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28 2 Diff Vec Calc PDF
28 2 Diff Vec Calc PDF
Calculus 28.2
Introduction
A vector eld or a scalar eld can be dierentiated with respect to position in three ways to
produce another vector eld or scalar eld. This Section studies the three derivatives, that is:
(i) the gradient of a scalar eld (ii) the divergence of a vector eld and (iii) the curl of a vector
eld.
' $
be familiar with the concept of a function
of two variables
Prerequisites be familiar with the concept of partial
Before starting this Section you should . . . dierentiation
Consider the height above sea level at various points on a hill. Some contours for such a hill
are shown in the diagram.
10
20 30 40 50 60
B
C
A D
E
Figure 1
We are interested in how changes from one point to another. Starting from A and making
a displacement d the change in height ( ) depends on the direction of the displacement. The
magnitude of each d is the same.
Displacement Change in
AB 40 30 = 10
AC 40 30 = 10
AD 30 30 = 0
AE 20 30 = 10
The change in clearly depends on the direction of the displacement. For the paths shown
increases most rapidly along AB, does not increase at all along AD (as A and D are both on
the same contour and so are both at the same height) and decreases along AE.
The direction in which changes fastest is along the line of greatest slope and orthogonal
(i.e. perpendicular) to the contours. Hence, at each point of a scalar eld we can dene a vector
eld giving the magnitude and direction of the greatest rate of change of locally.
A vector eld, called the gradient, written grad , can be associated with a scalar eld
so that at every point the direction of the vector eld is orthogonal to the scalar eld contour
and is the direction of the maximum rate of change of .
For a second example consider a metal plate heated at one corner and cooled by an ice bag
at the opposite corner. All edges and surfaces are insulated. After a while a steady state sit-
uation exists in which the temperature at any point remains the same. Some temperature
(a) (b)
Figure 2
The direction of the heat ow is along ow lines which are orthogonal to the contours (see the
dashed lines in Figure 2(b)); this heat ow is measured by F = grad .
Denition
grad = = i+ j+ k
x y z
Often, instead of grad , the notation is used. ( is a vector dierential operator called
del or nabla dened by i+ j+ k. As a vector dierential operator, it retains the
x y z
characteristics of a vector while also carrying out dierentiation.)
The vector grad gives the magnitude and direction of the greatest rate of change of at
any point, and is always orthogonal to the contours of . For example, in Figure 1, grad
points in the direction of AB while the contour line is parallel to AD i.e. perpendicular to AB.
Similarly, in Figure 2, the various intersections of the contours with the lines representing grad
occur at right-angles.
For the hill considered earlier the direction of grad is shown at various points in Figure
3. Note that the magnitude of grad is greatest when the hill is at its steepest.
10
20 30
40 50 60
Figure 3
Solution
2
(a) grad = (x 3y)i + (x2 3y)j + (x2 3y)k = 2xi + (3)j + 0k = 2xi 3j
x y z
(b) grad = (xy 2 z 3 )i + (xy 2 z 3 )j + (xy 2 z 3 )k = y 2 z 3 i + 2xyz 3 j + 3xy 2 z 2 k
x y z
Example For f = x2 + y 2 nd grad f at the point A(1, 2). Show that the direction of
grad f is orthogonal to the contour at this point.
Solution
f f f
grad f = i+ j+ k = 2xi + 2yj + 0k = 2xi + 2yj
x y z
and at A(1, 2), this equals 2 1i + 2 2j = 2i + 4j.
Since f = x2 + y 2 then the contours are dened by x2 + y 2 = constant, so the contours are
circles centered at the origin. The vector grad f at A(1, 2) points directly away from the origin
and hence grad f and the contour are orthogonal; see Figure 4.
y grad f
2 A
O 1 x
Figure 4
To nd the change in a function in a given direction (given in terms of a unit vector a) take
the scalar product, (grad ) a.
(a) i (b) d = 35 i + 45 k.
Solution
grad = i+ j+ k = 2xy 2 z 2 i + 2x2 yz 2 j + 2x2 y 2 zk
x y z
1. At A(1, 1, 1), grad = 2i + 2j + 2k
A unit vector in this direction is
grad 2i + 2j + 2k 1 1 1 1
= = (2i + 2j + 2k) = i + j + k
|grad | (2)2 + 22 + 22 2 3 3 3 3
(a) = y x
(b) = y x2
(c) = x2 + y 2 + z 2
(d) = x3 y 2 z
(a) = r
(b) = ln r
1
(c) = r
(d) = rn
3. If = x3 y 2 z, nd,
(a)
(b) a unit vector normal to the contour at the point (1, 1, 1).
(c) the rate of change of at (1, 1, 1) in the direction of i.
(d) the rate of change of at (1, 1, 1) in the direction of the unit vector
n = 13 (i + j + k).
Your solution
1.)
2
+ k) 1 (j c)
b) 2j + 2k
a) 2xi + 2(y 1)j + 2(z + 1)k
Your solution
5.)
The implication of the divergence is most easily understood by considering the behaviour of
a uid and hence is relevant to engineering topics such as thermodynamics. The divergence (of
If there is no gain or loss of uid anywhere then div v = 0 which is the equation of conti-
nuity for an incompressible uid.
The divergence also enters engineering topics such as magnetic elds. A magnetic eld (de-
noted by B) has the property B = 0, that is there are no sources or sinks of magnetic eld.
Key Point
F is a vector eld but div F is a scalar eld.
Solution
(a) div F = x
(x2 ) + y
(y 2 ) + z
(z 2 ) = 2x + 2y + 2z
(b) div r = x
(x) + y
(y) + z
(z) =1+1+1=3
(c) div v =
x
(x) +
y
(y) +
z
(2) = 1 + 1 + 0 = 0
Example Find the value of a for which F = (2x2 y + z 2 )i + (xy 2 x2 z)j + (axyz 2x2 y 2 )k
is incompressible.
Find the divergence of the following vector elds, in general terms and at the
point (1, 0, 3)
(a) F 1 = x3 i + y 3 j + z 3 k
(b) F 2 = x2 yi 2xy 2 j
(c) F 3 = x2 zi 2y 3 z 3 j + xyz 2 k
Your solution
1.)
bank bank
Figure 6
Note that for a two-dimensional vector eld, such as v described here, curl v is perpendicular
to the motion, and this is the direction of the axis about which the leaf rotates. The magnitude
of curl v is related to the speed of rotation.
For motion in three dimensions a particle will tend to rotate about the axis that points in the
direction of curl v, with its magnitude measuring the speed of rotation.
If, at any point P, curl v = 0 then there is no rotation at P and v is said to be irrotational at P.
If curl v = 0 at all points of the domain of v then the vector eld is irrotational.
Key Point
Note that F is a vector eld and that curl F is also a vector eld.
(a)
i j k
v = x y z
x 2 0
= (0) (2) i + (x) (0) j + (2) (x) k
y z z x x y
= 0i + 0j + 0k = 0
A oating leaf will travel along the streamlines (moving away from the y axis and
upwards - see Figure 14 of Section 29.1) without rotating.
(b)
i j k
v = x y z
y x 0
= (0) (x) i + (y) (0) j + (x) (y) k
y z z x x y
= 0i + 0j + 2k = 2k
A oating leaf will travel along the streamlines (anti-clockwise around the origin )
and will rotate anticlockwise (as seen from above).
(a)
i j k
curl u = F = x y z
x2 y 2 0
2 2 2 2
= (0) (y ) i + (x ) (0) j + (y ) (x ) k
y z z x x y
= 0i + 0j + 0k = 0
At the point (0, 0, 0), curl F = 0. At the point (1, 2, 3), curl F = 3i j + 5k.
x i
20 m
Figure 7
Your solution
2.)
Your solution
3.)
Your solution
4.)
4. The Laplacian
The Laplacian of a function is written as 2 and is dened as: Laplacian = div grad ,
that is
2 =
= i+ j+ k
x y z
2 2 2
= + + 2
x2 y 2 z
2 2 2
The equation 2 = 0, that is x2 + y2 + z2 = 0 is known as Laplaces Equation and has
applications in many branches of engineering including Heat Flow, Electrical and Magnetic
Fields and Fluid Mechanics.
Solution
2u 2u 2u
2 u = + + = 2y 2 z + 2x2 z + 0 = 2(x2 + y 2 )z
x2 y 2 z 2
(a)
(A ) = (2yzi x yj + xz k) ( i +
2 2
j + k)
x y z
= 2yz x2 y + xz 2 2x2 yz 3
x y z
= 2yz (2x2 yz 3 ) x2 y (2x2 yz 3 ) + xz 2 (2x2 yz 3 )
x y z
= 2yz(4xyz ) x y(2x y ) + xz (6x yz )
3 2 2 3 2 2 2
(b)
= (2x2 yz 3 )i + (2x2 yz 3 )j + (2x2 yz 3 )k
x y z
3 2 3 2 2
= 4xyz i + 2x z j + 6x yz k
So
2 2 2
(d) 2 = (2x 2
yz 3
) + (2x 2
yz 3
) + (2x2 yz 3 ) = 4yz 3 + 0 + 12x2 yz
x2 y 2 z 2
In each case determine whether the quantity can be formed and, if so, whether
it is a scalar or a vector.
Solution
(a) A is a vector and divA can be calculated and is a scalar. Hence, grad(div A) can be
formed and is a vector.
(b) is a scalar so grad can formed and is a vector. As grad is a vector, it is not
possible to take grad(grad )
(c) F is a vector and hence div F is a scalar. It is not possible to take the curl of a
scalar so curl(div F ) does not exist.
(d) is a scalar so grad exists and is a vector. Agrad exists and is also a vector
as is curl Agrad . The divergence can be taken of this last vector to give
div [ curl (Agrad ) ] which is a scalar.
i j j
div curl A =
div
x y z
A1 A2 A3
A3 A2 A1 A3 A2 A1
= div i+ j+ k
y z z x x y
A3 A2 A1 A3 A2 A1
= + +
x y z y z x z x y
2 2 2 2 2 2
A3 A2 A1 A3 A2 A1
= + +
xy zx yz yx zx zy
= 0
2 A3 2 A3
N.B. This assumes = etc.
xy yx
Example Verify identity 1 for the vector A = 2xyi 3zk and the function = xy 2 .
Solution
A = 2x2 y 3 i 3xy 2 zk so
A = 2x2 y 3 i 3xy 2 zk = (2x2 y 3 ) + (3xy 2 z) = 4xy 3 3xy 2
x z
So LHS = 4xy 3 3xy 2
= (xy 2 )i + (xy 2 )j + (xy 2 )k = y 2 i + 2xyj so
x y z
() A = (y 2 i + 2xyj) (2xyi 3zk) = 2xy 3
A = (2xyi 3zk) = 2y 3 so A = 2xy 3 3xy 2 giving
() A + ( A) = 2xy 3 + (2xy 3 3xy 2 ) = 4xy 3 3xy 2
So RHS = 4xy 3 3xy 2 = LHS
(a) F
(b) F
(c) ( F )
(d) ( F )
(e) ( F )
2. If = 2xz y 2 z, nd
(a)
(b) 2 = ()
(c) ()
3. Which of the following combinations of grad, div and curl can be formed?
If a quantity can be formed, state whether it is a scalar or a vector.
Your solution
1.)
(b) (2x + 2z)i (x2 + 2z)k, (c) 2yi + (2 + 2x)j, (d) 0, (e) (2 + 2x)j (a) 2xy + 2y,