in tern al resistance of 0.1 Q
(Fig. 72). The resistance of the
+++ +++ + + busbars is negligibly sm all. De
+ + + + + + -!- + term ine the current in the con
ductor if it (a) is at rest, (b) moves
T +++ + +8
+++ ++ + + + at a velocity of 0.5 m /s in a
++ + ++ + + + uniform m agnetic field of induc
tio n 1.6 T directed along the nor-
c B m al to the plane of the figure
Fiff 72 away from us.
Given: Z=0.6 m is the length
of the conductor, R = 0.2 Q is
its resistance, % = 0.96 V is the emf of the current
source, r = 0.1 Q is its in tern al resistance, v = 0.5 m /s
is the velocity of the conductor, and B = 1.6 T is the m ag
netic induction of the field.
Find: (a) the current I x in the statio n ary conductor and
(b) the current / 2 in the conductor moving in the m agnetic
field.
Solution. (a) If the conductor is at rest, the current in it is
determ ined from Ohm s law for a circuit:
1 /? + r * 0.2Q + 0.1Q
against the current I v Ohms law in this case has the form
r _ 8 -# i
hy *-
- - + r
Sirtce Jf, = Blv, we obtain
, _ % Blv
R+r
Here we m ust note th a t the m agnetic induction vector and
the velocity vector are at rig h t angles to each other. Hence,
r 0 .9 6 V 1 .6 T X 0 .6 in X 0 .5 in /s A a v
i2 _ 0.2Q + 0.1Q - l . o A.
10 A X 1000
O = 4ji x 10"7 H/m x 200 5 x 103 m2
0 .5 m
= 2.5 x lO-2 Wb.
Given the m agnetic flux and the current, we can determ ine
the energy of the m agnetic field in the solenoid:
W = = Y X 2.5 x 10-* W b x 10 A ~ 1.3 x 10"1 J.
Answer. The m agnetic flux in the solenoid is 2.5 x 102 W b,
and the energy of the m agnetic field in the solenoid is 0.13 J .
Fig. 74 Fig. 75
10 M
tb)
+ +
B
Fig. 76
M M M H
Fig. 77
Fig. 78 Fig. 79
12 - 0 5 3 0
Chapter III
W = W p + W K= ^ f - + - ^ .
W orked Problems
Problem 84. A boy rocks up and down on a board. The
tim e he takes to move from the upper position to the lower
position is 1.5 s. W hat is the frequency, circular frequency,
and period of the vibrations?
Given: t = 1.5 s is the tim e during which the boy moves
from the extrem e upper to the lower position.
Find: the frequency v of the v ibrations of the boy on the
board, the circular frequency (o, and the period T of the
vibrations.
Solution. In this case, the period of the v ibrations can be
defined as the tim e elapsed between two successive upper-
12*
180 Ch. III. O scillations and W aves
Hence V = Xco.
To find the am plitude of the acceleration, we m ust dif
ferentiate the velocity equation
= 4.55 x lO-2 J,
A _ y r2x 4.55x10-2 J
= 3.017 x lO-2
100 N /m
CO / 100 ]
N /m
=31.6 rad/s,
V 0.1 kg
Fig. 81
\r=0
Fig. 82
Fig. 84 Fig. 85
upon by the elastic force of the spring and the force of g rav
ity. W ill the loads oscillations be harm onic? W hat effect
does the force of g rav ity mg have?
17.49. One end of a spring w ith a constant of 50 N/m
is fixed, and a 1-kg load is suspended from the other end.
D eterm ine the vib ratio n frequency of such a pendulum .
17.50. The period of vibrations of a spring pendulum is
0.25 s. W hat is the spring constant if the mass of the load
is 200 g?
17.51. A body of mass 0.5 kg fixed to a spring stretches it
by 1 cm at rest. W hen it is displaced by 3 cm downwards and
released, it sta rts v ib rating harm onically. D eterm ine the
am plitude, circular frequency, period, and in itia l phase.
W rite the equation of m otion.
17.52. A body of mass 800 g is fixed to a spring w ith con
sta n t 40 N/m and vibrates as shown in Fig. 85. The am pli
tude of vibrations is 2 cm. W hat is the energy of vibrations?
D eterm ine the m axim um velocity and acceleration.
17.53. The m otion of a body whose mass is 2 kg is de
scribed by the equation
x = 0.8 sin | nt + - y ) .
D eterm ine the energy of the v ib ratin g body. How does the
energy depend on the in itia l phase?
17.54. A load of mass 1 kg is suspended from a spring
w ith constant 1000 N/m and placed in a rocket th a t is
17. M echanical Vibrations and W aves 191
!n)
Fig. 87 Fig. 88
W orked Problems
Problem 89. A resistor w ith resistance 20 S2, a coil w ith
inductance 0.0398 H , and a capacitor w ith capacitance
159 pF are connected in series to a generator. D eterm ine the
voltage across the circuit com ponents and in the en tire cir
cuit. W hat is the phase difference between the voltage and
the current? D eterm ine the im pedance of the circuit. W hat
will happen if the capacitive and inductive reactances are
equal? The frequency of the alte rn a tin g current is 100 Hz
and the current is 2 A. P lot the vector diagram .
198 Ch. III. O scillations and W aves
The geom etric sum of the three vectors w ill give the to ta l
voltage in the circuit. F irst we compose the vectors directed
along the vertical, and as a result obtain a voltage triangle
(Fig. 916) from which we can easily find the voltage and the
phase difference:
UX = UL - U C,
v= V U r + u \ = I V R* + (coL - 1/C)2,
coZ, 1/coC Ux
tan < p = g =
If coL = l/coC, the reactance is zero. This phenomenon
is observed a t the circular frequency a) = co0 determ ined
(a)
F ig. 91
from the form ula co^ = 1!(LC). Then the impedance of the
circuit a tta in s its m inim um value and is equal to the resis
tance: Z R , while the current a tta in s its m axim um value.
This phenomenon is known as voltage resonance, and o)0
is the resonance circular frequency.
S ubstitu tin g in the num erical values, we obtain
UR = 2 A x 20 2 40 V,
UL = 2 A x 2ji x 100 s '1 x 0.0398 H - 50 V,
Uc = 2 A/(2ji x 100 s"1 x 159 x 10~4 F) = 20 V,
U = V (40 V)2 + (30 V)2 = 50 V,
X L - X c = 2ji x 100 s '1 x 0.398 H (2n X 100 s
x 1.59 x 10-4 F )- = 15 Q,
tan <p = 15 Q/20 Q = 0.75, <p= 3652',
Z = | / ^ + (Xl - Z c)2 = - ^ - = - ^ = 25 Q.
200 Ch. III. O scillations and W aves
I ^ P L + I h - 2 I LI C wL
l/i? 2+ (o2L2
Angle (p can be determ ined from the equality of the projec
tions of / and I L on the voltage axis:
I cos (p = I L cos cpL, cos <p= - y - cos (pL.
the origin. The next vector is plotted from the end of the
preceding one. The resu ltan t vector then connects the ori
gin of the first vector to the end of the last one. For our prob
lem, such a construction yields a current triangle (Fig. 95),
the calculations rem aining the same.
If one of the param eters to, C, or L of the circuit is varied,
the to ta l current and the phase angle (p w ill change. For
Fig. 95 Fig. 96
The impedance is
The im pedance is
Z = Y (288 Q)2 + (546 2 47.1 2)2 = 576 2.
Let us now find the current in the circuit
'- X . ' - S S - * * *
The voltage across all the com ponents can be found as
follows:
UR = IR, Uc = I X C, UL = I X L,
UR = 0.38 A x 288 2 = 109.4 V,
Uc = 0.38 A x 546 2 = 207.5 V,
UL = 0.38 A x 47.1 2 = 17.9 V.
Let us now calculate the powers:
to ta l power S = I U , S = 0.38 A X 220 V = 83.6 VA,
active power P = 0.5S , P = 4 1 .8 W ,
18. A lternating Curren 205
based on the current axis. P lot the graphs of the current and
voltage.
18.27. P lo t the voltage vector diagram if an a.c. circuit
contains (a) a capacitor, (b) a solenoid. P lo t the graphs for
the currents and the voltages.
18.28. P lo t the vector diagram for the voltages of the a.c.
subcircuits operating at frequency 50 Hz and consisting of
the following components connected in series
(a) C = 1.33 x 103 pF, R = 2.4 2,
(b) L = 3.18 x lO"2 H, R = 17.3 2.
18.29. P lo t the graphs of voltage and current in the com
ponents of the circu it in Problem 18.28.
18.30. P lo t the vector diagram s of the voltage for the
follow ing com ponents when connected in series (a) L =
0.03 H and C = 2 X 10~4 F, (b) L = 4.95 x 102 H, C =
398 pF and R = 7.55 2. The altern atin g voltage frequency
is 50 Hz.
18.31. P lo t the voltage graphs for the com ponents of the
a.c. circu it in Problem 18.30.
18.32. Using vector diagram s, prove the form ula for the
reactance of a subcircuit consisting of a capacitor and an
inductance coil.
18.33. Using vector diagram s, prove the form ulas for the
im pedances of series-connected R , C and L in an a lte r
nating current.
18.34. An a.c. circuit a t voltage 120 V and frequency 50 Hz
is connected to series-connected (a) R 60 2, L =
0.255 H, (b) R = 3.8 2 and C = 2.27 X 10~3 F, and (c)
L = 0.0764 H and C = 398 pF. De
/ term ine the impedance, current, and
voltages on the com ponents of the
L circuit. P lo t the vector diagram s.
18.35. An a.c. voltage of 220 V
and frequency 50 Hz is applied to
F ig . 98 series-connected (a) R = 5 2, L =
0.135 H , and C = 75 pF, (b)
R = 30 2, L = 0.2 H , and C =
97 pF. Determ ine im pedance, current, and voltage across
the components of the circuit. P lot the vector diagram s.
18.36. An a.c. generator of voltage 36 V (Fig. 98) is con
nected in parallel to (a) R = 3 2, X L = 4 2, (b) R = 1 2
X c = 2 2, and (c) X c = 2 2, X L = 4 2. The frequency of
18. A lternating Current 209
trie fields energy into the energy of the m agnetic field and
back is observed in an oscillatory circuit, viz. a circuit con
tain in g a coil and a capacitor (Fig. 101). The resistance of
the oscillatory circuit m ust be low, otherwise the energy of
the electrom agnetic field w ill be converted into heat, and
the oscillations in the circuit w ill soon cease.
I Under these conditions, the period of the
- i-f ^ 3 natu ral electrom agnetic oscillations is
f T = 2nVLC,
and the frequency is
Fig. 101 v 1
T 2ji y i c
An open oscillatory circuit em its waves of the w avelength
X = c T , or X = c/v,
where c is the velocity of electrom agnetic waves equal to
the velocity of light in vacuum .
The velocity of propagation of the electrom agnetic waves
depends on the properties of the m edium , viz.
= / Lie, whence u = -
v V
vhere v is the velocity of propagation of the electrom agnetic
waves in the m edium , and p and e are the perm eability and
p e rm ittiv ity of the m edium . Since the perm eabilities of all
dia- and param agnetic m edia differ only slightly from unity,
we can assume th a t
Vs
W hile using this form ula, it should be borne in m ind th a t
the e known from electrostatics cannot always be used
since the oscillation frequency affects the p e rm ittiv ity .
W orked Problems
Problem 92. An oscillatory circuit consists of a coil w ith
inductance 20 pH and a capacitor whose capacitance can
be varied from 2 X 10"8 to 10"8 F. W hat is the wavelength
range of th is circuit? D eterm ine its frequency range.
19. Electrom agnetic O scillations and W aves 213
Optics. Fundamentals
of the Special Theory of Relativity
F ig. 106
Here a and a' are respectively the distances from the object
and from its image to the m irror. The m inus sign indicates
that the m irror is convex, and the plus sign corresponds to
a concave m irror.
The linear m agnification is given by
s in e
sin e' *2, i-
sin ecr 1 . 1
. n;
sin 90
=
n
* sin ecr
C1
=
n
.
fl 2A = V1IV2-
The absolute refractive index is
71 = d v ,
Worked Problems
5'
s
Fig. 109
Fig. 110
1 1 1
f a a'
/= - - m
A nsw er. The object is 0.84 m from the m irror, and the
image is 5 cm high.
Problem 97. The Sun forms an angle of 60 w ith the h o ri
zon. D eterm ine the length of the um bra at the bottom of an
opaque vessel illum inated by
sun light. The height of the
vessel is 25 cm. W hat w ill the
change in the length of the
um bra be when w ater is poured
H into the vessel to a height of
20 cm (Fig. 112)?
Given: H 25 cm is the
A B C height of the vessel, cp = 60
D
incident ray and the ray emerging from the slab: 6 = CD.
From the triangle A C D , we have 8 = i4C sin (e e '),
A C = ft/cos e '. Consequently,
c ft sin (e e')
c o se '
f - w - r D = -2m -
Let us construct the image of the object (Fig. 114). By
choosing an appropriate scale, we can determ ine the re
quired q u antities from the diagram accurately enough.
20. Geom etrical Optics 227
Fig. 114
A f
Af
F ig. 116
m ine the positions of the lens and its foci. Is the lens con
verging or diverging? C onstruct the image of the object.
Solution. We draw a ray from A to A ' . I t intersects the
principal optical axis a t the optical centre of the lens. We
20. Geometrical Optics 229
p2 = - ^ - = - ^ - = 5.25.
30
Eyepiece
F ig. 118
F ig. 122
Refraction of light
20.31. W hat is the refractive index of flint glass if for a
light rays incident a t an angle of 63 the angle of refraction is
2940'?
20.32. A light ray is incident on the surface of w ater a t an
angle of 50. W hat is the angle of refraction in w ater?
20.33. At w hat angle should a light ray be incident on the
surface of crown glass so th a t the angle of refraction is 27?
20.34. D eterm ine the angle through which a light ray is
deflected as it passes from air to w ater at an angle of inci
dence of (a) 307 (b) 45?
236__________Ch. IV. Optics. Special Theory of R elativity
index of glass is 1.5. D eterm ine (1) the displacem ent of the
ray and (2) the p ath length of the ray in the p late.
20.59. A light ray is incident a t rig h t angles on a rig h t-
angled glass prism (Fig. 125). W hat w ill the p a th of the
ray be afterw ards?
20.60. How m ust two right-angled prism s be arranged in a
periscope? Draw the lig h t p a th in it.
20.61.* Two parallel rays 1 and 2 are incident on a glass
right-angled prism (Fig. 126). Trace the lig h t p ath after
wards.
20.62. A lig h t beam is incident along the norm al on a
lateral face of a prism w ith an angle of refraction of 30
ig. 127). D eterm ine the angular displacem ent of the beam
as a result of its passage through the prism if its refractive
index is 1.8.
20.63. A ray incident on the la te ra l face of a glass prism
w ith an angle of refraction of 30 emerges from it a t 30.
The refractive index of glass is 1.5. Determ ine the angle of
incidence of the ray.
20.64. A ray is incident on a late ra l face of a glass prism
along the norm al and emerges from the prism at 25 from the
direction of the incident ray. The refractive index of glass
is 1.5. W hat is the angle of refraction of the prism?
20.65. The angle of refraction of a prism is 60. A lig h t ray
emerges from the prism a t the sam e angle as it is incident
on it. The refractive index of the prism is 1.5. D eterm ine the
angle by which the ray is deflected from its in itia l direction
as a result of its passage through the prism .
20.66. The angle of refraction of a prism is A. A lig h t beam
is deflected by an angle 6 upon passing through the prism .
20. Geometrical Optics 239
s F F'
(
>
00
to
Fig
Screen*
it s \
F ig . 129
F ig. 130
21. PHOTOMETRY
Worked Problems
Problem 104. Two lam ps w ith lum inous inten sities of
200 and 300 cd are suspended from 3-m high poles (Fig. 133).
The distance between the lam ps is 4 m. D eterm ine the illu
m inance on the ground a t points A , B , and C.
21. Photom etry 245
n i2 ti t? 300 cd x o
ouuca 3mm 701--
2A 1,2 _I 72
h2 -{-l2 y, / Vh 2r- 7j -~ 12
,o 9
2A o r
25m2 _
X
r ""
5 m ' IX .
nance of the inner surface of the sphere and the total lum i
nous flux em itted by the source.
21.4. D eterm ine the lum inous flux passing through a su r
face of area 20 cm 2 located 5 m from a 100-cd point source
of light. The rays are incident normal to the surface.
21.5. The average illum inance in Leningrad during a
sum m er night (when the Sun does not sink deep below the
horizon) is 1 lx, while the illum inance during a m oonlit
night is 0.1 lx. W hat are the lum inous fluxes incident on the
Mars Field in Leningrad which covers an area of 0.1 km 2?
21.6. An incandescent lam p (w ithout a shade) of lum i
nous in ten sity 25 cd is suspended 80 cm above a table. De
term ine the illum inance on the table.
21.7. The lum inous in ten sity of the lam p in a photograph
ic enlarger is 15 cd. Determ ine the illum inance on a piece
of photographic paper if the enlarger is 30 cm above it and
only 15% of the lum inous flux is used.
21.8. An incandescent lam p in a room produces an illu
m inance of 28 lx at one wall and 7 lx on the opposite wall at
the same level. W hat is the ratio of the distances between
the lam p and the walls?
21.9. W hen w ill the illum inance under a lam p be higher:
for a lum inous intensity of 120 cd 3 m away or for a lum i
nous in ten sity of 25 cd 1.2 m away?
21.10. P arallel rays incident a t an angle of 25 produce
an illum inance of 54 lx. A t w hat angle of incidence will the
illum inance of the surface be 45 lx?
21.11. Before a sunset, sun light is incident on the sur
face of the E a rth a t an angle of 81. Compare the illu m i
nances produced on the surface of the E arth and on a
vertical w all facing the Sun.
21.12. The m axim um illum inance th a t can be created by
sun light on the surface of the E arth is 1 0 8000lx. How far
from the Sun is the planet Mars when the m axim um solar
illum inance on its surface is 48000 lx?
21.13. W hy does snow m elt more quickly on sunlit
slopes than on su n lit horizontal areas?
21.14. W hen parallel rays are incident on an object alo rg
the norm al to its surface, the illum inance is 70 lx. W hat
w ill the illum inance of the surface be if the object is turned
so th a t the angle of incidence is 60?
21.15. An electric bulb of lum inous in tensity 150 cd is
21. Photom etry 249
Fig. 135
I from the screen. W ill the illum inance change if the lum i
nous in ten sity and the distance from the light source are
both increased rc-fold?
21.30. A light source of 40 cd is placed between a screen
and a plane m irror 0.5 m from the screen (Fig. 135). The
distance between the screen and the m irror is 1.2 m. D eter
m ine the illum inance of the screen where the lig h t ray is
incident along the norm al. Assume th a t the m irror is per
fectly reflecting.
21.31. A lam p used for p rin tin g photographs had lu m i
nous in ten sity 50 cd and was placed 1.2 m from the photo
graph. The exposure tim e was 3 s. W hen the lam p b urnt
out, it was replaced by another lam p of 40 cd placed 1 m
from the photograph. D eterm ine the exposure tim e for the
new lam p.
22. W ave Properties of Radiation 251
t
I
I#
I
I
I
I
E 0 , ft ,
* . ,(Ljd
Fig. 137
Worked Problems
Problem 107. The wavelength of light in glass is 450 n m .
L ight propagates in glass at a velocity of 1.8 X 105 km /s.
D eterm ine the frequency of light, the absolute refractive
index of glass, and the w avelength of the light passing from
glass into vacuum .
Given: Xg = 450 nm = 4.5 X 10 ~7 m is the w avelength of
light in glass, v = 1 . 8 x 1 0 6 km /s = 1 . 8 x 1 0 8 m/s is the
velocity of light in glass. From tables, we take the velocity
of lig ht in vacuum , c = 3 X 10 8 m/s.
F in d : the frequency v of light, the absolute refractive in
dex n of glass, and the w avelength X of light in vacuum .
Solution. From the w avelength and the velocity of light
in glass, we can determ ine its frequency: Xg = v/v, whence
1.8 X 108 m /s
4.0 x 1014 Hz = 400 THz.
4.5 X 10" 7 m
254__________Ch. IV. Optics. Special Theory of R elativity
F ig. 139
+ Th<,n
. _ (2 .2 X 10" m )a
1.1 X 1 0 6 m .
2 x 2 .2 m
X
For a dark fringe, we have A = (2k + 1), or 2d +
A = Xk + A , whence d = A - .
From triangle A B C , we obtain i ? 2 = (i? d ) 2 + r^,
2/?d d 2 = r\ . The q u a n tity d 2 can be neglected since d
is sm all. This gives 2R d = r\, whence d = r\!2R. Com
paring the obtained expressions for d, we obtain
Xk_ _ r\
2 ~ 2R
whence
*= (7-2 x l 0 ~3m )2 = 7.2 x 10~7 m.
kR 6 x 12 m
rent plate w ith parallel faces, altern atin g dark and yellow
fringes can be seen against the background of the flame. The
same pattern can be observed in reflected light (by placing
the plate behind the flame). How can this effect be ex
plained?
22.4. Oil spots on the surface of sunlit w ater are rainbow
coloured. W hy? W ill the p attern change if the surface is
illum inated by m onochrom atic light?
22.5. Rays from two coherent light sources of w avelength
0.5 |Lim and w ith a path difference of 0.5 mm arrive a t a
certain point in space. W ill the interference be constructive
or destructive at this point?
22.6. Red light of wavelength 760 nm from two coherent
sources is incident on a screen, form ing an interference p a t
tern of red and dark fringes. Determ ine the path difference
of the rays if four half-waves fit into it. W hat type of
fringe (red or dark) is formed for such a path difference?
22.7. A soap bubble displays all the colours of the ra in
bow in sun light. W hy?
22.8. Determ ine the radius of the second dark Newton
ring in reflected Ught if a plano-convex lens w ith the radius
of curvature 8 m and a flat plate (Fig. 140) are illum inated
by a m onochrom atic light w ith a wavelength of 640 nm.
22.9. An instrum ent for observing New tons rings is il
lum inated by a m onochrom atic red light. The radius of the
third dark ring is found to be 2.8 mm. D eterm ine the wave
length of the red light if the radius of curvature of the plano
convex lens is 4 m.
22.10. The air gap in an instrum ent for observing New
to n s rings (see F ;g 140) is filled w ith water. W hat w ill the
change in the radii of the interference rings be?
22.11. W hat is the antireflection coating of objectives
based on? W hy do objectives have a bluish-violet tinge in
reflected light?
22.12. The distance between two coherent m onochrom at
ic point light sources is 1.5 cm. The sources are located at
36 m from a screen so th a t the line connecting them is p aral
lel to the plane of the screen. Determ ine the w avelength of
the light if the separation between adjacent interference
fringes is 1 . 8 mm.
22.13. A plano-convex lens w ith a radius of curvature of
8 m is put on a flat transparent plate. W hen the system is
22. W ave Properties of Radiation 259
Worked Problems
Problem 111. Assuming th a t the tem perature of the s u r
face of the Sun is approxim ately 6000 K, determ ine the
wavelength corresponding to the m axim um energy, consid
ering th a t the Sun is a blackbody.
Given: T = 6000 K is the tem perature of the S u n s su r
face. From tables, we take the W ien constant: b = 2.89 X
10 - 3 m- K.
Find: the w avelength Xmax corresponding to the m axi
mum energy.
Solution. The wavelength corresponding to the m axim um
rad ian t energy in the spectrum of a blackbody a t a given
tem perature can be found from W iens displacem ent law
b ^max^
\ b n 2.89 X 10 ^ m K. ^ qq .v/ ^ ^
^max f ^max 6000 K 4.82 X 10 m.
Answer. The m axim um of rad ia n t energy corresponds to
Ihe wavelength 482 nm.
262 Ch. IV. Optics. Special Theory of R elativity
m i |f L = e f / ,
hv = A + ^ k ^ -
W orked Problems
Problem 112. A surface elem ent of area 2 cm 2 is illu m i
nated for 1 m in by a rad iatio n of energy 15 J. Determ ine the
pressure exerted by the rad iatio n if the surface (a) com
pletely absorbs the rad iatio n and (b) com pletely reflects it.
Given: W = 15 J is the rad ia n t energy, t = 60 s is the
tim e, S = 2 cm 2 = 2 X 10-4 m 2 is the area on which the ra
diation is incident. From tables, we take the velocity of
light in vacuum c = 3 x 108 m/s.
Find: the pressure p t exerted by the radiation when it is
com pletely absorbed and the pressure p 2 when it is com
pletely reflected.
Solution. The pressure arising as a result of the interac
tion between rad iatio n and the substance can be found from
the form ula
p = ^ - (i+ p )>
15 J
Pl Set ~ 2 xx 10~4
10- m2
m 2 X 3 x 108 m /s x 60 s
= 4.2 x 10-6 Pa.
266 Ch. IV. Optics. Special Theory of R elativity
Pz = . Pi = 8-4 x lO 6 Pa.
2 (hc %A)
mek
24. Quantum Properties of Radiation 267
U =
24.12. The work function for cesium is 1.9 eV. D eterm ine
the m axim um wavelength of light at which a photoelectric
eSect is observed.
24.13. D eterm ine the m axim um w avelength of light
which m ay cause the extrinsic photoeffect from nickel if the
work function for nickel is 4.5 eV.
24.14. The work function for platinum is 6.3 eV.
W ill photoeffect be observed for a rad iatio n of w avelength
1 0 " 7 m?
24.15. L ight of w avelength 500 nm is incident on the sur
face of silver. W ill the silver become charged or will it re
m ain neutral? If it gets charged, w hat is the sign of
the charge? The photoelectric threshold for silver is
261 nm.
24.16. The m axim um w avelength of rad ia tio n th a t can
produce a photoelectric effect in platinum is 234 nm. De
term ine the m axim um kinetic energy acquired by the elec
trons due to rad iatio n of w avelength 2 0 0 nm.
24.17. W hat is the energy of electrons detached from the
surface of copper irradiated by light of frequency 6 X
10 16 Hz if the work function for copper is 4.5 eV?
24.18. W hat is the velocity of the electrons knocked out
of sodium irrad iated by light of w avelength 6 6 nm? The
work function for sodium is 4 X 10 19 J.
24.19. The photoelectric threshold for a certain m etal is
690 nm. D eterm ine the work function for th is m etal and
the m axim um velocity acquired by its electrons due to ra
diation of w avelength 190 nm.
24.2 0 .1 W hat is the m axim um velocity acquired by photo-
electrons knocked out of m olybdenum by rad ia tio n of fre
quency 3 x 1020 Hz? The work function for m olybdenum
is 4.27 eV. Is the classical form ula applicable in this
case?
24.21. If the surface of a m etal is successively exposed to
rad iatio n of w avelengths 350 and 540 nm , the m axim um ve
locities of the photoelectrons w ill differ by a factor of two.
D eterm ine the m etals work function.
following relation:
m=
1/1 v*/c*
G iven th a t the mass depends on the velocity, we can w rite
the form ula for the m om entum of the body in the form
mnv
pz= m v . u
j / l v 2/ c 2
;. = v' + v
l + yiv/c2 9
K
Therefore
p=-r=fe--
The tim e for the statio n ary observer w ill be dilated and is
defined by the form ula
t= t= = 7.5 years.
] / 1 V2/ c 2 '
Answer. The length of the ruler for the statio n ary observer
is 0.8 m, the density of steel is 1.2 X 104 kg/m 3, and the
tim e period is 7.5 years.
Problem 115. The rest energy of a proton is approxim ately
938 MeV. D eterm ine the rest mass of the proton and the
mass and velocity of protons to which a kinetic energy of
70 GeV has been im parted in an accelerator.
Given: E 0 = 938 MeV is the rest energy of the proton,
E k = 70 GeV is the kinetic energy of a proton acquired in
the accelerator. From tables, we take the velocity of light
in vacuum c = 3 X 108 m/s.
Find: the rest mass m Po of the proton, the mass m p of the
proton after the acceleration, and the velocity v of the pro
ton as a result of the acceleration.
272__________Ch. IV. Optics. Special Theory of R elativity
_j_ i whence
nro E
1 .1 2 x 10 - I
1.5x lO - 1 J
+ 1) 1.67 x 10' 27 kg = 1.26 x 10 25 kg.
H aving determ ined the mass of the proton after the accel
eration, we can find its velocity:
whence
1.67x l O ' 27 kg
v =c ) = 0.99c.
1.26 X 10-25 kg
term ine the velocity w ith which the rockets approach each
other according to (a) classical m echanics and (b) the theory
of re la tiv ity .
Given: vl = v 2 = 0.8c are the velocities of rockets relativ e
to the sta tio n a ry observer on the E arth .
Find: the velocity u cl at which the rockets approach each
other according to classical m echanics and u rel, the veloc
ity according to re la tiv ity , as well as the difference Au in
these velocities.
Solution. According to classical m echanics, we have
u cl = vx + u c\ ^ 0 .8 c + 0 .8 c = 1 . 6 c.
Worked Problems
Problem 117. The radioactive waste from nuclear power
plants contains the radioactive strontium isotope JJSr which
has a half-life of 28 years. Over w hat period w ill the am ount
of strontium decrease by a factor of four?
Given: Sr is the strontium isotope, and T l/2 = 28 years
is its half-life.
26. Structure of Atom ic N ucleus 279
A N = - ^ - N 0t,
or
ATV _ 0.693 4 AN 0.693 X 1 year n noQ
TV0 T N0 30 years
1 year = 3.15 X 107 s is the tim e for which the nuclear fuel
consum ption is being determ ined, m = 1.8 X 105 kg is the
mass of the uranium charge of a reactor. From tables, we take
the Avogadro constant N A = 6.02 X 1023 m ol"1, the m olar
mass of uranium M = 235 X 10 ~3 kg/m ol, and th e energy
liberated as a resu lt of the fission of a 235U nucleus, E
200 MeV.
F ind: the efficiency q of the power u n it, the mass m 1 of
uranium consumed and the fraction m j m of the consumed
uranium .
Solution. The efficiency of a un it is defined as the ra tio of
the electric power of the un it to the therm al power of a
reactor:
r, = ^ 1 0 0 % , t) = J x i S -w 100% = 31.3%.
In order to determ ine the mass of consumed uranium , we
m ust find the num ber of 235U atom s entering into the nuclear
reaction over the tim e of operation of the reactor. Since
ab out 200 MeV of energy is liberated during the fission of
a 235U nucleus and th a t 190 MeV are converted into heat,
we can w rite N = P tt /E u where E x = 190 MeV. Given the
num ber of atom s in the reaction and the mass of a uranium
atom , m\j = M / N A, we can determ ine the mass of con
sumed uranium :
r M P it
mi = m v N , or m i = -g ,
2 3 5 x 1 0 -3 kg*m ol"1 X 3.2 X 10 W x 3.15 x 107 s _ 1 o q / .
1 6.02 X 1023 m ol"1 X 190 X 1.6 X 1 0 -13 J
Let us determ ine the fraction of the to ta l charge con
sumed over a year:
mi 1294 kg p. j-w-v-
m ~ 1.8 x 1 0 s kg
Answer. The efficiency of the p lan t is about 31% , the
am ount of uranium -235 consumed during a year of operation
is about 1300 kg, which is less th an 1 % of the to ta l.
per second. D eterm ine the charge of this rad ia tio n in cou
lombs.
26.17. D eterm ine the radius and nuclear density of he
lium and uranium -238 atom s.
26.18. W rite the reaction for the direct transform ation of
actinium -227 into francium-223. W hat type of a radioactive
decay is it?
26.19. W hat will happen to the uranium-237 isotope dur
ing p-decay? W hat will the mass num ber of the new ele
m ent be? To which side of the Periodic Table will the nuc
leus be shifted? W rite the reaction equation.
26.20. A beryllium nucleus is formed by the reaction
between a lith iu m nucleus and a deuteron. W hat particle is
liberated in the process? W rite the nuclear reaction equa
tion.
26.21. The age of the objects discovered during an arche
ological dig is determ ined from the isotopes of a certain ele
m ent the objects contain. D eterm ine the charge and the
mass num ber and identify the elem ent from the following
nuclear reaction:
*JN+ i - * 4 x + lp.
26.22. W hat are the resu lta n t nuclei after the a - and
P-decay of xenon?
26.23. Two y-quanta are formed by the an n ih ilatio n of
an electron and a positron. Assum ing th a t the masses of the
electron and the positron are the same, determ ine the energy
of the y-radiation and its frequency.
26.24. The presence of explosives in the luggage of air
passengers can be detected using nuclear physics. An explo
sive norm ally contains nitrogen isotopes w ith mass num
bers 14 and 15. As a result of bom bardm ent by neutrons,
nitrogen isotopes w ith mass num bers 15 and 16 are formed.
The la tte r isotope is radioactive and em its y-quanta th a t
can be detected. W rite the equation of the nuclear reaction.
26.25. W hat m ust the energy of a y-quantum be for it to
be convertable into an electron-positron pair?
26.26. I t is established th a t a proton is em itted during
the bom bardm ent of an alum inium isotope by helium nuclei
w ith the form ation of a new nucleus. W rite the equation for
the nuclear reaction and id entify the new nucleus.
286 Ch. V. P h ysics of Atomic N ucleus
Li + JH - 2*He.
26.35. D eterm ine the energy liberated in the nuclear re
action ILi + JH - > 42He + 2He (see Table 25).
26.36. In order to obtain 1 GW of electric power, 2 X
1 0 6 t of coal have to be burnt annually, which involves the
discharge of 8 X 103 t of ash and tens of thousands of tons
of sulphur dioxide into the atm osphere. How much uranium -
235 is required to obtain the same power for the same ef
ficiency?
26.37. The fission of a uranium -235 atom into two frag
m ents is accom panied by the liberation of about 3 X 10 -11 J
of energy. How m uch petrol has to be burnt to obtain the
same energy as th a t liberated in a nuclear reaction in which
1 g of uranium is consumed?
26.38. C alculate the energy liberated by the com bustion
of 1120 t of A-l grade coal, of 376 t of petroleum , of
26. Structure of Atom ic N ucleus 287
\N
Z,
Nadir
Fig. 148 Fig. 149
equinox (Fig. 147). The most rem ote points from the equa
tor are passed by the Sun on the 22nd of June and on 22nd
of December, which are known as sum m er and w inter sol
stices respectively. The ecliptic passes through tw elve con
stellations of the Zodiac, nam ely Pisces, Aries, Taurus,
G em ini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, L ibra, Scorpio, S ag ittariu s,
Capricorn, and A quarius.
The position of a sta r on the celestial sphere is deter
mined by two coordinates: its declination 6 and right ascen
sion a (Fig. 148).
The large circle of the celestial sphere passing through the
celestial poles and a given sta r is known as the declination
circle, while the angular distance from the celestial equator
to the star, measured along the declination circle is known
as the declination of the star. D eclinations are positive to
19-0530
290 Ch. VI. General Remarks on A stronom y
Newton refined K eplers th ird law for com paring the masses
of celestial bodies:
m x + m % T j 2 __ R j 2
4 7*34 i?34
where m m 2 and m 3, m 4 are the masses of two pairs of celes
tia l bodies revolving one around the other, and ^ 12 > T 34,
/?12, and i ? 34 are respectively the periods of revolution and
the m ean distances between the bodies.
Newton's law of universal gravitation: all bodies in the
Universe are attracted to one another w ith a force propor-
S A
sin p
The unit of length in astronom y is the astronom ical u n it
(AU), 1 AU = 149.6 X 106 km is the mean distance be
tween the Sun and the E arth . W hen discussing stars and
galaxies, the units of length are the lig h t year and parsec (pc),
W orked Problems
Problem 124. D eterm ine the ratio of the mass of th e Sun
to the mass of the E a rth if the period of revolution of the
Moon round the E a rth is 27.2 days and the m ean distance
from the E a rth to the Moon is 384000 km.
27. Fundam entals of Astronom y 293
Answer. The ratio between the masses of the Sun and E a rth
is about 330000.
Problem 125. Determ ine the mean distance between the
E a rth and the Moon using the following data: (1) the hori
zontal parallax of the Moon is p = 0.57', and (2) an elec
trom agnetic signal sent to the Moon from the E a rth returns
in 2.56 s. W hat is the m ean velocity of m otion of the Moon
round the E a rth if the sidereal m onth is 27.3 days long?
Given: p = 0.57' is the horizontal parallax of the Moon,
t = 2.56 s is the tim e required for the electrom agnetic sig
nal to traverse twice the distance from the E a rth to the
Moon, T = 27.3 days = 27.3 X 3600 x 24 s is the sidere
al m onth. From tables, we take the mean radius of the
E arth /?Earth = 6370 km and the velocity of light c =
3 X 105 km /s.
Find: the distance d from the E a rth to the Moon and the
mean velocity v of the Moon in its orbit.
Solution. 1. The horizontal p arallax of the Moon is defined
as the angle at which the radius of the E a rth is seen from
294 Ch. VI. General Remark's on A stronom y
S o l i d s (at 293 K)
A lum inium 2.7 X 103 Cast iron
Amber 1.1 X 103 gray 7 .0 X
Brass 8.5 X 103 w h ite 7.5 X
Brick 1 .5 X 103
298 Appendices
L i q u i d s (at 293 K)
Gases
(under normal conditions: p 0 = 1.013 X 105 Pa and T 0 = 273 K)
A cetylen e 1.17 Hydrogen 0.09
A ir 1.29 K rypton 3.74
A m m onia 0.77 M ethane 0.72
Argon 1.78 Neon 0.9
B utane 0.6 N itrogen 1.25
Carbon d ioxid e 1.98 O xygen 1.43
Chlorine 3.21 Propane 2.01
H eliu m 0.18 X enon 5.85
Liquids
Solid fuel
Brown coal 9.3 X 106 Coal
Charcoal 3.1 X 107 A -l grade 2.05 X
Chocks 1.5 X 107 A-2 grade 3.03 X
Coke 3.03 X 107 D onetsk 2.55 X
Firewood 8.3 X 106 E kibastuz 1.63 X
Gun powder 3.0 X 106 Peat 1.5 X
Liq u id fuel
D iesel 4 .2 X 107 Kerosene 4.4 X 107
E th y l alcohol 2.7 X 107 N aphtha 4 .3 3 X 107
Fuel o il 4 .0 X 107 P etrol, petroleum 4 .6 X 107
Gaseous f u e l
S u b s ta n c e T, K t , c r, <
J /k g
p x io ~ 3, pXlO"3,
t, G P, k P a k g /m 3 <, c p, kPa k g /m 3
t, c P, M Pa r, M J /k g <, &c P. M Pa r , M J /k g
Argon 186 -1 2 2 .4 48
E ther 35 193.8 35.6
E th y l alcohol 78 243.1 63
H elium 269 267.9 2.25
H ydrogen -2 5 3 241 12.8
K rypton 193 63.62 54.27
N eon 246 228.7 26.9
N itrogen 196 147.1 33.5
Oxygen 183 118.4 49.7
W ater 100 374.15 221.3
X enon 108 18.76 57.64
10. Melting Point and Specific Latent Heat of Fusion for Some
Solids at Melting Point
S u b s ta n c e Tm K *m C K J /k g
10. M elting P oin t and Specific L aten t H eat of F u sion for Som e
Solid s a t M eltin g P oint (cont.)
Substance K J /k g
273 0 100 82 63 45 28 11
274 1 100 83 65 48 32 16
275 2 100 84 68 51 35 20
276 3 100 84 69 54 39 24 10
277 4 100 85 70 56 42 28 14
278 5 100 86 72 58 45 32 19 6
279 6 100 86 73 60 47 35 23 10
280 7 100 87 74 61 49 37 26 14
281 8 100 87 75 63 51 40 28 18 7
282 9 100 88 76 64 53 42 31 21 11
283 10 100 88 76 65 54 44 34 24 14 4
284 11 100 88 77 66 56 46 36 26 17 8
285 12 100 89 78 68 57 48 38 29 20 11
286 13 100 89 79 69 59 49 40 31 23 14 6
287 14 100 90 79 70 60 51 42 33 25 17 9
288 15 100 90 80 71 61 52 44 36 27 20 12 5
289 16 100 90 81 71 62 54 45 37 30 22 15 8
290 17 100 90 81 72 64 55 47 39 32 24 17 10
291 18 100 91 82 73 64 56 48 41 34 26 20 13
292 19 100 91 82 74 65 58 50 43 35 29 22 15
293 20 100 91 83 74 66 59 51 44 37 30 24 18
294 21 100 91 83 75 67 60 52 46 39 32 26 20
295 22 100 92 83 76 68 61 54 47 40 34 28 22
296 23 100 92 84 76 69 61 55 48 42 36 30 24
297 24 100 92 84 77 69 62 56 49 43 37 31 26
298 25 100 92 84 77 70 63 57 50 44 38 33 27
299 26 100 92 85 78 71 64 58 51 45 40 34 29
300 27 100 92 85 78 71 65 59 52 47 41 36 30
301 28 100 93 85 78 72 65 59 53 48 42 37 32
302 29 100 93 86 79 72 66 60 54 49 43 38 33
303 30 100 93 86 79 73 67 61 55 50 44 39 34
F e rrom ag ne tic s
(m axim um perm eability)
Cast iron 2000
Iron
carbon 3000
soft 8000
transform er 15000
P erm alloy (N i-F e a llo y for
transform er cores) 80000
Magni Declina
S ta r tude m R ig h t a sc e n sio n a tion 0
Nucleus E b, M e V E h/ A , M e V
?H 2.2 1.1
?H 8 .5 2.83
iH e 7.7 2.57
He 28.3 7.075
3Li 32.0 5.33
Li 39.2 5.60
|B e 58.2 6.47
4!B 64.7 6.47
76.2 6.93
|C 92.2 7.68
*3C 97.1 7.47
14N 104.7 7.47
ifO 127.6 7.975
ll 0 131.8 7.75
?IA1 225.0 8 .33
iJs i 255.2 8.51
?5P 250.6 8.35
2I?Rn 1708.2 7.69
22|B a 1731.6 7.66
2932BU 1783.8 7.59
23|U 1801.7 7.57
293JPu 1806.9 7.56
2 9*
308 Appendices
lOl8 hexa H
1Q15 peta P
101? tera T
109 giga G
10 mega M
103 kilo k
103 hecto h
101 deca da
io - 1 deci d
1 0 -3 cen ti c
io - 3 m illi m
1 0 -6 micro P
1 0 -9 nano n
10-12 pico P
10-15 fem to f
10-18 atto a
0 0 0.0000 0.0000
1 0.0175 0.0175 0.0175
2 0.0349 0.0349 0.0349
3 0.0524 0.0523 0.0524
4 0.0698 0.0698 0.0699
5 0.0873 0.0872 0.0875
6 0.1047 0.1045 0.1051
7 0.1222 0.1219 0.1228
8 0.1396 0.1392 0.1405
9 0.1571 0.1564 0.1584
10 0.1745 0.1736 0.1763
11 0.1920 0.1908 0 1944
12 0.2094 0.2079 0.2126
13 0.2269 0.2250 0.2309
14 0.2443 0.2419 0.2493
15 0.2618 0.2588 0.2679
16 0.2793 0.2756 0.2867
17 0.2967 0.2924 0.3057
18 0.3142 0.3090 0.3249
19 0.3316 0.3256 0.3443
20 0.3491 0.3420 0.3640
Appendices 309
A n g le
S in e T angent
d e g re e s r a d ia n s
Kinematics
r = r (<) r is th e disp lacem en t of a p article m
t is the tim e in terval s
x = x (<). y = y (t) x and y are the coordinates of a particle m
s = s(t) s is th e d istan ce covered by the particle m
Uniform motion
r r = vf r r0 is the increm ent of d isp lacem en t m
x x 0 = uxt x 0 ana y0 are the in itia l coordinates of m
a particle
y y0= V
A ppendices 311
F o r m u la Q u a n titie s a p p e a r i n g in f o r m u la s U n its
In scalar form
Free fall
v = gt g is the free fa ll acceleration m /s2
H is the h eig h t from w hich the b od y fa lls m
- !4
v is the v e lo c ity at th e end of th e free m /s
II
%
fall
h= "o * - T
*
F o r m u la Q u a n titie s a p p e a r in g in fo r m u la s U n its
Curvilinear motion
v = 2nR f v is the lin ear v e lo c ity m /s
R is the radius of rotation m
/ is the rotation al frequency H z, s _1
co = 2ji/ o) is the angular v e lo c ity rad/s
to = v/R
ac = vVR ac is the cen trip etal acceleration m /s2
ac = co2/?
Dynamics
p = mlV p is the d en sity k g/m 3
m is the m ass
V is th e volum e H
m3
N ew ton s second law
a = Ftm F is the (resultant) force N
Ft = A mv Ft is the im p u lse of force N *s
mv is the m om entum k g * m /s
C onservation of m om entum
mv = con st
N ew ton s third law
7712 ^ 2
P = mg P is the force of g ra v ity N
Law of u niversal gravitation
F o r m u la Q u a n titie s a p p e a r i n g in f o r m u la s U n its
F o r m u la Q u a n titie s a p p e a r in g in fo r m u la s U n its
F o r m u la Q u a n titie s a p p e a r i n g in f o r m u la s U n its
D eform a tion s
T h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n o f bodies
SI
a is the coefficien t of lin ear exp an sion K " 1
l0S T l 0S T
l 0 is the len g th o f a body a t 273 K m
I = l 0 (1 + a A T ) I is the len g th of the body at an y tern- m
perature
AT* is the change in tem perature K
S = S 0 (1 + 2aA T) S 0 is the surface area o f th e body a t ma
273 K
S is th e surface area of the body a t an y m2
tem perature
V -V 0 AV
ft y A f " A T $ *s coeft*c *en t volu m e exp an sion K ~l
V = V 0 (1 + ft AT) V is th e vo lu m e of th e body a t any tern- m3
perature
V 0 is the volu m e of the body at 273 K m3
_ Po p is the d e n sity of a su bstance a t k g/m 3
p 1 +f t AT
any tem perature
p0 is th e d e n sity of the substance k g /m 3
at 273 K
316 A ppendices
E lectrostatic s
F o r m u la Q u a n titie s a p p e a r i n g in fo r m u la s U n its
, 1
318 A ppendices
F o r m u la Q u a n titie s a p p e a r in g in fo r m u la s U n its
F o n n u la Q u a n titie s a p p e a r in g in f o r m u la s U n its
Electromagnetic induction
AO
S = - At % is the induced em f
AO is the change in the m agnetic flux Wb
Af is the tim e in terval over w hich the s
m agnetic flux changes
320 A ppendices
F o r m u la Q u a n titie s a p p e a r i n g in f o r m u la s Units
AO
= CO * S0l is the em f induced in a solen oid V
At
# s t r = B l v sin a $ s tr i s the em f induced in a stra ig h t V
conductor during it s m otion
I is the a ctiv e len gth of the conductor m
A/
= L s is the self-in d u ctan ce em f V
At
L is the in ductance of th e circu it H
L I2
W = W is th e energy of the m agnetic field J
of t h e . circu it
co~ V
f
m co is the circular frequency rad/s
k is the spring con stan t N /m
m is th e m ass of the load kg
k = vT X is the w avelen gth m
v is the v e lo c ity of propagation of w ave m /s
A l t e r n a t i n g cu rre n t
F o r m u la Q u a n titie s a p p e a r i n g in fo r m u la s Units
Geometrical optics
n = cfv n is the ab solu te refractive in d ex
v is the v e lo c ity of lig h t in a m edium m /s
2 1 -0 5 3 0
322 Appendices
F o r m u la Q u a n titie s a p p e a r i n g in f o r m u la s U n its
Photometry
e
o-
O is the lu m in ou s flux lm
II
Q is the lu m in ou s energy J
cDtot = 4 j t / O tot is the to ta l lu m in ou s flux lm
/ = CD/co I is the lu m in o u s in te n sity cd
co is the so lid angle sr
E = 0 /5 E is the illu m in a n ce lx
Laws of illu m in a tio n
E = //r2 r is the d istan ce from a source of lig h t m
to the surface being illu m in a ted
E ~ E 0 cos a E 0 is the illu m in a n ce due to the norm al lx
rays
or
i? = cos a a is the an gle of incidence deg
F o r m u la Q u a n titie s a p p e a r in g in f o r m u la s U n its
st
_ b dh V b2 4ac
21*
324 Appendices
or
a
The la tter is more con ven ien t when b is even.
For a reduced quadratic equation
x2 + px + 9 = 0,
S o lv in g th is equation , we ob tain
ci&g c2b 1
a xb2 a2b i
fljCj
V~ 1*2 *
The sam e m ethod can be used to so lv e a sy ste m w ith a larger n u m
ber of equations: we exp ress one unknow n from one of th e eq u a tio n s
of the sy stem and su b stitu te it in to th e rem aining eq u a tio n s. T h is
reduces th e num ber of eq u a tio n s and unknow ns by on e. S im ila r ly , w e
elim in a te in turn the other unknow ns u n til w e are le ft w ith one eq u a
tion in one unknown, w h ich can be so lv ed . The rem ain in g unknow ns
are determ ined in reverse order.
5. Some formulas for approximate calculations.
Appendices 325
Y T + l= i+ .,
v <
T hese form ulas y ield q uite accurate resu lts. For exam p le, le t us
calcu late Y 1/3.96:
i /J L ^ ! 1 1
V 3.96 iY/ kI
T 0.04 j / j (j -04 j 2 V 1 0.01
1 1 1
2 11 0.01 j 2 1 0.005
= - i - (1 + 0.005) = 0.5025.
Geometry
1. G iven a right trian gle w ith sid es a and b and h y p oth en u se c.
Then
a2 + b2 = c2#
2. The area of a trian gle is
Trigonometry
1 . The trigonom etric fu n ction s of the sum s and differences of
angles are
sin (a + P) = sin a cos p + cos a sin P,
sin (a P) = sin a cos P cos a sin p,
cos (a + P) = cos a cos p sin a sin P,
cos (a P) = cos a cos p + sin a sin p.
2 . The fu n ction s of double the angle are
sin 2a = 2 sin a cos a
cos 2a = co s2 a sin 2 a .
a
2 cos2 = 1 + cos a .
a + P cos
sm a +I sin
Q
= 2o sin
a P
p >
a - T 6 a B
si n a si n p = 2 cos si n
a a + P a p
cos a + cos P = 2 cos cos
. a+ P . a P
cos a cos p = 2 sm s m ^ .
A ppendices 327
n
(i)'-
J sin x d x = cos x,
s cos x dx = sin x.
P e r io d s
PERIODIC TABLE
s G r o u p s o f
cc
o
I II 111 IV V
(H )
1 I
L i 3 B e 4 8 B 8 C 7 N
2 II 6.94, 9.01218 10.81 12.011 14.0067
L it h iu m
2s* i
2
B e r y lliu m
2 *? 2
2
3 2p*
2 B o ro n
4
2
2p* ^
C a rb o n
5 2p3
2 N itr o g e n
N a 11 M g 12 13 A l 15 p
14 S i
3 III 22.90977 i 24.305 2 3 f 2698154 4 28.085s s , 30.97376
_
S o d iu m
3s1 a
2
3*7
M a g n e s iu m
8
2 2 A lu m in iu m
8
2
3p2 e ...
S ilic o n
a 3p3
2 P h o s p h o ru s
K 19 , Ca ), Sc 21 T i 2 2 } V 23
IV 3 9 .0 9 8 . , s 40.08
4s1 8
,
4*2
8
8 4 4 9 5 5 9 3d*4*2 J 4790
50.9415 , ,n
3 0 34 *2 a
P o t a s s iu m 2 C a lc iu m 2 S c a n d iu m 2 T it a n iu m 2 V a n a d iu m 2
4 ,29 C U ,30 Zn ,3i Ge 33
Ga .3 2 A S
V
! 63546 is
3d"4'
65.38 , 8 4*
18
8 4p1
69.72 18
a 4p2
, 72.59 1!
a 4p3
749 216
2 Copper 2 Z in c 2 G a lliu m 2 G e r m a n iu m 2 A r s e n ic
Rb 37, Sr 38 2 Y 39 2 Zr 4 8 4 Nb 4 * ,;
85.467a ie 87.62 ii 88.9059 1! 91-22 929064 is
VI 5*2 8 40*5 *2 a 4d*5*2 a 4045s* 8
5s' 8
R u b id iu m 2 S t r o n t iu m 2 Y ttr iu m 2 Zirconium 2 N io b iu m 2
5
A g 2 4 8 C d 2 4 8 In 5 0 Sn ,|5 1 Sb
V II is 107.868 !! 11241 !s 114.82 18 H8 6 9 !S 1217s
8 5 *1 8 5 s? ^ . 8 5 P2 8 5P# * a-
2 Silver 2 C a d m iu m 8 5p
2 . d
In ^ iu m 2 T in 2 A n t im o n y
Cs 56 i Ba 56 j La* 57 2 Hf 7 2 Ta 7 3
V III 1 329054 S 137.33 is 138.905s Is 178.4, la 180.9479
6*> 8 6*7 8 50*6*7 8 5076*7 a 5 036*2 a
C e s iu m 2 B a r iu m 2 L a n th a n u m 2 H a f n iu m 2 T a n t a lu m 2
6
,1 7 9 A U
i 8 0 Hg ,2 81 Tl i 82 p b .1 8 3 B i
IX ,i 196.9665 18 200.59 ,8 2 04 37 2072 ii 2089804
5 M 06s' Gold
2
Ssa
M e rc u ry 2
8 6p* _
T h a lliu m 5 6P Lead
86p3
2
r,' aa.
B is m u t h
1 0 5 ,?
Fr 87 j Ra
226.0254
8 8 ,s
32
Ac** 8 9 1 , Ku 104 s 32
32
7 X (2231 tl 7s 2 2 12271 1 26,1 6 d > 7 ,> 6 037*2 8
F r a n c iu m 2 R a d iu m A c iin iu m 2 K u r c h a to v iu m 2 2
LANTHANIDES
Pr 59 1 Nd 6oi Pm6 1 1 Sm62i Eu63! Gd84?
Ce 5 8 1 140.9077 J 151.96s , 5
4f3 6s2 8 ,442<;-6, -s 4f 6 s 8 Shies 'I
Cerium Gadolinium 2
2 Praseodymium 2 Neodymium 2 Promethium 2 Samarium 2 Europium 2
** ACTINIDEJ |
Jh904 Pa 91 j U 9 2 j NP93J Pu 94 J Am95j Cm96j
1244|,rs^| ( 2 4 3 | 32
2 3 2 .0 3 8 1 32 2 3 1 .0 3 5 9 32 2 37 048232
Thorium
60?7s2 8 5f26dVs 2
2 Protactinium ? Uranium
1 2
5f 4 6d'7s2 '5
2
Neptunium j Plutonium
5f 7s
Americium 2 Curium 2
OF THE ELEMENTS
elements
VI VII VIII
1 H 2 He
1 .0 0 7 9 , 5 4 .0 0 2 8 0
1s* is2
1 H y d ro g e n 2 H e liu m
8 0 9 F 10 Ne
1 5 .9 9 9 4 18998403 20.17c
6 2p 7 2p* 8 2p
2 O xygen 2 F l u o r in e 2 N eon
16
17 C l 18 Ar
6 3206 7 35 453 0 3 9 .9 4 s
8 3p 4 8 3p s 0 3p
2 S u lp h u r 2 C h lo r in e 2 A rg o n
Cr 24 Mn 25 Fe Co 27 Ni 28
5 1 .9 9 6 t 13 5 4 .9 3 0 0 , 13 5 5 .0 4 r 5 8 .9 3 3 2
3 d s4s' 8 Sd^s2 8 3de4s7 8 3d74s2 8 58 70 3 4 .4 ,1 -
C h r o m iu m 2 M anganese 2 Ir o n 2 C o b a lt 2 N ic k e l 2
634
A
Se is,35
7 0 .9 6
Br
7 9 .9 0 4
836
is
Kr
8 3 .0 0
8 4P 8 4 PS 8 4p6
2 S e l e n iu m 2 B r o m in e 2 K ry p to n
Mo
9 5 9 4
42
t \i. Tc
989062
43 ] Ru
ia 1 01.07
44;
f
Rh 4s.SPd
S 1029055
48
4d 5s1 8 4 d 5 ss2 e 4 d 75s 8 4d05s1 w e i s , i
M o ly b d e n u m 2 T e c h n e tiu m 2 R u t h e n iu m 2 R h o d iu m 2 P a lla d iu m 2
,s 5 2 Te ,53 | Xe
127 6 0
8 5p*
1269045 S
,! 5 4
8 5p
131.30
8
2
5 p 4 TT e llu r iu m 2 Xenon
2 I o d in e
w1 0 3 .8 s
7 4
i8
Re
1 8 6 .2 0 7
75 J OS
2 1 9 0 .2
76j2 lr
192.2?
77 j
2
Pt
1 9 5 .0 9
78
18
5d46s 2 8 5 d 56 2 8 5dfi6 s 2 8 , 5d 6s 8 5d*6s2 B
T u n g s te n 2 R h e n iu m 2 O s m iu m 2 i r id iu m 2 P la t in u m 2
jl i 84 Po ,285 At 86 Rn
209 18 6p5
12101 8 12221
^
2 P o lo n iu m 2 A s ta tin e 2 R adon
Atomic moss Atomic num ber Atomic mosses conform with fhe Intem cfionol table
\] U 922f-lDistribution
n. .. . ol 1977 the ctcurocy of fhe Icsi significant digit
)S t | or 3 if if is set in smcil type the numbers
Distribution of electrons
of electrons m brockets ore the moss numbers of the most stable
by unfilled ond following-
Uranium 2 by levels isotopes the nomes ond symbols of elem ents m
completed sublevels parentheses ore not generally adopted.
2 .1 . 470 m /s and 510 m /s for air and 450 m /s and 480 m /s for o x y g en -
2 .2 . The mean k in etic energies of tra n slation al m otion of heliu m and
neon are the sam e. 2 .3 . A t 322 K. 2 .4 . 2.25. 2 .5 . A bout 631 and
8640 m /s. 2 .6 . 6.6 X 1 0 ~22 J, 1.2 X IO"19 J. 2 .7 . A bout 3860 K.
2 .8 . 1.25 X 104 J, 6.2 X 105 J. 2 .9 . 290 K. 2 .1 0 . 9.9 X 10-11 Pa,
high vacuum . 2 .1 1 . 1.45 X 1025. 2 .1 2 . A bout 6.5 X IO" 21 J, 9 .3 X
102&. 2 .1 3 . 1.3 X IO"6 Pa. 2 .1 4 . 1350 m /s, 6.07 X IO" 21 J. 2 .1 5 .
3.6 X 1012 m olecu les/cm 3. 2 .1 6 . 105 Pa. 2 .1 7 . 1.3 X 1027. 2 .1 8 . 2.1 X
10- 21 J. 2 .1 9 . 3.6 X 1021. 2 .2 0 . B y 1.7% . 2 .2 1 . 4 .4 6 X 1025, 148 g.
2 .2 2 . The therm odynam ic tem perature and the k in etic energy have
increased fourfold.
Answers 331
T 0
Fig. 153
(a) IV Ic)
Fig. 155
critica l sta te, the specific la ten t heat of vap orization is zero for a ll
liq u id s. 5 .1 3 . 300 J. 5 .1 4 . The energy liberated during the conden
sation of w ater vapour is about eigh t tim es more than th a t lib erated
during the condensation of mercury va
pour. 5 .1 5 . 11.3 MJ, 2.1 MJ. 5 .1 6 . 4.0
k J. 5 .1 7 . 2.6 X 105 J. 5 .1 8 . 100 g. 5 .1 9 .
36.6C. 5 .2 0 . 53 kg. 5 .2 1 . A bout 10C.
5 .2 2 . 71.6G. 5 .2 3 . A bout 3.3 kg, see
F ig. 157. 5 .2 4 . 84 kJ. 5 .2 5 . 2.25 X
106 J/kg, 0.01 X 106 J /k g, 0.44% . 5 .2 6 .
334 g. 5 .2 7 . 2.32 kJ. 5 .2 8 . 0.04 m3.
5 .2 9 . 17 m in. 5 .3 0 . 51.8 kg. 5 .3 1 . 6.5 kg.
5 .3 2 . 35% . 5 .3 3 . 10~2 k g/m 3, 78% .
5 .3 4 . 19.4 X IO" 3 kg/m 3, 22C. 5 .3 5 .
17.3 X 10- 3 kg. 5 .3 6 . 1C. 5 .3 7 . At
about 7C. 5 .3 8 . 9.4 mg, 65% . 5 .3 9 . To
284.5 K. 5 .4 0 . 9.4 X 1 0~3 k g/m 3, 48% .
5 .4 1 . A t 4C. 5 .4 2 . 18C. 5 .4 3 . 60% ,
about 11 g. 5 .4 4 . 17G, 13C. 5 .4 5 . 19C,
the relative h u m id ity increases. 5 .4 6 .
0.4 m3. 5 .4 7 . It decreases to 54% . 5 .4 8 .
1.21 kg, 271 g. 5 .4 9 . 2.33 kPa. H i n t . p s = p a/ , p a can be determ ined
from the eq uation of state: p a = m R T / M V , p s = m R T / M V B . 5 .5 0 .
12.3 X 10 ~3 k g/m 3, about 48% . H i n t . Solve the problem by using
the equation of state.
7 .1 . Strong h eatin g m ay recry sta llize ste e l, w hich m akes its m echan
ical properties w orse. 7 .2 . The shape of the sin g le cry sta l w ill change.
7.3. Glass is b r ittle . 7.4. T h e m eltin g p o in t of lead is considerably
low er than the m eltin g p o in ts of other m etals. 7 .5 . Lead can be m elted
by h eating it in a h erm etically sealed vessel w ith w ater. The temper
ature of the w ater can then be raised con sid erab ly above the m eltin g
p oin t of lead. 7 .6 . In sum m er, the tem perature of the la y ers of air
c lo se to the surface of the E arth is above 0C, and sm all ice c ry sta ls
formed in the upper cold la y ers of the atm osphere m elt on th eir w ay
334 A nswers
to the ground. Larger cr y sta ls have no tim e to m elt and reach the
ground in the form of h a il. 7 .7 . The m eltin g p oin t of the m ixture of
snow and com m on sa lt is low er than 0C, and hence snow m elts even
below 0C. 7 .8 . 0.4 cm . 7 .9 . 1.5 mm, 7.5 X IO-4. 7 .1 0 . 4 mm, about
1.4 J. 7 .1 1 . It w ill decrease by a factor of four. 7 .1 2 . 9 mm. 7 .1 3 .
3 X 107 Pa. 7 .1 4 . 1.07 X 1011 Pa. 7 .1 5 . 5 X IO" 3 m. 7 .1 6 . 9.4 kN .
7 .1 7 . 25. 7 .1 8 . 7.5 cm 2. 7 .1 9 . A bout 4 .2 km . 7 .2 0 . 3 J. 7 .2 1 . 0 .3 mm.
8 .1 . The a llo y has a very sm all coefficient of lin ear exp an sion and
it is used to ensure th at the m echanism is accurate in d ep en d en tly
of the therm al con d ition s. 8 . 2 . The o val hole a llo w s for lin ear ex p a n
sion during w hich the gap betw een the ra ils is reduced. 8 .3 . D ifferent
coefficients of linear exp an sion w ould weaken the tu b e during it s
operation (when it is heated); no, it cannot. 8 .4 . It w ill in crease.
8 .5 . The sleeve should be h eated . 8 . 6 . The relation is approxim ate.
H i n t . We w rite the expression for a u n it volum e after h ea tin g a body
through I K : 1 + 0 = (1 + a )3. A fter raisin g the right-hand sid e
to the third power, we can n eglect the term s 3 a 2 and a 3 in view of
their sm alln ess, w hich g iv es P = 3 a . 8 .7 . T h is is due to the r e la tiv e ly
sm all therm al expansion coefficien t. 8 . 8 . Therm al e x p a n siv ity should
be taken in to account. I ts v alu e for liq u id s is m uch larger than th at
for the m aterial of w hich the tan k s are m ade. ,8 .9 . D uring h eatin g,
stresses m ay em erge in teeth , w hich cau ses crack s in the en am el.
8 .1 0 . The strip w ill bend tow ards the m etal w ith the sm aller co efficien t
of linear expansion; such strip s are used in therm al rela y s used to
control tem peratures a u to m a tica lly . 8 .1 1 . B y 12 mm . 8 .1 2 . 10 K.
8 .1 3 . T ungsten. 8 .1 4 . 533.128 and 532.872 m. 8 .1 5 . A bout 903C.
8 .1 6 . B y 417 K. 8 .1 7 . To 391 K . 8 .1 8 . The a lu m in iu m com ponent
is 330 m longer than the steel com p on en t. 8 .1 9 . 1.99 m. 8 .2 0 . 739.2 k N .
8 .2 1 . 15 K . 8 .2 2 . 79.2 k N . 8 .2 3 . 500QC. 8 .2 4 . A bout 4 k J . 8 .2 5 .
37 k N . 8 .2 6 . 16.2 cm 3. 8 .2 7 . T h is relation is ap p roxim ate. 8 .2 8 .
A nswers 335
1 0 .1 . 7.5 X 1016. 10.2 . 6.3 X 1021. 10.3. 103 A. 10.4 . 3 X 1023 cm"3.
1 0 .5 . 1.1 X 10-4 m /s. 1 0 .6 . 3.6 X IO" 2 V /m , 518 m. 1 0 .7 . 5.4 X
10-4 m 2/(V -s). 1 0.8. 2.5 X 104 A /m 2; y es, it is. 10.9. 2 A /m 2. 10.1 0 .
A bout 23 mm. 10.11. 6.2 A /m m 2. 10.12. 0.054 Q; it w ill be half.
1 0.13. N ichrom e w ire, 2.5 tim es. 10.14. The current in the tungsten
w ire is 1.87 tim es larger than that in the steel w ire provided th at
the internal resistance of the accum ulator can be neglected in v iew
of it being sm all. 10.15. The resistance decreased by a factor of four.
10.16. 12 pF. 10.17. 1.2 A, about 42 Q. 10.18. 272 m. 10.19. 60 Q.
10.20. 736 m. 10.21. 2.7 mA. 1 0 .2 2 . 3 V. 10 .2 3 . 2.7 V, 2.67 A /m m 2.
1 0.24. 15 mm2. 10.25 . 7.5 k N . 10.26. 0.017 Q. 10 .2 7 . The resistance
of the nichrom e w ire is larger by a factor of 3.125. 1 0 .2 8 . S teel.
10.29. W ill increase by 3.24 Q for ca st iron and by 0.34 Q for the ferro-
alum in ium h igh -resistan ce a llo y . 10.30. The tem perature resistance
coefficient m ust he as large a sp o ssib le . 10.31. 230 Q. 10.3 2 . 25 K.
10.33. 6 Q. 10.34. 250 K. 10.3 5 . 558 V. 10.36. 146 m m 2. 10.37. A bout
1260 kV. 10.38. / 2 > / j , the resistan ce w ill increase; the current in
the circu it w ill decrease. The readings on am m eters A x and A 2 w ill
be the sam e. 10.39. 4 Q. 1 0 .4 0 . 0.033 Q. 10.41. 22 Q, 10 A, *7, = 50 V,
U 2 = 70 V, U 3 = 100 V. 1 0 .4 2 . 20Q. 10.43. 24Q, 3Q. 10 .4 4 . 3.24,
2.12, 1.2, and 0.37 A. 10.45. 0.03Q . 10.46. Into tw o parts; in parallel.
10.47. 25 Q. 10.48. 44 Q, 5 A and 0.5 A. 10.49. 0.64 Q, 3.2, 1.6, and
0.2 A. 10.50. 1.8 Q and 1.2 Q. 10.51. 0.55 A, 0.275 A, 1.65 A, and
0.275 A. 10.52. 6 9 , / 1 = 2 A , I 3 = / 4 = 1 A. 10.53. 2.1 Q, 21 V,
U x = 1 2 V, I 3 = 7.5 A, U 3 = 9 V, I 2 = / 4 = / 5 = 2.5 A, U 2 = U* =
U b = 3 V. 10.54. The resistan ce of the cold filam ent is low er than
that of the hot filam ent. C onsequently, the sw itch-on current is larg
er than the sw itch -off current. 10.55. 4 Q, 3 A. 10.56. 508 V, 488 V,
475 V. 10.57. 27 V. 10.58. 4 .5 Q, 2 Q, 1.5 Q, 0.67 Q, 0.46 Q, 0. 10.59.
0.78 Q. 10.60. 2.6 Q. 10.61. 1 A, 0.5 and 0.5 A. 1 0 .62 . 440 Q, 110 V,
0.25 A. 10.63. 146 V, 73 V , 0 .33 A, 0.17 A. 10.6 4 . 0.014 Q. 10.65.
A nswers 337
2.24 X 1022. 12.15. 4.13 X 1 0~3 kg, 1.88 X 1022, 1.26 X 1022. 12.16.
11.8 kg. 12 .1 7 . 64.5 G J, 0.12 Q. 12 .1 8 . 278 A /m 2. 1 2 .1 9 . 9.6 5 , 18.4 g.
Iron is liberated at the cathode and chlorine a t the anode. P o sitiv e
m etal ion s m ove to the cath od e, w h ile n eg a tiv e ch lorin e ions m ove
to the anode. 12.20. 9.4 h. 12.2 1 . 52 m in. 1 2 .2 2 . 2.6 X 104 kW h,
520 rubles. 12 .2 3 . 4 .5 kg. 1 2 .2 4 . 12.5 h. 1 2 .2 5 . 2.7 X 109 m /s.
12 .2 6 . 312 K . 12.27. N o, it w as n ot. A correction of 0.1 A is required.
12 .2 8 . 1.045 X IO' 8 kg/C, 2.38 X 10 7 kg/C, 1.26 X 10" 7 kg/C.
1 2 .2 9 . 50 C, 56 m g. 1 2 .3 0 . A bout 29 W . 1 2 .3 1 . 369 m g. H i n t . See
F ig. 161. The area of the trapezium is equal to the am ount of e le c
tr ic ity p a ssin g through th e electro ly te from the m om ent w hen the
current sta rts changing. 1 2 .3 2 . A bout 28.2 A /m 2. 12 .3 3 . 1.9 X 1022.
1 2 .3 4 . PoI = U - R = 0.8 V.
81
>
s [ >
Fig. 164
1.5 mm . 15.33. 800, 280. The p erm eab ility of steel decreases. When
the m agnetization of a ferrom agnetic a tta in s saturation, the m agnetic
in duction increases on ly due to increasing m agnetic field strength.
1 5 .34. 0.5 T, 1.5 mW b. 1 5.35. 7.9 X IO" 7 Wb. 1 5 .3 6 . 2 X IO"4 Wb,
2.4 X 10- 4 J. 15.37. 144 m W b. 15.38. 7.2 X 10"4 W b. 15.3 9 . 0 .2 T,
fa) lb)
Ld Id
FI FI
Fig. 165 Fig. 166
100. 15.40. A t the in itia l m om ent, the force is directed v er tic a lly
downwards; a circle. 15.41. 3 .0 X IO-16 N. 15.42. 1.2 m, 4 .0 X 10" 7 s,
2.5 M Hz. 15.43. The v e lo c ity vector must be perpendicular to the
plane co n ta in in g vectors E and B. B y h y p o th esis, the electron m oves
u n iform ly in a straigh t lin e, and hence F h = 0, v = E l B . 15.4 4 .
1.4 X IO*14 J. 15.45. 3 .9 m m , 4 .4 cm . 1 5 .4 6 . T %1 = T i2. 15.47.
Ti > T c.
1 6 .1 . An em f w ill be induced in th e case (a). 1 6 .2 . W hen the p oles
o f the m agnet are connected (disconnected), the m agnetic field in
duction changes, w hich lea d s to the em ergence of an induced current.
1 6 .3 . From N to M \ from M to N . 1 6 .4 . An em f is induced when the
fram e enters the m agnetic field or lea v es it since in th ese cases the
m agnetic flux piercing the fram e changes. 1 6 .5 . N o. 1 6 .6 . The current
induced in the upper part of the frame is directed aw ay from us in
the cases (a) and (d) and tow ards us in the cases (b) and (c). 16.7. The
A nswers 341
variable since the restoring force varies all the tim e. 17.2 9 . Y es, they
w ill. 17.30. The alum in iu m ball w ill com e to a h a lt first. 17.31. The
acceleration for the am p litu d e value of the d isp lacem en t is m axim al
and in the equilibriu m p osition is m in im al. The v e lo c ity has the
m axim um valu e in the eq u ilib riu m p osition . 17.32. F = m g sin a =
6.93 X IO" 2 N . 17.33. 204 g. 17.34 . 303. 17.35. The period of o sc illa
tion s of a pendulum depends on the free fall acceleration w hich is
different at different la titu d es. 17.36. The len gth of the pendulum
becom es sm aller w ith decreasing tem perature and hence tne period
changes (the clock w ill be fast). The correct pace can be restored by
changing the len gth of the pendulum by d isp la cin g its load . 17.3 7 .
The period w ill double. 17.38. The len gth of the pendulum should be
reduced by a factor of 6 .0 5 . H i n t . B y h y p o th esis, the periods of the
pendulum on the Earth and on the Moon m ust be the sam e. E xp ressin g
the p eriods by the form ula T = 2 n l /g for the co n d itio n s on the
(c)
F ig. 174
_/v Fig. 175
Answers 345
vib ration s. 17.71. E lastic forces. 17.72. The v elo c ity of propagation
of sound depends on tem perature and pressure. 17.73. An acou stic
w ave propagating in the rail is p a rtia lly reflected from the surface
of the rail inw ards, and hence the in te n sity of the sound does not
atten uate as rap id ly as in the spherical w ave p ropagating in air.
17.74. The sound w ill not be detected. 17.75. The v ib ra tio n s of the
tu n in g fork are transm itted through the surface of the ta b le w hich
is m uch larger than the surface of the tu n in g fork. 17.7 6 . The sound
from the tu n in g fork in con tact w ith the tab le w ill die aw ay sooner
since the energy of the tu n in g fork is spent on the vib ra tio n of the
tab le. 1 7.77. 22.7 cm -11.3 cm . 17.7 8 . 0.66 m. 17.7 9 . 0.5ji rad. 17.80.
The air colum n in the cap w ill start vib ra tin g . 17 .8 1 . 1545 H z. 1 7 .8 2 .
6 cm . 17.83. The frequency of the sound w ill increase. 17.84. 1445 m /s,
3638 m /s. 17.85. The v alu es of v and T w ill not change, w h ile k w ill
increase by a factor of 14.7. 17.86. 1200 m . 17.87. 2.04 mm, 5.1 mm.
17.88. 3 km . 17 .8 9 . 13.2 s. 17.90. 2 X IO" 3 %, 6 cm .
2 3 -0 5 3 0
346 Answers
.(b)
(a)
^ m a x~ Irn at R
Fig. 176
(a)
/-K/2
Uc =/(Lc
Fig. 177
C2
/ (b )
ULsIcuL
O^er1_____ .
Uk-IR I
Fig. 178
A nswers 347
(b)
9^
u*
Fig. 179
(a) (b)
fy'/cul
ur u.
Uc'f-r
LUC
Fig. 180
(bj (c)
(a)
n
U*UL -UC
Fig. 182
348 Answers
R + Ml R
the equation H ence
V ( /? + A /? ) 2 + to2 ( L + A L )2 VR* + co2Z/2.
L 1 '
A L = & R ~ = A/? TT? 1 8 .3 9 . 17.3 Q, 0.04 H . 18.40. U R =
R 0) (/ o
32 V , U L = 48 V , U c = 32 V , tft ot = 36 V , 2634', see Fig. 186.
1 8 .4 1 . 1594 fiF. 18.42. H yd rau lic turbines cannot ensure the required
(a) (V
4
Uf=U
Uc
/j"
F ig. 183
(0
r<
Ic-h
1* 1'
F ig. 184
(o)
W
A
F ig. 185
F ig. 190
Fig. 192
Answers 351
F ig. 201
Fig. 2 0 2
F ig. 2 0 3
The C o lle c tio n contains more than 400 questions and problems
covering all the sections of the physics course. A ll questions and
problem s have detailed answ ers and solutions. For th is reason the
tw o m ain sections of the book, Q uestions and Problems and A ns
w ers and Solutions, have identical headings and num bering: each
chapter in the first section has a corresponding chapter in the
second, and the num bering of answ ers corresponds to the number-*
ing of problems.
A special feature of the C o lle c tio n is the draw ings and diagram s
for m ost of the questions and answers. The diagram s use a variety
of scales: linear, sem ilog, log-log, and quadratic.
A rrangem ent of the m aterial in this C o lle c tio n corresponds to
the structure m ost com m only used in college physics textbooks. One
exception is the questions and problems involving the special
theory of relativity. T hese are placed in different chapters, starting
from the one dealing w ith m echanics.
The C o lle c tio n is intended for the self-instruction of students of
technical colleges.
Overlay Circle f<
^ ma j
NOMf
Magnitude 1
ana smaller
Magnitude 2
>r the Star Chart
ION
5lar Vernal
** cLusters T equinox r-r'.-! Constellation
= Nebulae Autumnal boundaries
equinox