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    Andrew Heywood Fascismul PDF

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    victor902014

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 13
    Chapter 7 Fascism ngs and development Strength trough unity ~ central themes Fest and the sate Fasc and toile Totatariansen Fuca in the twenty fet canary Origins and development “The tem ‘fascism’ derives from the Italian fasces, meaning a bundle of rods carried before consuls in Ancient Rome to signify their authorcy. By the 1890s the word fascia was being wsed in lly 10 refer co a politcal group or band, usually of revolutionary socialise. It was not until ‘Mussolini (sce p- 225) employed the tcem ro describe the pazamilitary armed squads he formed dunng and after the First World War that fascismo acquired a clearly ideological meaning. Nevertheless in politieal sdehaee the words “fassiom’ and “fascist are often employed with litle precision. They are usally used pejoratively and ase sometimes just all purpose terms of political abuse, “Fascis? and ‘cictato’, for example, are commonly usc as if they are interchangeable, to refer #o anyone who pposseses or expresses intolerant of illiberal views. However foscism should nor be equated with mere repression. Fascist thinkers have bee inspeed by a specific ange of theories and valucs, and the fascist regimes that emerged inthe 1920s and 1930s developed historically new forms of political rule ‘Whereas liberlism, conservatism and sosalism are nineteenth-modeen schnology fom the Suka dive-bomber and Panzerank to the V- and V.2 rackets Totalitarianism Fascist regimes such as those in Hitler's Germany, Musslin’s Italy and in some respects even Perdn's Argentina, sought zo exablish radically new forms of political rule. Traditional dictatorships had subscribed to authoritarianism (sce p. $2): they had suppressed political opposition and concentrated government power in the hands of a supreme leader ot ruling group. Mussolini, however, proclaimed his deste to constract not traditional authoritarian regime but a “totalitarian state. Whereas authoritarian staes, such as autocratic monarchies or traditional ditator- thips, sede co repress politcal activity and exclade che masses from politics, roaltarian states atempr to politcise society by mobilising popular support of the regime, typically through mass meetings, marches and demonstrations, pervasive propaganda and constant political aita- tion. Passive acceptance of authori is no longer sufficient totalitarianism demands active participation and total commitment, the polticiation of the masces, Ax sich totalitarianism requires the complete submission of the individual co the state. ‘Some writers have suggested that roralitarian states ate characterise by ‘a number of defining characteristics. Friedrich and Brzezinski (1963), for fexample, argued chat totalitarian stares can be identified by a “six point syndrome’. First, they possess an official ideology, enjoying an almost religious staus of infalliblcy. Second, these regimes are typically domi nated by a single party, usually led by a single man, that conteols the Totalitarianism “Tocltaranism isan al-encompassiag system of political rule dha is ypclly stablished by pervasive idolosial manipalation and open terror and bray Ie difers from sutocracy,authoritaranish and tad dictator ship in cat it secs torl power through the poisation of every aspect of Social and personal existence. Totltacianiom this implies the outright abolition of cv society the abolition of "the peivate Fascism and communam have sometime bean seem ae lefeand right-wing forms of ‘oraltaransm, based upon their rejection of toleration, pluralism and the ‘open sceey. Homever radical thinkers such ao Marcie (cep. 159) have claimed sha Hberal democracies als exit teaitarin Feature 234. Politica Ideologies workings of government. ‘Thid, a teroristic police force eradicates political dissent by the use of coercion and intimidation. Fourth, monopaly fof the means of mass communication ensures that only policy “cial and ideologically ‘pute’ views can be expressed. Fifth, the state possesses a ‘monopoly on che weapons of armel combat, giving i alone the capacity #0 use force. Sixth, totalitarian states are characterised by state contrel ofall aspects of economic life Faisdrich and Brverinski chimed these features could he identified in ascis Italy and Navi Germany but were also evident in the Soviet Union, suggesting hae totalitarianism highlights similarities between fascism and communiam. Furthermore stich regimes ate historically new indeed they are 2 distinctively qwontieth-entury phenomenon, The distinguishing features of toalitaranism ~ pervasive ideological manipulation and the use of terror ~ have boch heen facilitated hy modern technologs. Total tarian states have typically employed the radio, television and cinema to spread propaganda, and maintained political control by widespread survellance of the civilian population, « task that reguices a highly efficent system of information gathering and processing ‘The cotaliaran ideal has a particular attraction for fascism because is central goal isthe creation of fascist man’ — loyal, dedicated and obedient, and willing to place the good of the nation or race before selficrest. There is no doub thar Nazi Germany came close to realising the ideal of total state conzro: poliial repression seas bral and effective, and Na ideology dominated the media, arc and culeure, education and youth ‘organisations. However in Italy the Fascist state fell some way short of ‘Mussolini’ coralitarian ideal, For example che Ialian monarchy survived throughout the fascist period, many local politcal leaders, especially in the south, continued in power, and the Catholic Church recained its paileges and independence. In some respects Italian fascism amounted co litle mire than the personal dictatorship of Mussolini, and although the Fascist stare ‘vas clearly authoritasian, it was a poor example of a totalitarian regime. Authoritarian-populist regimes suchas tae in Argentina under Peron have certainly resembled cotalitarian states i attempting ¢© stimlate mass political activism, bur have usually embraced broad nationalise principles rather than an official deology, and have failed to develop efficient, all: encompassing mechanisms of political contol ‘The concept of totalitarianism has also been liked ro the Cold War attitudes and beliefs that were generated inthe aftermath of the Second ‘World War, To some extent im atraction in the West in the 195s and 196s was that drew attention co parallels berween fascist and commun Js regimes, emphasising the repressive and brutal characte of both. As such it became 2 vehicle for expressing ant-commonist views and, in particular, hostility towards the Soviet Union. Without doubr similarities Fascism 235 did exisr between Navi Germany and the Soviet Union, especially ducing the Stalinist period. However the blanket description of both as “oulitar jan’ tends to conceal signficane differences. For example the Soviet economy’ yeas entirely eollectivised and subject co a system of ceneral lansing, whereas « capitalise economy survived throughout the Nasi Period and big business often worked closely with the Nazi state. More: ver fascism and communism are ideologically divergent: fascists, for instance, preach the valucs of struggle, eltiem and nationalism, while ‘communists advocate cooperation, equality and international solidarity: Fascism In the twenty-first century Some commentators have argued that fascism, properly understood, did ‘ot survive into the second half of che twentieth cenrury, sil less could it Continue into the twenty-first centr. In he classic analyse by Exnst Nolte (1965), for instances assim i seen as a hiscorically-specific revole against rmodemisation and the advance of nationalism, linked to the desire 0 preserve the culraral and spiritual wnity of traditional sacsey. Since this ‘moment in the modernisation process has pasted ll references to fsscsm should be made inthe past tense. Hitler's suicide in the Fahret hunker in April 1945, as the Soviee Red Army approached the gates of Berlin, may therefore have marked the Gorterdammerung of fascism, its “twilight of the gods. Such interpretations, however, have been far less easy to advance jn view ofthe revival of fascism or a least fascist-eype movements in the Jace twentieth century, although these movements have adopted very Aiferen strategies and styles, ‘The Front National in France, led by Jean-Marie Le Pen, actacted ‘growing electoral support in the 1980s and. 1990s for «platform lagely based on resistance 10 immigration. In aly, in 1994 Gianfranco Finis Movimento Sociale of Socal Italiano (MSI) attempted te ditch is fascist past by transforming itself into che Alleanza Nazionale (AN), officially embracing a ‘postFascist’ agenda. Radical nationalist and antiforeign groups in Germany, for example the Republikaner Party, attracted Increasing suppor: following reunification in 1990 and as a resule of the influx ofimmigranes from the former communist Fast. In the UK the anti- immigration “new racism’ of the National Frnt was revival in the 1980s and 1990s by the British National Party (BNP). As communist rule collapsed in Russia groups such as Pamyat sprang up to give expression fo a combination of anti-Semitism and long-suppressed Greater Russian nationalism, an ideological stance later adopted by Vladimir Zhirinovsky's more clectoraly successful Liberal-Democratie Pasty. 236. Political Ideologies In some respects the historical ciecumstanoes of the late twentich century bear out some ofthe lessons of the inter-war period, namely that fascism brecds from conditions of crisis, uncerainty and disorder, Steady economic growth and political stability in the ealy post-war period had Proved a very effective antidote to the politics of haeed and resentment so often associated with the extreme right. However che end of the ‘long boom’ and growing dsllsionment with the eapacty of established parties to tackle political an social problems opened up opportunities fr right ‘wing extremism, drawing on fears associated with immigration and the weakening of national identity “Two ingredients were, however, historically new. The first of these ws the collapse of communism and the end of East-West hostility. The collapse of communism prodced a combination of economic crisis and Policcal inseabiliey in many’ parte of eattern Europe, Rather than displace long-established national eivalees and racial hatreds, communist rule had merely brought down a politica ice age, and once this was removed sch forces re-emerged in revitalise form. Elsewhere the ending of the Cold War stimulated a search for new political identities and orientations. The second factors globalisation ints economic, politcal and culucal forms “The declining relevance ofthe nation-state appears to have led not 10 ‘one- worlds’ but o the growth of insular, ethnically or eacallyhased forms ‘of nationalism, In the past, chese have often provided fertile grown for the femergence of fascism ‘Whar kind of fascism do these fasis-type partes and groups espouse? While certain, often undergrosnd, groupe still endorse a militant or revolucionary fascism that proudly harks back to Hitler or Mussolini, most of the larger parties and movements claim cither ta have broken ideologically with ther pase or deny tht they are of ever have ben fascist For want of a better etm, the later an be classified as ‘neofasist. The principal way in which groups such a5 the Font National, the British "National Party, the MSI or AN in Kaly, and Russia's Liberal: Democratic Party claim to differ from fascism is in their acceptance of political pluralism and electoral democracy. In other words ‘democratic fascisn” is fascism divorced from principles such as charismatic leadership, tocal- tarianism and over racialism In some respects this form of fascism may be well positioned eo prosper in the twenty-first century, For one thing, in reaching an accommodation with libecal democracy it appears to have buried its past and is n0 longer tainted with the barbarism of che Hitler ‘and Mussolini period. For another, ie stl possesses the ability to advance 2 Politics of erganic unity and social cohesion in the event ofthe twenty-first ‘century bringing economic crises and further politcal instability. Fraluating the prospeets for neofassim, however, requires that «wo possibilities ate examined. The fist i thac itis questionable whether Faseion 237 fascism can remain crue ro established fascist principles whilst at the same time moving rowards an accommodation with liberabsm, The emphasis on the onganic unity of the national community gives Fascism a distinctly anilheral emphasis and puts it at odds with ideas such a6 pluralism, tolerance, individualism and pacifism. This creates the possiblity, peshaps parallel to che development of democratic socialism, that the struggle for

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